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THE FRASER RIVER ESTUARY

STATUS OF ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE TO 1974

REPORT OF THE ESTUARY WORKING GROUP

DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT

REGIONAL BOARD PACIFIC REGION ACIFICBIOUO^ F1SH^Jisve .,sHCOLUMBIA

LINDSAY M. HOOS and GLEN A. PACKMAN

Under the Direction of Dr. M. Waldichuk

Fisheries and Marine Service

Pacific Environment Institute West Vancouver, B.C.

With

A Geology Section by Dr. John L. Luternauer Geological Survey of Canada Vancouver, B.C.

Special Estuary Series No.1

SEPTEMBER 30, 1974 SATELLITE PHOTO OF THE FRASER RIVER ESTUARY AND CONTIGUOUS WATERS, JULY 30, 1972. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page Table of Contents i List of Figures iv List of Tables vi List of Appendices vii Preface . ix Acknowledgements xiii Summary xiv 1. Introduction 1 2. Sources of Information 7 (i) Environment Canada 7 (ii) Other Agencies 8 3. Geology 10 (i) Geographic-geologic setting and geologic history 12 (ii) Areal distribution of surficial sediments and dispersal patterns of water-borne sediments . 16 (1) Dyked land 17 (2) River channels 18 (3) Tidal flats 21 (4) Western delta-front upper fore-slope ... 26 4. Climatology 30 (i) General description 30 (ii) Climatological stations 31 (iii) Precipitation 32 (iv) Temperature 37 (v) Winds 38 (vi) Humidity, cloud and sunshine 42 (vii) Fog and reduced visibility 43 (viii) Evaporation and evapotranspiration 44 (ix) Air pollution potential 45 5. Hydrology and Water Quality 49 (i) Hydrology 49 (ii) Water quality 54 (iii) Hydraulic model studies 60 u

Page 6. Oceanography * 63 (i) Behaviour of Fraser River water at the estuary , 63 (ii) Wind effects 71 (iii) Tides • 77 (iv) Recent observations of the Fraser estuary and other related studies 78 7. Invertebrate Biology 80 (i) Benthos and terrestrial invertebrates 80 (ii) Zooplankton . r 93 (iii) The invertebrate fisheries resource 97 8. Fish ,.., 101 (i) General discussion 1Q1 (ii) The fisheries resource 11° 9. Bacteria 126 10. Flora t 127 (i) Terrestrial and benthic vegetation 127 (ii) Phytoplanjcton ,..,.,.,,._ t . t t •• 148 11. Wildlife 151 (i) Waterfowl 151 (1) Swans 153 (2) Geese • 153 (3) Ducks 157 (ii) Shorebirds ]*\ (iii) Gulls \l\ (iv) Great blue heron f-J?j? (v) Other migratory birds :f ™ (vi) Raptorial birds T }?' (vii) Upland game birds ..., ±°* (viii) Mammals ^7? (ix) Recreation M 181 12. Land Use (i) Agriculture ]Sl (ii) Urban development ^-°^ (iii) Recreation (other than wildlife) J-o' (iv) In4ustry , tZ± (v) Waterfront land use .,t...T •Lyo Ill

Page 13. Waste Disposal and Pollution Problems 199 (i) General discussion 199 (ii) Domestic organic waste disposal 202 (iii) Agricultural wastes 209 (iv) Other pollution problems 211 (v) Solid waste disposal ,T 213 (1) General discussion 213 (2) Refuse disposal on the Fraser River delta 215 14. Food Chains 219 (i) General discussion 219 (ii) Food chains of the lpwer Fraser and delta area 221 (iii) Effects of development on the food chains of the lower Fraser r. 224 (1) Temperature 225 (2) Salinity 226 (3) Dissolved oxygen ... 227 (4) Other aquatic factors 229 (5) Sediments ,....,.... £30

15. Conclusion 233 16. Appendices 238 17. Bibliography 342 (i) Bibliography index 343 (ii) Bibliography 344

18. Author Index 489 (i) Author index table of contents 490 (ii) Author index 491 IV

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1.1. Study area in relation to Fraser drainage system T 3

1.2. Study area 4

3.1. Generalized geologic map of the Fraser River delta and adjacent areas 11

34 4.1. Climatological stations

4.2. Average annual precipitation in inches • 35

39 4.3 Mean temperatures (° F)

4.4 Wind rose, Vancouver International Airport (1953-1971) 41

5.1. Discharge hydrograph for 1970 - Fraser River at Hope, Station 08MF005 50

6.1. Surface distribution of salinity at the Fraser River estuary, May 29 - June 1, 1950 • 65 6.2. Horizontal distribution of salinity at 30 ft. depth, at the Fraser River estuary, May 29 - June 1, 1950 66 6.3. Horizontal distribution of salinity at 100 ft. depth, at the Fraser River estuary, May 29 - June 1, 195Q 67 6.4 Vertical salinity section through the northern part of the Fraser River estuary, from the North Arm of the Fraser River into the Strait of Georgia, May 29-June 1, 1950 68 6.5. Vertical salinity section through the southern part of the Fraser River estuary, from the South Arm of the Fraser River into the Strait of Georgia, N|ay 29-June 1, 1950 69 v

LIST OF FIGURES (cont'd).

Figure Page

7.1. Major invertebrate growing and fisheries areas 98

10.1. Some major vegetation areas 130

11.1. The Pacific flyway 152

11.2. Foreshore areas of importance to waterfowl 154

11.3. Sketch of possible layout of 3,000 acre controlled waterfowl hunting unit .., 176

12.1. Land presently in agriculture 182

12.2. Recreational land use t 188

14.1. Generalized food chain and energy hierarchy 220

14.2. A simple Fraser estuary food chain 223

14.3. A somewhat more complex Fraser estuary food chain 223

14.4. A food chain of even greater complexity ... 223

15.1. Areas having been proposed for future industrial development 234 15.2. Areas cited for proposed recreational development ,.., 235

15.3. Sensitive areas for fish and wildlife 236 VI

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

3. 1. Grain size scale for sediments 13

4. 1. Climatological stations for which „ long-term normals are available

4. 2. Temperature and precipitation normals in the Fraser delta region 36

4.,3. Percentage frequency of low-level inversions »* 46

4.,4. Number of occurrences of light wind episodes (1957-66) 47

5,,1. Other Fraser River flow records measured at Hope, B.C 5i

11,,1. Food preferences at various times of year ... 161

11,.2. Diving ducks, times of occurrence 162

11,.3. Trend in number of waterfowl hunters in British Columbia T 174 11 4. Percentage of winter waterfowl population using the George C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuary 178 11.5. Increase in nesting population at the George C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuary ... 178 11.6. Attendance record at the George C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuary i78 Vll

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page

1.1. Current research projects related to the Fraser estuary f 239

4.1. (1) Climatological data as recorded at Vancouver International Airport .. 244

(2) Climatological data from Tsawwassen ferry terminal 245 (3) Climatological data from Sand Heads lightstation 245

246 4.2. Major atmospheric pollutants and sources

4.3. Contribution to air pollution from various sources:

(1 domestic fuel consumption and vehicular emissions 247

(2 oil refineries 248

(3 aircraft emissions 249

(4 bulk transport industry 249

(5 metallurgical plants .. 250

(6 solvent usage ,T 250

(7 miscellaneous services and other small industries in greater Vancouver 251

(8 effects of air pollutants 251

5.1. Fraser River estuary available streamflow data 252

5.2. Period of record of sediment data 254

5.3. (1) List of water quality stations in the Fraser River basin monitored by the Water Quality Branch, Inland Waters Directorate 255

(2) Parameters measured and list of abbreviations used in Appendix 5.3. (1) 257 Vlll

LIST OF APPENDICES (cont'd).

Appendix Page

7.1. Composite species list of known benthic/terrestrial organisms of the lower Fraser River estuary 258 7.2. Composite species list of known zooplankton organisms of the lower Fraser River estuary .... 270

8.1. List of fish species of the lower Fraser estuary as compiled from the cited literature, and other commercially important species from the Strait of Georgia (from Shepard and Stevenson, 1956) 275 10.1. Species list of flora (other than phytoplankton, and benthic macrophytes and algae) compiled from the literature cited 278 10.2. Species list of phytoplankton, benthic macrophytes, and benthic algae 290

11.1. Utilization of the Fraser delta area by avian, mammalian, amphibian, and reptilian species ... •• L*D 11.2. Summary of monthly totals of waterfowl - aerial census, Fraser estuary, 1966 to 1974 .. 327 11.3. Raptor census (from Vancouver Natural History Society, 1970) 328 13.1. Effluent sources on the lower Fraser with applications for permits, permits, or registrations to the Pollution Control Board, including daily discharge quantities, BOD, and total suspended solids (T.S.S.): (1) Industrial effluents 329 (2) Domestic effluents 339 IX,

PREFACE

The Estuary Working Group was formed in 1971 under the auspices of the Regional Board Pacific Region of Environment Canada (DOE) in recognition of various ecological issues which were arising out of a number of existing or proposed estuary developments. Early discussions focussed on the need for more scien tific information on the potential damage of proposed developments and on ways of mitigating these harmful effects. Programs for research were proposed by the various DOE Services represented in the Working Group. However, after reviewing the proposals, the Regional Board Pacific Region, decided that an inventory of the available information on the important estuaries in British Columbia was needed. Eighteen British Columbia estuaries were designated as being critical in terms of importance to fisheries and wildlife, and potential threat of develop ment. Not necessarily in order of priority, these were the Fraser, Squamish, Indian, Cowichan, Chemainus, Nanaimo, Puntledge-Courtenay, Campbell, Salmon, Homathko, Quatse, Wannock, Bella Coola, Kitimat', Skeena, Gold, Somass and Nimpkish. Accordingly, the various agencies undertook to compile, in summary and bibliographic form, the existing information on these estuaries as it pertained to their particular responsibility.

However, this raw information failed to be a use ful reference document. It was decided to conduct a more complete review of the DOE information, as well as any other relevant data that might be available, and to prepare a re port summarizing existing knowledge pertinent to potential ecological changes arising from estuarine modification. x. Preface

Because of the urgency to provide information for decisions by the Minister, priority was given to the Fraser River estuary.. Lindsay M. Hoos and Glen A. Packman were contracted to carry out this project. The present report represents the work of compilation and collation of existing documents, interviewing various investigators, examining recently-acquired, unpublished data, and finally, summarizing (in a logical way, with copious references) all of the avail able information. Liberal use was made of documents not only from federal government reports and files, but also from provincial and University of British Columbia sources. All members of the Estuary Working Group (see Preface Table (i)) and their colleagues contributed to this report by reviewing the initial drafts and criticizing sections covering their areas of expertise.

The document should serve as more than just a sum mary of existing reports and a compilation of references. Relatively new information is presented in the sections on Geology, Invertebrate Biology and Wildlife, acquired in con nection with studies related to the proposed Moran Dam, Vancouver International Airport extension and enlargement of the Roberts Bank superport coal terminal. However, the more speculative information from various working group and task force reports on the potential effects to the environment of these developments has been omitted. In this regard, the reader is reminded that three other groups within Environment Canada are involved on the Fraser River estuary, and have prepared, or will be preparing, reports on their specific areas of responsibility. The latter groups are the Roberts Bank Development Steering Committee; the Steering Committee on the Vancouver International Airport Environmental Assessment; and the Working Group on Environmental Baseline Study of the Lower Fraser Valley and Fraser River Estuary. xi. Preface

The remaining 17 estuaries will be covered in other reports of this series, There will be several suc ceeding volumes. Where little environmental information is available, two or more estuaries will form one volume. On the other hand, where a large amount of knowledge exists, as in the cases of the Squamish, Skeena, and Somass rivers, separate volumes for each will be published

M. Waldichuk xii. Preface

Preface Table (i)

Members of the Estuary Working Group, Environment Canada, Regional Board Pacific Region.

Dr. W. E. Johnson (Chairman) Director, Pacific Biological Station Department of the Environment Nanaimo, B. C.

Mr. F. C. Boyd Mr. S. G. Pond Fisheries Service Environmental Protection Service Department of the Environment 1090 West Pender Street 1090 West Pender Street Vancouver, B. C. Vancouver, B. C.

Mr. E. M. Clark Mr. G. H. Townsend Regional Director, Pacific Region Canadian Wildlife Service Inland Waters Directorate 10025 Jasper Avenue, Room 1110 502 - 1001 West Pender Street Edmonton, Alberta Vancouver, B. C.

Dr. W. N. English Dr. M. Waldichuk Deputy Director Program Head Marine Sciences Directorate Pacific Environment Institute 1230 Government Street 4160 Marine Drive Victoria, B. C. West Vancouver, B. C.

Dr. D. S. Lacate Mr. J. B. Wright Regional Director Atmospheric Environment Service Lands Directorate, Pacific Region 739 West Hastings Street Department of the Environment Vancouver, B. C. 1001 West Pender Street, Room 400 Vancouver, B. C.

Dr. C. D. McAllister Mr. D. Trethewey (Secretary) Pacific Biological Station Canadian Wildlife Service Department of the Environment 5421 Robertson Road Nanaimo, B. C, Delta, B. C. Xlll.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all agencies and individuals that supplied reports and data, particularly unpublished material. We also acknow ledge the helpful advice and criticism received in the preparation of this report. Finally, we would like to express our appreciation to the var ious typists who have prepared the manuscripts. XIV.

SUMMARY

The Fraser River estuary is the largest estuary on the Pacific coast of Canada, receiving the drainage from nearly 90,000 square miles of the interior of British Columbia. The drainage basin varies from the glaciated headwaters of the mountains, to the rolling ranchland of the Cariboo, to the rich flat agricultural land of the lower Fraser valley. Enroute, the Fraser River picks up materials scoured, leached, and eroded by its mainstem or tributaries. In general, the Fraser is a fast flowing, turbulent stream, with virtually no areas (other than a few side channels) where the water can stagnate.

The runoff has an enormous seasonal fluctuation, mainly controlled .by "stored runoff" in the form of snow. This can result in discharges ranging as low as 28,000 cfs just prior to the spring melt, to as great as 350,000 cfs in June when the heavy winter snow pack is rapidly thawed. The extreme variability in runoff results in large fluctua tions in water quality characteristics, varying from com paratively low suspended solids in winter to extremely high turbidity due to sediment load in June. Likewise, dissolved organic and inorganic substances can exhibit a large season al range.

The large suspended load of the Fraser River water contributes to the unique estuarine and delta characteristics Approximately 20 million tons of sediment are deposited an nually on the delta. The coarser materials (kept in suspen sion by the river turbulence) are deposited on the upper part of the delta as the speed of river flow diminishes. The finer colloidal clay particles ("glacial flour" derived from xv. Summary

the scouring of glaciated areas at the headwaters) floccu late as the river water mixes with sea water and then settle out gravitational^ at the outer edge of the delta and sea ward. As a result, the delta advances at a rate of about lh feet per year at the low water mark over a 12,000 foot front adjacent to the main channel mouth. Should this process cease, the delta would not only stop growing, but sections of the perimeter may begin eroding. There is some indication that this is already occurring on Roberts Bank.

Tides are a critical component of any estuarine ecosystem. At the Fraser River estuary they are a mixture of diurnal and semi-diurnal, averaging about 10 feet (as great as 15 feet during spring tides, and as little as 6 feet during neaps). Marked fortnightly and seasonal fluctuations occur as a result of the changing phases and declination of the moon. Currents and turbulence, generated by the changing tides,pro vide a mechanism for transportation of natural and introduced materials throughout the estuary. Food organisms may also be dispersed in this manner.

Winds mix the surface waters, create currents and produce waves, again transporting and mixing animate and in animate components of the aquatic ecosystem. The formation of sand ripples by surface waves may be important to intertidal and shallow-water benthic habitats. The troughs of these ripples, if they persist for a few weeks or more, collect organic litter, and may provide a habitat for ben thic flora and fauna.

On entering the estuary, the fresh water from the Fraser River flows over the denser sea water, increasing in salinity as it moves seaward by entraining and mixing with sea water from below. This "up-welling" brings nutrient- xvi. Summary

rich, deeper sea water into the photo-synthetic zone where primary productivity is enhanced. At these times the avail ability of food sources appears to be optimal on the plume periphery, and relatively large populations of all levels of the food chain occur together in these regions.

The salt marshes along the tide line probably con tribute a substantial amount of detritus to the estuary sys tem, some of which enters the food chains of the intertidal. However, as there are many different floral and faunal com munities on the delta and their energy systems are complex, it is uncertain which plant and animal species are the most important in the energy transfer system. It is known that phytoplankton production in the immediate area of the Fraser River outflow is low (probably due to turbidity), and, there fore, most of the initial energy transformation is carried on by the marsh vegetation. However, very high chlorophyl a values on the open sandflats perhaps indicate substantial, hitherto ignored, production.

The benthic community of the tidal flats of Sturgeon and Roberts banks is fairly typical of an estu ary ecosystem. Relatively little fauna inhabits the zones directly in front of the river channels owing to the lowered salinity. In general, the shallow, stable, silty areas, rich in detritus, support greater populations than do the deeper sandy areas which are constantly shifting and con tain very little organic matter. The dominant species are the sabellid polychaete Manayunkia aestuarina and the tube- dwelling amphipod Corophium spp. In deeper areas, the bivalve Maooma contributes the greatest biomass. In Bound ary and Mud bays, out of the direct influence of the Fraser xvii. Summary

River, the invertebrate faunas are much more diverse and are characterized by a wide variety of bivalve molluscs. There are commercial fisheries for crabs {Cancer magister and C. produotua) off Sturgeon Bank and in Boundary and Mud bays, while shrimp (Pandalus spp.) are taken off Point Grey. Coliform bacterial pollution has closed the shellfishing zones of this area.

About 38 species of freshwater fishes inhabit the lower Fraser system, of which 19 are non-migratory freshwater species, 14 are anadromous species, and 5 are semi-migratory (that is, migrate within the river or into the estuary for short periods). Although not well documented, there appear to be several ecological reasons for the occurrence of large fish populations on the estuary mudflats. The abundant inverte brates provide an ample food source, while the benthic and marsh vegetations offer shelter from predation. The marshes also act as areas of transition for anadromous species which must adapt to salinity and temperature changes during sea ward or landward migrations. The delta foreshore marshes, and Boundary and Mud bays' eelgrass beds are known to be the rearing grounds for a variety of commercially and non- commercially important fish species, especially herring. As well, the Fraser is probably the most important salmon produc ing river in North America.

Wildlife is another important living resource of the Fraser River estuary. Vast populations of avian species utilize the delta, estuary and foreshore marshes on their annual migrations, while significant numbers remain to over winter. These populations are composed of approximately two million ducks, five million shorebirds and thousands of other migratory species including black brant (Branta bernicla nigri cans} , snow geese (Chen oaerulescens) , and various passerine xviii. Summary

species. Mammals, amphibians and reptiles are also present on the delta, but little is known regarding their populations. Wildlife populations comprise an important recreational re source which could have economic benefits. It is dependent on the maintenance of the foreshore marshes.

The extremely large flows of the Fraser River during late spring and early summer create flooding problems along the lower Fraser valley and delta, and it has been necessary to protect homes and farmland with a series of dykes. These dykes were perhaps the first development of the Fraser Riv er delta which have affected above-tidal and intertidal habitats.

Since then,a wide variety of structures has been built or planned on the Fraser River delta. Dyking, essen tially complete by the turn of the century, drastically re duced large areas of habitat formerly subject to regular sea sonal flooding and usage by resource species. Various jetties and breakwaters (Tsawwassen ferry jetty, Roberts Bank superport, etc.) have had effects on water movement as well as on intertidal habitats. The development of various industries and urban areas have led to increased pollution and thus the disruption of normal ecosystems in the Fraser and its estuary. An example is the loss of benthic populations in the vicinity of the Iona sewage outfall. Land use studies indicate that the human population of the lower mainland will number two million by the turn of the century. There will, therefore, be numerous demands on available land, not only for urban development, but for industry and recreation as well. In order to feed such a populace, more agricultural land will also be required. A wide variety of plans, incorporating the Fraser foreshores, exist for any one of these needs. How ever, it is evident that the Fraser River estuary is a highly complex ecosystem. Disturbance of any part of the system xix. Summary

could disrupt the whole energy transfer pattern. This could conceivably have devastating consequences to the fish and wildlife resources of the delta. It is uncertain how much lateral interdependence there is within and between communities of the estuary, but it is possible that a change in one area could eventually result in a change over the en tire delta.

Areas such as Sturgeon and Roberts banks, and Boundary and Mud bays are indicated as being vital for the maintenance of the present biotic populations of the Fraser estuary. It is possible that other areas may have become apparent if more data were available on several important topics.

Information dealing with virtually any aspect of the terrestrial ecosystems was lacking, particularly in the fields of entomology, vertebrate studies excluding birds (i.e. mammals, reptiles, amphibians), and vegetation studies. In fact, literature dealing with primary producers in any environment, aquatic or terrestrial, was generally lacking. There is a general need for a complete analysis of the trophic energy transfer systems on the delta. As well, there is a need for more research onthe shorebirds of the estuary. Data on the fish species which are resident in the Fraser River, and on those forms which are not commercially impor tant, were nearly non-existent, as was the information dealing with the river invertebrate faunas. Also, there appeared to be a need for more detailed studies dealing with the effects of the various water and air pollution sources of the delta. Very few field studies have been carried out in this respect. Research to analyze the possible synergistic effects of the combined effluents would seem necessary. Studies should also be carried out to assess the effects of present developments xx. Summary

of the delta foreshores before new projects are allowed to proceed, and a complete re-evaluation of present land use policies should be undertaken.

Some of the questions that must be answered before further developments proceed on the estuary will be answered by investigations now underway. Others can only be answered by long-term research by inter-disciplinary teams. 1.

1. INTRODUCTION

An estuary has been defined as "a semi-enclosed body of water which has a free access to the open ocean and within which sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived from land drainage" (Pritchard, 1967).

Estuaries are important ecologically because they are essentially nutrient (that is, organic and inorganic compounds and/or elements essential for life) traps. They occur at a land-water interface which coincides with a fresh water/salt water gradient. Therefore, nutrient input occurs from three sources:

- the marine environment; - the terrestrial environment in the immediate vicinity of the estuary; and - the terrestrial and aquatic environments of the entire drainage system of the river (or rivers) flowing into the estuary.

The nutrients from these three sources are trapped in the build-up of sediments of an estuarine delta. These nutrients are then distributed through the estuarine environ ment by the natural effects of tides, salt wedges (which move along the channel bottoms and transport nutrients as they do so), winds (which cause vertical mixing in shallow areas), and currents from the river running into the estuary. The fauna and flora of the estuary also play vital roles in the production, cycling and distribution of nutrients.

Many estuaries throughout the world have supported important fish and wildlife populations, with man not being the least of the animals to succumb to their attractions. Deltaic areas (soils built from alluvial deposits) supply fertile agricultural land, abundant natural food supplies 2. Introduction

and easily accessible transportation routes. All of these factors have attracted such large numbers of people to deltaic regions that the environment which sustains all of these attractions becomes threatened, particularly in recent times, with the already impaired Fraser estuary being a prime example.

The Fraser estuary is fed by the Fraser River which is 850 miles long and drains an area of approxi mately 90,000 square miles with an average annual dis charge of 96,300 cubic feet per second (cfs) at Hope (see Figure 1.1) (Water Survey Canada, 1972). This supplies a small nutrient input (mainly silica), as well as con tributing to the advance of the delta. The area of estuarine influence extends about 19 miles from New West minster to the Strait of Georgia, encompassing a deltaic area of approximately 130 square miles (Figure 1.2) (Harris and Taylor, 1973). This 130 square miles is contained within the municipalities of Richmond and Delta, and is composed of Lulu, Sea, Westham and many other smaller islands. The foreshore of these islands, which make up part of Sturgeon and Roberts banks, comprises approximately 28,000 acres of partially vegetated land. Sturgeon and Roberts banks together form about 38,900 acres of inter tidal area (D. Goodman, pers. comm.), although this figure needs substantiation with more research.

The extent of estuarine area described above is enhanced by the presence of Boundary and Mud bays which are historically of Fraser River origin, but presently have a fresh water input from the Serpentine and Nicomekl rivers. They are still influenced by currents generated by the Fraser River. In these areas, the tidal flats extend 2.5 miles seaward and cover an area of approximately 25 square Page 3 ii

•D O «o CO

SCALE IN MILES Figure 1.2. STUDY AREA (AFTER FORWARD 1968) 5. Introduction

miles (Kellerhals and Murray, 1969; Tiffin, 1969).

The Fraser estuary and delta area have been subject to human utilization since the appearance of the Coast Salish Indians. Indian communities were small and had little known effect on the estuary. However, from an Indian point of view, it seems safe to conjecture without reference, that impacts on salmon, eulachon, seal, fur-bearing and feathered resources dependent on the former untouched areas of the estuary and delta have had profound effects on Salish people. The effects were direct on the peoples resident on the delta and its environs, with lesser effects on Indians using salmon throughout the Fraser watershed, and indirect through disruption of coast-interior trade in such items as eulachon oil.

White colonists began arriving in 1827 with the establishment of a Hudson Bay Company trading post at Fort Langley. However, serious human impact did not commence until the Gold Rush in 1858 when large tracts of land were pre-empted, cleared and drained. Dyking was begun after a devastating flood in 1898, resulting in a permanent change in the character of the land (Leach, 1972).

Since that time, more land has been reclaimed for farmland with a subsequent loss of foreshore. However, with the recent influx of people and the projected popula tion increases, the delta is coming under increasing pres sure for utilization as a residential and industrial area. It is the easiest place for such developments, with good access to transportation routes. 6. Introduction

Many studies have been done in an effort to clarify matters pertaining to this situation, including research on such aspects as the hydrology, water quality, climatology, geology, oceanography, botany, invertebrate biology, land-use, waste disposal, pollution problems, fisheries and wildlife of the Fraser estuary. A large number of these studies are in progress at the present time, and are summarized in Appendix 1.1.

The purpose of this report is to assemble information pertinent to the conflict between development and conser vation of the Fraser estuary and delta, to assist in future planning, and to identify areas where more data are required 7.

2. SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The references and data used in this summary of available information on the lower Fraser River and estuary were gathered from a multitude of sources. The following is a list of the various people and agencies that aided in the compilation of literature and/or provided advice and moral support to those writing this report:

2 (i) ENVIRONMENT CANADA (DOE) (a) Environmental Protection Service: people approached for a variety of information included Mr. L. Nemeth, Mr. P. Scott, Mr. E. Wituschek, Mr. K. Wile, Mr. S. Pond, and Mr. R. Hoos. The EPS information service and library were also good sources of data.

(b) Fisheries and Marine Service (Southern Operations Branch, Vancouver): people approached for information were Mr. D. Goodman and Mr. 0. Langer. The Fisheries Service library was the main source of information for fisheries data.

(c) Environmental Management Service, Inland Waters Direc torate: Mr. G. Tofte, Water Survey of Canada, was approached for the hydrology and sedimentation data of the lower Fraser, while Dr. W.E. Erlebach, Water Quality Branch, provided water quality data.

(d) Environmental Management Service, Lands Directorate: Dr. D. Lacate and Mr. T. Void provided soil data, as well as extra information on various other topics.

(e) Canadian Wildlife Service: Mr. D. Trethewey, Mr. E. Taylor and Mr. W.A. Morris were valuable sources of information, while Mr. R. Harris provided added advice. Their library was also a useful resource. Sources

(f) Atmospheric Environment Service: Mr. J. B. Wright and Mr. B. Schaefer provided substantial climatological material and advice on this section of the report.

(g) Pacific Environment Institute: Dr. M. Waldichuk and Dr. C. Levings have provided a variety of information for sections of the report, as well as useful advice. The PEI files and library were good sources of information, and Mrs. P. Keough, librarian, gave helpful advice.

(h) Marine Sciences Directorate, Pacific Region: Dr. L. Giovando provided valuable information and

advice.

2 (ii) OTHER AGENCIES

(a) Geological Survey of Canada: Mr. K. Ricker was a valuable source of information and advice. The Geological Surveys' library was also a good

information source.

(b) Greater Vancouver Regional District, Planning Department: Miss M. MacKay provided many reports and maps, as did the GVRD library.

(c) Westwater Research Centre: Prof. I. Fox and Mr. A. Darcey provided information on projects being undertaken by members of their research

group.

(d) University of British Columbia: the various libraries were valuable sources of information for all sections of the report. Prof.J. Stein and Dr. R. Foreman of the Botany Department provided some information in

this area. 9. Sources

(e) Institute of Environmental Studies, Douglas College: The Institute provided various reports, especially those pertaining to wildlife and vegetation studies.

(f) Richmond Nature Park: park employees provided various reports on the delta area.

(g) Information Canada: several reports were obtained here.

(h) Mr. W. Hope-Ross (Placid Oil, Calgary, Alberta): pro vided geological information.

Reports and data prepared by various other agencies (International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission, Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District, Harbours Board, etc.), and several different consulting firms not listed above,were available from one or more of these listed groups. Therefore, they were not approached directly for additional information. 10.

3. GEOLOGY

This section consists of a compilation of geological information which can serve as a basis for better understand ing prevailing sedimentologic controls on the habitats of ben thic organisms and juvenile fish along the channels and across the tidal flats and slope of the Fraser River delta. It must be emphasized at the outset, however, that a reasonably pre cise measure of the impact that continued development will have on the delta's sedimentologic-biologic framework can be obtain ed only if considerably more is learned about: (a) existing sediment-animal relationships; (b) sedimentary responses to the full spectrum of local ocean dynamics; (c) migration routes of total sediment loads across the tidal flats and slope of the delta; (d) the rates of advance or retreat of all segments of the delta slope; (e) factors governing land-sliding on the delta slope; (f) the consequences of sediment dispersal route interception by existing tidal flat engineering structures; and (g) the long-term effects that continued channel dredging will have on sediment supply to the tidal flats and slope of the

delta. This compilation will first briefly describe the geo graphic-geologic setting and geologic history of the delta and then, in greater detail, draw together what is known about the a- real distribution of surficial sediments and dispersal patterns of water-borne sediments. Much of this report consists of ex tracts from relevant studies. The text is accompanied by Figure 3.1 on which is shown the generalized geology of the delta and geographic locations referred to in the report. The figure has been compiled from the following sourpes: Armstrong (1956b, 1957); Swan Wooster Engineering (1967a,b and c); Mayers (1968); Kellerhals and Murray (1969); Pharo (1972); Blunden (1973);

13. Geology

Table 3.1 Grain size scale for sediments

GRAVEL - coarser than 2.00 mm (>0.08")

SAND - very coarse 2,00 - 1.00 mm (0.08" - 0.04") - coarse 1.00 - 0.50 mm (0.04" - 0.02") - medium 0.50 - 0.25 mm (0.02" - 0.01" - fine 0.25 - 0.125 mm (0.010" - 0.005") - very fine 0.125 - 0.063 mm (0.005" - 0.0025")

SILT - 0.063 - 0.004 mm (0.0025" - 0.00016M)

CLAY - finer than 0.004 mm (^0.00016") (the term clay may also be used in reference to fine-grained, platy (layered) minerals. 14. Geology

Peninsula to Point Roberts Peninsula. Its most conspicuous feature is a broad (4 mi. wide) zone of tidal flats which slopes very gradually (at about 0.08°) from the dykes at the high tide line to the level of the lowest normal tide. Just seaward of the flats lies the fore-slope of the western delta-front which, although having an average gradient of approximately 1.5 (Mathews and Shepard, 1962), is inclined as steeply as 10° to 12 along its inner, shallower, portions (Johnston, 1921a; Luternauer and Murray, 1973). Much of the western delta-front is presently advancing or is in dynamic equilibrium due to the massive influx of sediment during the snow«-melt fed summer freshet (Mathews and Shepard, 1962; Luternauer and Murray, 1973). The inactive portion of the Fraser River delta, or southern delta-front, extends nine miles east of Point Roberts Peninsula to the mouths of the Serpentine and Nicomekl rivers. The tidal flats here are only about 2.5 miles wide, but slope seaward at much the same gradient as do the western flats. However, the southern fore-slope is far less steeply inclined than the slope off the western delta-front and only locally attains gradients as high as 0.3°. Principal sediment sources for the southern delta-front are the runoff-fed Serpentine and Nicomekl rivers, and the eroding Point Roberts cliffs and Mud Bay salt marshes (Kellerhals and Murray, 1969). Some fine sediment may also be supplied by back eddies of the Fraser River freshet plume.

The drainage basin of the Fraser River is underlain by plutonic, volcanic, metamorphic and sedimentary rock and glacial deposits. MacKintosh and Gardner (1966) have noted that "sediments contributed to the lower Fraser valley by the Fraser River are composed largely of quartz, feldspar, chlorite, mica and amphibole. Montmorillonoid is an important component of the clay fraction ... Kaolin is present in the coarse clay fraction of some samples .. .". 15. Geology

Various aspects of the geological development of the delta were first reported by Johnston (1921a, b, c, d; 1922a, b; and 1923). Since then, studies by Armstrong (1956b, 1957), Mathews and Shepard (1962), Mathews et at, (1970) and Blunden (1973) have added to our knowledge of the evolution of the delta. Available evidence suggests that the present Fraser River delta began to fan out from the gap in the Pleistocene uplands at New Westminster about 8000 years ago. By then the last of the Pleistocene ice had disappeared from the Fraser Canyon and local post-glacial rebound was virtually complete. The delta has since advanced into the Strait of Georgia at an est imated rate of 450 X 106 cubic feet per year and has built up deposits 300 to 700 feet thick over Pleistocene sediments (Mathews and Shepard, 1962). Minor eustatic (sea level) fluctuations, tectonically induced warping of coastal areas, extreme river floods, or intense storms from the Strait of Georgia may have caused variations in the regular patterns of sedimentation, but, on the whole, sedimentary environments at the delta appear to have remained fairly stable. Mathews and Shepard (1962) noted that: "The peat mantle of eastern Lulu Island is interrupted by a gap h to 1 mile wide extending 4 miles northwesterly from the main channel to the North Arm of the river. This is almost certainly a former distributary, comparable in size with the present main channel, which has been abandoned so recently that peat has not yet covered it. Its surface is mantled by as much as 6 feet of floodplain silt. The fact that this is the only gap in the peat depos its, not now occupied by an active distributary, points to a notable stability of river courses in this upstream area during the past few thousand years. By contrast, the fluc tuations of the river mouth noted in historic time (Johnston, 1921a) point to considerable instability in the seaward part

of the delta." 16. Geology

Mathews et at. (1970) have indicated that a combin ation of natural sediment compaction and what may be local tectonic down-warping has resulted in an average subsidence of the delta of approximately .04 feet (1 cm ) per decade.

Milne et at. (1970) have noted the following re garding the seismicity of the geographic area within which the delta lies: "The earthquakes along the Strait of Georgia and Puget Sound are large enough to cause damage. The 1946 earthquake at the north end of the Strait of Georgia had a magnitude of 7.3. There were few aftershocks associated with this tremor, and there is now no activity in the epicentral region. The earthquakes at the south end of Puget Sound, 1949 (M = 7.0) and 1965 (M = 6.7), and others, had a depth of focus greater than normal. These earthquakes had few aftershocks. There are several epicenters in the Gulf Islands between Vancouver Island and the mainland. The implication of this is that there is a tectonic feature along the center of the Strait of Georgia and Puget Sound. An earthquake west of this line in the Cowichan valley in 1893, and another possibly 150 km east of Vancouver in 1872, are reported to have been severe. Moderate earthquakes in the mountains over 150 km north of Vancouver were experienced in 1942 and 1968. The magnitude-frequency relation of the western region as a whole gives b = 0.67."

3 (ii) AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF SURFICIAL SEDIMENTS AND DISPERSAL PATTERNS OF WATER-BORNE SEDIMENTS

In the following discussion the delta has been sub divided into several broad environments for ease of reference dyked land (municipalities of Richmond and Delta), river 17. Geology channels, tidal flats, and western delta-front upper fore-slope.

1. DYKED LAND:

Armstrong (1956b, 1957) was the first to examine the surficial geology of the delta in great detail. Blunden (1973) has more recently investigated the urban geology of the Municipality of Richmond. Richmond straddles two delta islands: Sea Island (bounded by the North Arm and Middle Arm) and Lulu Island (bounded by the North Arm, Middle Arm and main channel). Over the northern half of Sea Island surficial deposits are identified as flood plain clay-silts, 5 to 15 feet thick, but as tidal flat sandy-silts, 5 to 100 feet thick, over the remainder of the island. The eastern two thirds of Lulu Island is blanketed by sediments which have accumulated in marshes or swamps and have led to the development of peat bogs up to 20 feet thick. Surficial deposits on the western third of the island are tidal flat sandy silts up to 100 feet thick, with thinner sequences of organic-rich muds.

Blunden (1973) has suggested that the zones of crescent-shaped swales on Lulu Island may have formed by displacement of earth masses toward the river as a conse quence of earthquake-induced liquifaction of silt beds.

The Municipality of Delta is situated on that part of the Fraser delta south of the main channel, and north of Point Roberts Peninsula and Boundary Bay. The eastern municipality is underlain predominantly by floodplain or tidal flat silty clay, clayey silt, or silt, ranging from 0.5 to 12 feet thick.

The fact that individual dyked land deposits are 18. Geology thick supports the earlier contention that deltaic sedi mentary environments have remained fairly stable. '

2. RIVER CHANNELS:

Pretious (1972 and, 1972 pers. comm.) has broadly defined the hydrologic and sedimentologic character of the channels in the Fraser River estuary. The following summary remarks are drawn from this source unless otherwise noted.

The Fraser River trifurcates at New Westminster into the North Arm, the minor northeast - southwest trending Annacis Channel and a main channel (South Arm) which draw off approximately 12%, 81 and 801 (respectively) of incom ing river flows (Annacis Channel flow re-enters the main channel about 3 miles downstream at the end of Annacis Is land). About 10 miles downstream,an off-shoot of the North Arm, the east - west trending Middle Arm, channels off about 50% of the North Arm flow. About half-way along the main channel, between New Westminster and Steveston, part of the main channel flow (101) is diverted through northeast - southwest trending Ladner Reach. Just beyond Ladner Reach, the channel bifurcates around Westham Island into northwest- southeast trending Sea Reach and east - west trending Canoe Pass. Sea Reach in turn diverts 51 of the total river flow back into the main channel just south of Steveston, leaving only approximately 5% of the total river flow available for discharge through Canoe Pass.

Sediment surveys show that approximately 20,000,000 tons of sediment are discharged annually past Port Mann (about 3 miles upstream of New Westminster). It should be noted, how ever, that, in the brief period of record, sediment loads have varied from approximately 12,000,000 tons in 1970 to approx imately 29,000,000 tons in 1967 and 1972 (W.L. Kreuder, pers. comm.). Most of the annual sediment load is dispersed through 19. Geology

the delta's distributary system during the freshet months of May, June and July. During this period, the bed of the river channel is markedly altered by rapid deposition and scour. Pretious (1972) has reported, in fact, that during the 1950 freshet, bed waves having amplitudes and wave lengths as great as 15 and 500 feet, respectively, were ob served west of the George Massey (Deas Island) Tunnel, mi grating downstream at rates of up to 250 feet per day. Owing in part to phenomena of this sort, much of the coarse sedi ment discharged during higher freshet flows passes through the lower estuary, and it is mainly during waning flows that channel aggradation occurs. In order to determine what propor tion of sand on the delta front is contributed by each channel, a program to measure sediment discharges in the mouths of the various arms of the Fraser River is required.

About 4,000,000 tons of sediment (most of which is sand) is dredged annually from the river channels in order to maintain water depths of 33 feet on a 13 foot tide up to New Westminster (Pearson, 1972). About 30% of this quantity is obtained from the area adjacent to and downstream of Steveston (Dept. Public Works, 1972). The main channel is naturally self-scouring to deep-draft depths for much of the stretch from Annacis Island to Deas Island and along several other smaller segments of the main channel (Pearson, 1972). Dredge spoils obtained seaward of Steveston and along the outer reaches of the North Arm are dumped off the mouths of the channels in over 100 feet of water (E.O. Isfeld, pers. comm.). Upstream spoil (obtained for channel maintenance and reclamation purposes) is generally dumped along the channel margins near dredging sites (E.O. Isfeld, pers. comm.).

The Fraser River is tidal at low flows as much as 65 miles upstream (Chilliwack Mt.) of the mouth at Sand Heads, 20. Geology but tidal at all stages only as far as Mission, approximately 50 miles upstream of the mouth. The salt-water wedge from the Strait of Georgia intrudes as far upstream as the George Massey Tunnel during periods of low river discharge (winter), but no further than Steveston during the freshet. Because high tides tend to back-up river flow, river discharge and, consequently, sediment load concentrations and coarseness are greater during an ebbing tide. This effect is most marked within the suspended fraction of the sediment. In fact, at Port Mann, suspended sediment concentrations have been ob served to be as much as twice as great during a local low tide than at local high tides.

Major slides occurring within the Fraser Canyon several hundred miles upstream of the river mouth may also alter suspended load concentrations at the delta by inject ing considerable fine sediment into the river.

Channel sediments consist almost entirely of sand (Tywoniuk, 1972), with an average composition of 40% quartz, quartzite and chert; 11% feldspar; 45% unstable rock frag ments (mainly volcanics); and 4% miscellaneous detritus (Garrison, et al.3 1969). Finer suspended sediment has been observed to- contain almost equal proportions of montmorill- onite, illite, and chlorite (Griffin, et a£.,1968).

Garrison et at. (1969) have reported that calcium carbonate-cemented sediments are frequently dredged from those sections of distributary channels permanently exposed to the Strait of Georgia salt-water wedge. These occur as irregular to platy nodular masses at or near the sediment- water interface. It is suggested that the formation of these calcareous sandstones is linked to a possible mass burial of local fauna by sediment discharged by freshet flows. Associated compaction of underlying channel sedi ments results in upward migration of pore water which 21. Geology typically has a high concentration of calcium and bicarbonate ions. Channel sands are thought to be cemented by calcium carbonate precipitated when this pore water solution reacts with ammonia generated from the early stages of decay of the buried invertebrate organisms.

3. TIDAL FLATS:

Luternauer and Murray (1973) have most recently de scribed the patterns of sedimentation at the western delta front. In their report, they subdivided the inshore portion of this area into the salt marsh and platform zones as follows: "The salt marsh is approximately 0.5 miles (1 km) wide, lies near high tide level, and can be described as a generally vegetated bank of flat to hummocky muddy sediment. Along Roberts Bank the marsh apparently is more stable and has finer sediment than along Sturgeon Bank."

"The main platform embraces the area that gently slopes for about 4 miles (6 km) from the salt marsh to the level of the most distinct, first break-in-slope (30 feet (9 m) below lowest normal tide level). This zone is mantled mainly with well-sorted 0.35 mm to 0.125 mm sand. It is generally featureless except for the presence of tidal chan nels (which are less well developed on Sturgeon Bank than on Roberts Bank, probably because of the presence of aban doned river channels on the latter bank) and hydraulic bedforms (current and wave ripples)."

"Sturgeon Bank is covered almost entirely by sand- size sediment. A 'lobe1 of uniform, well sorted, medium sand [not indicated in Figure 3.1] extends from the mouth of the Middle Arm to the edge of the platform. Sediments of this coarseness are discharged during the periods of higher river flow and in this case may represent a very recent deposit de rived from the early stages of the 1972 freshet (sampling here 22. Geology was done on May 13). A short core collected off the mouth of the Middle Arm shows this most recent sediment unconfor- mably overlying finer sediments which may have been deposit ed during the waning stages of the previous flood season. Thus, although only 5% of total river flow is believed to be channelled through the Middle Arm, this discharge appears to be enough to supply a significant amount of sediment to Sturgeon Bank and possibly also to the adjacent upper fore- slope. "

"To the south, most of the seaward and southern portion of Roberts Bank is covered with medium to fine sand, but inshore sediments on the northern portion of the bank are finer. This seems to indicate that there is ample dis charge of at least suspended sediment from the main channel of the Fraser River to Roberts Bank."

"The distribution of sediment on the salt marsh and main platform suggests that there is a greater discharge of suspended sediment to the south of the main channel than to the north and/or conditions to the south are more favourable for its deposition".

Since 1914, when the first jetties were erected at the mouth of the main channel of the Fraser River, sediment migration across the tidal flats of the western delta-front has been increasingly obstructed by a succession of struc tures, including the Steveston North Jetty (completed in 1932), the North Arm Jetty (1935), the breakwater at the mouth of the North Arm (1951), the Tsawwassen Causeway (1960), the Iona Island Causeway and Sewage Outfall Chan nel (1961), the Antennae (Approach Lights) Causeway (early 1960's) and the Westshore Terminals (1970).

The North Arm Jetty and Iona Island Causeway and outfall channel have effectively prevented dispersal of 23. Geology

sediment from the north or south into the V-shaped section of Sturgeon Bank off the Iona Island sewage plant. Some sand size sediment may migrate north around the end of the outfall channel and be "bulldozed" shoreward by waves and cur rents. However, unless the outfall channel is appreciably self-scouring, the fact that it has not had to be dredged since its original excavation in 1961 may indicate that there is no significant northward dispersal of sand along this segment of the Sturgeon Bank tidal flats. As sediments north of the causeway tend to be coarser than those immediately to the south, it would also appear that even finer sediment which may be dispersed in suspension into the V-shaped area is not accumulating there.

The closure of McDonald Slough at the time of con struction of the Iona Island sewage plant in 1961 eliminated what was probably a significant source of sediment for north ern Sturgeon Bank. As a consequence, only finer sediments may since have been carried into the area just south of Iona Island, and sediment deposits accumulating there probably have gradually become finer.- Although the Middle Arm is most likely supplying some of the sediments (medium sand) which may be required for Sturgeon Bank to resist wave erosion, the main channel (South Arm) is probably too deep to permit dispersal of medium-size sand from it to Sturgeon Bank. However, in all probability, finer, suspended sands do spill over the North Jetty of the main channel during periods of peak freshet flow and moderate tides. Sand-tracer studies in and adjacent to the outer reaches of the main channel, currently being undertaken by the Vancouver office of the Dept. of Public Works, will likely add measurably to our understanding of sediment dispersal in this area.

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"The salt marsh, bounded landward by an artificial dyke, is incised by meandering tidal creeks and contains freshwater ponds. Poorly stratified, silty and sandy peat is accumulating throughout the area. In the western part of the bay the marsh is prograding over the high flats, whereas to the east it has receded at least 0.75 miles since 4350 years before present."

"An interesting series of ecological-sedimentolog- ical interactions appears responsible for the evolution of the hummocks which are found in the salt marsh zone. In the fall, large quantities of algae and eelgrass are rafted into this area. During the succeeding winter, particularly when storms come from the south and southwest, the plant debris is covered with sand. This tends to produce a very irregular surface with 6 in. of relief. The high points on the flat are then colonized with blue-green algal mats. Once this happens, the sediment-trapping power of the mats increases the amount of relief to a point where halophytes take root and proceed to raise and enlarge the area. As the halophyte hummocks grow and coalesce, they are eventually welded onto the salt marsh."

"The high tidal flats, bounded landward by the salt marsh, have an irregular, incomplete drainage system. In the winter sand covers the high flats but in summer blue- green algal mats spread over the surface, particularly on the landward side. Thus, a varve-like stratification is produced."

"In contrast, the intermediate tidal flats have a well-developed dendritic drainage system; they are devoid of vegetation and are composed principally of fine to medium- grained sand which is continually being re-worked by shifting channels and fauna." 26. Geology

"The low tidal flats are incised by deeper, more stable channels, in which high flow velocities produce dunes. Eel-grass meadows flank the sides of the channels and the shell beds are interpreted as lag deposits."

"The average rate of sedimentation for the last 4350 years is 0.42 mm per year."

Kellerhals and Murray (1969) suggested that coarser sediment was funneled off the flats by the network of tidal channels, but finer sediment derived from the nearby rivers, eroding salt marshes, and Fraser River freshet was accumulat ing along the shorelines of Mud Bay. The only fairly comprehensive examination of west ern and southern delta-front sediments from the standpoint of foundation materials is included in a report prepared by Swan Wooster Engineering (1967a,b and c) on outer port develop ment. They concluded in part, that, in terms of settlement characteristics and potential dredging losses of fine material fractions from local sediments during hydraulic placement, foundation conditions along Roberts Bank (in particular that portion south of Canoe Pass) were superior to those on all other local tidal flat areas.

4. WESTERN DELTA-FRONT UPPER FORE-SLOPE

Luternauer and Murray (1973) have described the sedimentologic character of the western delta-front upper fore-slope as follows: "The upper fore-slope is considered to be that zone which extends from the edge of the main plat form at the -30 foot contour to the limit of the bathymetric survey at approximately 300 feet (90 m). Although its gra dient is variable, it is everywhere steeper than the main platform and attains a maximum inclination of approximately 27. Geology

12° off the Middle Arm channel. Seaward of sandy Sturgeon Bank, below the -30 foot (-9 m) contour, sediments are very fine. Off Roberts there is also a fairly abrupt decrease in grain size below the -30 foot (-9 m) bathymetric contour for a short distance south of Sand Heads. However, this transi tion is not as sharp as along Sturgeon Bank. For the remain der of the distance along Roberts Bank south-east of Sand Heads, the fore-slope is mantled with sand well into deep water (Pharo, 1972)."

The above report concluded that: "as a consequence of local physical oceanography and confinement and dredging of the main channel, yearly freshet deposition is promoting the advance of the delta-front principally off the main channel and seems sufficient at least to maintain the [dynamic equilibrium of the] upper fore-slope north of there. However, on the southern-most segment of the western delta- front prevailing conditions have brought about the retreat of the upper fore-slope at least during the period 1968-1972."

In a report (in press) on longshore current genera tion in a two-layer fluid with application to the Strait of Georgia, R.E. Thomson has stated the following: "Finally, provided the nearshore flow (along Sturgeon Bank) is indeed generated by breaking internal waves, some conclusions con cerning the transport of materials in this region can be made. First, the existence of a longshore current should be more characteristic of summer and fall than of winter and spring because of the greater stratification in Georgia Strait. Thus, northward movement of such materials as pol lutants should be more persistent at the former times. More over, as these are periods of greatest Fraser River outflow, the amount of northward transport will also be greatest. The net effect, then, is that a large volume of pollutant and other o O o i rt O Hi rt 3 3 3 CD to cr B cr 3 o N 3 cr O Ui rt rt Hi 3 rt rt O o H« P < CD o < Hi P o O H- CD CT 3* CD o o 3* 3* P 3* 3 3* H 3* CD w CD ct to P CD CD o P P P O CD c h-« P. 3 CT 3 P Xi to Hi CD to rt c 3 rt o rt rt rt rt CD Hi H' ct cr W xi CD P to Pi 3 C rt ct H HJ ♦d h-1 3* cr 3 " C c Hi ct H« CD 3 CD CD CT 3* H-» O •d CD CD Hi < CD HJ H' H* to H- to CD CD 3 rt P rt Hi 3 TJ CD CD o rt 3 Hi p CD HJ P to rt O to *d H» O 3* Hi O 3* O P O X o Hi O P to cr rt p OQ HJ P H-» CD CD 3 H* CD CD CD Hi P O CD < rt rt CD s: to ct O CD P O O O HJ to Pi CD •d OQ t, P P 3 3 rt H- p H' HJ CD C3 to Pi *d O *d c 3* o 3* rt rt CD P 3* 3- 3 V O CD 3 X O OQ H» H» 1—i H« h-1 CD Hi H* c CD 3* CD Hrf cr t-1 P O CD rt P s: 3 W CD O I—) to H H-» Hi H{ H» o o CD 3 H CD P- 3 p ^ s: c O p. CD h-> CD Hi < Hi CD to P < rt cr rt P. p Ui 3 3 o CD rt Hi Pi CD 3 CD to OQ O < < CD CD 3 P o tr p CD 3 H-* cr to M 3- CD CD P to to B CT CD O 3- Hi o Hi CD rt CD •d CD pi Ct o CD CD CD rt CD P I-1 to rt to /—\ P rt rt P Pi 3 CD 3 P n HJ o to CD Hi ct P Hi 3* to P to Hi rt P rt to Pi O to HJ HJ 3 P- Pi P O CD CD 3 ID 3 to >d P P- Hi cr to Z 3 ct P OQ CD Hi o < H{ Pi ON ,P o CD rt p rt 3 3- V 3* ct CD CD 00 O P *d Hi CD ct CD 3- o OQ CD p 3 rt cr CJ p ct P 3 C CD v I CD 3 H- OQ 3 i-i O 1—> *d •d H* 3" P CD Hi P f c ct P P Ci CD O o P o H* CD OQ <0 P ♦d M Hi ct P H ^ P M rt C Pi pi CD h-» CD CD rt rt CD H« 3 3* ct s: to < ct CD -«J •-i CD P O p 3 CD 3* c rt P CD ts3 H1 en to CD 3* p ct CD P i—\ O 4^ P H{ 3 Hi H' 3 3 H« P Pi ^d to •d Hi oo P P rt cr Hi H« ^ CD cr P- to CD 3 V/ cr Pi 3 Ui P- CD 3 o oo CD 3 cr P CD CD Hi to H« CD to 3 X i—i to to CD h-» H« h-» 3- rt P i CD M to to C CD 3 * ft CD i—» h-» Ui H M to < P to 4 P Hi o HJ ^d Pi 3 td Pi o CD W CD P Hi p * O P I-1 c Hi P CD P H* o H' c H- P CD 3 C c CD CD rt rt Hi HJ ct B P Hi s: HJ rt 3 3 3 ct •d Pi P OQ Hi ct Hi OQ 3 Hi Hi CD O to cr 3 CJ P cr ct CD O CD cr OQ Hi P rt CD 3 o rt Pi = Pi CD CD CD o CD Hi rt to O o -i 3 O o CD Pi O cr Hi P 3 P o CD XI O ct /—V Hi HJ CD 3 H« 3 Hi l-» H' OQ c to 3 CD 3- O CD tr P en i CD OQ ct ct O to P to ct rt Pi P P P 3 Hi 3 P OQ HJ l-»i H« O o eh CD CD P Hi h-1 p to Pi Hi Hi n Ct o Hi H-» Hi 3 o OQ ♦d to CD P CD ON cr CD to 03 CD ct Hi CD C Pi Hi Pi S+ Hi CD CD cr tvJ CD P rt to O p •-i i P« to CD Hi O ct *-i o OX O 2 *< 3 ♦d v-^ rt H1 3 H* HJ rt o to vcj i—» H* O H- ft 3* < CD tr p OO .£> C CD rt o ct • CD Hi CD cr CD < o O ct to Pi 3* 3 l—i H* P rt 3 ?-* CD H-* p n o P c . HJ Hi ♦d rt Hi CD Hi to H« *d 3 P CD o o Pi rt CT v< O H* 3 o CD o o CD CD to CD ct OQ *d OQ h-» I—» Ct P •d Hi CD H« CD CD rt Hi 3 OQ Hi P H{ rt p O o to CD 3* VO cr CD < P 3* s—\ H« Hi CD 3 HH CD Hi ^ P »J P. *-i to 3* *d P CD o OQ CD 3 >-i CD t-» P H-» »d rt CD Hi rt kT H- 5^ P. rt H« O CD O o to 3* t-» o Ui VO *d CD O H- P ct i—\ v; O 3 C 2 CD 3 3 Hi c HJ Hi ct HJ rt H» CD H-i VJ c 3 •-J »d W Hi 3 3 W to M rt Hi P Pi H« to CD ct CD to 3 1—» ct P o H-» H H- tr •d O <£> cr P CD rt OQ v—/ to CD o CD -«J CD Hi CD ct CD 3 ct H* Pi O P *o P. to H« to 3* OQ Hi O to P c K-* W ct H* OQ H« O O O CD *-i 3 i CD rt o CD X o cr Pi c H ct 3* Pi V' i CD 3 CJ c 3 to CD *d I—i o cr to CD O CT H- c o o H* 3* P >d rt rt to cr Hi H' P o P ct CD Hi P Hi P 3 rt c •d cr P- ^ CD UJ rt o CD CD C s: CD H O HJ ct CD o rt H* o >d to CD 3 CD 3 to M to o p H« ?a CD Hi X rt rt rt Pi O rt rt ^ ct rt rt 3 P o o CD rt H» *-i CD 3* p to o i P O *• H CD s: CD M o CD 3* Hi 3^ 3 o c Hi 3^ ct o rt cr 3^ H-« CD rt M 4 CD s: • HJ H« 2 o »-J PP CD o P 3 Hi Pi h-» O CD ^ rt c 3" h-« o to rt £ c H« 1 CD H« o Hi CD B CD CD rt 4 OQ to P p 3* o Pi P 3 o to M CD Hi v_f 3 rt 3 •d CD o ct CD Pi 3* rt OQ h-» t/1 3 P 4s» < H CD H« (-• CD CD p o P> o rt rt 3 CD to CD CD CD 3 »r s: > H tr H o to < P CD i to O cr ct • P rt CD rt CD H (-» 3 CD P • CD CD Pi • 29. Geology

posed of extremely fine silt with a large infauna of small ephemeral organisms. The 15 M sample contains coarser material, mixed with much wood detritus. This also contains many young organisms. It is apparent that the delta face is a zone of instability with a substantial population of small opportunistic organisms . . . The productive delta face is dependent upon the river contribution. It is doubt ful that loss of a portion of the extensive tidal flats will affect the subtidal zone, provided that waterflow patterns are not modified. Extensive dredging will, of course, ruin this habitat, though it is probable that it could re-establish itself." 30.

4. CLIMATOLOGY

4 (i) GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The climate of the Fraser estuary is best described as being of a modified maritime type. Win ters are mild, dull and wet with infrequent intrusions of cold arctic air from the interior. Summers are dry, bright and warm,but not hot. Owing to the strongly pro nounced July minimum in precipitation, the area falls technically within the Koeppen Mediterranean type (Csb) However, mean temperatures are considerably lower than in the European Mediterranean climates. The annual range of temperature over the Fraser delta is signifi cantly lower than that of the continental climates of the interior, but greater than that at locations on the exposed, outer coast of British Columbia, and hence the term "modified" maritime climate.

The presence of a land-sea boundary, the Olympic Mountains and Island Ranges to the southwest and west, the Pacific Range of the Coast Mountains to the north, and the Fraser valley to the east all ex ert important controls on the climate of the estuary. Such geographic features affect the climate when they interact with large scale circulation patterns in the atmosphere above the surface. These patterns show a pronounced seasonal variation on the Pacific coast of North America. During the winter season a southwest erly flow of air directs Pacific storms, with their at- 31. Climatology

tendant gales and abundant precipitation, onto the coast A secondary storm track parallels the coast from the northwest, bringing storms out of the Gulf of Alaska to southwestern British Columbia. In summer, an ex panded Pacific anticyclone (high pressure area) di verts Pacific storms well off-shore. Mean upper winds over the coast are drier and from the west or north west. Relatively fewer storms reach the lower main land from the Pacific. During this season, surface pressure gradients tend to be weak. Land-breeze and sea-breeze circulation patterns dominate the local wind flows, generally preventing excessively high tem peratures over the delta.

From a number of points of view,the Fraser estuary can be looked upon as having a beneficial cli mate for man and its natural inhabitants. Extremes in temperature are rare and short-lived. Tropical storms and severe convective storms are absent. Snow cover is transitory and large snowfalls are rare. Mean winter temperatures are among the highest in Canada. A lack of winter sunshine is compensated for by relatively bright summer skies, resulting in annual sunshine to tals close to those of many centres to the east. These and other parameters will be described in more detail in the sub-sections that follow.

4 (ii) CLIMATOLOGICAL STATIONS

Monitoring of the weather of the lower Fraser began as far back as 1874 with the establishment of a 32. Climatology

climatological station at New Westminster just upstream from the delta. Records at Steveston, closer to the delta front,go back to 1896. A complete set of weather variables have been monitored at Vancouver International Airport on Sea Island since 1937. Long-term normals of climatological variables are available at stations on or near the Fraser delta (and including the Boundary Bay area) as indicated in Table 4.1. Locations are indicated by number on Figure 4.1. Records have been kept at numerous other stations over short periods of time. A complete list is available from the Atmostpheric

Environment Service.

A summary of climatological data is contained in Appendix 4.1.

4 (iii) PRECIPITATION

The southwestern portions of the Fraser delta experience the lowest mean annual precipitation observed on the coastal sections of the British Columbia mainland. The area lies in the Olympic and Island Mountain ranges' rain shadow,which extends northeastward across the Strait of Georgia. Precipitation increases as one moves north eastward across the delta, owing to the influence of the Coast Mountains which border the area to the north (Figure 4.2). As air-flows aloft adjust to the presence of the mountain barriers, topographic influences are felt even some distance upwind of the peaks. Average annual precipitation increases from 35 to 55 inches in the 15 miles from Westham Island to New Westminster (see Table 4.2). 33. Climatology

Table 4.1 Climatological stations for which long-term normals are available.

Station Name Type of Normals

1. Delta Tsawwassen P 2. Kensington Prairie P 3. Ladner P, T, I 4. Ladner Monitor Station P, T 5. Ladner Port Guichon P 6. New Westminster P, T, I 7. New Westminster B.C. Penitentiary P, T

8. New Westminster West P 9. Sand Head Lightstation W 10. Steveston P, T, W 11. Surrey Kwantlen Park P, I 12. Surrey Municipal Hall I 13. Surrey Newton P, T 14. Surrey Sunnyside P 15. Tsawwassen Ferry W 16. Vancouver International Airport P, T, I, W, H, S, X

17. Vancouver South Fraser P 18. Vancouver U. B. C. P, T, I, E, W, S, R 19. Walley Forest Nursery P, T 20. White Rock P, T

21. White Rock STP I

CODE:

P- Precipitation H- Humidity T- Temperature S- Sunshine I- Intensity of Rainfall R- Radiation E- Evaporation X- Hourly Weather W- Wind Page 34

Figure 4.1. CLIMATOLOGICAL STATIONS (NUMBERED AS IN TABLE 4.1.) Page 35 36. Climatology

Table 4.2 Temperature and precipitation normals in the Fraser delta region. (Atmospheric Environment Service, 1941-70)

Average Average Average Temperature Precipitation Snowfall Station (°F) (In) (In) Ann. July Jan. Ann. July Dec. Ann. Ladner 48.5 61.3 35.8 37.73 1.03 5.56 14.5

New Westminster 50.2 64.3 35.9 59.84 1.48 9.02 30.3

Steveston 48.9 62.1 36.0 39.13 1.04 5.97 16.0

Vancouver Inter national Airport 49.7 63.4 36.3 42.05 1.17 6.51 20.6

White Rock 49.2 61.2 36.6 41.22 1.08 6.06 14.7 37. Climatology

The seasonal distribution of precipitation in the Fraser delta is characterized by a winter maximum and a pronounced summer minimum. The rainy season nor mally begins in late September and tapers off after March. At its peak, in December, rain falls on two days in every three, with monthly totals in the 6 to 9 inch range. July is the driest month, with average rainfalls between 1.0 and 1.5 inches. Annual snowfall averages between 15 and 20 inches over much of the area, with a gradual increase with distance from the water and a sharper increase with elevation on surrounding hills (see Table 4.2)#

4 (iv) TEMPERATURE

As a result of prevailing westerlies and the warm waters of the Pacific Ocean, the main temperature characteristics of the west coast include mild winters, warm,but not hot,summers and a small annual range. The presence of the Coast Mountains also helps to bring about these conditions by effectively blocking the westward advance of cold arctic air-masses as they plunge south ward through the interior. Occasionally, particularly in December and January, arctic outbreaks do reach the coast. Dense, cold air flows over mountain passes, out coastal inlets and down main river valleys such as that

of the Fraser.

Because it is not located on the outer coast and because of the broad Fraser valley to the east, the Fraser delta is not as free from continental influences as are stations on the outer coast of British Columbia. Mean July temperatures, which range from 61°F near the 38. Climatology

water to 64°F at the head of the delta, are several degrees above values on the exposed coast. Mean January tempera tures are several degrees lower owing in part to drainage of cold arctic air down the Fraser valley from the interior (see Figure 4.3). Extremes in temperature at Vancouver International Airport range from 92 F to 0 F. By way of contrast and owing to the lessened impact of the sea-breeze circulation, New Westminster, at the head of the delta, has reached 99 F.

A further measure of the lack of severity of winter temperature conditions at the mouth of the Fraser River comes from frost and freezing degree-day statistics. The normal frost free season is in excess of 200 days, with as few as 30 to 35 freezing degree-days. These temp erature data may also be found in Table 4.2.

4 (v) WINDS

Surface wind patterns over the lower Fraser result from the interactions of pressure gradient forces, local and regional topography and the configuration of the land-sea boundary. Strong winds are most frequently associated with the passage of active frontal disturbances through the area. Vigorous systems are preceded by southeast gales which follow the trend of the Strait of Georgia and the Coast Mountains. Passage of a cold front, oriented in a southwest-northeast direction, is frequently followed by strong northwesterly winds accompanying a strengthening ridge of high pressure. The Fraser delta, particularly along its western front, is fully exposed to the brunt Poge 39

SCALE IN MILES

JULY MEANS JANUARY MEANS

Figure 4.3 MEAN TEMPERATURES (°F) (ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT SERVICE) 40. Climatology

of these northwesterlies. Maximum observed hourly wind speeds at Vancouver International Airport (55 mph) and Sand Heads Lightstation (53 mph) were from the northwest. At the Tsawwassen ferry terminal a maximum of 55 mph from the northwest was surpassed by a southeast wind of 64 mph.

Despite the fact that the strongest winds blow in a northwest or southeast direction, the prevailing winds over much of the delta are easterly (see Figure 4.4). In summer, under fair weather conditions, a sea- breeze - land-breeze circulation pattern dominates the local winds with reinforcement by the mountain and valley winds of the Fraser valley itself. The sea-breeze sets in on the coast about 10 a.m., strengthens until afternoon, and dies away before sunset; at its strongest, it usually reaches 10 to 15 mph. The land-breeze flows across the delta from the east overnight and into the early morning. Speeds are lower, being 3 to 8 mph.

In winter,the relatively light land-breezes, associated with overnight cooling,are occasionally aug mented by a stronger outflow of cold arctic air which pours down the Harrison and the main Fraser valleys on its way to the coast. Owing to the configuration of Fraser River channels and surrounding hills, Vancouver International Airport does not record the force of these easterly winds. However, their frequency and strength are well documented further to the east at Abbotsford Airport (over 20% of winds are from the northeast from November through February, with average speeds close to 10 mph.). During fresh arctic outbreaks, northeast Page 41

N.W. N.E.

s ^N>^73 .30% / +. 4.1 Z? \ \20% / 78 XV (1 Ss \ / nS^^n^^ \l0% \ \ u/ 1 / CALM V% 1 W 10.8' 1 8.,o/o J J74 E / \ 7.9 1 87 y^ ft9

s.w. S.E.

Percentage frequency of wind by direction : (1 inch = 10 percent)

Meon wind speed by direction «(Miles per hour)

Figure 4.4.

WIND ROSE , VANCOUVER INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT ( 1953- 1971) 42. Climatology

winds in excess of 30 mph often occur there. Such winds have been observed at Sand Heads Lightstation and Tsawwassen ferry terminal, despite their absence over north ern portions of the delta.

4 (vi) HUMIDITY, CLOUD AND SUNSHINE

With abundant sources of moisture nearby, humi dity values remain relatively high throughout the year at coastal locations. During mid-winter months, relative humidities (indicated by measurements at Vancouver Inter national Airport) remain above 80 per cent throughout the day and average near 90 per cent in the early morning. In mid-summer, average afternoon values drop to about 60 per cent. However, early morning values remain as high as 85 per cent. Despite the seasonal trend in relative humidity, the actual quantity of vapour held in the air is about twice as great during the summer as that during the winter due to higher temperatures, and, con sequently, a greater capacity for the air to carry water

vapour.

Seasonal trends in relative humidity are re flected in mean cloudiness. In mid-winter, skies are 8-10 tenths cloud covered about 75 per cent of the time, while 0-2 tenths of cloud cover occur less than 15 per cent of

the time.

Spring skies are somewhat less cloudy, but in June percentages peak once again. Following June, a dramatic reduction occurs, with 8-10 tenths of cloud experienced only 40 per cent of the time during July 43. Climatology

and August. Zero to 2 tenths of cloud are equally likely during these months. Cloud totals again increase abruptly between September and October, coinciding with the onset of the rainy season.

Over 1,900 hours of bright sunshine per year are recorded at Vancouver International Airport,and that figure would be representative of much of the deltn. By way of comparison, Victoria records over 2,200 hours; and Agassiz,in the lower Fraser valley, records less than 1,400 hours. On a nation-wide basis, sunshine totals over the Fraser delta are very similar to averages from the lower Great Lakes, St. Lawrence valley and Maritime regions.

4 (vii) FOG AND REDUCED VISIBILITY

Fog over the Fraser delta is most frequently of a radiation type, that is, it forms in a shallow layer as the result of radiational cooling on clear, calm nights. Peak frequencies occur in the early morning hours near sunrise,and clearing normally occurs shortly thereafter. Although denser, more persistent sea fogs common on the outer coast occasionally occur, they nor mally lift to a low stratus layer following passage to the lower mainland of the province.

Fog is infrequent in the months March through August. The season begins in September,with a broad peak in frequencies over the months October through February. Roughly 80 per cent of fog occurrences fall within those five months. 44. Climatology

It is often the case that local industrial smoke contributes to reduced visibility during fog occurrences over the delta. This is particularly true at the site of the airport which is located in close proximity to industrial sources on the North Arm of the Fraser River. However, Atmospheric Environment Service records clearly show that frequencies of reduced visibilities in fog have declined steadily from the mid-forties to the present. Over that period the number of days with fog producing visibilities of 1/2 mile or less dropped from a maximum of 104 in 1943 to an average of about 35 at the end of the sixties. It has been suggested that a major changeover from sawdust burning to natural gas fuel for domestic heating may have contributed significantly to improved visibility statistics.

4 (viii) EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

In the following discussion,evaporation refers to water lost to the atmosphere from a free water surface such as a lake or a pond. Evapotranspiration includes all water transferred to the atmosphere as vapour from a given area, either directly from water and land sur faces or through plant transpiration. Potential evapo transpiration is the amount of transpiration that would take place from a well developed plant cover with an unlimited water supply. It is normally considered that potential evapotranspiration is close to evaporation from small open water surfaces.

Routine measurements of evaporation have been made at the University of British Columbia since 1960 45. Climatology

using a class A evaporation pan. By application of a standard formula (lake evaporation equals 0.7 times pan evaporation plus or minus an energy advection correction), values have been converted to their equivalent small- lake evaporation. The average annual value is close to 28 inches. Similar values should prevail over the

Fraser delta.

It is of interest to note that peak evaporation occurs in July (4.80 inches), which is the time of least precipitation and greatest likelihood of prolonged drought For example, in one extreme case, no measurable rain fell at Vancouver Airport during a period of 58 days (June 14 to August 10, 1951). During the dry season,with its high evaporative demand,actual evapotranspiration will often fall below potential values owing to insufficient moisture supply to the plant communities. The situation is complex and depends on water tables, root type and other factors. Low-lying marsh areas near sea level would be expected to have sufficient moisture available

at all times.

4 (ix) AIR POLLUTION POTENTIAL

The air-pollution potential in a given area is inversely related to the ability of the atmosphere in the locality and the region to disperse pollutants. This, in turn, depends upon wind and inversion conditions (Tables 4.3 and 4.4) and on regional topography. Inver sions limit the ability of the atmosphere to mix pollutants vertically,and episodes of calm or light winds curtail 46. Climatology

horizontal dilution. In addition, local mountain barriers may limit regional dispersion from significant urban sources.

A relatively low occurrence rate of calm winds is experienced over the Fraser delta. At Vancouver International Airport,the annual percentage of hours without wind is 8 per cent. It is noteworthy, however, that calms are twice as frequent in the fall as in the spring, and that most calms occur overnight and in the early morning. At these times, of course, inversions are also most frequent.

The following table (Table 4.3) of percentage inversion frequencies, based on data from the coastal region, indicates that inversions are common in all months overnight and in the morning, and are much less frequent during daytime hours. Afternoon inversions are rare in summer and most frequent in the fall and winter.

Table 4.3. Percentage frequency of low-level inversions.

Winter Spring Summer Fall

PM 18 10 5 15 AM 45 50 55 55

Episodes of light winds (0-7 mph) which persist over a period of days can lead to a regional build up of air contaminants. Such episodes reach a peak frequency in fall and winter as indicated in Table 4.4 , following, for Vancouver International Airport. 47. Climatology

Table 4.4. Number of occurrences of light wind episodes (1957-66).

Winter Spring Summer Fall

24-47 hours 71 34 54 84 48 hours 40 4 5 21

A provincial report on lower mainland air quality (B.C. Research, 1970, 1972), documents actual air quality over the Fraser delta as well as over other parts of the urban complex. It was found that dustfall, sulphation index and suspended particulates were all at their lowest levels over the delta. There was some evidence of local coal dust near the Roberts Bank bulk loading facility. However, in general, such pollutants were at a low level.

More significantly, it was found that persistent land-breeze - sea-breeze circulations tended to move the low level pollutants back and forth, up the valley during the day and back over the city and water overnight. Con centrations of carbon monoxide and other pollutants related to automobiles, aircraft and heating increased day-by-day until it could be said that a regional air stagnation episode was in progress. Each year it is probable that there will be 20 to 40 land-breeze - sea- breeze episodes, lasting 3 to 11 days, which will cause pollution buildups in the lower mainland area. In such situations it is not easy to separate the impact of individual sources. Nevertheless, studies are currently underway to model the contribution to air pollution over f

48.. Climatology

the Fraser delta deriving from operations at Vancouver International Airpoirt., both as it is now and as it may develop..

A summary of air quality data for the lower mainland is contained in Appendices 4.2 and 4,3. 49.

5. HYDROLOGY AND WATER QUALITY

5 (i) HYDROLOGY

The Fraser River system drains an area of nearly 90,000 square miles. Streamflow information has been gathered in the lower valley since 1911 with the install ation of a manual gauge on the Chilliwack River. In 1912 the mainstem station on the Fraser became operational. Since its inception, the gathering of streamflow, sedi mentation, and water quality data has grown substantially, with sampling stations now being located at dozens of locations throughout the Fraser system. The furthest downstream flow station is near the Port Mann pumping station, while that for water level is found at Steveston. Suspended sediment data gathering began in 1965 at Hope, Mission, and Port Mann, and has since expanded to include other stations on the river (see Appendices 5.1 and 5.2) (Water Survey of Canada, 1973).

The long-term (1912-1972) mean daily flow at Hope is 96,300 cubic feet per second (cfs)(Water Survey of Canada, 1973). As Figure 5.1 illustrates, about eighty percent of the yearly runoff occurs during the peak period, May 1st through July 16th (called the spring freshet), with the mean monthly maximum being 250,000 cfs occurring in June. The lowest discharges occur during the winter, with the minimum being 28,000 cfs in March (Tabata, 1972; Water Survey of Canada, 1973). Other data for flow recorded at Hope are listed in Table 5.1. Tabata (1972) indicated that, from 1966 to 1969 inclusive, the annual flow at Port Mann was 28% greater than that at Hope, being somewhat less than this in winter (211). Flow distribution, as described by Pretious (1972) and Tywoniuk (1972), was estimated at 5% to the North Arm, 5% to the Middle Arm, 80-851 to the main channel, and 5-10% to small outlets such as Canoe Pass. JAN. FEB- MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG 1000.... , 1 , 1 , , , . SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC- 1 1 . 1000

I00-- --I00

"0 O

10-- --10 o

JAN FEB. MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV DEC.

FIGURE 5.1 DISCHARGE HYDROGRAPH FOR 1970" FRASER RIVER AT HOPE,STATION No. 08MF005 (INLAND WATERS DIRECTORATE , 1973 ) 51. Hydrology

Table 5.1. Other Fraser River flow records measured at Hope, B.C.. (1912 - 1972) (Water Survey of Canada, 1973).

Record c£s Date

maximum daily flow 536,000 May 31, 1948 minimum daily flow 181,000 June 18, 1941 (during the freshet) minimum over-all daily flow 12,000 January 8, 1916 maximum mean annual flow 123,000 1964 minimum mean annual flow 68,000 1929 maximum mean monthly flow 380,000 June, 1972 minimum mean monthly flow 17,000 March, 1917 52. Hydrology

Tidal effects are noticed at least as far up stream as Sumas, about 45 miles from the river mouth. The mean tidal range at Sand Heads is 10 feet (15 feet at tropical or spring tides), as is the case at Steveston (5 miles from the mouth). At New Westminster (20 miles upstream) the range is about 3 feet. Upstream of here, the actual range is difficult to determine owing to the magnitude of river discharge. During the peak of the freshet, however, tidal effects extend little past Steveston, the heavy flow of the river being a much more dominant factor. The ordinary speed of the river is 3-4 knots {\h hours before low tide at Sand Heads), while during the freshet the average speed is 5% knots (2-3 hours before low tide at Sand Heads) (Tabata, 1972). As a discussion of the salt wedge appears in the Oceanography section, it will not be included here. Details of this phenomenon occur in Johnston (1921), Waldichuk (1957), and Tabata and LeBrasseur (1958).

Water temperatures of the Fraser River at Hope (1949-1966) have varied between a maximum of 63° and a minimum of 32°F (Water Survey of Canada, 1973).

One of the major characteristics of the Fraser River water is its silt content, giving it a milky appear ance far upstream and a rather greyish-brown colour at the estuary. The milkiness, typical of some mountain streams, is caused by glacial flour, or finely ground-up rock and clay, which forms a colloidal suspension in fresh water.

The muddier fractions of the sediment load of the Fraser River are contributed by the runoff and scour of the lower reaches of its drainage basin, particularly by those 53. Hydrology

tributaries that cut through tilled agricultural land. It is during the spring freshet that the turbidity increases with the suspended load of these coarser materials, due to greater turbulence and more rapid flow of the river water. Turbidity increases substantially as the runoff increases, with the turbidity maximum (about 800 ppm; Tabata, 1972) occurring somewhat in advance of peak flows (Thomas, 1954; Waldichuk, 1967). About 20,000,000 tons of sediment reach Port Mann annually.

Tywoniuk (1972) indicated that gravels and boulders are transported by the river during very high flow only, and are deposited near the tidal limit between Agassiz and Mission City. Within the tidal reach, a natural sorting of grain size occurs, with the coarser particles being deposited furthest upstream. Between Port Mann and Steveston (the most active dredging area) , within the zone of saltwater intrusion, sorting appears to terminate. This results in a river bed of nearly uniform grain size. Silts and clays (0.062 mm) constitute very small fractions of the bed material at the Hope, Agassiz, Mission, and Port Mann stations, and in the main channel downstream from Port Mann to Steveston. The absence of silts and clays in the dredging region (Port Mann to Steveston) indicates that these sediment components are transported into the Strait of Georgia where some settle out on the delta flats and others are carried into deeper water.

The clay fractions of the suspended load in the Fraser River water do not settle out by gravity alone in the predominantly freshwater environment of the inner delta, but rather contribute to the outer delta and Strait of Georgia basin after mixing with sea water. 54. Water Quality

Through processes of flocculation, coagulation, and agglomeration, the particles eventually settle out of suspension. As a result, the sediments of the outer delta and of the Georgia basin tend to be smooth and fine to the touch. These fine deposits offer little resistance to wave action and are constantly shifting. Heavy shoaling at Steveston is thought to be due to the salt wedge which, during the freshet peak, does not extend past this point (Pretious, 1972).

5 (ii) WATER QUALITY

A report by Benedict et at. (1973), on the water quality of the lower Fraser, includes a general literature survey of previous work in this field, as well as their own results. The majority of the following discussion is taken from this report with added material where applicable, and one is referred to the original sources for more details.

Goldie (1967) summarized a good deal of the early literature and reviewed unpublished data. His report concluded that the mainstem of the lower Fraser was essentially "clean" in terms of biological oxygen demand (BOD) , but that degradation of the water quality could occur unless preventative measures were undertaken. Existing bacterial levels were undesirably high, and showed trends of increasing in some areas. One report included by Goldie was that done by B.C. Research (1952) which stated that, based on BOD data, the North Arm was moderately polluted. However, they also indicated that in relation to other river systems, the North Arm was relatively "clean". This might be what Goldie meant in the similar statement above. 55. Water Quality

Unpublished Fisheries Service data were analyzed in the report by Benedict et at. (1973). Included were BOD and dissolved oxygen results for sampling sites in the Fraser arms, as well as at Roberts and Sturgeon banks and Iona Beach. North Arm BOD values ranged from less than 1 to 4 mg/1, with the majority being low, while the Main Arm results for BOD were all negligible. Dissolved oxygen levels in both areas were generally high (901 saturation), although periodically lower values were recorded in the North Arm.

Another B.C. Research study (1972), noted by Benedict et al. (1973), showed that dissolved oxygen levels were at or near saturation at all stations in the lower reaches beloAv Port Mann during September/October, 1971, although occasionally lower values were found at bottom stations and in isolated channels. North Arm stations had slightly lower quality in terms of free carbon dioxide, phenolic content, and total organic carbon, while Main Arm stations were generally higher in oils and greases. Biologically significant concentrations of copper, zinc, and lead were measured in some samples. Nutrient loadings (phosphorus and nitrogen) were low, while levels of cyanide were undetectable. Iron, detergent, and tannin/lignin levels showed variations, but no trends were evident. Organic content of sediments from the Main Arm wa.s between 0.5 and 1.0%, with values as high as 19.9% in isolated side channels.

Rusch (1972), using a model for predicting coliform concentrations in the Main Arm, noted that coliform levels at the 15-foot depth were consistently lower than those at the surface during the low-flow period, suggesting there was a degree of vertical stratification during the winter. 56. Water Quality

Benedict et al. (1973) analyzed the available data from these historical sources, and made the following generalizations: a) seasonal variation in temperature is evident, with monthly variations of 3 to 8°; b) dissolved oxygen levels in the Main Arm and mainstem below Hope are consistently high (above 90% saturation); c) BOD (5-day) is low ( <1 mg/1), although some readings of 2 to 3 mg/1 have been reported; d) dissolved oxygen in the North/Middle arms are slightly lower than those of the Main Arm/mainstem (usually around 80% saturation), but localized pockets of less than 80% saturation occur; e) BODs are in the order of 2 to 4 mg/1 in the North and Middle arms, indicating slightly lower quality than in the Main Arm; f) total coliform levels vary widely, but peak total concentrations are always greater in the North and Middle arms than in the Main Arm/mainstem reaches; g) colour, turbidity, total solids, total volatile solids, and suspended solids at stations above the Pitt River confluence vary seasonally, tending to be higher during the freshet; h) data on nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) , trace organics (pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, tannin/lignin, phenols, total organic carbon, detergents, oils, and greases), trace metals (copper, mercury, and lead), and toxic constituents (cyanide, etc.) are generally very sparse; and 57. Water Quality

i) the influence of tidal intrusion of salt water in the Main, Middle, and North arms during low flow periods is evident in conductance, chloride, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfate data.

Their own study (Benedict, et al. > 1972) added information to this general picture. The flow variation at Hope for the two months of study (July and August, 1972) was from 111,000 to 320,000 cfs. In analyzing their data, at this stage of their program, they did not attempt to correlate results with pre cipitation, tidal factors, river flows, or channel geometry. "Comparison of the summer data with that from the historical review shows that for the months of July and August the 1972 data are generally within the range of historical data (or of higher quality) for those parameters and reaches where comparable data are available (temperature, dissolved oxygen, BOD, total coliform, nitrate-nitrogen, iron, suspended solids, total hardness, and total alkalinity)" (Benedict, et al.3 1972). Dissolved oxygen (95-105% saturation) and BOD levels (<1 mg/1) were close to those recorded in earlier studies. Water temperature varied from a low of 13.5°C ( 56.3° F) at Hope to a high of 19.5°C (67.1°F) in the mainstem (in August), while total organic carbon varied from 1.5 to 3.7 mg/1. Total coliform levels were extremely variable (<100/100 ml to 9300/100 ml),while fecal levels ranged from <20 to 790/100 ml. This was probably due to variability in contributory substances, as well as differences in background load and die-off relation ships. Nutrient measurements of Kjeldahl-nitrogen levels were generally 0.1 mg-N/l, with values of 0.2 mg-N/l at three upstream stations near 58. Water Quality

the Vedder Canal. Nitrate and total phosphorus levels ranged from 0.02 to 0.06 mg-N/l and < 20 to 90/ig-P/l, respectively. Two of the twenty-two stations exhibited higher trace metal concentrations than those usually present in ambient water. In particular, one station in the Middle Arm had higher concentrations of copper (0.02 mg/1) and zinc (0.22 mg/1), and the Iona Island station had slightly higher zinc concentrations (0.02 mg/1) than did other locations (0.005-0.01 mg/1 copper and 0.005-0.015 mg/1 zinc) on the river. Concentrations of cadmium, cobalt, lead, molybdenum, nickel, and silver were undetectable. Iron levels varied between 0.56 and 2.3 mg/1, while manganese ranged from 0.03 to 0.08 mg/1. All of these constituents were also analyzed for various tributary streams, but these are not within our scope and will not be discussed here. Other variables measured for the stations on the lower Fraser included pH (7.5-8.0), alkalinity (30-44), and hardness (35-49 mg/1 CaCO-). Total dissolved residue varied between 46 and 110 mg/1, while conductance ranged from 78 to 133/imho. Chloride levels were consistently below 10 mg/1. It was interesting to note that some tribu tary streams had higher sediment phosphorus and Kjeldahl- nitrogen than those found in the lower Fraser. Also, sediment samples showed higher levels of various metals in isolated pockets, including the following: chromium in Canoe Pass and the mainstem at the Pattullo Bridge, copper in the mainstem at the Mission City Bridge, manganese in the mainstem below Mission and near Chilliwack, and lead from the Brunette River and Kanaka Creek, 59. Water Quality

Based on this study an intensive sampling program was carried out by the Westwater Research Centre and the Water Quality Branch, Inland Waters Directorate, during the low-flow period (February-May, 1973)(Westwater, 1973). Although the final results of this work have yet to be published, some general observations were cited in the Westwater annual report for 1973. During the study period, river flow varied between 27,400 and 234,000 cfs. The freshet in April caused an increase in colour, tur bidity, and, in many cases, total phosphorus and Kjeldhal- nitrogen. The lower stations (up to Fraser Street on the North Arm and to Annacis Island on the South Arm) showed tidal influences - having high conductance, alkalinity, Ca, Mg, K, Na, and CI. These returned to average river values when the spring runoff prevented the salt wedge from pushing as far upstream. Large concentrations of coliform bacteria were found below the Pattullo Bridge, with the highest values (92,000/100 ml) occurring in the North Arm between the Queensborough and Oak Street bridges. Trace metal levels were significantly higher than ambient values in the lower reaches, with measurable concentrations of mercury occurring between March 15 and April 11. Sev eral times, high levels of lead and zinc were found between the Pattullo Bridge and the Strait of Georgia. Some tri butary streams were also analyzed in this study, but these results will not be discussed here.

These and other water quality data are available from the Water Quality Branch, Inland Waters Directorate, Ottawa. Monitoring stations are located through out the Fraser River system, and one is referred to 60. Model Studies

Appendix 5.3 for a list of these and the variables for which the water is analyzed. Much of this material is now in the NAQUADAT data storage system and is available in computer print-out form (Water Quality Branch, 1974).

5 (iii) HYDRAULIC MODEL STUDIES

A large-scale model of the lower Fraser River and part of the river estuary was built on the University of British Columbia campus in 1949-50 by the Department of Civil Engineering, with support from the National Research Council and the Federal Department of Public Works, Studies on this fresh water model were mainly designed to evaluate sediment transport deposition and erosion under different flow regimes in the river, with tidal undulations superimposed. Effects of changes in channels by excavation, dredging and river training could also be observed in this respect. Results of these studies have been reported in numerous informal reports, but they are summarized in several documents (Pretious, 1956, 1958, 1961a,b, 1969; Pretious and Blench, 1951). These studies have also contributed to engineering research on the downstream sedimentation effects of dams on the Fraser River (Pretious, 1972).

A second hydraulic model, study of the lower Fraser River was conducted by H.J.A. Neu (1972) under the auspices of the National Research Council in Ottawa, from 1966 through 1969. 61. Model Studies

Theoretical studies have been conducted for some time on the circulation of the Strait of Georgia using the hydrodynamical-numerical approach, A simplified one-dimensional model, assuming a homogeneous system, was developed by the Pacific Oceanographic Group (Crean, 1969). A second two-dimensional model, again assuming vertical homogeniety, was elaborated as a doctoral dissertation at the University of Liverpool (Crean, 1972). The study is now being extended to the three-dimensional situation, eventually to take into account stratification (Crean, pers. comm.).

A further numerical model of the Fraser River estuary has been developed by Ages (1974). This system includes influencing factors such as river discharge, tide levels and effects of the Strait of Georgia, to provide a predictive capability.

Water quality models of the Fraser River estuary have been investigated by the University of British Columbia Department of Civil Engineering. The basic program involved a one-dimensional hydro- dynamic model interfaced with a second model which included saltwater intrusion in the seaward reach. This was used in computing the convection and dispersion of pollutants (Hodgins and Quick, 1972). Such a system was, however, not: applicable to tidal estuaries like the Fraser. A "salt" wedge analysis gave the nature of the interfacial stress, which in this case, was neither a function of the velocity nor of velocity squared. This study is now being continued with measurement of relevant parameters and mathematical 62. Model Studies

modelling of the baroclinic flows using a "two-layer" model (Hodgins, pers. comm.).

The one dimensional tidal model designed by Hodgins and Quick (above, 1972) was re-structured by Joy (1974). The earlier system was calibrated and extended into a mass transport model for the Fraser estuary. This was then used to determine the tidally- induced temporal variation in the longitudinal velocity and cross-sectional area along the estuary. The results showed that river flows along the estuary, which vary with tidal changes, cause a variation in the initial dilution of a discharged effluent. Combined with the effects of reversal of tidal flow, this factor causes spikes in the concentration profile along the estuary. 63.

6. OCEANOGRAPHY

The oceanographic characteristics of the Fraser River estuary are strongly affected by runoff, tides, winds, and the Strait of Georgia. The surface current patterns, particularly in the northern part of the estuary where the North Arm of the Fraser River is trained by the North Arm Jetty, are strongly domi nated by the Fraser River flow. The waters are not sufficiently mixed by tidal and wind action to create vertical homogeneity. Therefore, there exists a two- layered system which extends beyond the immediate estuary into the Strait of Georgia, except in the intensively mixed southern channels throughout the San Juan Islands.

6 fi) BEHAVIOUR OF FRASER RIVER WATER AT THE ESTUARY

As the silt-laden fresh water of the Fraser enters the Strait of Georgia, it spreads out in a relatively thin layer for a considerable distance (depending on the intensity of the river) as a visible fan-like plume. Waldichuk (1967) indicated that the transition zone between the fresh, turbid water of the Fraser River and the saline, clear water of the Strait of Georgia occurs at a salinity of about 15 /oo. It is evident that, in the salinity range of 0 to 15 /oo, rapid flocculation of the finer sediment fractions suspended in the river water occurs as the fresh mixes with the sea water. Beyond this sharp transition zone, only the very finest clay particles remain in suspension, and these also eventually precipitate at greater distances from the estuary. 64. Oceanography

Characteristic of stratified estuaries, the less dense fresh water of the Fraser River flows over the surface of the water of the Strait of Georgia. Owing to frictional effects, the thin layer of fresh water loses its river-flow momentum, with speeds of three or four knots even in the lower reaches. This seaward- moving surface layer gradually becomes more saline as a consequence of mixing at the shear interface between fresh and sea water. To replace the sea water being carried away by this surface layer, saline water must flow inward from below to maintain the salt balance. This results in a typical two-layered estuarine system with a brackish surface outflow and saline sub-surface inflow. Because of the absence of intensive turbulence at the Fraser estuary, this two-layered system continues into the Strait of Georgia without breaking down until it enters the turbulent, vertically homogeneous waters of the San Juan Island channels (Waldichuk, 1957a and b). Three salinity distributions (surface, 30 feet, and 100 feet) of the Fraser estuary,outside of the delta, are shown in Figures 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3,respectively.

The outward flow of fresh water with its entrained sea water,and the compensatory flow in the sea water layer below,can lead to a process of upwelling. An enormous volume of sea water is required to replace that being mixed into the surface layer and carried seaward. Upward sloping isohalines from the Strait of Georgia toward the Fraser River estuary (Waldichuk, 1952, 1957a and b) are clear indications of an estuarine upwelling process (Figures 6.4 and 6.5). The flux of sea water in this upwelling process may Page 65

49° 20'

Figure 6.1. SURFACE DISTRIBUTION OF 2240 OB30 KBS IMS SALINITY AT THE FRASER RIVER MAY 29 MAY 30 MAY 31 ESTUARY, MAY 29-JUNE I, 1950 TIOES Page 66 Page 67

Figure 6.3. HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY AT 100 Ft. DEPTH, AT THE FRASER RIVER ESTUARY, MAY 29 - JUNE 1, 1950 Page 68

STRAIT OF GEORGIA NORTH ARM JETTY

STN. 7 8

NORTH ARM - FRASER RIVER

50-

1023

MAY 30 TIDES

I too- X I- a. u Q

Figure 6.4. VERTICAL SALINITY SECTION THROUGH THE NORTHERN PART OF THE FRASER RIVER ESTUARY, FROM THE NORTH ARM OF THE 150- FRASER RIVER INTO THE STRAIT OF GEORGIA, MAY 29 -JUNE I, 1950

SALINITY IN %o

225' »t>! 3CO'3o.'T 300* k»i 300*30-28 Page 69

150-

Figure 65. VERTICAL SALINITY SECTION THROUGH THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE FRASER SALINITY IN %o RIVER ESTUARY, FROM THE SOUTH ARM OF THE FRASER RIVER INTO THE STRAIT OF GEORGIA, MAY 29-JUNE I, 1950

300 • »»T 70. Oceanography

carry with it nutrients important for nourishing phytoplankton in the surface layer.

Aerial photography has been a useful tool in connection with the silt plume which acts as a tracer of the movement of surface water from the Fraser River estuary (Fjarlie, 1950; Waldichuk, 1967). Photos of the estuary substantiate the oceanographic data concerning the two-layered system. Pictures of moderate-draught vessels passing through the plume and stirring deeper, more saline, clearer water into the turbid surface layer (which appears clearly as a streak of bluer water in the wake of the ship), are clear evidence of this phenomenon.

The sharp interface between the surface brackish layer and the deeper water sets up an ideal situation for the generation of internal waves. These internal waves can be seen quite distinctly in black and white aerial photographs (Shand, 1953). From the air, their crests appear as quite widely spaced, darker bands where the waters converge and become slightly rippled. Such internal waves have some practical significance as a mixing mechanism, with possible influence on dispersion of natural silt and introduced pollutants. Recent work (Thompson, pers. comm.) indicates that such waves may be impor tant in the transport of sediment north along the delta front. 71. Oceanography

6 (ii) WIND EFFECTS

Winds play a major role in the sedimentary and ecological cycles of the Fraser River estuary. They strongly modify the effects of runoff and tides. Because of the presence of the thin brackish surface layer, the winds can have a major influence on the movement of the water, and, therefore, on the disper sal of its suspended silt and any introduced materials. Wind effects may be manifested in two other ways be sides their contribution to advection. They are a dominant factor in the generation of waves, and in the development of turbulence which causes both ver tical and horizontal mixing.

As the wind regime is discussed in the Climatology section of this report, the reader is referred to it for details on this factor.

Surface water currents generated by persis tent winds are generally about 2% of the wind speed, but can be faster in strongly stratified water such as that near the Fraser River.

As the Fraser River water leaves the estuary, it appears to move mainly toward the Gulf Islands (Valdes and Galiano) when the tide is ebbing and the winds are calm. However, calm conditions seldom occur in the Strait of Georgia, and the winds have a rather 72. Oceanography

predominant effect on the direction of surface water flow. On the average, often assisted by southeast winds, the bulk of fresh water first moves northward past Howe Sound and then north-westward along the eastern side of the Strait of Georgia. The effect of wind is somewhat accentuated by Coriolis force, which causes surface currents to veer to the right of the direction of flow in the northern hemisphere. Evi dence of this kind of movement by the Fraser River water, supported by current observations (Pacific Oceanographic Group, 1954), suggests that there is a residual counterclockwise circulation in the surface water of the Strait of Georgia (Waldichuk and Tabata, 1955; Waldichuk, 1957a and b). Drift bottle observations made during the 1920's somewhat confirm this circula tion pattern (Waldichuk, 1958, 1973; Tabata, 1970, 1972). Wind data were examined for the period when the bottle releases were made and it was found that there was often a close relationship between the dir ection in which the bottles moved and the wind direc tion immediately following their release.

Float surveys conducted during the spring and summer of 1949-1950, on and adjacent to the Fraser River delta, showed drift predominantly in the dir ection of river flow, which itself was somewhat modi fied by the tide at different stages (Waldichuk, 1967). From the North Arm of the Fraser River, there was in variably a strong movement of water around Point Grey and into Burrard Inlet past Spanish Banks. Part of this effect could be attributed to the training of the river 73. Oceanography

by the North Arm Jetty, resulting in the river flow being confined to a relatively narrow jet stream thrusting to the northwest. Usually a flood tide carried the jet stream around Point Grey and moved it into English Bay. The Fraser water then shifted toward the north along Stanley Park, some of it being carried by the flood tide through the First Narrows, and finally along the north shore past Point Atkinson on the westward ebb. Winds no doubt modify this flow, but their effects are merely superimposed over the general current pattern created by the momentum of the Fraser River water in its seaward flow, and by the action of the tides.

Wind effects in the region of the Fraser estuary south of the North Arm Jetty are compara tively more pronounced, owing to the dissipated momen tum of the Fraser River flow over the broad expanse of the delta. Also, the tidal effects are not as well focussed as in the narrower channels. In the intertidal zone of this region, winds may be a dom inant force in moving estuarine waters.

Wind-driven currents in the Fraser River estuary can neither be too easily generalized nor accurately predicted. Nevertheless, they play an important role in many parts of the estuary, and, in combination with the other factors contributing to water movement, transfer sediments and other water- borne materials (including plant and animal life) throughout the estuary or into the Strait of Georgia. 74. Oceanography

Wind is also a major factor in the generation of waves in the Strait of Georgia. However, waves' may be created in the absence of winds by other forces which are present, and/or wind waves may be considerably accentuated in the presence of such other factors.

Waves in the Strait of Georgia are limited by the wind fetch and strength except under unusual circum stances. Wave observations made at a buoy in the Strait of Georgia off Vancouver gave a maximum significant wave height of about 5 feet, even during winter storms, and average wave heights were of the order of 2 feet (English, pers. comm.). However, waves at the Fraser River estuary may be considerably amplified by both the shoaling of the bottom and by the effect of wind opposing an ebbing tide. Under these circumstances, the waves can be high and quite steep, but with less energy than that of long waves generated over a long fetch. Nevertheless, some of the most devastating waves in the Fraser River estuary occur when there is a strong northwest wind opposing an ebb tide, accompanied by a substantial discharge of Fraser River water.

Early wave measurements (1968-69) in the Strait of Georgia were conducted by B.C. Research (W.N. English, pers. comm.) to assess the effects of waves on the first "stretched" B.C. Ferry (MV "Queen of Esquimalt") on route between Tsawwassen and Swartz Bay. Similar studies were conducted on Halibut Bank (49°20.6'N; 123°44.1'W) in connection with the first "stretch" ferry sailing between Nanaimo and Horseshoe Bay. 75. Oceanography

Waves have been recorded recently near Roberts Bank. These data are required for possible future expansion of the port and installation of new facilities. However, it is rather remarkable how small the effects of strong waves have been on both the ferry terminal at Tsawwassen and the coalport at Roberts Bank. There is a minimal amount q£ shelter provided by short breakwaters, but no large-scale protection has been found necessary. Only occasionally are the ferries unable to proceed between Tsawwassen and Swartz Bay, when winter storms are fierce in the Strait of Georgia. However, this is usually because of the adverse effects of winds during docking in Tsawwassen rather than due to the sea state in the Strait of Georgia.

Wave records on Waverider buoys were commenced in February, 1974, by the Wave Climate Study, Marine Sciences Directorate, near Sturgeon Bank off the Iona Island sewage outfall (49°9.83'N, 123°18.46'W) at a depth of 70 fathoms. In April, 1974, a similar study began off Roberts Bank(49°01.83fN, 123°16.70fW), 0.5 nautical miles (n. mi.) due south of the Canoe Pass marker buoy, at 50 fathoms. Earlier records (February through April, 1974) were also taken near the latter station, In. mi. due south of the Canoe Pass marker buoy.

Depending on the stage of the tide, that is, during low tide when the flats are mostly exposed, wave action on the delta may be rather minimal. The major impact of waves occurs at the delta front where the larger waves tend to break. However, there is an effect on the delta by smaller waves, which may be quite important ecologically. In shallow water these waves 76. Oceanography cause ripples to form in the sand and mud, and such formations may provide havens for benthic organisms if the ripples remain intact for a significant period (e.g. several weeks).

Wave action is also important in suspending bottom materials in the water column, thus aiding currents in either displacing these materials or preventing their deposition in particular regions. As well, aeration by wave action may be vital for the survival of benthic organisms and fish in the sloughs and other poorly-flushed depressions of the delta's intertidal zone.

Winds are an important force in the stirring of surface waters, thus contributing to vertical and horizontal homogeneity. The effects of winds on this process may be particularly pronounced in the area of the plume where the turbid Fraser River water undergoes its initial mixing with the surface layer of sea water. The usual thin-layered stratification may be partially broken down through wind action, resulting in a more saline, deeper, wind-mixed layer.

Combined with tides, currents and topography, winds may contribute to considerable mixing at some distance from shore. For example, in the channels of the San Juan Islands (particularly in Boundary Pass), there is intensive mixing between the Fraser River water and the sea water. This often results in dangerous tide rips during the spring freshet and spring ebb tides. 77. Oceanography

In the intertidal area of the Fraser River delta, wind action definitely contributes to a well mixed system. However, most of the time the delta is largely overlain by fresh water so that, in effect, the Fraser River water undergoes a continuous vertical mixing process by wind action with any sea water that may be present. To some extent, this stirring effect moderates any extremes in salinity which could arise when highly saline sea water intrudes on the delta at high tides.

6 (iii) TIDES

Characteristic of the Pacific coast of North America, the tides of the Strait of Georgia, including the Fraser River estuary, are of the mixed type. This means that the tides are a mixture of diurnal and semi diurnal. There is a diurnal inequality which affects both the time and height of the tides. This occurs principally in the height and in the time of succeeding low tides. There is an approximately two week cycle in tidal ranges, as well as a seasonal cycle. In the Fraser River estuary, as in other parts of the Strait of Georgia, lowest tide occurs near midnight during the winter months and near midday during the summer.

Tides have been recorded for several years at Sand Heads, located on the north side of the entrance to the Main Arm of the Fraser River. However, the tide is very much affected by the Fraser River flow at this particular location, and cannot be considered representa tive of other parts of the Strait of Georgia. For more 78. Oceanography

general tidal information, one should refer to the records from Point Atkinson, or more recently, from Caulfeild Cove. Based on these records, the average tidal range in the Strait of Georgia is in the order of ten feet, but extremes may be as great as sixteen feet at tropical (spring) tides and as low as two or three feet at equitorial (neap) tides. Although this part of the Pacific coast is favoured by a moderate tidal range, it is still not enough to mix the waters of the Strait of Georgia or of the Fraser River es tuary as tides mix coastal waters in other parts of the world.

Tides play a vital role in the Fraser River estuary by assisting with the flushing process. They also contribute to the diurnal fluctuations in pro portions of fresh water and sea water at the Fraser River estuary. Ecologically, this is extremely im portant.

(iv) RECENT OBSERVATIONS OF THE FRASER ESTUARY AND

OTHER RELATED STUDIES

Early oceanographic studies of the Fraser River estuary were directed mainly towards the general oceanography and fisheries of the Strait of Georgia (Hutchinson and Lucas, 1931; Tully and Dodimead, 195 7; Waldichuk, 1957a and b).

Since 1957, in connection with annual pollu tion-monitoring surveys adjacent to the lower main land of British Columbia (including Burrard Inlet and 79. Oceanography

Howe Sound), oceanographic observations have been con ducted in the deeper parts of the Fraser River estuary and into the Fraser River as far east as Port Mann (Waldichuk, et at., 1968). These observations confirm ed the regular intrusion of sea water (a "salt wedge") along the bottom of the Main Arm of the Fraser. They also indicated that, despite the particularly strong flow of river water in the North Arm, there was still an intrusion of saline water near the bottom where the current tended to be minimal (observed in current mea surements at the B.C. Forest Service wharf in October, 1957)(Waldichuk, 1967).

During the late 1960's, interdisciplinary studies were conducted by the Pacific Oceanographic Group to relate the productivity of the waters to their physical and chemical characteristics (Parsons, et al.> 1970). It was also within the framework of these studies that current observations were made at a number of depths at 3 stations between Sand Heads and Porlier Pass, with continuous observations for about a year (Tabata, et at., 1970a, b and c; Tabata and Stickland, 1972a, b and c). These observations indicate extreme complexity in the currents off the estuary which cannot yet be accounted for. 80.

7. INVERTEBRATE BIOLOGY

Invertebrate faunas can be cLvidfcd into several sub-divisions based on their modes of life. Those aquatic organisms living in or on the bottom comprise the benthos, while those floating freely in the water column are called plankton. Within the benthos there are epifaunal organisms (those liv ing on or attached to the sediment surface) and infaunal organisms (those living burrowed in the sediment). Each of these can be further subdivided into micro, meio, and macro fauna, depending on their size. Microbenthos are those which are less than 0.5 mm in length, moiobenthos range between 1.0 and 0.5 mm, and macrobenthos encompasses all those exceeding 1.0 mm. Plankton can also be broken down into two groups - the zooplankton (animal forms) and phytoplankton (plant forms).

In general, the amount of information on the in vertebrate fauna of the lower Fraser River and estuary is very sparse. As these organisms are a major food source of the fish and wildlife of the delta, more research is required.

7 (i) BENTHOS AND TERRESTRIAL INVERTEBRATES

Cockbain (1963), working on the foraminifera (members of the meiofauna) of Juan de Fuca and Georgia straits, noted that the Fraser River delta marks a distinct change in the faunal distribution. To the north, the faunal assemblage was predominately arenacious and usually consisted of fewer than 100 specimens per sample, representing less than ten species. To the south, the arenaceous foraminifera constituted less than 15 percent of the total fauna, and the number of forams aver aged over 3,000 specimens per sample, comprising over thirty 81. Invertebrates

species. Generally, the total number of foraminifera de creased with increasing depth and decreasing sediment grain size. Arenaceous forams tended to increase in frequency with depth and decreasing grain size, while calcareous forms de creased with increasing depth but showed no trend in response to grain size changes. No generalized statement regarding the effects of temperature and salinity could be made, as these variables seemed to affect individual species rather than entire groups.

In his study of the intertidal, infaunal micro- benthic dinoflagellates of the north-eastern Pacific, Baillie (1971) found 41 species of 13 genera. As nearly 75% of these had been reported from other areas of the world, it suggests that the majority of sand-dwelling dinoflagellates may be cosmopolitan in distribution. Generally, the majority of the organisms were non-photosynthetic, although there was an increase in the number of photosynthetic forms during the summer months. The number of species and the number of in dividuals per species also increased at this time, all three reactions probably responding to increased sunlight and temp erature, and a decrease in land runoff, the dissolved humic acids of which are thought to cause declines in populations of such organisms. When studying Boundary Bay, Baillie noted an excessive build-up of very fine sediment throughout the summer due to the outflow of the Serpentine and Nicomekl rivers. He felt that the relatively small summer populations of dinoflagellates in Boundary Bay beaches were the result of these fine particles clogging the interstitial spaces normal ly inhabited by the organisms. Winter storms and wave action remove this fine sediment, allowing dinoflagellate blooms to occur in early spring before silt build-up occurs again. Salinity was not seen to affect the organisms being studied. 82. Invertebrates

Bawden, Heath, and Norton (1973), studying Sturgeon and Roberts banks, found that the meiofauna con sisted primarily of oligochaetes, nematodes, and harpacticoid copepods. Sixy-five to 99 percent of the copepods were found to inhabit the top 0.5 cm of sand. Oligochaetes and nematodes generally also inhabited this zone, but occasion ally dense populations were found between 1.0 and 2.0 cm. In terms of animals per centimeter squared of sediment sur face, they found 0.5 to 55 cm"2 nematodes, 0.2 to 37 cm oligochaetes, and 2to 33 copepods cm"2, values comparable to those found by a variety of other researchers working on other intertidal mudflat environments.

A few notes on the microscopic life of fresh water bogs can be found in a study by Cairns (1973) on sphagnum bogs of Richmond. Testaceous rhizopods, rotifer species, some water fleas (Cladocera) and a few copepods occurred in the highly acidic waters of such areas- The fauna was more significant in its lack of organisms usually found in freshwater environments than it was in what was found there. Groups such as ostracods, water mites (Hydracarina), molluscs, and sensitive insects such as mayflies (Ephemeroptera) were excluded. Very little work has been done on the terrestrial invertebrate life of the Fraser delta.

The remainder of the available benthos litera ture deals with macrobenthic fauna. Of these, only one reference could be found which dealt with the freshwater in vertebrates of the Fraser River, versus those organisms in habiting salt water or estuarine zones.

Servizi and Burkhalter (1970) carried out a water quality and benthic organism study of the entire Fraser system from 1963 through 1968. As they were attempting to assess the macroinvertebrate populations prior to addition of wastes, 83. Invertebrates

they classified organisms according to their resistance to pollution (that is, as sensitive, facultative, or tolerant). Only two of their stations fall within the scope of this report - those at Mission and'Queensborough Bridge area. At Mission, tendipid larvae, oligochaetes, and lamprey lar vae were found in the dredge sample. Tray samples included the pollution-sensitive mayflies, stoneflies, dragonflies, beetles and caddisflies; the facultative dipteran larvae, hemipterans, snails, clams, isopods and amphipods; and the tolerant oligochaetes. Owing to changing water velocity, bottom erosion and sediment deposition, populations fluctu ated considerably between sampling periods. At the Queens- borough Bridge station, the North and South arms of the Fraser were found to have soft, muddy bottoms containing only the facultative tendipids and tolerant oligochaetes. Low oxygen concentrations were also recorded here. Servizi and Burkhalter concluded that macroinvertebrate populations, at least downstream from Mission, were not sensitive monitors of pollution.

Northcote (1952) stated that the mysid Neomysis was abundant in the arms of the lower Fraser, but had not been recorded upstream.

There is a gap in information dealing with the area between Queensborough Bridge and the mouth of the Fraser. Two studies, one of which is on-going, have dealt with the mouth of the river near Steveston. As part of a study of the fish processing plants of Steveston, the federal Environmental Protection Service (EPS) is carrying out a sampling program of Cannery Channel. This water body is separated from the main river by Steveston Island, and its mainland banks are lined with fish processing plants, In 1954, the Harbours and Rivers Engineering Branch of the Department of Public Works of Canada 84. Invertebrates

constructed a rock dam across the upstream end of Cannery Channel, and a rock breakwater along the shoal from the western end of Steveston Island to within a few hundred feet of Garry Point, making the once-open channel a re stricted tidal basin (Tabata and LeBrasseur, 1958). The EPS researchers involved initially described the area as "dead", since "nothing living was seen in any of the samples" (K.Wile, pers. comm.). However, microscopic in vestigation of these dredge samples revealed a few species of organisms in small numbers. These included hydrozoa, errant and sedentary polychaetes (2 or 3 species) , oligo chaetes, mussels, clams, shipworms, snails, barnacles, amphipods, a decapod, dipteran larvae, and nematodes (Hallam, 1973).

Tabata and LeBrasseur (1958) had previously noted the presence of shipworms, Bankia setacea, in the Steveston Cannery Basin and had indicated that these organisms were able to survive in the channel owing to depres sions in the substrate which failed to be flushed with fresh water at low tide. These pockets of saline water were ideal habitats for the settlement and growth of shipworms, whenever the depressions occurred near wooden pilings. As noted in the discussion of physical oceanography, a salt wedge extends well up the mouth of the Fraser at high tide, and it is possible, therefore,to find such marine organisms as Bankia as far up the river as Woodward's Landing, 10 nautical miles from the river mouth. Garrison et al. (1969) noted the presence of Mytilus edulis (mussels) and Balanus glandula (barnacles) on calcium carbonate-cemented sandstone dredged from the main channel influenced by the salt wedge.

Ellis (1969) indicated various macro- invertebrates as significant components of sediment ecosystems 85. Invertebrates

in southern British Columbia. His findings were from many varied areas and, although his stations did not include the actual delta area, and were subtidal, they should be applicable generally to the inlets of the Strait of Georgia. One is referred to the actual research for lists of the common species.

Enns (1968), in a University of British Columbia Biology 401 project, noted that the amphipod Oroheetoidea pugettensis was abundant and non-randomly distributed on the beaches of the southern tip of Spanish Banks and Point Grey. Animals tended to clump together where sand was suitable for burrowing and where there was an abundant seaweed food source.

In a University of British Columbia Forestry 492 research paper, Patching (1972) studied the distribution and ecology of some molluscs and crustaceans of Boundary Bay which are either potential or presently exploited resources for recreational or commercial purposes. Crabs (Cancer magister and C. productus) were sometimes found stranded in tide pools, but usually occurred in the lower quarter of the intertidal zone and in the bay to a depth of about ten feet. The foreshore area bordering Ocean Park is the major crab fishing grounds of the bay, with less important grounds being located in the Grauer Beach region and east of the town of Boundary Bay. The edible crab (C. magister) preferred smooth sandy bottoms, while the rock crab (C. productus) inhabited rocky areas. The only region devoid of crabs was Mud Bay, where the muddy sub strate and lowered salinity due to the influx of water 86. Invertebrates

from the Nicomekl and Serpentine rivers, make the habitat unsuitable. Shrimp species occurred in Boundary Bay, but the only one significant in terms of numbers was the burrowing shrimp Callianassa californiensis> which was found in the low^.r half of the intertidal at depths of less than one foot below the sand surface.

Some octopod species were found near White Rock, but cephalopods were generally poo.ly represented in the bay. A variety of clams, mussels, and oysters inhabited Boundary Bay. Butter clams (Saxidomus giganteus) inhabited nearly all areas of the middle tidal zone, while little- necked clams (Venerupis japonica and Protothaca staminea) generally occurred in the lower intertidal on firm- bottomed beaches. The cockle (Ct/nocardium sp.) was abundant on the level, low tidal flats, especially close to eelgrass beds and near the mouths of rivers where sediment was a mixture of sand-mud. Horse clams (Schizo- thaerus nuttalli and S. capax) were widely distributed at the low tide line in generally sand or sand-mud sediments, while the mud clam (Mya arenaria) occurred in well protected sandy-muds at the upper tide level, often close to sources of fresh water. Mussels (Mytilus edulis) were found in dense patches on rocks, shells, gravel, pilings, and floats, particularly in the intertidal. Boundary Bay was the single most productive oyster bed in British Columbia prior to 1960 when the fishery was closed owing to coliform bacterial pollution. Three species still occur here. Patching (1972) noted that the native or Olympic oyster (.Ostrea lurida), indigenous to south western British Columbia, was found on beaches and tidal flats. Small beds were also thought to occur in tidal 87. Invertebrates

pools and lagoons at high tide levels and under rocks. The Pacific or Japanese oyster (Crassostrea gigas) was the most widely distributed and abundant oyster species in Boundary Bay. Generally, it requires shallow, some what brackish water, and extensive, relatively level tidal flats of hard sand or shell and gravel, or shallow mud from one to three inches deep. The Atlantic oyster (Crassostrea virginica) was introduced to the Crescent Beach area, where it was seeded extensively on the oyster beds of the Crescent Oyster Company. It flourished on the Boundary Bay tidal flats and around the mouth of the Nicomekl River,where there was firm mud, sand, or gravel below the lowest low tide level.

A good source of information concerning the invertebrate life of Boundary Bay is a study by Kellerhals and Murray (1969). The work was primarily geological, but included extensive information on the invertebrate fauna as well. "The salt-marsh fauna consists of a heterogenous assemblage of marine and terrestrial forms. The marine macrofauna is represented primarily by the bivalves Mya sp. (the soft-shelled clam) and Mytilus sp. (the common blue mussel), both of which have been found living on the outer portion of the marsh, but may have been transported into the area. Cerithium sp. (the brown and white high spired snail) is common on the outer part of the marsh around tidal channels and ponds, as are the shore crabs such 88. Invertebrates

as Herr.igrapsus sp." (Kellerhals and Murray, 1969). The uppermost zone of the high tidal flats was relatively devoid of infauna due to the long exposure to air at ebb tide and the resistance to burrowing due to mats of algae. Various polychaete worms occurred in the shallow depressions, and the burrowing shrimp Callianassa californiensis was found in the lower part of this zone. Epifaunal forms, such as Cerithium sp., Mya arenaria, and Mytilus edulis were found, along with barnacles (mostly Balanus glandula) which encrusted driftwood. The intermediate tidal flats were characterized by numerous excavations and excrement mounds of the burrowing shrimp Callianassa californiensis. Polychaete worms, mainly Areni- cola, were abundant in the silty sands. The native Olympic oyster (Ostrea lurida) and the Atlantic oyster (Crassostrea virginica) were rare members of the fauna of this zone, but the Japanese form (C. gigas) was abundant in the abandoned, polluted oyster farms of Mud Bay. The lower tidal flats were characterized by two separate communities. The sand dollar community, restricted to the lower sandy flats devoid of vegetation, was represented primarily by the sand dollar Dendraster excentricus and the ochre starfish Pisaster ochraceous. Burrowing sea anemones (Anthopleura artemisia), horse clams (Schizothaerus nuttalli), butter clams (Saxidomus gigan teus), and numerous polychaetes made up the infauna. The eelgrass community, named for dense growths of bryozoan en crusted Zostera, contained a diverse epifaunax of the purple starfish (Pisaster ochraceous), the edible crab (Cancer magis ter), the kelp crab (Pugettia sp.), the dog winkle (Thais lamellosa), the moon snail (Polinices lewisii), another oyster drill (Purpura foliatum) and the cockle (Clinocardium sp.). The infauna consisted of many polychaete worms and burrowing

sea anemones. 89. Invertebrates

Wennekens (1959) commented on the animal- sediment relationships of the upper fore-slope of the western delta front. Stations at ten fathoms located off the mouth of the main channel yielded a very small infauna of small Macoma nasuta and one Nephtys sp. In contrast to this, 50 fathom samples were rich in infaunal organisms, the most predominate forms being various sizes of Macoma nasuta and Caudina obesacauda3 together with a few burrowing polychaetes. Wennekens felt that the differences between the two faunas could be explained by the instability of the sandy mud and the large salinity gradients found at the ten fathom stations. Levings (pers. comm.) also has noted the relative lack of such organisms as Corophium spp. (tube-dwelling amphipods) on sandy delta sediments subject to wave action. It was hypothesized, but not proven, that in the spring,juvenile amphipods establish a community, lending stability to the sediments through their tube construction. Winds are from the southeast at this time and, therefore, wave action is minimal. As the seasons progress into summer and then fall, the wind shifts gradually to the north west, and the community is eroded away by the slowly increasing wave action. During the winter, the surviving adults reproduce and, with the following spring, the cycle begins to repeat itself.

Sturgeon Bank has been the area most recently subjected to development proposals by various groups, and the majority of the recent research on the invertebrate fauna of the Fraser delta has been carried out in an attempt to discern sensitive areas for fish and wildlife which rely heavily on invertebrates for food. 90. Invertebrates

A preliminary baseline study of Roberts and Sturgeon banks, carried out by Bawden et al. (1973), stated that the infaunal community was generally normal for an estuarine habitat, being relatively unaffected by present developments on the Fraser. In the fine-grain sediments, Cryptomya californica (Mollusca) and Hemipodus borealis (Polychaeta) were abundant, while the burrowing shrimp Callianassa californiensis (Crustacea) inhabited coarse grained sediments. Stations located close to freshwater outflows were almost completely devoid of fauna. Their analyses for heavy metals in the macrofauna indicated that only the ani mals from Sturgeon Bank had significantly high levels of mercury and silver (e.g. 5 separate collections of molluscs from Sturgeon Bank had a mean mercury content of 0.33 ppm, while 7 collections from Roberts Bank and the Cowichan estuary had a mean level of 0.12 ppm). Cadmium levels were generally low, usually less than 2 ppm, while those of copper were highly variable with species, although the highest values did occur in organisms from Sturgeon Bank, Cobalt, manganese, nickel, lead, and zinc showed no significant geographical trends. PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls) levels were higher in Sturgeon Bank crabs than in crabs from Kitimat Arm. The study's physical and chemical oceanographic data showed no indication of nutrient enrichment of estuarine waters with inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus from the river. Oxygen levels were generally high. Parsons et al. (1973) found similar results for such analyses and indicated that the Iona sewage outlet was the probable source of contaminants.

Cairns (1973) included some of the invertebrate fauna of the Sturgeon Bank tidal marsh in a study of the natural history of Richmond. Infaunal organisms of the mud included the small clams Tellinq carpentri and Cryptomya californica, as well as the soft-shell clam Mya arenaria and 91. Invertebrates

the shrimp Callianassa californiensis. The black-tailed shrimp Crago nigricauda and its close relative C. dlaskensis inhabited the bottom of tidal pools. Amphipods, such as Amphithoe humeralis, and isopods (Gnorimosphaeroma lutra and Argeia pugettensis) were common, as were the shore crab Hemigrapsus oregonensis and the polychaete Hemipoda borealis. Below the thin surface layer of oxidized mud, very little life was found. Anaerobic bacteria and their predators, the anaerobic protozoa, were abundant, along with the ever present

nematode worms.

Wade (1972) and Watmough (1972) in similar previous studies for the Richmond Nature Park, listed a few species omitted by Cairns, including the horse clam (Schizo- thaerus nuttalli) , the small clam (Macoma), the bristle worm (Nereis sp.J, the colonial hydroids of the tidepools, the edible crab (Cancer magister) and barnacles (Balanus sp.,) which encrusted logs, rocks, and bulrushes. Wade also noted that the dyke vegetation of the upper marsh abounded with snails, slugs, and thousands of insects, while the marsh, tidal flats, and pools supported millions of protozoans, rotifers, nematodes, flatworms, copepods and mysids - all of which are vital sources of food to higher organisms.

Summers (pers. comm.), studying the birds of the Fraser delta, noted that Scoters were feeding on Mya sp. (Bivalvia) and Nassarius sp. (Gastropoda), while Dunlins were taking predominately chironomids and amphipods. He also noted populations of the burrowing shrimp Upogebia pugettensis on the Boundary Bay mud flats.

Watmough (1972) included a small dissertation on the insects in a study of Shady Island. He noted the 92. Invertebrates

importance of insects to the ecosystem through their roles as plant pollinators, scavengers, soil aerators, food sources for other animals, and population controllers through para sitism. Included in the report was a partial list of the most common insect families of the island (see Appendix 7.1.) such as stoneflies, and a variety of beetles, flies, bugs, ants, and bees.

A Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District (1973) report on the environment at Iona Island noted that the fauna was excluded from the area around the sewage outfall. Barnacles grew on the jetty where the food supply (suspended organic matter) was plentiful and where the larvae could find a solid surface for attachment, out of direct wave action. Mussels and oysters were more abundant away from the outfall. Amphipods and isopods occurred together in a restricted zone close to the outfall. Gastropods, usually found in such areas, were absent from the jetty. Over-all, the abundance and diversity increased with increasing distance from the sewage outlet.

The most recent work on the Sturgeon Bank inverte brates is on-going studies by Levings (1973a and b, 1974 and pers. comm.; Levings and Coustalin, 1974) and Bernard (1974) in relation to the proposed expansion of the Vancouver Inter national Airport. Levings' field observations indicate a "typical" intertidal zonation, with the silty sediments of the upper intertidal supporting more biota than the unstable, deeper sandy areas. The area receives a great deal of fresh water from the Fraser, but due to the two-layered system pro cesses, most of the banks are predominately estuarine.

Preliminary observations of the Iona tidal flats confirm work by Bawden et al. (1973) and Parsons and Heath 93. Invertebrates

(1973), indicating that this area supports meagre benthic populations. These flats, protected from the fresh water of the North and Middle arms of the Fraser by the Iona and North Arm jetties, are marine regulated. The upper intertidal is characterized by coarse sandy sediments, per haps from dredged material on Iona Island, and molluscs dominate the fauna. As noted earlier, however, these un stable sands support few infaunal organisms due to their instability and low levels of organic material. The domin ant benthic organisms occurring in the mainly estuarine intermediate zone of the delta flats are the sabellid poly chaete Manayunkia aestuarina and the tube-dwelling amphipod Corophium spp. In the lower marine sections, the cumacid Cumella sp. predominates. However, the greatest biomass of such areas is contributed by the bivalve Macoma sp.

Bernard's work (1974), on the subtidal macrofauna of this area, indicated that the animal life was typical of the deeper infauna of the Strait of Georgia. Pre liminary results showed no significant variation in species representation, but a number of specimens appeared to undergo cyclic variations with minima in January. The greatest stand ing stock of the deep stations consisted of burrowing forms such as holothurians and tubiculous polychaetes.

A compilation of the species occurring within the zone of reference of this report can be found in Appendix 7.1

7 (ii) ZOOPLANKTON

The discussion in this section will be limited to the zooplankton, or animal plankton, with that of the phytoplankton being included in the section on flora of the 94. Invertebrates

delta area. As was the case with the benthic investigation, relatively little information is available on the zooplank ton of the estuary zone.

Legare (1957) attempted to relate the qualita tive and quantitative distribution of plankton in the Strait of Georgia to various oceanographic factors. He found that dur ing the summer, when oceanographic conditions varied greatly in the Strait, a wide variety of organisms occurred. However, in the fall, when the waters were nearly homogenous, the number and variety of forms diminished considerably. In June, 1956, over 34 species of copepods and 27 other groups of planktonic organisms were found in the zooplankton samples, while in November there were only 21 copepod species and 19 other planktonic groups represented. The area close to the Fraser River was found to be characterized by very low salinities and high turbidity, resulting in fewer planktonic organisms. In general, vertical distribution of zooplankton was apparent and copepods made up the bulk of the fauna. More copepod species were found in the top 50 meters than in any other zone. The larval stages inhabited the first few meters while the adults remained deeper. Dominant species included Pseudocalanus minutus, Acartia iongiremus, and Oithona sp., the three species representing 65% of the copepods in June. Pseudocalanus minutus3 Oithona sp., and Calanus finmarchicus formed 77% of the total number in November. Males exceeded females in numbers prior to breed ing season, but declined more rapidly after the onset of breeding. In June, in zones where the temperature reached 12°C (optimal temperature), the appendicularians exceeded the copepods in numbers. Euphausids were vertically dis tributed by age, the younger forms being closest to the sur face. Chaetognaths were also found, the juveniles only 95. Invertebrates

occurring in the summer samples, Amphipods were most abun dant in the top 50 meters in June, but were deeper in November, Greater than 90% of the summer larvae belonged to three groups - copepods, barnacles, and crabs. Copepod larvae inhabited the 10-0 meter zone, barnacles the 50-0 meter zone, and crabs the 100-0 meter zone, The zone of mixing of Fraser River water with that of the Strait of Georgia is an area of phytoplankton growth. The zooplankton and larval fish (especially herring) which feed on these minute plants are also abundant in this area (Barraclough, 1967a, b, c; Barraclough and Fulton, 1967).

Parsons et al. (1969) showed that, in the period of March to April, ]967, the standing stock of zoo plankton in the vicinity of the Fraser estuary was five to ten times greater than that of other areas. When the maxi mum freshet occurred, the standing stock of zooplankton was disseminated northwest and southeast of the estuary, caus ing sudden increases in the number of organisms at other stations. Through feeding experiments, they were able to show that the large standing stock of zooplankton which developed in the plume of the estuary resulted from the presence of adequate concentrations of the right size and shape of food organisms, and from a lack of severe predation on early growth stages. In another study carried out at the same time, LeBrasseur et at. (1969) found that, from late January through February,the major zooplankters were Calanus paoifious Brodsky and Pseudooalanus minutus Kr^yer. Naupliar stages of Calanus plumohrus Marukawa and other tiny organisms were also taken. Between March and mid April Calanus plumohrus nauplii molted to form copepodid stages, so that by the end of March they dominated the zooplankton samples from the Fraser plume. Among larval and juvenile fish inhabiting the plume from February through May, the 96. Invertebrates

Hexagrammidae and Ammodytidae dominated. Juvenile pink and chum salmon appeared at the end of March, reaching maximum numbers in April. The researchers found that, early in the year,the juvenile fish "preferred" the smaller mature zoo. plankton species to the "immature" Calanus plumohrus, thus allowing C. plumohrus to mature and dominate later zooplank ton samples. In situ concentrations of zooplankton were found to be adequate food supplies for larval fish.

Levings (1973a and b, 1974, pers. comm.; Levings and Coustalin, 1974) has been carrying out zooplankton investi gations as part of his study of the invertebrates of Stur geon. Bank in relation to the proposed Vancouver Airport ex pansion. Preliminary observations showed mysids, brown shrimp, and calanoid copepods to be common, while gammarid amphipods were not. The amount of normally benthic organisms, such as the tube-dwelling amphipod Corophiumt found in plankton tows was impressive. "Packets" of decaying algae and detritus were also noted in the samples. Plankton tows over the Iona tidal flats revealed few "drifting" estuarine organisms such as amphipods and mysids, while copepods and ctenophores,or comb jellies {JPleurobranohia sp,), dominated catches. A later progress report indicated that the Iona area harboured few organisms as potential salmon food. A few polychaetes were found in the tows. In contrast, samples from Sturgeon Bank had a high biomass of potential salmon food organisms. Plankton tows included shrimp, mysids, amphipods, and poly chaetes, with the largest portion of the biomass at high tide being contributed by the shrimp Crangon franoiscorum. Tows taken near the Middle Arm contained lumps of decaying plant fibre and algae.

A compilation of the zooplankton species found within the zone of reference of this report can be found in Appendix 7.2. 97. Invertebrates

7 (iii) THE INVERTEBRATE FISHERIES RESOURCE

Generally, the edible invertebrates belong to two major taxonomic groups, the molluscs and the Crus tacea. Quayle (1941a) lists 21 species or groups of species of molluscs which are classed as edible, but only a handful of these occur within our zone of reference and in large enough quantities to be feasibly harvested. The same applies to the eight or nine edible Crustacea (see Figure 7.1.).

Currently, there are no important commercial mollusc fisheries in the delta area. Prior to the early 1960's, Mud Bay was reputed to produce over 50% of all oysters cultured in the province (Taylor, 1970). As noted in the discussion on invertebrates, three oyster species occur in Boundary Bay - the native or Olympic oyster, the Atlantic oyster, and the Japanese oyster. The native oyster has not been cultivated in this area. The imported Atlantic oyster was seeded extensively by the Crescent Oyster Company at Crescent Beach and it thrived on the firm sediments of the Boundary Bay tidal flats and Nicomekl River mouth. How ever, since the ban on commercial shellfishing due to coliform pollution, the populations have drastically declined. The Pacific, or Japanese, oyster is the most abundant and widely distributed of the three species, and still occurs in rela tively large numbers in Boundary Bay waters. With proper management and an extensive water clean-up program, it is possible that this fishery could be restored.

Boundary Bay also contains sizeable populations of butter clams, little-neck clams, horse clams, mussels, cockles, and mud clams. These have never been exploited commercially, but large numbers are reportedly taken o

<»

(0 00

MAIN CLAM a OTHER SHELLFISH AREAS

OYSTER BEDS

CRAB FISHING AREAS

SHRIMP FISHING AREAS Figure 7.1. |»,»| SCALLOPBEDS MAJOR INVERTEBRATE GROWING AND FISHERIES AREAS. ( U.S. NAT. PARKS AND PARKS CANADA, 1973 ) \

99. Invertebrates

recreationally despite the federal Fisheries ban. All of these shellfish are common on the delta tidal flats and, under the right conditions, could become a useful resource. For some statistics on mollusc fisheries for British Columbia from 1940 to 1955, one is referred to Shepard and Stevenson (1956).

The edible crab {Cancer magister) and the rock crab (C. produotus) are both taken commercially in Boundary Bay. Crab fishing began commercially in British Columbia before 1890, and has been operating in Boundary Bay since 1915. Most crabs are caught in traps, the rest by trawlers incidental to capturing groundfish. The legal size limit is 6^ inches across the widest part of the carapace, with the fishery mainly being confined to male animals. Headquarters for the fishery in Boundary Bay are White Rock and Crescent Beach. The peak catch season appears to be between July and November. In 1942, 6,043 crabs (MacKay, 1942) were caught in the bay, while in 1946 this figure had swelled to nearly 250,000. Besides the commercial fishery, the bay supports a large recreational crab fishery, with an estimated 4,000 - 6,000 people annually engaged in crab fishing as a recreational activity (Patching, 1972). There is also a sizeable crab fishery off Sturgeon Bank, where these crustaceans have an abundant food source in the bivalve populations (Butler, 1960, 1961a and b,and 1967).

Six species of commercial shrimps {pandalus sp.) are found in British Columbia, five of which occur on mud or sand bottoms and are harvested by small-meshed trawls, and the other of which is caught in traps on rock bottoms (Butler, 1953, 1964 a and b, 1968, 1970, 1971; Butler and Legare, 1954; Butler and Dukokovic, 1955a, 100. Invertebrates

.-***" b, and c; Shepard and Stevenson, 1956). Shrimp fishing is carried on in Burrard Inlet, the area off Point Grey and off Sturgeon Bank. No management programs exist for this fishery, and at this time all sizes and both sexes are taken. The only common shrimp of the delta mud flats are two burrowing forms, Vpogebia sp. and Callianassa oaliforniensis, neither of which are normally eaten by man. 101.

8. FISH

8 (i) GENERAL DISCUSSION

In general, the fish of the lower Fraser estuary can be divided into three types - totally fresh water, anadromous (that is, they spawn in fresh water but spend some of their life cycle in a marine environment), and totally marine. Northcote (1974) has recently completed a report on the biology of the lower Fraser River, and has included a detailed account of the freshwater and anadromous fish populations. The majority of the information on these forms is drawn from this survey with supplemental information where applicable. As the present report deals with only the lower delta of the Fraser, one is referred to Northcote^ paper for details of life cycle stages, etc., occurring further up the river or in its tributaries. The information on marine fishes of the tidal flats and marshes is from various sources as cited. The commercial value of species discussed below will be dealt with in a second sub-section.

Carl et al.(1959) lists 73 species of fresh water fishes in British Columbia, of which 38 inhabit the lower Fraser River system, with an additional eight occurring in the upper drainages. Of these 38, about 19 are non-migratory freshwater species, 14 are clearly migratory anadromous species, and 5 are semi-migratory species (that is, migrate within the Fraser River system and perhaps into the estuary zone for short periods).

Of the 19 non-migratory forms it is possible that some are migratory, but so little research has been 102. Fish

done on them that their complete life cycles are not known. Also, some distinctly migratory species have small non-migratory populations inhabiting the main- 1 stem river or its tributaries. These include cutthroat // and rainbow trout, threespine stickleback, white stur- y/' geon, mountain whitefish, and Dolly Varden. As well as these, populations of largescale sucker, carp, redside shiner, northern squawfish, peamouth chub, leopard dace, longnose dace, brown bullhead, calico bass, and prickly sculpin can be found in the mainstem Of the Fraser. Species such as longnose sucker, brassy minnow burbot, and Aleutian sculpin are known to inhabit Fraser tribu taries and may also occur in the mainstem. Very little is known about these resident species. One is referred to Carl et at. (1959) for general details on their life cycles. Gee and Northcote (1963) have studied leopard dace, with notes on longnose dace, in the mainstem be tween Chilliwack and Hope, but while their discussions can be generalized to include the lower delta, this study does not fall within our zone of reference. Kresja (1965) indicated that several lower Fraser populations of prickly sculpin showed no evidence of seaward migration. As side notes, Bangham and Adams (1954) and Colgrove (1965a, b, and c) have studied the parasites of some non-migratory species and researched the bacterial disease Chondrooooous oolumnaris in lower Fraser suckers, respectively.

The majority of the species listed as occurring in the lower Fraser do so only as transients on their way to or from the sea. These migrants include pink salmon, chum salmon, chinook salmon, coho salmon, sockeye salmon, eulachon, longfin smelt, surf smelt, coastal cut throat trout, steelhead trout, Pacific lamprey, river lamprey, American shad, and threespine stickleback. 103. Fish

Pink salmon, a highly cyclic species, have' consistently used the lower mainstem river below Hope, and the Chilliwack and Harrison rivers, to spawn. Although fluctuating widely, the cyclic year popula tions of pink salmon have averaged nearly six million fish since 1967. The annual run (between mid-August and mid-October) can be divided into an early peak around mid-September and a late peak in early October. These two runs tend to have complex and somewhat diff erent patterns of upstream migration, and one is re ferred to Ward (1959) for details. Pink salmon fry begin seaward migration immediately after emergence from the gravel spawning bed (Neave, 1966a). Using enumeration techniques worked out by Vernon (1966), estimates of downstream movements of fish of 143.6 million in 1962 and 284.2 million in 1964 have been recorded, giving freshwater survivals for the previous brood years of 9.2 and 11.7% respectively. In the turbid Fraser itself the juvenile pinks generally move downstream within 24 hours, with a more or less ran dom depth distribution, although tending to concen trate nearer the surface in daylight. In clear water, that is, early in the spring, fry tend to move in J schools. Many of the young delay entry to the sea by feeding in areas near the mouth (LeBrasseur, et al.t ) 1969), but, from observations elsewhere, others pro- ' bably disperse along the shoreline within a few days (Neave, 1966a). Further research is needed in the areas where estuarine and marine factors regulate pop ulation size, especially temperature and salinity CVernon, 1958a and b, 1962; Gilhousen, 1962; and Hurley and Woodall, 1968). 104. Fish

Fraser River chum salmon rely heavily on the lower m;i instern and its tributaries for spawning, with very few fish utilizing the river upstream from Hope (Neave, 1966b). Migration patterns have been investi gated by various federal Fisheries groups, especially since th»? decline in stocks after the early 1950!s (Can. Dept. Fish., 1962a,b, 1963; Todd, 1964, 1965; Palmer, 1966; Walker, et al. , 1967; and Fraser, 1970), and these have been summarized by Palmer (1972). Adults charac teristically accumulate and delay at the river mouth for one to four weeks, starting to enter the Main Arm of the Fraser after the third week of September. Al though there is variation from year to year, there are two peak runs, one between mid-October and early Nov ember, and the other between mid-November and early December. The migration is fast, in the order of ten miles a day or more, such that salmon pass the fishing boundary at Mission four days after entering the mouth 50 miles downstream. Movement to the spawning grounds then slows to two to five miles per day. Besides using the tributary streams, that is, the Stave, Chilliwack, Vedder and Harrison river systems, chum salmon spawn in the Fraser mainstem itself between Chilliwack and Hope (Anon., 1958 ; Palmer, 1972). An annual estimate of 1,000 to 154,000 (average of 66,240) spawned here between 1960 and 1969, using the areas of large gravel stones, or boulders on bedrock (Neave, 1966b). The fry begin down stream migration from the rearing grounds between early to mid-March, with the Mission peak occurring between April and May. Chum fry swim closer to the surface than do pinks in the mainstem Fraser (Can. Dept. Fish., 1963; Todd, 1964). 105. Fish

Todd (1966) discussed the enumeration techniques, while Palmer (1972) described the seasonal patterns. It is presumed that the fry move quickly downstream (out-migration ranged from 12.2 million in 1962, to 40.2 million in 1969),as nothing is known of their use of the lower mainstem other than as a transporta tion medium. Because of their area of spawning, great concern has been expressed by environmentalists for the future of chum salmon stocks due to increased in dustrial development, agricultural and logging prac tices, and flood control in the lower mainland,

The Fraser River is extremely important in the production of chinook salmon (Milne, 1963; Aro and Shepard, 1967). This large species utilizes the entire Fraser system, and from estimates by Aro and Shepard (1967), it would appear that an average of 30% (approxi mately 80,000 fish) of the average annual catch and escapement to the entire system goes to tributaries be low Hope. Relatively little information is available on chinook migration up the river. Aro and Shepard (1967) indicate that the earliest run, beginning in June and peaking in July, is to the Chilliwack River, while those of the lower tributaries occur in August. The Harrison River stocks peak in November. Depending on where they are reared, fry begin seaward migrations anywhere from directly after emergence to one year later (Anon., 1970). Young chinook were abundant in the Main Arm of the Fraser from early April until mid-June in 1970, and appeared to be semi-resident there, feeding on 106. Fish

estuarine Crustacea (Anon., 1971a). They are, there fore, probably an important part of the estuary food webs.

Coho salmon tend to use many small streams in British Columbia for spawning, and the Fraser, there fore, is only moderately utilized by this species (Aro and Shepard, 1967). Mature fish begin entering the mainstem during July and continue to do so until late in the year. Little information is available on upriver migration. Aro and Shepard (1967) indicate that the earliest spawnings occur in September while the latest take place in March, with the major peaks occurr ing in October/November and December, depending on the spawning site. A few coho are thought to spawn in the mainstem above Agassiz (Anon., 1958 ), but little is known about this. Only a few fry begin seaward migra tion following emergence (Anon., 1958 ; Godfrey, 1965), the majority remaining in the tributaries at least one year before moving downstream as smolts in late spring or early summer at freshet time. Bangham and Adams (1954) recorded parasites from Salmon River coho smolts, but none were heavily parasitized. Juvenile coho fry are thought to remain in the lower Fraser or estuary in the spring and summer before moving out to sea (D. Goodman, pers. comm.).

The Fraser River is one of the world's largest sockeye salmon producers. Since 1938 the total run of adults to the river has often exceeded 10 million, and in all but one case was over one million. Farry et al. 107. Fish

(1953) reported that the adults enter the river chiefly through the Main Arm, spreading out over its drainage basin and ten of its tributaries. Very different patterns are characteristic of the various runs to the tributaries, with fluctuations within a tributary occurring between cycle years or over spans of up to three cycles. The phenomenon of cyclic dominance (large runs every four years) has been examined by Ward and Larkin (1964) for the Adams River race. The timing and pattern of mature sockeye migration into and within the Fraser has been investigated in detail for many years (O'Malley and Rich, 1919; Williamson, 1927; Bolton, 1930; Foerster, 1936; MacKay,e* al.s 1944; Killick, 1955; Idler and Clemens, 1959; Gilhousen, 1960; Henry, 1961; Verhoeven and Davidoff, 1962; Killick and Clemens, 1963; Aro and Shepard, 1967). All studies have shown that sockeye may delay at the Fraser mouth, and fishermen have coined the phrases "blowback" or "driftback" for high catches in the Point Roberts area resulting from sockeye being driven there by strong northwest winds while awaiting the move upstream. The early runs in July move directly into the river, while other races arriving in early August delay from a day to several weeks depending on how late they spawn (Gilhousen, 1960). Some mature fish are caught in the Fraser mouth in late May or June (Aro and Shepard, 1967), but maximum catches usually occur between mid-July and August, except in 1902 cycle years when the peak is in late August or mid-September. Lamprey parasitism is high on some races, but does not seem to increase upstream mortality rates (Williams and Gilhousen, 1968). It is difficult to generalize about sockeye migration as entry varies between years, between 108. Fish c^cle years., between races within a cycle year, and between cycle years of a particular race. Studies by Killick (1955), Henry (1961), and Verhoeven and D.uudoff (1962) indicate that, in general, early runs tend to move the fastest within the river (28 to 32 miles per day), while late runs move more slowly (17 to 20 miles per day). Because salmon operate on a fixed energy budget (the adults do not feed after entering the river), delays during migration due to obstructions or poor water quality conditions may prevent arrival at the spawn ing grounds or successful spawning once there (Andrew and Geen, 1960; Foerster, 1968). Servizi et al. (1966) and Davis (1973) found that two-week exposure to 5% concen trations of Kraft pulp-mill waste was lethal, and sub lethal effects were detected as low as 0.1%. Sockeye do not spawn in the Fraser River mainstem (Anon., 1958), and, therefore, details of spawning will not be discussed here. A variety of information dealing with spawning, hatching, and emergence processes can be found in the following references: Andrew and Geen (1960), Brannon (1965); Cooper (1965); Ricker (1966); Servizi et al. (1966, 1968); Foerster (1968); Martens et al. (1971); Servizi and Martens (1971); Servizi et al. (1970, 1971); and Internat'1. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. (1972, 1973). Al though there are exceptions to and variations in migration patterns, in general, after emergence most sockeye fry move into a rearing lake where they remain for a year or more. Seasonal timing of out-migration from the lakes varies from year to year between lakes and within any given one. Factors influencing lake exit, and seasonal patterns and rate for various races are discussed by Foerster (1937, 1968); Clutter and Whitesel (1956); Remington(1959); Andrew (1960); Harvey (1964); and Williams (1969). There seems to be little published information on smolt movement in the lower river. They 109. Fish

tend to travel downstream at the same rate as the average water velocity (Killick, 1963), moving both night and day in the turbid water. Information by Goodman (1964) indicated that considerable feeding occurred during downstream migration, as 99% of 450 smolts sampled at Mission in April and May, 1961, contained food (stonefly nymphs and dipteran larvae). Sockeye smolts move directly out to sea with relatively little delay at the river mouth (Ricker, 1966), although salinity tolerances have significant effects on their survival. Survival of smolt on their downstream migration seems to be correlated with river discharge, and studies are continuing to ascertain the nature of this correlation (Anon., 1971f; Geen, 1971). Several studies are also underway to assess the lethal and sublethal effects of various water quality characteristics on juvenile sockeye (Williams, 1969; Anon., 1971f; Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm., 1972, 1973).

Large numbers of eulachon enter the Fraser River each spring (mid-March to mid-May) to spawn up stream. The tiny young (0.5mm) drift downstream with the current, reaching the mouth in less than 24 hours (Hart and McHugh, 1944). Little, if any, food is eaten by the young in the river itself. In the estuary and ocean,they feed on intermediate-sized Crustacea, such as euphausids, thus forming an important link in food webs, as they themselves are consumed by halibut, cod, salmon, seals, sea lions, whales, sturgeon, and gulls.

The longfin smelt spawns in streams from October to December, but whether this occurs in the Fraser mainstem or its tributaries is not known. Young may spend considerable time in the river or estuary since juveniles up to 72 mm long have been taken at New 110. Fish

Wes-minster (Hart and McHugh, 1944). The freshwater specimens had been feeding on Neomysis, while marine specimens were eating euphausids, copepods and cumaceans. It is probably an important species in the coastal eco system.

A few surf smelt spawn in the mouth and lower Fraser estuary during July and August, usually where some fresh water seeps through fine gravel (Hart and McHugh, 1944). This species has been taken in the marsh areas throughout the present study area.

Although there has been a decline in their populations in recent decades, "sea-run" cutthroat trout still enter the mainstem river to spawn in the sloughs, slow-moving meadowland streams, and small tributaries between the mouth and Hope. Spawning time is variable, being as early as November or as late as May. The young also migrate at varying ages, some within their first year, others not until their third. Eventually, they all move downstream to the Fraser estuary or adjacent coastal waters where they remain until maturity, feeding on other small fish (sandlance, young salmon, rockfish, seaperch, flatfish, sculpin) and crustaceans.

Although some steelhead trout enter the Fraser River on their upstream migrations throughout the year, peak runs of mature fish are from November through April, these being the "winter steelhead". A peak of immature fish usually occurs from June through September. These are the "summer steelhead". Both races spawn in the spring using the tributaries to the mainstem river. Not all adults die following spawning. About 10% spawn twice,and some 0*1%) may spawn two or three times. 111. Fish

Juveniles may migrate seaward in their first year, but the majority spend three to four years in fresh water. Whatever the age, most probably move downstream between April and early June during the spring freshet. It is thought that the juveniles remain close to the river mouth for a short period of time prior to movement to the open sea,where residence may range from only a few months to several years (Taylor and LeBrasseur, 1957).

The Pacific lamprey is moderately abundant and widely distributed in Fraser tributaries, as well as in the river's mainstem as far up as the Chilcotin River (Carl, et al., 1959). Adults, at least six years of age, migrate from the sea in the summer and fall (Pletcher, 1963). Spawning takes place in gravel areas of tributary streams in spring, with the adults dying shortly thereafter. The young do not return to the sea until transforming from the ammocoete larval stage to the adult, and then migrating downstream in late spring and summer. The adults attach themselves to other fish and become parasitic. As 1/3 to 2/3 of the Strait of Georgia adult pink and sockeye salmon investigated in 1967 had scars from lamprey parasitism, one can assume that lampreys cause significant mortalities in salmon populations prior to their upstream migrations (Davis, 1967; Williams and Gilhousen, 1968). Lamprey ammocoetes can be dominant species in benthic communities, being preyed upon by large invertebrates or by vertebrates such as the sturgeon. They are also used as bait by sturgeon fishermen.

The river lamprey migrates between the upriver juvenile rearing areas and the coastal ocean waters where they feed parasitically as adults on young salmon and herring. They return to fresh water for spawning probably in the spring. Roos et al. (1973) have indi- 112. Fish cated that about 2% of the young coho and chinook sampled at the Fraser mouth had scais probably resulting from river lamprey attacks, as did a slightly lower percentage of adult sockeye. Virtually nothing else is known about the river lamprey in B.C. waters.

The American shad, a large species of the herring family, was introduced from the Atlantic coast in 1871. The Fraser is the most northerly river in which it spawns, and numbers taken near the river mouth indicate that the populations have increased in recent decades (Carl, et al., 1959). Ocean temperature condi tions and strong homing tendencies to rivers in which they have previously spawned tend to govern seasonal distribution and migratory patterns of shad populations (Leggett and Whitney, 1972; Leggett, 1973). Carl et al. (1959) state that adults return to fresh water in the spring and spawn in the shallows of creek mouths. However, since peak migrations in other areas occur at temperatures around 15 to 18° C (Leggett and Whitney, 1972), it seems more likely that peak runs into the Fraser would occur around July. Length of residency in the river is short. Clemens and Wilby (1961) indicate that they move directly to the sea upon hatching, while Carl et al. (1959) state that they move downstream in the autumn. Temperature probably is an important gov erning factor. Juvenile shad rear in the estuarine waters of the Fraser mouth. However, no information on their feeding habits or ecology here could be found.

Migratory forms of the threespine stickleback breed in lower sections of the tributaries of the lower Fraser. The young are thought to migrate to at least the estuarine area of the river or into the coastal 113. Fish

marshes during their first summer, where they form an important part of the diet of trout, salmon, fish-eating birds, and other predators.

The five semi-migratory species include three freshwater fishes - white sturgeon, mountain whitefish, and Dolly Varden; and two marine fishes - staghorn sculpin and starry flounder. White sturgeon are common in the Fraser estuary and lower mainstem river. Clemens and Wilby (1961) have reported that at one time this species was known to migrate as far up the system as the North Thompson and Stuart and Fraser lakes, but now it is basically a coastal/river mouth species. Very little is known of the behaviour of white sturgeon. They are thought to spawn upstream from the delta (possibly in the lower Fraser Canyon area) in late spring or early summer after following the eulachon run in April. Males begin spawning at 11 to 22 years and females begin at 11 to 34 years, with successive spawnings every 4 to 9 years (Clemens and Wilby, 1961; Semakula and Larkin, 1968). White sturgeon are thought to feed on or near the river bottom, eating eulachon, sculpin, stickleback, and lamprey. Benthic invertebrates such as chironomid larvae, crayfish, stonefly and mayfly nymphs, and mysids are also common food sources. Northcote (1974) noted that the Federal Fisheries Inspection Laboratory had found high mercury levels (such as 0.89 ppm in a 20 lb. fish) in white sturgeon from the area between New West minster and Mission. The maximum acceptable limit by federal standards is 0.5 ppm. The fact that these animals spend their entire lives in water subjected to mercury pollution, and the fact that they are a long- lived species, can account, in part for the high mercury levels. 114. Fish

Populations of mountain whitefish inhabit the lower Fraser River and estuary, and migrate upstream in the autumn to spawn. Very little is known of their life cycle or behaviour. Both young and adults feed on benthic invertebrates, especially aquatic insect larvae.

Some estuarine forms of Dolly Varden occur in the lower Fraser, while others migrate to the sea from upstream as juveniles, returning to the river to spawn in the late summer or fall. Little else is known about these populations.

The two marine fishes most often found in the mouth of the Fraser are the staghorn sculpin and the starry flounder. The sculpin occurs in both the North and Main arms of the river, probably staying within the salt wedge. The flounder, however, ventures much further upstream, having been recorded in the Pitt system (Carl, et al.9 1959) and the Salmon River (Hartman, 1968). Nothing is known of either species' behaviour or ecological role.

The fish of the estuary zone and tidal marshes are not well documented. Ecologically, there are several reasons for the occurrence of large fish populations on estuarine mudflats, as noted by Watmough (1972). The rich nutrient supply of a marsh results in large inverte brate populations which in turn are a ready source of food for fish. Eelgrass beds and other vegetation provide shelter for growing fry, while anadromous species are given a zone of transition for adapting to salinity and temperature changes in their up-river and down-river migrations. As noted in the above discussions, many of the commercially important smelt and salmon species rely 115. Fish heavily on this area for just these reasons, as do other forms such as the starry flounder, the transparent pipe fish, and the threespined stickleback, which are not of commercial importance to man, but are vital members of the food webs of the delta.

Chatwin and Forrester (1953) studied the dogfish, Squalus suokleyi (Girard), which tends to con gregate at the mouth of the Fraser in the spring. From stomach contents they found that this fish is an indis- criminant feeder, eating everything from honey bees to benthic polychaetes, but showing a preference for eulachon. As this is the time of year (mid-May) when the eulachon return to the Fraser to spawn, it accounts in part for the large dogfish populations occurring at the mouth at this time. Dogfish do not, however, tend to feed excessively on the downstream migrations of salmon smolt also occurring in the spring.

Levings (1973) studied the blackbelly eelpout (lyoodopsis paoifioa) east of Point Grey and included notes on other fish species collected at the same time. He found 37 species from 15 fish families, but Lyoodopsis dominated his samples. L. paoifioa is known to feed on infaunal organisms, which in turn depend largely on sediment types, but the majority were located in silty-sand areas where benthic populations were large. As most of the other fish species caught were juveniles, Levings felt that the shallows around Point Grey were perhaps important nursery grounds for several species of flatfish, although populations of such species are not large enough to sustain a trawl fishery. He also noted that none of the other fish species caught at the same time as L. paoifioa were predators of this species. Barraclough (1967a, b, and c) also noted the presence of juvenile and larval flatfish feeding near the surface at the periphery at the Fraser plume. 116. Fish

Pugh (1973), in a class research project for Forestry 492, University of British Columbia, analyzed the fish resource of Boundary Bay. Fish common to the bay area included immature chum salmon (Onoorhynohus keta), coho salmon (Onoorhynohus kisutoh), dogfish (Squalus suokleyi) , sharpnose sculpin (Clinooottus aoutioeps), tidepool sculpin (Oligooottus maoulosus) , staghorn sculpin (Leptooottus armatus), Aleutian sculpin (Cottus aleutious), prickly sculpin (Cottus asper), threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aouleatus), starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus), rainbow trout, steelhead, cutthroat trout, Dolly Varden (Salvelinus malma), sockeye salmon (Onoorhynohus nerka), arrow goby (Clevelandia ios)t pipefish (Syngrathus griseolineatus), and yellow shiner (Cymatogaster aggregata). Due to changes in the watershed characteristics of Delta, Surrey, and Langley, major salmon runs do not occur in the Little Campbell, Serpentine, and Nicomekl rivers. The dogfish are normally found feeding on herring, sandlance, smelts, and other small fish in the bay, while the sculpins occur in small tide pools and shallow coastal waters close to the bottom, feeding on plankton, insect larvae, fish eggs, and other small fish. Sculpin are commonly eaten by other fish (such as Dolly Varden) and by various birds. Stickleback also prefer the shallow, protected waters of the coast, as does the flounder which lies on the sandy or muddy bottom. The long-nosed sucker, which feeds on benthic invertebrates, is generally considered a freshwater species, but can tolerate a wide range of water condi tions. The catfish was introduced to the Pacific coast 117. Fish

and is now common in the lower Fraser valley. Arrow goby can be found in shallow tide pools or over sand flats, and is highly tolerant of extreme variations in oxygen concentration and water quality. Pipefish are common in shallow water where they are camouflaged by eelgrass, while the yellow shiner occurs in schools around wharves during the summer. Sandlance and needlefish are also known to use the protection of the eelgrass beds for spawning. The estuary area is utilized by migrating chum salmon from the Little Campbell River, and the sea-run steelhead and cut throat trout of the Serpentine and Nicomekl rivers. The most important use of the estuary is by herring, which travel in schools as they move into the eelgrass beds to spawn in March. The young hatch two weeks later and are reared in Boundary Bay, floating with the gyral current into the low salinity water of the Fraser River plume. Over a fifteen year period, the bay has contri buted an average of 3,000 tons annually to the herring stock - second only to salmon in commercial value (Taylor, 1970). Fluctuations in breeding success depend on the size and quality of the eelgrass beds, temperature, tides, wind direction, and wind velocity. Herring are impor tant in the food chains of the bay and other parts of the Fraser estuary, as they are a major source of protein for other fish, squid, birds, seals, sea-lions, whales, por poises, and man.

A species list of the fish of the lower Fraser estuary area (compiled from the literature cited) can be found in Appendix 8.1. 118. Fish

8 (ii) THE FISHERIES RESOURCE

Many of the fish species of the lower Fraser are important commercially and/or recreationally. Again, Northcote (1974) discusses the importance of many of these species to man, and therefore, the present account is primarily based on his report with added in formation where indicated. Species not covered in Northcote's paper will be discussed through citation of other reports.

By far the most aesthetically prized species of salmon is the sockeye, and the Fraser is the major producer of this species in southern B.C. Over 9,000 years ago native Indians living along the river may have relied on sockeye and other salmon for food (Borden, 1968), as have the more recent coastal and inland tribes. Over 7,500 fish were obtained in August, 1829, for cur ing at Fort Langley by trading with the Indians (Howay, 1914). In the late 1930's the Indian catch was only 30 - 40,000 fish, but this now averages well over 100,000 per year. In the mid 60's nearly 45% of these fish were taken below Hope, although this figure has recently de clined to around 20%. Bennett (1973) lists 91 Indian bands scattered along the Fraser River system, six of which fall within our zone of reference. These include the Musqueam, Tsawwassen, Semiahmoo, Coquitlam, Katzie, and Langley. One is referred to Bennett's report for details of the importance of the fishery to Indian peoples. 119. Fish

Commercial exploitation by Europeans of the Fraser sockeye began with the development of an export trade from Fort Langley to England and Hawaii in 1829 (Howay, 1914), and the following year some 15,000 fish were shipped as a cured product in barrels. In 1835 and for many years thereafter, over 3,000 barrels (equivalent of 225,000 fish) were exported annually. The majority of this salted sockeye went to whalers over-wintering on the Hawaiian Islands, but with the decline in whaling activity, the export of salmon dropped off. However, the decline was short-lived, as the establishment of the first sockeye cannery at New Westminster in 1870 began an unprecedented boom (Shepard and Stevenson, 1956; Foerster, 1968; Lyons, 1969). An excellent account of the growth of the cannery in dustry of the Fraser between 1885 and 1913 is given by Reid (1973), while Shepard and Stevenson (1956), Larkin and Ricker (1964), and Foerster (1968) provide good reviews of the entire sockeye fishery. Lyons (1969) has compiled a detailed historical review of the fish ing industry.

By the 1800's an intense fishery had developed for sockeye, which were caught in the lower Fraser with gill nets. By the end of the 19th century, nearly full use of the stocks was reached (Larkin and Ricker, 1964), and in less than a decade later, catches from the "1903" and "1904" cycles declined to 25% of their previous levels. In 1913, the fishery took a massive drop owing to what is known as the Hell's Gate disaster. The construe- 120. Fish

tion of the railway through the Fraser Canyon resulted in rock and mud slides which blocked the river and made the passage of salmon on their way to spawning grounds virtually impossible. Catches from the big "1901" cycles have never recovered. In the early 1930's,the "1902" cycle increased due to a late Adams River run, and since then catches of over ten million fish have been taken in this cycle. The establishment of the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission in 1937 (Natural Resources Bureau, 1938), the subsequent construction of fishways at several spots in the Fraser Canyon during the 1940's, and the introduction of strict management practices have led to a gradual increase in the total stock. The landed value of the Fraser River sockeye averaged over 15 million dollars annually from 1952 to 1969 (based on 1970 prices), and comprised 46% of the total sockeye pack in British Columbia during this period.

Pink salmon is the most abundant salmon species in British Columbia, but it is not widely distributed in the Fraser system. Exploitation by B. C. fishermen began in 1918, and declines in stocks were noticeable by the 1950's (Shepard and Stevenson, 1956). Since 1957 this species has been managed by the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission, and, though fluctuating widely, cyclic populations have averaged six million since 1957. Some pink salmon are caught in the lower Fraser by sports fishermen, but at the most, this species has contributed 13% of the total sport catch of salmon in recent years (Sinclair, 1972).

The stocks of chum salmon have been exploited 121. Fish

commercially since the early 1900's, but peak catches were not reached until the 1940's and early 1950's (Palmer, 1972). A sharp decline then occurred, prompting federal Fisheries biologists to investigate management practices. Based on the 1965-69 average catch of 571,000 Fraser chum salmon, their annual landed value is over Ik million dollars. They are not usually taken by sports fishermen.

Commercial catches of chinook salmon from the Fraser area have ranged between 87,500 and 180,000 from 1953 to 1972, with a declining trend. The Fraser chinook catch is classified as red, white, and jack, the first two groups separated by flesh colour and jacks being fish of less than six pounds of either colour. Generally, red chinook make up over half the catch until late August, when whites become more numerous. The total annual catch averages 480,000 fish, or 3.7 million dollars. As well, the Indian fishery takes another 150,000 pounds annually. Chinook are probably the most important recreational fishing species in the Strait of Georgia,with over 1,600 jacks having been taken on the lower Fraser between New West minster and Mission from 1965 to 1970.

Coho catch from the Fraser varies widely from year to year, but showed evidence of declining between 1953 and 1967. A minimum of a half million fish is taken annually, representing a landed value of about 1.8 million dollars. The Indian food fishery also accounts for an average of 85,000 pounds a year. Coho are fished recreationally in the estuary and lower mainstem of the Fraser, with estimates of 450 to 2,975 adults 122. Fish

and 2,000 to 14,000 grilse being taken between 1965 and 1970 from the river between New Westminster and Mission.

White sturgeon were heavily exploited in the late 1800»s and early 1900's, resulting in serious deple tion of the older age classes (older than 15 years) and an overall reduction in total abundance (Semakula, 1963; Semakula and Larkin, 1968). Fish over 1,000 pounds were common in the early fishery, and one white sturgeon caught near Mission City weighed 1,800 pounds. Recent yield estimates (Semakula and Larkin, 1968) suggest that present stocks are not fully exploited and catch could be expanded by 25% without endangering the stocks. A modest sport fishery exists on the tidal and non-tidal portions of the lower Fraser, as well as further upstream. Estimates of 120 and 250 pounds (for 1967 and 1968 respec tively) in the tidal sport catch are given by Fisheries Service, while Semakula and Larkin (1968) estimated that 10 to 15 tons per year might be taken along the Fraser itself, part of which would be considered commercial catch.

Mountain whitefish are taken by sports fishermen in some Fraser tributaries, but not in sufficient numbers to be considered economically important. The same applies to the fishing of Dolly Varden from mainstem river bars and streams, as well as to rainbow and cutthroat trout, carp, and calico bass. Larvae of the Pacific lamprey are caught and used for bait by sturgeon fishermen.

Small quantities of shad have been taken com mercially, with records going back to 1914. They are 123. Fish

recorded specifically for the lower Fraser from 1942 to 1946, but the Columbia River has the major commercial fishery for this species.

Eulachon were a traditionally important food source of the native Indians, who also used them for oil for cooking and light. They have been taken com mercially on the Fraser since 1881, but have showed declines over the years, probably resulting from deter ioration of their delta habitat. Peak landings for 1952 netted 55,000 dollars while only 10,000 dollars worth were landed in the 1971 peak. Eulachon have been taken with dipnets along the river banks in spring between New Westminster and Mission. Estimates of this recrea tional activity have not exceeded 2,500 pounds in recent years.

There are no commercial or recreational fisheries for longfin smelt from the lower Fraser because of their low availability. A small commercial catch (25 tons annually between 1962 - 1971) and a very small recreational catch (8 tons annually between 1964 and 1969)of surf smelt are taken from the Fraser mouth and beaches to the north (Point Grey) and south (Point Roberts).

j The sea-run cutthroat trout populations have ' declined in recent years, probably as a result of decline of f their habitats. There is an important sport fishery in the autumn along bars of the mainstem river from the mouth to Hope, as well as at tributary mouths and sloughs upstream. Some are also caught as "sea trout" by anglers on the coast (Clemens and Wilby, 1961). 124. Fish

Steelhead trout are taken commercially, recreationally, and by Indians. Most steelhead caught by commercial fishermen are obtained incidentally while gill netting for salmon near the Fraser mouth or upstream near Mission City (Larkin, 1949). Although not recorded by canneries between the early 1900's and the 1930's, they were probably taken and utilized otherwise. A peak was recorded between 1916 and 1918 when they were specifi cally canned as steelhead rather than being combined with blueback. A sharp decline in the 1940's was pro bably the result of new management practices. Withler (1972) stated that the annual steelhead catches by Indians of the Fraser area and Howe Sound (therefore including the Squamish system - an important steelhead river) ranged between 3,875 in 1965 to 1,510 in 1969. Generally, there has been a decline since 1960. Since 1966, recreational catches by anglers in tributaries have also diminished.

The Pacific herring is a commercially important fish of the waters of British Columbia. Exploitation of this species in the Fraser area began in 1877 when 75 tons were taken. Over the past 50 years the herring industry has expanded steadily. Populations of herring are found in the delta area, but the major fisheries stocks occur off Vancouver Island, the average catch being 190,000 tons annually (1947 to 1955).

Pugh (1973), in discussing the fish resources of Boundary Bay, noted that the Colebrook Trout farm, established two years ago on the Roberts Bank railroad area west of the King George Highway, is capable of producing 30,000 trout annually. The farm is meant for 125. Fish

recreational fishing only. Commercial trout farming was attempted on agricultural land near the mouth of the Serpentine River, but the expense of purifying river water caused the venture to fail. Other than for recreational fishing (such as the annual Crescent Beach derby), the Boundary Bay area is not used for economically important fishing.

Meyer (1974) attempted to assign a dollar value to recreation and preservation of Fraser River salmon. The two-year study involved written questionaires for, and personal interviews with, both lower mainland households (in 1971) and upper drainage basin households (in 1972). In dividuals, over fourteen years old, were asked to assign values (maximum of $10,000 per household) to their Fraser River-oriented recreational activities, and to the salmon in particular. A value for preservation of the salmon stocks was also requested. Based on the assumption that Fraser salmon are a relatively unique, natural recreational resource, the "full consumer's surplus" annual value was derived for recreation related to Fraser River salmon by residents of the Fraser River basin. For 1972, this value was 185,596,654 dollars. The corresponding preservation value was 100,559,174 dollars. The study did not attempt to place a value on the salmon as a recreational resource for people residing outside the Fraser drainage basin. However, even without this addition, the salmon of the Fraser are obviously a very valuable recre ational resource, well worth preserving for future generations. 126.

9. BACTERIA

Benedict et at, (1973) reviewed the history of coliform bacteria levels in the lower Fraser River and some tributaries, noting their wide variability in all of the lower river sampled. However, peak counts were noted to be consistently higher in the North and Middle arms compared to the Main Arm or channel, a fact also indicated by Goldie (1967). Farry et aU (1953) recorded the same situation twenty years ago when high coliform counts indicated "moderate" pollution in the North Arm during the winter low-flow period. Because of the general lack of data and its variability, one is unable to establish any pattern or indicate sources at this time.

Oloffs et al. (1972), studying the effects of chlor inated hydrocarbons on heterotrophic bacteria, found that total plate counts of bacteria from the Fraser River above New Westminster were generally one to two orders of magnitude lower than those of samples collected two miles from the mouth of the Nicomekl River, and about the same or lower than samples from the Strait of Georgia shoreline, fifteen miles north of Vancouver.

Growth of bacterial slimes, usually of the chain bacterium Sphaerotilus natans3 are common in polluted condi tions. Servizi and Burkhalter (1970) found no evidence of these organisms on submerged tiles left in the Fraser at Mission for thirty days in October, 1964, and again in Sep tember, 1965.

It would appear that much more work needs to be done in this area, particularly since bacteria are good in dicators of domestic waste pollution. 127.

10. FLORA

10 (i) TERRESTRIAL AND BENTHIC VEGETATION

Due to the wide variations in habitat within our zone of reference, the plant life will be discussed in terms of communities which are named after the dominant species. Although some species may occur in more than one community, the same group of dominant species cannot occur together in more than one. Besides the ground cover of the delta region, a discussion of the intertidal and aquatic vegetation, and phytoplankton will be included in this section.

There is, as in the case of the fauna, a general lack of detailed information on the vegetation of the lower mainland and Fraser estuary. Two relatively good reports of surface vegetation are those by Forbes (1972a) and McLaren (1972). The majority of the data presented here was taken from these two reports with added information where cited. The discussions of the other flora of the estuary and waters were taken from a variety of sources as indicated.

Forbes (1972a) carried out a floral survey of the Fraser delta, from Point Grey to the International Boundary. As he noted, one cannot discuss the botany of an area without first knowing something about its landforms and soil composi tion. In general, the study area soils are deltaic in origin and action. These alluvial deposits are formed from sediments carried by the Fraser River and deposited in sea water. They consist of sands, silts, and clays (Taylor, 1970). Active deposition is noticeable off the Sea and Lulu Island fore shores, as well as at Mud Bay. The west side of Boundary Bay is the least active of the alluvial sites. The tidal flats here, typical of those found in our study area, consist of 128. Flora

sand with lesser amounts of silty and sandy clays (mud) organic silts, and accumulations of driftwood, shells, and peat (Kellerhals and Murray, 1969). There are three excep tions to this general pattern. The wooded north bank of the North Fraser Arm is an area of glacial outwash and till, as is the wooded area between the Tsawwassen ferry slip and the International Boundary. The latter is the northern ex tremity of the Pleistocene island of Point Roberts. The third area, extending from Crescent Beach to the Interna tional Boundary, is a ridge running east-west formed from glacial outwash and till of similar geological formation. These three areas are characterized by abrupt, steep slopes to the water's edge, leaving little, if any, shoreline.

In general, the dyked upland areas forming prime agricultural zones are the deltaic deposits of the Ladner series. This soil is divisible into two major textural types: Ladner silt-loam to silty clay-loam, and Ladner silty clay (Halladay, 1968). There is little profile development of these soils as they are recent alluvial de posits. The fluctuating high water table mottles the soil with iron stains (Sprout and Holland, 1959).

The over-all topography is low-lying and flat, to gently undulating. Due to this, plus the high water table, drainage problems for agriculture had to be alleviated to a great extent by a series of channels and drainage ditches. Very little land is above sea level on the seaward side of the dykes, and any vegetation present forms a saltmarsh. Variations in these communities are generally salinity depen dent rather than soil regulated. 129. Flora

Climate, and hydrographic and oceanographic conditions also greatly affect the flora of an area. These factors have been discussed under their separate headings.

Forbes (1972a) discussed eleven distinct communities. Rather than listing all of the plants found in each community within the text, only the dominant ones will be indicated. A complete species list compiled from all of the available literature appears in Appendix 10.1,and Figure 10.1 shows the location of some major vegetation zones.

The grass and forb community, like that found on Sea Island, is typically associated with primary and secondary succession and contains the largest variety of species of the communities studied. The variety of micro-environments results in great species diversity. No continuous overstory of trees or shrubs occurs in this community, although occasional shrubs and trees are found, particularly along dykes. The most abundant species include Agrostis palustris (creeping bent grass), Elymus ambiguus (rye grass) and Phalaris arundinaoea (reed canary grass), and to a lesser degree, Festuoa rubra var. littoralis (fescue) and Melilotus alba (sweet clover). Trees and shrubs most commonly found in the grass and forb community are Crataegus douglasii (black hawthorn) and Rubus ursinus (trailing blackberry).

At one time the entire agricultural and urban areas were wooded. During the last century the study area was logged, but unmerchantable and inaccessible trees were left. These untouched areas, generally steeply sloped, form the woodland community. The most dominant tree of the area is the broadleaf maple {Aoer maorophyllum)s with red alder (Alnus rubra), mountain alder (Alnus tenuifolia), Douglas /

•D O

GRASS ft FORBES

MARSH

WOODLAND

BOG Figure IO.I. |^* EELGRASSBEDS SOME MAJOR VEGETATION AREAS 131. Flora

fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and western red cedar (Thuja plioata) being somewhat less abundant. The most common shrub is thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), and Sitka alder (Alnus sinuata) , salmonberry (Rubus speatabilis) , and sand bar willow (Salix exigua) are often found. Also found in moderate abundance in the woodland community are bent grass (Agrostis semiverticillata), common wormwood (Artemisia douglasiana), Sitka brome (Bromus sitchensis var. aleutensis), wild morning glory (Convolvulvus arvensis), hair grass (Des- ohampsia oaespitosa var. longifloria), Yorkshire fog (Holous lanatus)y ocean spray (Holodisaus discolor), common St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), tall blue lettuce (Lactuca biennis), rib grass (Plantago lanceolata) , Macoun's butter cup (Ranunculus macounii), hardhack (Spiraea douglasii), hedge nettle (Stachys cooleyae), and giant vetch (Vicia gigantea).

The cat-tail community occurs almost exclusively with fresh or brackish water. A few localized stands are present in isolated communities, but the area covered is minimal compared to growths on the islands and marshes of the South Arm. Generally, stands of cat-tail leave a sterile understory. The greatest variety of species is found in "hummocky" areas, very few species occurring where the ground is flat. The dominant species for which the community is named is Typha latifolia. Other less abundant plants include bent grass (Agrostis exarata), Lyngbye's sedge (Carex lyngbyei) , reed fescue (Festuca arundinacea), silverwood (Potentilla pacifica), curled dock (Rumex crispus), three-square bulrush (Scirpus amerioanus), and giant vetch (Vicia gigantea).

Lyngbye's sedge (Carex lyngbyei) is the dominant species of the sedge community which characterizes Duck, 132. Flora

Barber and Woodward islands (McLaren, 1972). Most areas described as "sedge" also have an abundance of bulrush (Scirpus spp.) and a slight increase or decrease in one of the species can change the community type. The two bulrush species subdominant to the sedge are the three - square bulrush (Scirpus amerioanus) and prairie bulrush (Scirpus paludosus). Other common plants include creeping bent grass (Agrostis palustris), spike rush (Eleocharis palustris), reed fescue (Festuca arundinacea), jointed rush (Juncus articulatus), sweet cicely (Osmorhiza occiden talis), silverweed (Potentilla pacifica), and arrowgrass (Triglochin maritima).

The bulrush community is characterized by the three-square bulrush (Scirpus amerioanus). A large part of this community is flooded at high tide, and the upland species are found on drift material or on well-drained hummocks above high-tide level. Toward the sea, the diver sity decreases until only the bulrush stands are found. Beyond the continuous bulrush community are isolated clumps of three-square bulrush. This species represents the dom inant emergent colonist of the tidal flats of the Fraser delta. The next most abundant species is the prairie bul rush (Scirpus paludosus),with bent grass (Agrostis semi- verticulata), goosefoot (Chenopodium murale), hair grass (Deschampsia oaespitosa var. longifloria), marsh horsetail (Equisetum palustre), silverwood'(Potentilla pacifica) and arrowgrass (Triglochin maritima) being somewhat less common.

The eelgrass community (Zostera spp.) is found on the Tsawwassen foreshore near the ferry slip, the Roberts Bank port facility causeway, and in Mud, Semiahmoo, and Boundary bays. The greatest concentrations of eelgrass are located at the low-tide line. However, portions of the com munity are exposed at low tide, while other portions are 133. Flora

never exposed except in heavy wave action. Almost without exception though, the roots of the plants which are exposed to tidal action remain immersed by water, and therefore, these exposed communities are located in tidal pools. Only three areas were determined to contain Zostera nana - those lying closest to shore, roughly surrounding a point 1.5 miles due south from the point where the north-south road west of Boundary Bay light-aircraft field meets the dyke. The remaining communities were composed of Z. marina with minor associations of sea lettuce (Ulva spp.).

The vegetation of the urban community is unique and often exotic due to ornamental cultivation. Some native trees dealt with in the woodland community are found here as well. The most popular tree other than the native species is the Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra var. italica), with weeping birch (Betula dalecarlica) being a close second A wide variety of fruit and nut trees are also found. Flowers and shrubs are not indexed as the variety is so enormous that any list would be incomplete. Because of the mild climate, long growing season, and horticultural pride of the populace,the species of flowers and shrubs constantly change. The lawns of urban areas are composed of a variety of grasses, the most common probably being blue grass (Poa spp.).

The urban recreational communities are the parks and golf courses of the delta. Generally, the vegetation is the same as those species listed for the urban community, although native trees are more abundant than in the latter case. 134. Flora

Several species of blue-green algae are found on the unvegetated tidal flats throughout the area. Greatest populations occur at the Iona Island sewage outfall. Taylor (1970) reported that the algal mats of Boundary Bay were composed of Microcleus sp. and Phormidium sp., with smaller amounts of Enteromorpha sp. and Rhizoclonium sp. Occasionally, drifts of deep-water vegetation are washed up on the tidal flats.

The saltmarsh community is located mainly around Boundary and Mud bays. It is characterized by a lack of tall emergent vegetation. In these areas, the tides do not normally flood the entire marsh, although drift material within the marsh would indicate that periodic inundations do occur. While low, the land appears better drained than that of the bulrush community. The saltmarsh community is best developed immediately northeast of Beach Grove, decreasing progressively further east along the foreshore. Tidal action floods the entire foreshore in the eastern portion of Boundary Bay. The upper saltmarsh is dominated by woody glasswort (Salicornia virginica), with lesser populations of quack grass(Agropyron repens), fescue grass (Festuca rubra), and foxtail (Hordeum jabatum). The lower saltmarsh has no one really dominant species, with orache (Atriplex patula), tufted hair grass (Deschampsia oaespitosa var. longifloria)3 desert saltgrass (Distichlis stricta var. dentata)3 plantain (Plantago spp.;and woody glasswort (Salicornia virginica), all being nearly equally abundant.

Most of the "upland" area, if not used for urban, industrial, or transportation needs, is used for agriculture. The rich deltaic land, flat topography, and mild climate are conducive to agriculture and the production of a variety of crops. Four types of crops are 135. Flora

found in the lower mainland. Pasture crops vary from place to place depending on previous land use, proximity to cultivated crops, and grazing intensity. The two most common grasses are quack (Agropyron repens) and bent (Agrostis spp.J. The main cereal crops are oats (Avena sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare), and wheat (Triticum aestivum)3 with some hedge mustard (Sisymbrium officinale). Corn (Zea mays) is the most common forage crop, while tim othy (Phleum pratense) is next in abundance. Market produce includes sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) for seed, and potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), with beans (Phaseolus vulgaris),and peas (Pisum sativum) next most popular.

The ditches of the lower delta form somewhat unique communities, consisting primarily of a grass and forb association with the addition of aquatic plants. The most common aquatics are floating pondweed (Potamogeton natans, and P. pectinatus)J small pondweed (P. pusillus)3 widgeon grass (Ruppia maritima)> three-square bulrush (Scirpus amerioanus), great bulrush (S, validus)3 and duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza).

The dykes are also a grass and forb community, although the dominant species may vary from one micro- environment to another. While jetties are classed as grass and forb communities as well, they do not contain the usual complement of species. As they are usually constructed of rock and sand, vegetation is often sparse. Hair grass (Deschampsia oaespitosa var. longifloria)3 Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus), and sweet clover (Melilotus alba) are the most abundant jetty species.

Except for the woodland community within the University of British Columbia endowment lands, the area north of the North Arm is urban or urban recreational. 136. Flora

A few small areas where there are stables or market gardens could be considered agricultural. Owing to in dustrial development and log-boom storage, the shoreline vegetation of the North Arm channel is largely confined to a narrow strip along the north bank.

Iona Island, enlarged and heightened by dredged sand and construction of the North Arm jetty, the Iona jetty, and the Iona Island Road causeway, is the site of Vancouver's sewage treatment plant. To the east of the sewage plant is a large area of dredged sand. All of these areas are sparsely vegetated with grass and forbs. Bordering the north end of the North Arm jetty is a thin band of bulrush community. Between the North Arm and Iona jetties is a zone of coarse, firm sand, the deposi tion of which is enhanced by the location of the two jetties. The only vegetation is a few bulrush clumps and an isolated eelgrass patch (Zostera marina). Marsh vegetation is profuse on the southern seaward side of Iona Island and on the Sea Island foreshore. Sea Island is the site of the Vancouver International Airport. Any areas not utilized by this development are partially covered with grass and forbs or pasture for dairy cattle. Hay is also grown in some areas inside the airport boundaries. Most plants near the airport are kept cut down in order to lessen the attractiveness to wildfowl which are a hazard to aircraft.

Swishwash Island, a deltaic deposit south of Sea Island, is in the centre of the Fraser's Middle Arm. Be cause of its inaccessibility, it remains in its natural state. In the past, it was built up with dredged sand which is now vegetated with upland and marsh species. 137. Flora

The Municipality of Richmond occupies much of the upland areas of Lulu Island. Part of the land is used agriculturally for market farming and grazing. The fore shore immediately outside the dykes is, in part, privately owned, while most of the marsh and mudflats are Crown owned. The mudflats are covered in profuse marsh vegeta tion, while upland species grow from the common drift logs. This area is an important wildlife and fish-rearing zone, as well as being used by man for public recreation.

The foreshore near Steveston is industrialized to some extent with channels dredged through the marsh, a small harbour constructed for fishing boats, and five acres covered with dredged sand. The Steveston channel is lined with fish processing plants.

The Main Arm of the Fraser River lies south of Lulu Island, and is used as a deep water channel for industrial traffic up the valley. It is also the major route for migrating salmon and trout.

The upland areas from Canoe Pass to the Tsawwassen ferry slip are utilized extensively for farming. The areas south of the slip are wooded and/or urbanized. In the farming zone,a small percentage of land is used for dairy cattle, while the majority is taken up with market garden ing. Most of the upland is privately owned, while the foreshore belongs to the Crown. However, 2,000 acres of upland (inland from the Roberts Bank superport) were expropriated by the Provincial Government for industrial development.

Extensive marshes are found off Brunswick Point where they are influenced by fresh water from Canoe Pass. Further south, the vegetation reflects the more saline condi tions, tapering off until it terminates at the Tsawwassen 138. Flora

ferry terminal. The shorelands south of the slip are unvegetated. Eelgrass beds (Zostera spp.), in association with sea lettuce (Viva spp.),are present in general localities off the superport and ferry terminal, while the entire foreshore exposed at low tide is covered with algae. Generally, the tidal flats of this area are not used recreationally, with the exception of the boating and beach area south of the ferry slip. The construction of the 2.5 mile long superport jetty has caused surface currenf changes resulting in much more rapid siltation to the north of the jetty than to the south (Forbes, 1972a).

Except for the urban developments of Boundary Bay near Grauer Beach and Beach Grove, the dyked uplands are almost exclusively used for agriculture. North of the bay are located a polo ground, a private light-aircraft field, and the old Ladner airport, which is now the Vancouver wire less station. The western agricultural land is used for dairying and growing of cereals. To the east, the agricul tural use is varied, with pasture land taking up one-half of the land, and the production of cereals,hay and market crops the other half. The uplands are privately owned while the foreshore is Crown land. The foreshore of Bound ary Bay consists of clean, firm sand which is used recrea tionally. Popular swimming beaches are Beach Grove, Boundary Bay, and Crescent Beach, while a marina is also found at Crescent Beach. The entire bay is popular for waterfowl hunting. Emergent shoreline vegetation is salt marsh, forming a band of varying width beginning north of Beach Grove and continuing east around the north edge of the bay. There is a lot of drift material in the marsh, and the lower tidal flats support extensive eelgrass com munities. These beds are important herring-rearing grounds and food areas for black brant. The beds are associated 139. Flora

with five drainage channels. Three small beds of Zostera nana are associated with the "airport" channel, lying just beyond the wireless station. The rest of the beds are composed of Z. marina. A large bed occurs in the "Benson Road channel", particularly to the west, while a series of small intermittent clumps extend south along the shoreline to the International Boundary. A small dense bed, containing several bare patches, occurs at the mouth of the channel south to the Ladner airport, and follows this channel northward, in a thin strip, to termin ate opposite the most westerly Z. nana community. West of the "airport" channel, a dense bed extends from the mouth of the channel (south of Benson Road) westward, in an un broken mat, to the mouth of the channel near Beach Grove. This bed extends into deep water and narrows as it enters the latter channel mouth. The largest bed occurs between "pumphouse" and "great" channels, and extends into deeper water (Taylor, 1970). Ulva is found in association with the Zostera spp.

Urbanization of Mud Bay is located mainly on the ridge and beach south of the Nicomekl River. A similar sparsely populated area occurs in the woodland to the north The dyked deltaic lands between the Nicomekl and northern woodland are used for grazing and forage agriculture. The uplands are privately owned except for a 250 acre waterfowl management area (the Serpentine Fen). About 140 acres of foreshore just north of the mouth of the Nicomekl is also privately owned, while the remainder belongs to the Crown.

The foreshore of Mud Bay is silty due to the out flows of the Serpentine and Nicomekl rivers. Marsh forms a narrow band along the eastern and northern shores, while 140. Flora

the tidal flats are sparsely vegetated with Zostera spp. One eelgrass bed is situated in the outwash channel of the Serpentine River, north of Crescent Beach. Other beds are apparent west of this, but they form part of the Boundary Bay beds. Mud Bay is used recreationally on a limited basis for swimming, boating, waterfowl hunting, and sportfishing.

From Crescent Beach southeast to White Rock the upland areas are wooded, although,above the steep bluffs, there is urbanization. At the base of the bluffs there is a narrow rocky shoreline, while the area between White Rock and the International Boundary is again wooded. The beaches here are used recreationally. The entire shore line is flanked with the tracks of the Burlington Northern Railway. Eelgrass beds form a thin continuous band from White Rock pier to Ocean Park, with intermittent clumps north to Crescent Beach and south to the International Boundary.

The study area examined by McLaren (1972) over laps some of the previous discussion, but includes some areas not covered by Forbes (1972a). The McLaren report deals with the islands and marshes of the South Arm which are bounded on the west by the Strait of Georgia, on the north by Lulu Island, on the northeast (upriver) by the Deas Island tunnel, and on the south and east by Delta Municipality (Ladner and farmland). Included are Reifel and Westham islands and foreshore, Brunswick Point, the Ladner marsh in Delta Municipality, and Woodward, Duck, Barber, Rose, Kirkland, Gunn, and Williamson islands in Richmond Municipality. The topography of this area is similar to that previously discussed. Farmland is dyked, 141. Flora

and is found extensively on Westham Island, and to a lesser extent on Rose, Kirkland, Gunn, and Williamson islands and on Ladner marsh. The soils are saline rego gleysols or orthic gleysols developed from moderately fine to medium textured deltaic deposits. The tidal marsh soils are recent alluvial with the texture varying from silt-loam or silty clay-loam to fine loamy sand (Luttmerding and Sprout, 1969).

McLaren (1972) describes six plant communities as follows. The grass and weed community is found along roadsides on Westham Island and in the Ladner marsh area. The topography here is flat, with sandy soils showing evidence of disruption due to road construction. There is little overstory and most of the plants are weedy species and escapees from cultivation. Bent grasses (Agrostis spp.)_,velvet grass (Holcus lanatus L. )3 Canada bluegrass (Poa compressa)3 buttercup (Ranunculus spp.; and smartweeds (Polygonum spp. )predominate. This zone is comparable to Forbes' grass and forb community. McLaren's agricultural community is also like that of Forbes, the crops, topography, and soils being the same as he described. The areas used agriculturally are mentioned above. On and near the dykes of Westham, Reifel, Rose, Kirkland, Gunn, and Williamson islands and Ladner marsh, and on well-drained high ground on the upstream ends of Duck and Barber islands, she found tree and shrub communities characterized by red alder (Alnus rubra)3 willow (Salix spp.; and black Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), with an understory of vetch (Vicia sp.j, jewelweed (Impatiens noli-tangere)3 snowberry (Symphorioarpus albus), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis)s and blackberry brambles (Rubus ursinus). Pheasants and large songbird populations were noted in these communities. The other three communities listed by McLaren are the same as those reported by Forbes 142. Flora as cat-tail, sedge, and bulrush, and all three occur under similar circumstances as those in which Forbes found them. In areas dominated by cat-tails, she notes an association with Lyngbye's sedge (Carex lyngbyei), Douglas aster (Aster subspicatus)> purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria)j reed fescue (Festuca arundinaceae); silverweed (Potentilla pacifica)3 and water plantain (Alisma piantago-aquatica). The sedge zone is an intermediate between the cat-tail community and that of bulrushes, and is dominated by Lyngbye's sedge (Carex lyngbyei ) in association with reed fescue (Festuca arundinaceae), bent grasses (Agrostis spp.;, tall hair grass (Deschampsia oaespitosa), and round-stem bulrush (Scirpus validus). The bulrush community is dominated by the three-square bulrush (Scirpus amerioanus), although the round-stem species (S. validus) is also found. This zone is almost completely submerged at high tide. McLaren also did not attempt to list the ornamental plants of urbanized areas.

An important type of community not analyzed by either Forbes (1972a) or McLaren (1972) is that of the bog. Cairns (1973) discussed the vegetation of bogs in a report on the natural history of Richmond. Bog vegetation is a relic of the last glaciation. As the glaciers receded from the Fraser valley about 10,000 years ago, plants which were adapted to arctic environments became established. As the climate moderated further, the vegetation in most areas gave way to plants more adapted to temperate condi tions. However, this was not the case with the bog environ ment. Bogs are saturated with water, with the water table at or very near the surface most of the year. The plants living here are so well adapted to this that, once de veloped, succession occurs very slowly. The primary plant of the bog is sphagnum moss, of which there are thirty species in British Columbia. It is this plant which forms the thick, spongy mats and hummocks around other vegeta tion. Due to organic acids secreted by the moss, the bog 143. Flora

water is highly acidic. As a result, bacterial decompo sition does not occur, and deep layers of moss are built up over long periods of time, resulting in what we know as peat. Other features of bog water, which help to make this ecosystem so different, are its lack of lime, its high concentration of humic acids giving the yellow or brown colour, and its general lack of available nutrients, es pecially nitrogen, needed by plants. Iron, on the other hand, is over-abundant in acidic water, and this also re stricts the numbers and types of plants able to survive. The heaths (Family Ericaceae) use ammonia for nitrogen, and are tolerant of high iron concentrations. Therefore, they survive very well in bogs. One would think that plants living in such wet conditions would be constantly trying to evaporate the excess water. However, owing to the high humic acid content of the water, which acts as an in hibitor to water absorbtion, bog plants are adapted to con serving moisture. The micro-flora of bog water includes desmid and mesotaenid species, as well as blue-green algae such as Chrococcus turgidus, Stigonema sp., and Hapalosi- phin spp. Lichens (a symbiotic relationship between an alga and a fungus) occur in great variety in bogs, grow ing on trees, rocks, and over soil. In the wettest areas, sedge (Rhynchospora alba) and cotton grass (Eriophorum chamissonis) occur in association with sundew (a carni vorous plant; Drosera sp.), bog cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus) and cultivated cranberry (V. macrocarpon). Surrounding these species and dominating treeless areas are bog shrubs such as swamp laurel (Kalmia polifolia), Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandioum), cultivated blueberry (Vaccinium oorymbosum), bog blueberry (V. uliginosum) and velvet-stem blueberry (V. myrtilloides). Few tree species inhabit a bog. The shore pine (Pinus contorta), a variety 144. Flora

of lodgepole pine, is most abundant. Around the margin, where drainage is improved, the western white birch (Betula papyrifera) occurs. In the shade of the birch, the shrub salal (Gaultheria shallon) and young hemlock trees (Tsuga heterophylla) are common. Much of the lower main- and is made up of bogs in one stage or another of succes sion to dryland. They, like the marshes, are unique environ ments .

Cairns (1973) also speculated on the origin of Shady Island (formerly Steveston Island). Before the dredging of Cannery Channel, it was little more than a sand bar. The addition of two wing dams to prevent the dredged sand from falling back into the channel increased the amount of alluvium being deposited by the Fraser. In 1954 a rock dam was built across the eastern entrance to prevent the channel from filling in due to deposits from the river. However, this caused the channel water to stagnate and the top half of this barricade had to be removed. One can cross over to the island via this dam at low tide. Owing to the unstable nature of the sand, the island vegetation is still continually changing. The western end of Shady Island con sists of sand dunes with scattered patches of dessication- resistant plants such as perennial dune grass (Elymus mollis), large-headed sedge (Carex macrocephala), and purple beach pea (Lathyrus japonicus). In areas where these be come dense enough to trap soil particles, the red coloured moss (Ceratodon purpureus) forms mats around their bases. As one moves east along the island, succession becomes increasingly apparent, with trees such as poplar (Populus trichocarpa), alder (Alnus rubra), and willow (Salix sp.) edging out the grasses. Cat-tail marshes (Typha latifolia) and semi-saltmarshes of sedges (Scirpus spp.) occur in damp 145. Flora

areas, while horsetails (Equisetum spp.) abound in drier areas. Watmough (1972) also discusses the origin and succession of Shady Island, including a species list of common vegetation which is incorporated into the total list of Appendix 10.1.

Morris (1973), in an inventory and evaluation of vegetation of Boundary Bay in relation to recreational development, provides general descriptions of several communities common to the bay area. The climax coniferous forest, characterized by old trees of hemlock, cedar and Douglas fir, occurs where soil is deep, temperature range is small, moisture is abundant, drainage is good, and wind damage is negligible. Such areas are not undergoing succession - only those species already present in the overstory continue to regenerate new individuals. The deciduous forest consists of mature alder and cottonwood, with seedling and sapling Douglas fir. Soils are more poorly formed and wetter than those of the climax forest. These two forests together constitute Forbes' (1972a) wood land community. The other four communities described by Morris are the same as those Forbes termed grass and forb, sedge, and agricultural, or a combination of the first and last of these, and,therefore, will not be discussed here. Taylor (19 70) described the dyke community of Boundary Bay as well as the other communities covered by Forbes (19 72a). Goldenrod (Solidago sp.) was the dominant species here, in association with gumweed (Grindelia sp.), curly dock (Rumex crispus), yarrow (Achillea millefolium), and some Aster sp., sea lyme-grass (Elymus mollis and E. arenarius) , foxtail barley (Hordeum jubatum), saltbush (Atriplex patula), and brass buttons (Cotula coronopifolia). 146. Flora

Northcote (1974) included a small note on the vegetation upriver on the Fraser. He observed that no where along the main stem were there well developed com munities, but only patches of horsetail (Equisetum sp.), cat-tail, sedges, and bulrushes. Tener (1948) included similar notes on duck habitats on islands and tributaries of the mainstem as far east as Chilliwack.

Some vegetation communities are often over looked in plant surveys, One of these is the benthic algal zone. Stein (1973) examined algal filaments attached to logs in Canoe Pass, and identified them as Cladophora sp.with associated diatoms such as Navicula sp., Synedra sp., and Tabellaria sp. This seems to be the only reference available for the algae of the freshwater zone within our study area.

Kellerhals and Murray (1969) and Taylor (1970), besides describing the eelgrass (Zostera sp.)- sea luttuce (Ulva sp.) community discussed by Forbes (1972a), noted that the high tidal flats of Boundary Bay were covered (especially in the summer) with mats of blue-green algae. The main species was Microcoleus sp. associated with Phormidium sp. Other species also found included Enteromorpha sp. and Rhizoclonium sp.

The remaining references all deal with the benthic algae of Sturgeon Banks. Wade (1972) and Cairns (1973) included descriptions of the microscopic algae of the tidal flats. In winter and early spring the mud is covered with a golden layer of diatoms such as Navicula sp., Pinnularia sp., and filaments of Melosira sp. Strands of Oscillatoria sp. and small blue-green species are also present. In the upper marsh tidal pools, green algae like Microspora sp., Spirogyra sp., and Ulothrix sp. are found, 147. Flora

while the larger species ,Enteromorpha,occurs in association with the bulrush community. Pylaiella littoralis, a brown alga, forms filamentous mats on the lower marsh extremities.

The study by the Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District (1973) on the Iona Island sewage treatment plant indicated that, on the jetty, two green algae (Ulva sp and Enteromorpha sp.) were abundant closest to the outfall. Both species, thought to be pollution indicators by some researchers (Burrows, 1971), increased in abundance and vertical range on the jetty with distance from the outfall. They were restricted to the upper jetty close to the out fall where a thick black/brown deposit covered the lower jetty rocks. Algal species diversity increased with dis tance from the outfall, with species of Fucus3 Cladophora, and Porphyra appearing further from the outlet.

Lindstrom and Foreman (1974), in a preliminary report on the benthic macrophytes of the Fraser River delta, found substantially lower standing crop values (649 and 151 g fresh weight/hectare) for Sturgeon Bank than for Roberts Bank (3,466 g fresh weight/hectare). Dominant plants on the Sturgeon Bank transects were Enteromorpha linza and Lola lubrioa, while those of Roberts Bank were Zostera marina and Monostroma fuscum. Eighteen species of marine macrophytes were recorded on the delta (see Appendix 10.2). They noted that large expanses of the delta had no vegetation at all, probably due to substrate instability, and the low salinity and high turbidity of the water. Roberts Bank tidal flats are removed from the direct in fluence of the Fraser and are, therefore, more productive. It was thought unlikely that the Fraser delta ever con tributed a significant amount to the benthic marine algal 148. ^'lora

productivity of the Strait of Georgia, even during peak production from ,u ne through August.

Work by Bawden et al. (1973) disagrees with that by Lindstrom and Foreman (1974), with values for - 2 chlorophyll a on the sandflats as high as 250 mg m . These values are high compared to average planktonic con centrations of chlorophyll, and may indicate that the appar r.tly barren flats are far more productive than sup posed.

Another little-analyzed floral group is benthic fungi. Booth (1969) listed several marine fungi found in samples from five benthic stations located on the tidal flats from Point Grey around to Boundary Bay. He recorded three species of chytridiaceores fungi (see Appendix 10.1). Hughes (1969), in a study of wood-boring marine fungi, sampling the same stations as those used by Booth, identi fied live Fungi Imperfecti species and ten Ascomycetes species from the delta area (see Appendix 10.1). These fungi could be divided into marine (from beyond Sand Heads, along the jetty upstream to Steveston), fresh water (down stream to the west end of Annacis Island) and estuarine (in the intervening section of the river) forms. The majo rity of the species were estuarine or freshwater forms rather than marine.

10 (ii) PHYTOPLANKTON

As early as 192 7, Hutchinson (Lucas and Hut chinson, 1927) noted the increased abundance of the micro scopic primary producers (phytoplankton) near the surface of the Strait of Georgia, 20 to 30 miles north and south 149. Flora

of the mouth of the Fraser. Diatom populations were mini mal at the mouth itself, and decreased rapidly beyond the Fraser plume. Wherever there was increased mixing of fresh water from the Fraser and saline water from the Strait, there were increased amounts of phytoplankton. The dominant species to the north, where salinities were 12 - 13 /oo, was Chaetooeros; while to the south, where salinities were 15 - 16 °/oo, Skeletonema spp. dominated. Hutchinson also noted that maximum numbers occurred on the "flow" tide north of the Fraser, and on the "ebb" tide south of the river. He felt that the Fraser was probably contributing extra nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and silica, to the strait water, and this, combined with optimal salinities, was causing the plankton blooms. A later study (Hutchinson, 1928) confirmed his earlier observations.

Tully and Dodimead (1957) analyzed the same phenomenon as that described by Hutchinson. They indicated that the Fraser River contributed only added silica (not nitrogen and phosphorus as hypothesized by Hutchinson (1927, 1928)), while the Strait of Georgia contributed added phosphorus the combination providing diatoms with optimal nutrient supplies

Legare (1957) recorded forty-five diatom species from the Strait of Georgia in the summer of 1955, the dominant filamentous forms being Skeletonema sp., Chaetooeros sp., Thalassiosira sp., Biddulphia sp., and Nitzschia sp. In November, 1955, only two species were abundant, Coscinodiscus wailesii and Chaetooeros concavi- cornis, with only three other species being found. Legere confirmed Hutchinson's and Tully and Dodimead's findings, and speculated that the drastic decline in populations in the fall was due to the relative homogeneity of the water. 150. Flora

Paisons et al. (1969a) also confirmed these early findings, and in a later study (1969b) commented on the relationship between these phytoplankton zones and the zooplankton. They noted that Skeletonema costatum and Thalassiosira nordenskioldii were the most heavily grazed species, but that both the quantity and type of phytoplank ton available caused changes in the amount of food eaten by zooplankton. Grazing began at.phytoplankton thresholds of 50 - 190 /ig C/1, with maximum grazing at concentrations of 400 jdg C/1. Larger phytoplankton species were grazed in preference to smaller forms. Another study (Takahashi, et al., 1973), using a Fraser River phytoplankton photo synthesis model, indicated that light was a limiting factor in phytoplankton photosynthesis, but that tempera ture affected photosynthesis only during the spring. Lack of nutrients caused photoinhibition during July and August (the period when in situ work had shown phytoplankton blooms in the Fraser/Strait of Georgia mixing zone). The model failed to predict changes in dominant species through out the year, a change thought to be mainly temperature dependent. The only notes on the phytoplankton of the Fraser above the estuary are those of Stein (1973) from observations made near the Pattullo Bridge, New Westmin ster. She identified twenty-two genera, including three chlorophytes (greens), two chrysomonads, thirteen diatoms, one cyanophyte (the blue-green Oscillatoria sp.), two dinoflagellates, and one cryptomonad. However, it was thought that many of these were actually attached forms washed off their substrates by the current, or forms washed in by drainage streams or upstream lakes. Few were thought to be actual riverine phytoplankton. Appendix 10.2 lists the phytoplankton species found in the cited literature. 151.

11. WILDLIFE

The purpose of this section is to outline the wild life present in the Fraser delta area, as well as its relation to the natural ecosystem and to human society. All of the ter restrial vertebrate groups are represented in some form or other on the delta. However, the most prevalent forms of wild life are the waterfowl and other associated birds, which thrive on the nutrient abundance inherent in an estuarine environment, and,therefore, the emphasis shall be placed in this area. A species list based on a list compiled by Northcote (1974) may be consulted in Appendix 11.1 for a summary of amphibian, avian, reptillian and mammalian species.

11 (i) WATERFOWL

The waterfowl of three continents converge at the Fraser wetlands on their way to and from breeding and winter ing areas that extend from the U.S.S.R. to South America (Fig.' 11.1). Two million ducks, perhaps five million shorebirdsand thousands of other bird species migrate annually through the area. In addition, about 250,000 ducks, 20,000 snow geese and one mil lion shorebirds remain to winter on the tidal marshes and agricultural lands of the Fraser valley. To date, a total of 41 species of swans, geese and ducks have been recorded on the Fraser delta. Twenty-one of these are either breeding populations or occur as a significant part of the wintering population (Leach, 1972). This area is not noted as a produc tion area for waterfowl. However, with the establishment of bird sanctuaries and wildlife management areas, increased local nesting is occurring, particularly among Canada geese.

The intertidal deltaic deposits of the Fraser estuary are extensive, that is, Sturgeon Bank and Roberts Bank consist of nearly 33,000 acres, Boundary and Mud bays of about 15,437 acres, and all of the small deltaic islands in the channel mouths plus the Ladner marsh about 1,900 acres (D. Trethewey, pers. comm.). Page 152

BREEDING AREA

- LOWER o MAINLAND B.C

Figure II. I. THE PACIFIC FLYWAY 153. Wildlife

However, of this area, only 4,300 acres (or 13%) are vegetated (Burgess, 1970; Forbes, 1972), the remaining acreage being mud flats, with the major portion of these being covered at high tide. These beds of aquatic vegeta tion make this region a key wintering area for waterfowl in Canada. Of the plant species present, the four species of bulrushes (Scirpus acutus, S. amerioanus, S. paludosis, and S. validus), together with Lyngbye's sedge (Carex lyngbyei) and cat-tail(Typha latifolia) comprise the major food species. These natural foods are supplemented with cereal grains, root crops and green nurse crops of adjacent farm lands. This vegetation is the major attraction of the area for waterfowl.

A summary of usage of the foreshore areas may be obtained by consulting a table based on Canadian Wildlife Service aerial survey data, summarized by Taylor (unpubl. data) in Appendix 11.2. A very much simplified overview of this (as shown in Figure 11.2 ) was given in a Swan Wooster (1967a, b and c) report.

1. SWANS:

Each of the two species of swans native to North America, the whistler (Olor columbianus) and the trumpeter (Olor buccinator), stop regularly on the delta in spring and fall migrations, but in small flocks and never many in total. They do not normally overwinter on the estuary.

2. GEESE: (a) Canada Goose (Branta canadensis). The taxonomy of this group is confusing. The species has been subdivided 32 times and 10 to 12 of these races have been recorded in British Columbia. The most common resident goose in the southern latitudes of British Columbia is the race Branta canadensis moffitti. It nests throughout the central and southern portions of the province, including the lower REST AREA FOR SNOW GEESE, MALLAROS, PINTAIL ANO WIDGEON. ALSO, SHOREBIRDS AND GULLS. ( MAX.BOOOBtRDS/OCCASSION)

REST AREA FOR SNOW GEESE, MALLARD, WIDGEON, PINTAIL AND TEAL. ALSO, SHOREBIROS.

a to

MALLARD, WIDGEON, PINTAIL, SHOW GEESE, CANADA GEESE. ALSO, NUMEROUS MARSH AND SHOREBIROS. IMAX.20,000 BtRDS/OCCASSION)

BLACK BRANT, SNOW GEESE, WIDGEON,ANDTEAL. ALSO SHOREBIROS AND BLUE HERON. (MAX. 10,000 BIRDS/OCCASSION)

'FORESHOREAREASOFIMPORTANCETOWATERFOWL ( AFTERSWANWOOSTER1967, and CWS,unpubl.) 155. Wildlife mainland and Vancouver Island. Young are reared annually on Westham Island and at the Serpentine Wildlife Management area. Considerable populations also originate from Stanley Park and Burnaby Lake. The transient races most regularly seen are believed to be Branta canadensis minima and either one or both of B. canadensis parvipes and B. canadensis taverneri. Canada geese other than the resident populations previously mentioned do not linger on the estuary, although some stop for a time at Boundary Bay and along the Fraser valley.

(b) Lesser Snow Goose (Chen hyperborea). The snow goose is the commonest wintering goose and is found mainly on Sturgeon and Roberts banks. This wintering population is subject to fluctuation and is part of the population of 300,000 snow geese which nest on Wrangel Island in arctic U.S.S.R. The geese begin to appear in the area around mid- October and build to a wintering population of 7,000 to 10,000 birds by November. By mid-December, particularly if the weather is cold, most, if not all birds, move south, some stopping on the Skagit River and the remainder carrying on to the central valleys of California. It is believed, however, that considerable movement of birds takes place between the Fraser and the Skagit rivers throughout the winter. Birds that do stop on the Fraser make extensive use of the Scirpus beds growing on the outer vegetated zone of Sturgeon and Roberts banks. They seek out the tubers of root stalks, often pulling out the whole plant. Some aquatic plant seeds are probably utilized as well, but certainly not in any great volume.

More birds stop at the estuary during spring migra tion with numbers building up from the first two weeks of March to peak in mid-April. Peak numbers are believed to be in the 30,000 - 40,000 range. By the end of April, snow 156. Wildlife geese have departed for northern breed Ag grounds. It is now believed that few, if any, Canadian Arctic snow geese reach the Fraser, but instead cake the interior routes to wintering areas in Oregon and California.

i When utilizing Sturgeon and Roberts banks, snow geese appear to be somewhat restless, at times lying off Lulu Inland, then moving to Sea Island and again splitting off to move down to Westham Island and the area near Roberts Bank superport.

The George C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuary offers much needed escape from harassment during the hunting season, and the birds adapt very quickly to using this refuge.

(c) Black Brant (Branta bernicla nigricans). On their south ward migration from Alaska and Siberia, black brant cut across t^e Gulf of Alaska, therefore passing the coast of British Columbia far out to sea. On this migration, they extend as far south as Baja, California. The northward migration, however, seems to be more leisurely and involves stopping at designated places along the way, including Boundary Bay. This migration commences about the first two weeks in March, and appears, from aerial survey data,to consist of separate waves which pass through the area. Single season aerial surveys of Semiahmoo and Boundary bays have indicated a total transient population of over 16,000, and may perhaps be as high as 50,000 birds.

Eelgrass (Zostera marina) forms the major food of the black brant, which utilize the Boundary Bay area heavily for this reason, as well as the bay's good gravelling beaches. This region, combined with others on the east side of Vancouver Island, seems to be one of the last important feeding areas on the way north for these birds. 157. Wildlife

3. DUCKS:

Ducks may be divided into two major groups: dabblers and divers.

(a) Dabbling Ducks. Reports have shown that the ducks stopping at the mouth of the Fraser River are almost wholly dabbling ducks, with the main species being pin tail (Anas acuta), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), American wigeon (Anas americana) and green-winged teal (Anas crecca), in order of abundance (Taylor, 1970a).

The mallard, green-winged teal, American wigeon and pintail are very similar in their behaviour and habi tat requirements. They have been classed by Halladay (1968) as spring and fall transients, and winter visitants. The mallard does have a representative summer population, but it is not large.

In September, the duck populations are small, and most birds occur on the tidal marsh (Burgess, 1970). Food production on the marshes is at a peak at this time, as it is the end of the growing season and, therefore, the time of seed production. Also, owing to tidal condi tions, the marsh vegetation is uncovered for much of the day. The fields are dry at this time, making them less attractive to waterfowl and thus increasing the relative importance of foreshores.

In early October the duck population increases, with a large proportion feeding and loafing along the tidal margins of the foreshore. At this time, the green-winged teal appears to outnumber the other species with a population of 20,000. In October and November, 158. Wildlife

a combination of tidal conditions (higher tides during daylight hours), climatological conditions (higher storm frequency), and hunting pressure (season opening on October 7) forces the ducks to utilize Boundary Bay more extensively. Natural foods are not plentiful, but'this area provides some safety from storms and hunter activity. Under these conditions, night feeding flights to nearby fields become prevalent. This is believed to occur in the form of waves of birds flying to and from fields under the cover of darkness. Wigeon do not appear in the early October take by hunters, but, by late November, they become the domin ant of the four species as the others move south. Around mid-November the duck populations reach a peak, from which they decrease to a wintering level. The timing and extent of this phenomenon is greatly dependent on prevailing weather conditions. An example of Canadian Wildlife Service census data for 1972 indicates approximate wintering popula tions as follows (Leach, 1972):

Mallard " 35,000 American wigeon - 46,000 Pintail " 32,000 Green-winged Teal - 4,000. It is difficult to accurately assess the size of these populations due to their mobility, but these figures are indicative of the magnitude involved. When the fields are frozen, dabbling ducks (other than wigeon) are dependent on the remaining available food 159. Wildlife

in the tidal marshes. By mid-winter this is in short supply ami, during extended periods of freezing temp eratures, mallards, pintail and teal depart for more moderate climes. Many wigeon will remain as long as green food material is available.

The majority of birds spend their time loafing in open water over saline mud and sand flats on off shore tidal marshes. Daytime tides, becoming higher in late fall, reduce the food available to dabbling ducks. Hunting pressure decreases steadily as the season wears on, with a slight increase towards closure Daytime field feeding increases as hunting pressure eases up, but night feeding flights under the cover of darkness are forced to continue.

February marks the onset of spring migration, with the first migrants (pintails) beginning to dis perse over the still wet fields throughout the Fraser valley. By early March, the other dabblers are beginn ing to arrive on their northward spring migration. This migration of the dabblers is not as impressive in terms of massed numbers, as is the fall migration. At this time, activity on the tidal marsh increases as day time tide levels decrease. Field feeding and loafing slowly decrease as the rains let up and fields begin to become drier. Night feeding flights are discontinued after the closure of the hunting season.

Most of the birds are paired, and Canada geese and mallards soon show signs of territoriality. Canada geese produce the first broods which begin appearing around the last week of April, with mallard broods appearing shortly thereafter. 160. Wildlife

(i) Food Preferences: Feeding habits for each of the four species vary slightly from species to species, and with time of year. These habits are summarized for the area in the vicinity of Vancouver Internation al Airport in Table 11.1.

The four dabbling duck species represent the major proportion of the duck population on the lower main land. Other dabbling duck species are present and may be noted by consulting Appendix 11.1. Species within the group have similar habitat requirements, and depend heavily on the salt marshes of the Fraser estuary.

(b) Diving Ducks. Most of the diving ducks of the estuary area utilize Boundary Bay. This group is represented by: greater scaup (Aythya marila); the three species of scoters- surf (Melanitta perspicillata), white-winged (M. deglandi) and black (M. nigra); common goldeneye (Bucephala olangula) ; bufflehead (B. albeola)\ and old squaw (Clangula hyemalis). Any canvasback (Aythya valieineria) seen are usually found in very small flocks in the George C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuary and in Mud Bay.

Few detailed studies of the feeding habits of diving ducks have been carried out. They have, however, been reported to feed on blue mussels, clams, Pectin sp., snails, crabs, insects, hydrozoans and fish. Plant life consumed is reported as pond weed (Potamogeton), bulrush seed (Sairpus sp.,j, sedge (Carex lyngbyei), smartweed (Polygonum) , crowfoot (Ranunculus sp.^j dock (Rumex sp.), wildrose (Rosa sp.) and algae species. Diving ducks generally feed in open water at depths up to 6 - 8 fathoms depending on food availability (Noble, 1972). 161. Wildlife

Table 11.1. Fooc ^references at various times of year. (Halladay, 1968)

Late Fall Late Winter Fall Early Winter Winter Early Spring Spring

MALi VRD pondweec1 smartweed (PotamOij- (Polygonum eton sp.) sp. ) earthworms and various insect larvae.

various isopods, amphipods, bulrush (Sairpus sp.) seeds, sedge (Carex ly\gbyei) seeds obtained from marsh areas.

PINTAIL Lady's thumb (Polygonum sedge (Carex lyngbyei) persiaaria) seed, bulrush (Sairpus sp.) seed, various Crustacea, amphipods, % isopods.

AMERICAN grazers in wet and moist sub-zones, also bulrush (Sairpus WIGEON sp.) seeds and sedge (Carex lyngbyei).

GREEN- Ninebark (Physoaarpus smartweed greater amounts of WINGED sp.J,seeds of various (Polygonum animal matter, TEAL sedges, bulrush (Sairpus sp.,), more still large amounts americanus),along with sedge (Carex of seeds. large amounts of animal lyngbyei) in matter including amphi- marsh area. pods and isopods. 162. ildlii'e

Table IK 2. Diving ducks, times of occurrence.

Species Number present on Fraser delta (Leach,1972)

Canvasback winters on delta in flocks totalling ap (Aythya proximately 200 birds. vallisneria)

Greater Scaup large numbers concentrate in Boundary Bay (Aythya marila) during peak migration periods between mid- October and December; wintering population has been estimated at 3,300.

Lesser Scaup found in small scattered groups on inland (Aythya affinis) waters,or small tidal sloughs and bays, be tween October and March.

Common Goldeneye small scattered groups along coast and (Bucephala inland waters between October and March. clangula) Barrows Goldeneye observed on rocky sections of lower main (Bucephala land coast between October and March in islandica) numbers totalling approximately 3,400.

Bufflehead common on salt and fresh water throughout (Bucephala albeola) winter; scattered population.

Old Squaw flocks of several hundred present on fore (Clangula hyemalis) shore areas from mid-October to mid-March.

Harlequin Duck found frequently along coast; prefer kelp (Histrioniaus beds and rocky coast, but infrequently seen histrioniaus) ' on delta,

White-winged wintering population numbering several Scoter thousand extending over Boundary Bay and v (Melanitta Georgia Strait; occur from late September deglandi) to mid-April.

American not more than a score or two wintering in Black Scoter a single location, early October - late Apri'i (Oidemia nigra)

Surf Scoter wintering population numbering several (Melanitta thousand extending over Boundary Bay and perspicillata) Georgia Strait; occur from late September to mid-April. 163. Wildlife

A summary of the numbers of diving ducks present and times of occurrence is contained in Table 11.2.

Three species of mergansers (diving ducks which subsist almost entirely on fish) occur on the estuary. These are the common merganser (Mergus merganser), red- breasted merganser (M. serrator) and hooded merganser (Lop- hodytes cucullatus). Mergansers are found in scattered num bers on the mainstern of the Fraser where young salmon, as well as smelt, eulachons, etc.,are readily available in season. Red-breasted mergansers probably are most numerous and hooded mergansers least numerous. Munro and Clemens (1939) reported red-breasted mergansers to be feeding on chum salmon (Oncorhynahus keta), coho salmon (0. kisutch) eggs, salmon flesh, stickleback, sculpin, marine Crustacea, freshwater Crustacea and insects. They have also been re ported by Bent (1923,In: Munro and Clemens, 1939) to eat herring, molluscs, worms and occasionally frogs.

11 (ii) SHOREBIRDS

The Fraser delta is an extremely important area for both migrating and wintering shorebirds, Halladay and Harris (1972) have estimated the population to be in the vicinity of five million during peak migration. Species re corded are presented by Northcote (1974) and are given in Appendix 11.1. The species most likely to be noted between September and April are the dunlin (Calidris alpina), the western sandpiper (C. mauri) and the least sandpiper (C. minutilla). Both species of yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleucus and T. flavipes) are present, as are long-billed 164. Wildlife

dowitcher (Limnodromus sco'uopaceus). However, the latter does not appear in large numbers. Common snipe (Capella gallinago) use the salt marshes at low tide and the wet agricultural meadows at other times.

The extensive mud flats of Boundary Bay, Sturgeon Bank, and Roberts Bank offer excellent feeding areas for wading birds. Food items include polychaete worms, burrowing shrimp (Callianassa californiensis) , snails (Cerithiam sp.) and other marine inverte brates. Information concerning all aspects of the biology of shorebirds in this area is definitely lacking.

11 (iii) GULLS

Eight species of gulls are represented on the Fraser estuary. The major species is the glaucous- winged gull {Larus glaucescens). Vancouver and the Fraser delta area are reputed to attract some 40,000 glaucous winged gulls, the largest concentration of this species in a range which extends from Alaska to Washington. As a result, most of the gull data available concern this species Other gull species are shown in Appendix 11.1.

Glaucous-winged gulls are dependent primarily on man-provided foods. As a result, they gather at garbage dumps and fish processing plants, etc.,in great numbers to feed on the refuse. Roosting sites are located on various jetties and in sheltered bodies of water, and accommodate large numbers of gulls after dark.

Halladay (1968) reported that the wintering population which he examined at the Vancouver International 165. Wildlife

Airport was composed entirely of females and a few immature males, inferring that there was a segregation of the sexes in the over-wintering period. According to Halladay, the herring gull (Larus argentatus), California gull (Larus californious"), and mew gull (Larus canus) also display sex segregation while over-wintering. The latter three birds are mainly wintering species in this region. They feed on refuse, earthworms, beetles and slugs. California gulls have been reported to follow the mowers at the airport, hunting for Townsend voles (Miorotus townsendi) exposed or killed by grass cutting activities.

Gulls are a major problem at airports as they are attracted to the wet turf in search of earthworms. Twice- daily flights by gulls occur between nocturnal roosting areas and major feeding grounds such as garbage dumps, playing fields, golf courses and farm fields. Such movement often takes them directly over airports such as Vancouver International Airport and the now defunct Boundary Bay Airport. This aspect of gull behaviour should be considered when locating airports, garbage dumps, etc.

11 (iv) GREAT BLUE HERON

The great blue heron (Ardea herodias) is a relatively common species in the lower mainland. An estimate of its numbers may best be derived from the number of nests found in the local nesting colonies. Since the heron is a colonial nesting bird, it is unlikely that counts of solitary birds would add to the numbers of birds indicated by nest counts. 166. Wildlife

The n uiber of nests and locations of the heronries

are as follows:

(1) University of British - main colony, 55 nests Columbia Endowment Lands satellite colony, 20 nests

(2) Stanely Park - 30 nests (3) Port Coquitlam - 68 nests (Paine, 1972).

In addition, Urhahn (19t>8) has identified heronries at Beach Grove and Crescent Beach in the vicinity of Boundary Bay.

For nesting, herons prefer densely wooded areas as is evidenced by colony location. The Point Grey colony is located in a stand of alders, while the Stanley Park colony is in a stand of Sitka spruce. For feeding, however, herons prefer salt marshes, tidal flats, sloughs and ditches. Their main prey consists of frogs, sculpins, small flatfish such as Pac ific sanddab (Citharichthys sordidus), and starry flounder (Platiohthys stellatus). Great blue herons have also been reported to feed heavily on Townsend voles (Miorotus townsendi) in open fields (Halladay, 1968; Urhahn, 1968).

Herons occur in the lower mainland throughout the year, with an increase in numbers occurring on the estuary in mid-October to form a wintering population. During periods of prolonged cold and high tides, this species suffers high mortality due to lack of available food. At this time,they seem reluctant to migrate to areas with a more plentiful food supply.

11 (v) OTHER MIGRATORY BIRDS

The intertidal marshes, sloughs and hedgerows border ing agricultural land offer an assortment of food and cover for bird groups such as the passerine species, These birds are 167. Wildlife

protected under the Migratory Bird Convention Act, as are the waterfowl, shorebirds, gulls and herons discussed in preceding sub-sections of this chapter.

The status of those species of birds (both migra tory and non-migratory) of the Fraser delta not specifi cally discussed in this report is summarized in Appendix 11.1. For more detailed accounts of these species, general references such as Rodgers (1971), Campbell, Shepard and Drent (1972), and Campbell, Shepard and Weber (1972)

should be consulted.

11 (vi) RAPTORIAL BIRDS

At least 22 species of raptorial (predatory) birds are known to occur on the Fraser River delta (Campbell, Shepard and Weber, 1972) (Appendix 11.3). These species, most numerous October through April, are attracted to the delta by an abundant supply of food.

Marsh hawks (Circus cyaneus) , red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and short-eared owls (Asio flammeus) are the raptorial species most often seen on the delta (Campbell, Shepard and Weber, 1972; Hodson, in press).

Numbers of snowy owls (Nyatea saandiaca) winter ing on the delta may fluctuate widely from year to year, but generally they are low compared to other species of raptors. However, periodic migrations southward from the Arctic do occur, resulting in relatively large num bers throughout the delta. Such an influx of snowy owls occurred during the fall of 1973, and according to Dawe (pers. comm.), during the 1973 Christmas bird count 168. Wildlife

of the Ladner area, 107 snowy o-/ls were observed. This was believed to be the greatest number of snowy owls ever observed in one census area of North America during the annual Christmas bird counts.

Townsend voles (Miorotus townsendi) are an im portant prey species for raptors (Halladay, 1968; Hodson, in press) and are abundant in undeveloped areas throughout the delta. In addition, large numbers of migratory birds, particularly waterfowl and shorebirds, which either winter on the delta or rest there during migration, attract raptors, especially the more spectacular species such as falcons. The well-treed hedgerows of the area are an attraction to passerine birds which in turn attract moderate numbers of accipiters such as goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) , Cooper's hawks (A. aooperii), and sharp-shinned hawks (A, striatus). Many barns throughout the delta are inhabited by barn owls.

Because raptors are carnivors (flesh eaters) and are at the end of the avian food chain, their numbers are much lower than those of prey species. However, a lower number of raptors does not necessarily mean that raptors are of lower importance in the ecosystem of the Fraser River delta. In spite of their relatively low abundance, they play a significant role in the control of rodent and insect pests, and are also of considerable aesthetic importance.

The species on which most raptors prey on the Fraser delta are mainly dependent on one or more of the following general habitat types: open and semi-open undeveloped upland areas, agricultural land, foreshore marshes and intertidal mudflats. Alienation of any of these habitat types could result in a subsequent reduction in raptor populations. 169. Wildlife

11 (vii) UPLAND GAME BIRDS

Upland game birds generally are considered to be those species of upland birds on which there often is an open hunting season. For purposes of this report, upland game birds will include members of the order Galliformes (grouse, pheasants and quail) and order Columbiformes (pigeons and doves).

Only three species of upland game birds native to British Columbia occur on the Fraser River delta. These are ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata), and mourning doves (Zenaida macroura). Mourning doves and band-tailed pigeons also are classed as migratory birds under the Migratory Bird Convention Act. Generally, individuals of these three species are fairly widespread and are found in fairly low numbers in the approp riate habitat throughout the delta. However, there is some indication that wintering populations of mourning doves are increasing on the delta (Campbell, Shepard and Weber, 1972).

The ruffed grouse is the only native species of gallinaceous bird on the Fraser delta, but at least seven other species of exotic gallinaceous birds have been re leased or have accidentally escaped captivity in the Fraser valley (Carl and Guiguet, 1958; Campbell, Shepard and Weber, 1972). However, the Fraser delta is considered only margin al habitat for most of the species introduced and ,with the exception of the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus)> most of these introductions were unsuccessful.

Small isolated remnant flocks of introduced European gray partridge (Perdix perdix) were reported by 170. Wildlife

G.iguet (1970) to persist on Lulu Island and near Ladner. Also,. Campbell, Shepard and Weber (1972) reported that a small number of introduced California quail (Lophortyx californicus) still existed in the vicinity of Point Roberts.

Ring-necked pheasants, much sought by hunters, ii>e well established on the Fraser delta and are the most abundant and important of the upland game birds in the area. According to Taylor (pers. comm.), wherever they occur in British Columbia, ring-necked pheasants tradition ally are associated with land given to some form of agricul tural use. However, it is essential that this land have ade quate nearby cover which the pheasants may use for shelter, nesting, escaping from predators, etc. In food studies of pheasants in the Fraser valley, Taylor found that these birds depended primarily on vegetation, largely in the form of seeds with some fruits and green leafy material, at certain times of the year and that,within these basic food categor ies, specif ic use often varied widely from region to region, appearing to depend on what was locally available. Halladay (1968) obtained similar results in a study of the food habits of pheasants on Sea Island,

The most serious threat to the pheasants of the Fraser delta is the loss of habitat. If given suitable habi tat, pheasants have the reproductive potential and the in herent hardiness to survive the adversities of high hunting pressure, predation, and inclement weather. Pheasant habitat is lost when agricultural land is taken out of production or when semi-wild land next to farm land is cleared and paved over. Modern methods of farming which leave little cover along ditches, fence-rows, etc., have also reduced the amount and quality of pheasant habitat. 171. Wildlife

11 (viii) MAMMALS

The following excerpt from Sverre (1974) summar izes the general status of information regarding mammals at this time. "Little work has been done on the mammal populations of the Fraser delta beyond recording incidental information on species occurrences and distribution. The muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) is perhaps the mammal best known and best adapted to the association of aquatic and terres trial environments characterising the estuarine situation. These animals are numerous and well distributed throughout the region. Field mice (Miorotus townsendi) are also abun dant and were found to be one of the main food items in the diet of raptorial birds on Sea Island (Halladay, 1968). Racoons (Procyon lotor pacifious) and red fox (Vulpes fulva casoadensis) occur in relatively small numbers over much of the estuary,and river otter (Lutra canadensis), beaver (Castor canadensis) , and mink (Mustela vison) are occasional ly seen. The harbour seal (Phoca vitulina richardi) is the most common marine mammal in the waters off the Fraser delta. It is present in the Fraser River during early spring,when attracted from adjacent waters by the runs of eulachon on which it feeds at that time. Seal pups are born on sand bars in the river and on portions of the tidal flats of Boundary Bay (Benson, 1962). Becker (1968) estimated this population

to number about 250 animals".

In addition to the above, two introduced species, the eastern cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) and the oppossum (Didelphus marsupialis), have spread into the Fraser valley from introductions to the State of Washington (Cowan and Guiguet, 1965), and they are reported to be well established on the delta south of the Fraser River. Both species have a high reproductive potential and,in their native range,are 172. Wildlife

coi sidered game animals. However, nothing is known of the biology of these species in the Fraser valley or of their ecological impact on the n.rtive flora and fauna

of this area.

Two species of ungulates, the Roosevelt elk (Cervus canadensis roosevelti) and the Columbian blacktail deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) , originally inhabited the Fraser River delta. However, the Roosevelt elk were exterminated from the mainland during the mid- 1800's (Cowan and Guiguet, 1965). Blacktail deer still can be found scattered throughout the more heavily- wooded portions of the delta, especially in and around Burns Bog, as are limited numbers of black bear.

A summary of the remaining mammalian, reptilian and amphibian species may be found in Appendix 11.1.

11 (ix) RECREATION

In metropolitan areas, recreation is an important asset which must be planned for carefully in the initial development schemes. In our present society, in spite of increased mobility, people are required to spend the major portion of their ever-increasing leisure time at home. There are only six long weekends per year, plus the average person's annual holiday leave,in which people can effective ly make use of distant recreational facilities. Recreation areas should be made available in close proximity to large

urban centres. 173. Wildlife

Vancouver is extremely fortunate at the present time in having large tracts of adjacent valuable recreational land in the form of the Fraser estuary and Fraser delta foreshores. The major reason for this value to recreation is the essentially natural appearance of the area and the presence of vast waterfowl populations.

Although these waterfowl populations have been subjected to decreasing consumptive utilization, non- consumptive recreational utilization has been increasing steadily. For example, while in Table 11.3 it may be seen that the percentage of waterfowl hunters in British Colum bia, who are located in the lower mainland, rose from 44.4% in 1950 to 52.8% in 1968, this percentage actually dropped between 1968 and 1974. According to Hedlin,Menzies and Associates Ltd. (1967) in a report commissioned by the Canadian Wildlife Service,at that time there were 16,600 waterfowl hunters in the lower mainland, hunting an average of 14.4 days per season. This figure may be slightly high, the actual figure now being closer to 12 (Morris, pers. comm.), but it serves its purpose in an illustrative manner. This leads to a calculation of approximately 24,000 waterfowl hunting days in the lower mainland over a given hunting season. Hedlin, Menzies and Associates Ltd. (1967) assigned a value of $6.00 per hunting day which hunting provides as input into the regional economy. This would be adjusted to $6.37 in 1971 and $7.85 in 1985, so that in 1971 hunting would be assigned a hypothetical value of $1,528,000 for the lower mainland. This would provide a considerable input into the local economy. However, these predictions have not, in fact, been realized. The number of hunters has actually decreased since 1968 due to losses in hunting opportunity. 174. Wildlife

Table 11.3 Trend in number of waterfowl hunters in British Columbia (Taylor, 1970c).

ainland Coast British Columbia % on Mainland Coast

1950 13,121 29,707 4 '1 .4

4u 6 1.951 15,120 32,410

14 .5 1952 14,300 32,170 '

44.9 1953 14,620 36,600

1954 14,250 31,420 4 5.3

1955 13,521 28,190 52.4

48.1 1956 14,410 30,000

48.0 1957 15,650 32,600

45.3 1958 15,475 34,198

45.5 1959 16,450 36,198

42.3 1960 16,500 38,995

35.8 1961 14,790 41,600

48.0 1962 18,910 39,380

37.5 1963 16,410 43,800

44.5 1964 15,881 35,785

(i) 1965 18,198 38,205 47.6

50.6 1966 17,788 35,033 51.5 1967 19,517 37,995 29,100 52.8 1968 15,385 (i) In 1965 the mainland coast was split into upper mainland and lower mainland, at which time the hunter estimate for the latter area was 16,616. An adjustment of a similar magnitude could be made through 1968. 175. Wildlife

This value ,derived from utilization of water fowl populations ,could be increased by proper management procedures (Morris,1971). Morris suggests that waterfowl populations could be doubled or possibly quadrupled by the implementation of controlled waterfowl hunting areas. A controlled hunting area is a tract of land of a minimum size of 600 acres, which contains:

1) Refuge - 1/3 size of controlled area. 2) Sanctuary (with feeding). 3) Controlled shooting zone with assigned blinds (one per 30 acres). 4) Free-zone - hunters free to move around.

According to Bryant (Morris, 1971), hunter success (measured as birds/man/day) increased with the size of the controlled hunting unit up to 2,500 - 3,000 acres. Areas larger than this did not result in a proportional increase in hunter success.

In a controlled hunting area, the refuge is a wildlife management area where various habitat improvement projects may be applied. It must be an area where the birds will not be disturbed during the open season, and have ponds of varying depths to supply the needs of the dabbling and diving ducks. The refuge then provides all the facilities and stimulae necessary for bird-watching.

The sanctuary should be a tract of land with at least 2 acres of water available, and food provided in abundance. It should be in or adjacent to the controlled shooting area and have no shooting within a h mile radius. 1/6. Wildlife

The controlled shooting zone should have fixed blinds with approximately 30 acres allowed for each blind. luivters would be assigned to blinds at the beginning of lie day's shooting.

In the free-zone, hunters would be free to tramp around the periphery of the controlled shooting area and a higher hunter density would be allowed (Figure 11.3).

Fig. 11.3. Sketch of possible layout of 3,000 acre controlled waterfowl hunting unit (Morris,1971)

Refuge Free zone Controlled shooting zone

Sanctuary

Free zone.

it is recommended that the entire.controlled hunting area be closed for 3 days a week for rest days.

A hunter success of 1.5 ducks/man/day could be anticipated in the controlled zone with lower values (0.5 ducks/man/day) for the free zone. These values would prevail throughout the season, whereas under the present system,hunter success such as this occurs only once per season - on opening day. 177. Wildlife

Hedlin, Menzies and Associates Ltd. (1967) have predicted a 50% increase in waterfovl hunting days between 1971 and 1985. This prediction has not thus far been realized due to the documented decrease in hunting oppor tunity. The number of hunters moving into the area may be as predicted, but the availability of quality hunting has decreased.

Linduska (1964), in "Waterfowl Tomorrow", states "Except for boating and fishing at reservoir sites, the fastest growth in outdoor recreation since World War II has been in the use of National Wildlife Refuges. The attendance at these refuges has grown at the rate of 12% annually during this period while the population in creased at somewhat less than 2% per year" .

It has also been reported that the National Wildlife Refuges in California accommodated 11 million visitors in 1962, of which only 4% were hunters. These are good indications of the growing popularity of water fowl refuges. Vancouver is fortunate to have a transient waterfowl population for which population estimates range from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000 birds. This is a unique recreational situation and the opportunity should be fully utilized.

Evidence of local enthusiasm for waterfowl re fuges may be obtained by looking at some figures pertain ing to the George C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuary (Tables 11.4, 11.5, and 11.6). 178. Wildlife

Table 11.4 Percentage o winter waterfowl population •tsing the (.-jrge C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuar" •

Season Percentage

1966-67 N 4.2 1967-68 24.8 1968-09 30.5 1969-70 25.8

Table 11.5 Increase in nesting population at the George C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuary

Year Number of Nests

1967 18 1968 19 1969 54 1970 112

Table 11.6 Attendance record at the George C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuary.

Year Number of Visitors Receipts 1972 32,000 regular visitors $16,000 23,000 school children 7,000

1973 36,000 regular visitors 18,000 23,000 school children 7,000 179. Wildlife

From Table 11.6 it is obvious that the sanc tuary has become a popular attraction on the lower main land. However, workers there have reported that it is operating virtually at capacity at the present time, and cannot be expected to accommodate many more visitors with out destroying its qualities as a refuge.

Outdoor education is becoming a more and more important part of the curricula in our schools today. It is important that people be made aware of environ mental principles and problems. However, as stated previously, the George C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuary is already operating at capacity in terms of school visits, and other nature parks such as Richmond Nature Park, Serpentine Fen and Burnaby Lake Nature Park are also busy. From this it may be seen that more areas must be set aside and interpretation centres made available for outdoor education.

The George C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuary has caused an increase in waterfowl numbers not only within its own bounds, but also in the surrounding area. Waterfowl hunters who had initially opposed the establish ment of the refuge were quick to remark on the increased hunting success after its opening.

Non-consumptive use of waterfowl can also be a source of economic input into the region. Hedlin, Menzies and Associates Ltd. (1967) have assigned non-consumptive wildlife utilization an arbitrary value of $3.00 per visitor per day for 1967. It was assumed in this report that at least twice as many people would utilize this form of recreation 180. Wildlife

as those hunting, if only due to the fact that both sexes ordinarily participate, while hunting is primarily a male r jreational outl t. Therefore, the value obtained from non-consumptive recreational use would be of the same order as that obtained from consumptive use.

In North American society, the two most popular forms of outdoor recreation are driving for pleasure and walking for pleasure. Waterfowl refuges could provide focal pointb for both of these activities.

From the previous discussion it may be seen that the environment associated with the Fraser estuary is extremely important to wildlife. It forms a significant link in the Pacific flyway for migratory birds and provides vital wintering and breeding habitat for other species. The environment is also essential as a recreational outlet in the vicinity of the growing urban metropolis of

Vancouver. 181.

12. LAND USE

12 (i) AGRICULTURE

A discussion of the vegetation of the lower main land naturally included the agricultural community, as noted in the studies by Forbes (1972) and McLaren (1972). However, agriculture is more than just a name for an assemblage of plant species, it is an important industry in the delta area. Siemens (1968) outlined the history of settlement in the lower mainland. The initial influx of people was those drawn by the gold rushes of the mid 1800's. After the gold fever had died, many people turned to farming on the rich delta lands which, although wet, re quired no clearing. Dyking of agricultural land began with the first settlements, and continues to this day. In 1885, with the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway through the Fraser valley, many more settlers came. Many of them began farming. Others turned to various jobs within the industries of the growing urban community on the banks of the Fraser at New Westminster, which was to become part of greater Vancouver. Today, the agriculture of the region comprises about 256,000 acres of farmland between Ladner and Hope, and is one of the most intensive producing areas in Canada for all types of poultry, livestock, fur animals (mink), forage crops, fruits, vegetables, and ornamental horticulture (see Figure 12.1). Food processing industries have developed in association with agricultural enterprises. In the actual delta area, a conflict has arisen between the need for land for urban growth; and the need for land for food production, in order to feed the ever increasing lower mainland population. As a result, concentration of agri cultural activity has occurred. The traditional "farm" no longer exists in the study area, as it has become im possible to balance crop production with animal production. fr « *

GO ro

Figure 12.1. LAND PRESENTLY IN AGRICULTURE 183. Land Use

Eventually animal production and dispersal in the area will have to be limited, with a result of lower availability and higher prices for perishable animal products. Farmers will have to turn to high return horticultural products to re place the relatively low yield crops presently grown (Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board, 1962).

In addition to the 256,000 acres occupied by farms in the lower mainland, crops and rough-improved land (wood- lots, pasture, etc) utilize another 200,000 acres. Crop acreage can be split into seven basic types of production as follows: forage (grass and legume: 150,000 acres), vegetables (12,000 acres), grain (10,000 acres), small fruits (7,000 acres), corn silage (6,000 acres), potatoes (5,000 acres), and tree fruits (175 acres). The amount of land used in animal production, including dairy cattle and expressed as acre equivalent at 2 animal units per acre, is: cattle - 59,400 acres; laying chickens - 13,200 acres; broiler chick ens - 7,200 acres; horses - 6,500 acres; turkeys - 2,350 acres; swine - 1,100 acres; sheep - 850 acres; mink (breeding animals) - 580 acres; ducks and geese - 175 acres; and game birds (farm reared) - 75 acres, representing a total of 91,430 acres for animal production (Clarke, 1973). In the early I960's,it was estimated that agriculture supported one out of every five jobs in the lower mainland. As the area for agriculture continues to decrease, farming will become increasingly uneconomical due to unequitable taxation in rural-urban areas, and concurrent high costs for services (power, dyking and drainage) and land. If farming is to remain a viable industry on the delta, land zoning will have to be tightly controlled, with urban development re stricted to areas of low soil fertility off the flood plain 184. Land Use

as far as possible, and taxation will have to be adjusted so as to not penalize fari^ (Lower Mainland Regional Plan ning Board, 1962; Paton, Smith and Gram Li:J., 1973).

12 (ii) URBAN DEVELOPMENT

initial settlement of the lower mainland by Europeans in 1857 was concentrated at the point where the two Fraser delta channels converge. At the same time, militnry establishments were set up on Burrard Inlet to de fend the harbour. In 1859 a road was cut between these two settlements and, with the building of a hotel at the end of this road in 1861, the beginning of what is now Vancouver was established. The remainder of the history of the build ing of Vancouver is summarized by Siemens (1968). The cli mate and beautiful scenery make the lower delta an attrac tive place for people to live; so attractive, in fact, that in 1971 the population of Vancouver and its Fraser municipa lities was 815,218, with an additional 213,116 living in other municipalities not directly within our zone of refer ence. At the rate of growth recorded in 1971, the population can be expected to double every 24 years. Should this prove to be true, over 2 million people would be residing in the lower mainland by the turn of the century (Greater Vancouver Regional District, 1973c).

Where will the additional people be put? In the late 1950fs,Vancouver underwent a suburban "boom". At that time, the automobile, the desire for land ownership, lower land values out of the metropolitan core, and the desire to "get back to the country" combined to create a mass exodus 185. Land Use

to the suburban fringe. Outer municipalities extensively rezoned vast tracts of land which were bought up by deve lopers wherever the price was lowest. Taxation policies emphasizing "improvements" and de-emphasizing "land" en abled long-term land holding at low tax rates. As a re sult, development was scattered, some areas being only partially utilized, and others not being touched at all. This situation is what we now call the "urban sprawl" of the lower mainland. Sprawl is defined as "a stage of transition between true agricultural development, which has a density of less than 0.3 people per acre, and sub urban residential development, with a density of greater than 3.5 people per acre. That is, sprawl areas have a density of between 0.3 and 3.5 people per acre" (Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board, 1956b). The conse quences of this boom have taken some years to material ize. Among the most important are: the loss of prime industrial land; the loss of prime agricultural land and disruption of the local agricultural economy; increased taxes; and high commuter costs to shopping facilities and work. The most bitter consequences fall to the suburban ites themselves. The municipalities have not always been able to afford the services required by the new develop ments, with the result being that areas are without paved roads, streetlights, sidewalks, sewers, adequate fire de partment services, schools, and shopping facilities. In short, suburbanites have neither the services and con veniences of the city, nor the peace and beauty of the country.

The Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board (1967b) 186. Land Use

mad? several recommendations for future residential devel opment including t.ie following points. Residential devel opment should be made available on a carefully staged basis, co-ordinated with population growth and the munici palities' budget, with land zoned for small-lot develop ment accommodating not more than five years' population growth. Areas already serviced should be developed first. Any new development located at some'distance from existing services should be of over 1,000 homes in order to offset the costs of connecting trunk services. Lots should not exceed 7,000 square feet. Land for future development should be retained in parcels of over five acres until needed, with services being minimal in order to discourage rampant development. If one or half acre lots cannot be avoided, the affected area should be well planned in order r, ) be redivisible at a later time. With the shortage of land, apartments and condominiums will necessarily replace the single family dwelling. Something will have to be done to regulate housing and rental costs which are presently sky-rocketing (Greater Vancouver Regional District, 1973a). With the increased population, there will be an increased demand for rapid transit facilities to enable the commuter to get from one area to another in the shortest possible time. It is estimated that the amount of travel in the lower mainland will more than double in the next 30 years (DeLeuw Cather of Canada, 1970; Parkinson, 1972). These are just some of the problems to be faced by the munici palities in the next decade in relation to urban growth. 187. Land Use

12 (iii) RECREATION (OTHER THAN WILDLIFE)

With the increase in population, not only do the demands for land for growing of food and housing increase, but so does the demand for recreational land. Studies by the Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board (1961c, 1966a and 1967a) have shown that for every 1,000 people, there should be 7 acres of recreational land. If the population reaches 2 million by the year 2000 as predicted, the lower mainland will be 7,000 acres short. Presently there are about 4.1 acres per thousand, that is, 42% less than the desired amount. Of this, 1,000 acres (1/3 of the acreage) is con tained in Stanley Park. Many of the delta municipalities contribute next to nothing in recreational land due to topography, poor drainage, or other reasons. Beaches are also presently in short supply since much of the waterfront is used industrially (see Figure 12.2).

Various plans have been proposed to develop areas for recreational use. In a Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board report (1961c) on land for leisure, existing and potential recreational forms in the lower mainland were discussed. Beaches are limited to the Stanley Park - English Bay area at this time. They indicated the possib ility of development of those at White Rock and Boundary Bay, but as many studies have been done on these areas in this regard, it will be discussed at greater length at the end of this section. There are about 12 golf courses in the lower mainland delta area, of which only seven are open to the public. Areas where courses could be built are limited to sites where there are 100 to 150 acres of usable land. •v a

ACCESSIBLE BEACH AREA (Swan- Wooster 1967)

WILDLIFE REFUGE Figure 12.2. RECREATIONAL LAND USE 189. Land Use

Fraserview, the Musqueam Indian Reserve, and regions of Richmond were suggested for future development. Unfortunately, increasing land prices and taxes are making such developments more and more difficult. In the area of large parks, two sites within our study area are suggested, East Surrey-Langley-Matsqui, and the banks of the Fraser River itself. Much of this land is privately owned and would prove expensive to acquire and develop. An additional suggestion involves increasing parkways, as an ever increasing number of people find pleasure in leisure driving. Areas mentioned in this regard include the banks of the Fraser, Point Roberts, Boundary Bay, Crescent Beach and White Rock. The recreations of hunting and fishing are also discussed. Both seem to be increasing in popularity, but are hampered by decreasing availability of land and stream access. They suggest that the important wildfowl area of Westham Island foreshore be maintained in part as a bird sanctuary, with the rest being a public shooting grounds. Also, hunting should be allowed on Iona and Sea islands and at Boundary Bay. This, they contend, would help to reduce the bird hazard to aircraft in the area of Vancouver International Airport. Regarding fishing, roads and parking facilities should be built to provide access to the Fraser River sand bars, and to the Campbell, Nicomekl and Serpentine rivers. Also, as far as possible, subdivision should be stopped short of the stream bank, leaving green strips for wildlife and people. Picnic facilities should also be provided (Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board, 1961c). For a more complete review of wildlife as a recrea tion source, the reader is referred to the Wildlife section of this report. 190. Land Use

Returning to a discussion of potential beaches, studies on the Boundary Bay-Point Roberts area are plenti ful (Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board, 1959a and 1966a; Taylor and Eidsvik, 1965; U.S. National Parks Service and Parks Canada, 1973; and various Anonymous reports). The extreme sensitivity of the tidal flats of these areas to fish and waterfowl is never considered in many development proposals. An example is one plan which advised the reclamation of 10,000 acres of Boundary Bay by the constru ction of a dyke from the sandspit at Beach Grove across the bay to a point \h miles from the International Boundary, and then the filling of this area with material dredged from the harbour basin through the construction of a new boat harbour (Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board, 1959a). Another report (Taylor and Eidsvik, 1965) dealt with the park potential of five areas between Blaine, Washington, and the mouth of the Fraser. The first area was that of the Tsawwassen causeway and Indian Reserve. The four miles of gravel beach could accommodate up to 20,000 people, and the area also lends itself to the building of a marina for pleasure craft. Point Roberts was a somewhat less desirable location since much of the shore is privately owned or is non-existent due to steep cliffs, not to mention the fact that it is not within Canada. Excellent potential exists, however, in the two miles of frontage fram the Inter national Boundary north to Beach Grove. A small amount of this is privately owned, and two other small tracts are already developed as parks (Delta's Centennial Park, and a Class "C" Provincial Park). However, many plans have also been made to develop Boundary Bay as an industrial site, and this might interfere with potential park development. 191. Land Use

The next best alternative reported was the eight to nine miles of frontage from Beach Grove eastward to the Delta boundary. This land is flat and marshy, characterized by shallow water even at low tide. Reclamation would require major engineering work as all of the required land lies outside of the existing dykes. Small areas of public beach also remain around White Rock and Surrey Municipality, such as the heavily used Provincial and State Park at the Peace Arch, the park on the eastern edge of White Rock, the road right-of-way in White Rock, and the access to Crescent Beach. Finally, the Semiahmoo Indian Reserve could perhaps be a potential public beach.

Various other schemes ranging from international marine parks to private beach resorts have been proposed for this area, but to discuss them all would not be pract ical. The main objective throughout most of them is to preserve our natural scenic areas from industrial and urban development by another form of development called

"recreational land use".

12 (iv) INDUSTRY

It is obvious that the thousands of people expec ted to move into the lower mainland (demanding land for food production, housing, and recreation) will have to be able to find work. This in turn means yet another land demand - land for industrial development. A variety of reports on industry and economic development in the lower mainland have been prepared by the Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board (1960, 1961a and b) and by the Greater Vancouver 192. Land Use

Regional District (1970, 1971a and b). One basic report (Greater Vancouver Regional District, 1971a) will be used for the following discussion, and the reader is referred to the other articles for more detailed information.

Due to its very nature, most of British Columbia's industry is clustered in greater Vancouver. With resources from the sea, forests, and farms, the region's industries have a strong processing emphasis geared to serving the near by limited, but growing, domestic market. The fabricating industry needs the concentrated market and labour force, proximity to other industries, varied business services, and the diversified transportation of metropolitan Vancouver. The service industries are growing under the impetus of the region al market and resource development.

The continued expansion of the manufacturing, construc tion, transportation and wholesaling sectors all point toward a growing economy. Between 1960 and 1966, 600 new industrial firms were established in the metro area, exceeding by 17% the available developed sites. All new sites were within 30 minutes driving time of the city core. A shift has occurred from mainly manufacturing to distributional industries, with the size of manufacturing establishments being reduced. The trend is toward small, specialized industries located in the city proper, with large, diverse firms in the suburbs. In 1960, the supply of potential industrial sites was approx imately 12,500 acres in metro Vancouver, and 5,000 acres further up the Fraser valley - a total of 22,500 when zoned industrial land is included. Not included are 25,000 acres (gross) of tidal foreshore, peat bogs, unserviced rural land, inappropriately zoned land or areas with obsolete structures, and areas where roads and dykes could be relocated. The delta foreshores are invariably the first to be singled out for dredging and filling. Areas of Delta farmland adjacent to the 193. Land Use

Roberts Bank superport have already been expropriated for further development. Estimates for needed industrial land (net) to accommodate increased populations by the year 2000 are in the order of 13,500 acres. An additional 12,000 to 13,000 acres are required just to keep pace with the usual rate of land absorbtion with no population increase. This results in a total of 18,000 to 22,000 acres (net) to needed land for indus try by the year 2000. Of this, 4,900 acres (net) will be needed on the waterfront and the remainder inland. Most of these "inland" industries will need to be located on transportation routes of one form or another (Greater Vancouver Regional District, 1971a).

12 (v) WATERFRONT LAND USE

Forward (1968) reported a survey of waterfront land use in greater Vancouver. The Coast Mountains of British Columbia present a formidable barrier to access to the Pacific by land. The most favourable site is that of the Fraser delta, a narrow corridor to the sea (25 miles wide) in which three major port areas have developed - Vancouver on Burrard Inlet, New Westmin ster on the mainstem of the Fraser River, and the North Arm of the Fraser River. Shipping activity is varied and substantial, second only to Montreal in tonnage of cargo handled. Besides use as a port, waterfrontage is used for log storage and hand ling, for flat building sites of sturdy foundation, and, of course, for recreation by the 880,000 people of the metropoli tan area. Several different authorities handle the waterfront- ages of Vancouver. Those of the North Arm of the Fraser, the New Westminster-Pitt River area, and South Arm of the Fraser are the North Fraser Harbour Commissioners, Fraser River Harbour Board and the provincial government , respectively.

Water depth is the major governing factor for naviga tion. A deep-sea channel via the South Arm to Port Mann is main tained by dredging to a depth of 28^ feet with a twelve foot tide at the river mouth. This restricts the ships able to traverse it A project to deepen and widen Annieville Channel, and to divert 194. Land Use

currents by rock walls and groynes in order to reduce silting allows year-round use of the Fraser-Surrey

docks.

A second entry lies via the North Arm which has a depth of twelve to fifteen feet. Other minor channels ten feet deep include Ladner Reach and Annacis Channel in the South Arm, and Morey Channel in.the Middle Arm (also accessible via the North Arm).: The central section of the Middle Arm is used as a seaplane port by Vancouver International Airport. The Department of Public Works maintains these channels, while upstream of Port Mann the river maintains itself to a depth of about 20 feet or more. One is referred to the discussions on oceanography, hydrol ogy, and geology for information concerning tides, water flow, and soil conditions of the river banks.

Waterfront recreational land (including parks and golf courses) occurs from the mouth of the North Arm around to Point Grey, although much of this is inaccessible due to steep cliffs and woodland. There are several waterfowl reserves on the islands of the South Arm near Ladner. A few small parks are found in the Boundary Bay- White Rock areas, but generally the areas influenced by river siltation are felt unsuitable for swimming and too shallow for boating.

Residential use along the Fraser is chiefly in the form of single family dwellings, often with small fishing sheds or net lofts at the water's edge. Many people are fishermen, and moor their boats behind their

homes. 195. Land Use

Vancouver International Airport pre-empts most of the Sea Island coastline, and several railway marshalling yards occupy lengthy frontages along "he Fraser. Electric power, natural gas, sewa^o, and water supply installations occupy waterfront sites such as those of Iona and Annacis islands.

Although they occupy a relatively small pro portion of usable waterfrontage, some commercial, service, and construction firms use pieces of land. Commercial fishermen are served by fishing stations, government terminals, and small wharves. The majority of fishing boats are moored and serviced in the North ind South arms of the Fraser. Marinas, situated mostly in the western region accessible to the Strait of Georgia, also utilize some land, as do yacht clubs and marine service stations. Several motels, hotels, and restaurants have waterfront locations.

The towing, dredging, and pile-driving industry is centered mainly on the North Arm and Vancouver harbour, where intensive port and manufacturing development generates business. Log towing and handling is the principal activity of the North Arm.

Of the 25 miles of Vancouver shoreline used by manufacturing industries, over 3/4 occurs on the Fraser River due to the relatively flat land available at moderate prices, and the presence of shipping channels that can handle coastal or medium-sized deep-sea vessels. Nearly half of the industrial shoreline is used by log converters, including sawmills, plywood mills, and pole mills. Log transport, storage, and handling is, therefore, a major use 196. Land Use

of the water bodies. The North Arm log converting industries occupy 601 of the local industrial waterfront. Logs are stored in narrow booms along both sides of the river, normally within the harbour headline, and fore shore areas are leased from the harbour commissioners for this purpose. Freshwater storage is preferred to prevent marine wood borer damage, and in the Fraser it is customary for mills to stcre full inventories upstream from their plant sites before the spring freshet in order to avoid towing against the strong currents. The Point Grey boom ing grounds hold Howe Sound logs prior to their movement upstream. Of the Fraser channels, only the South Arm does not support a large number of mills.

Building material plants on the river use tugs and barges to move sand, gravel, and heavy finished products. Fish processing plants, especially the salmon canneries of the Steveston area, also use a percentage of waterfront. Here they increase efficiency by being close to the main fishing grounds.

With the exception of chemical plants, most of the remaining industries located on the waterfront do not use water transport in the handling of raw materials or of finished products, and could, therefore, be located else where. These include the metal products and machine shops, wood and paper products, some food industries, and plastics industries.

Of the remaining waterfront land, 901 is used for shipping purposes, including every type of docking facility from huge, modern deep-sea terminals to mere 197. Land Use

scow slips. The New Westminster waterfront and the north side of the North Arm from Marpole to Boundary Road are important shipping areas. Most of this is coastal-oriented rather than deep-sea,with the majority of the coastal outlets occurring along the Fraser. Presently, Vancouver ports handle large quantities of outbound grain, coking coal, potash, sulphur,. propane, pulp, and newsprint, as well as inbound raw materials such as wood products, building materials, fish, foodstuffs, and chemicals. There will be an increasing demand for more port facilities and cargo holding zones. Eventually those industries now located on waterfront land but which do not necessarily have to be, will be forced to move inland to make way for industries requiring waterfrontage. Other waterfront land could be obtained from areas now used for agriculture or recreation, but this would be governed by water depth, slope of the land, foundation conditions, accessibility, and land values. Most of this agricultural land lies along the Fraser. Much of it is subject to flooding, and to prevent this, the river would have to be dredged and the fill used to raise the waterfront land to the height of surrounding dykes. Areas covered in peat, such as the Lulu Island bog, would make poor foundation for industrial structures, and costs to remove it would be high. Of the 27 miles available, only six miles are known to have good foundation. The deep-sea channel could be extended east of Douglas Island by dredging to open up the shorelines of Pitt Meadows and Barnston Island for industrial use. According to the Forward report (1968), reclamation projects could be under taken at Roberts Bank or, preferably Sturgeon Bank, to provide land for industries such as oil refineries and 198. Land Use

related petro-chemical industries. Sturgeon Bank was thought to be advantageous through its proximity io Vancouver, its access to easy rail extension from Lulu Island, and its access to deep water. A similar proposal has been made for Boundary Bay (Anon.).

Abundant land is still available where the water channels are less than 20 feet deep.- Dredging of these areas would make them available for industrialization. Such areas include the south side of the North and Middle arms, although low bridges would cause problems here. Areas now used for log storage would have to be reduced. The South Arm, therefore, would have advantages over the other two channels since development is sparse in this channel at the moment and deep-sea access is readily available. Residential lands in these areas would event ually become industrialized as well.

The areas discussed under the general heading of "Land Use" are equally important individually. However, they are all inter-dependant, and taking :Crom one to "feed" another is the same as robbing oneself. The municipal councils and other governing bodies dictating land management policies must weigh all the possible alternatives before reaching a planning decision in any one area, as the outcome will undoubtedly have ramifications in one or more of the other three, not to mention the effect on the natural ecosystems of the lower Fraser delta. 199.

13. WASTE DISPOSAL AND POLLUTION PROBLEMS

13 (i) GENERAL DISCUSSION

Water pollutants, be they from sewage, domestic refuse, storm water discharges,or industrial effluents, express themselves in one or more of five possible ways.

One of the most obvious expressions is suspended solids, either organic or inorganic. Such substances re duce light penetration, thus inhibiting plant growth (phytoplankton and benthic plants). Heavy concentrations may clog the gills of invertebrates and fish, or they may settle out and smother the benthos and fish eggs on the river or estuary bed. They also reduce the desirability of the re ceiving water for recreational purposes.

A second expression is the reduction of oxygen available for living organisms through organic decomposi tion. Bacteria denature organic matter, with the end re sult being the formation of carbon dioxide, nitrates, and water. In an area of poor circulation, where oxygen is used but not replenished to balance the system, the water can become anoxic and result in avoidance or death of aerobic organisms.

Nutrients are necessary for all living things - without them life cannot go on. However, an over-abundance of a limiting factor such as a specific nutrient (for example 200. Pollution

nitrogen or phosphorus) can cause a sudden extraordinar ily large increase in growth. An algal bloom caused by the addition of detergents containing phosphates is a prime example.

The build-up of pathogenic bacteria and viruses is another effect of water-borne pollutants. These are usually monitored by "indicator organisms", such as shell fish, which tend to concentrate micro-organisms including pathogens.

By far the most varied group of pollutants are the toxic substances - those chemicals that exhibit deleter ious effects through either lethal or sub-lethal actions to living organisms. They include industrial chemicals, pesticides, herbicides, laboratory wastes, pharmaceutical wastes, and most metals. At the right concentrations, these substances may kill a certain species, lower a species' ability to reproduce and decrease the chances of viable offspring, cause avoidance reactions by an organism to the discharge area, or any of several other effects. When more than one substance is present, the effects may be additive. As an example of these effects, one can note some of the recent data available on the effects of kraft pulp mill wastes. Leach and Thakore (1973) isolated sub stances from this waste which were toxic to juvenile coho salmon. They found that 801 of the toxicity was caused by three resin acid soaps (sodium isopimarate, sodium abietate, and sodium dehydroabietate), with the remainder caused by sodium salts of the unsaturated fatty acids palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic. As well, 201. Pollution

Davis (1973) was able to demonstrate sublethal effects of bleached kraft pulp mill effluent oa the respiration and circulation processes of sockeye salmon. Such things as ventilatory waterflow, oxygen uptake, cough frequency and buccal pressure increased upon exposure to sublethal doses of effluent, while arterial oxygen tension declined rapid ly and remained depressed after prolonged exposures (24 hours). These are only two of many studies done in this area, but limitations of time and space do not allow for a complete literature review. Suffice it to say that a wide variety of substances are toxic, either lethally or sublethally, and one is referred to McKee and Wolfe (1963) for various toxic levels of these compounds.

The discharge of wastes to waterways in British Columbia is governed by the Provincial Pollution Control Act of 1967. All sizeable discharges must be under permit to the Pollution Control Branch. This agency also formul ates legislation governing discharges and sets pollution policies. At the time of writing, 124 applications for permits, permits, or registrations had been issued for sources located on the lower Fraser River (see Appendix 13.1) Of these, 29 were for domestic sewage outlets, 42 were for the wood products industry, 24 were for the food processing industry (including meat and fish), 4 for the chemical industry, 15 for construction and related industries (cement plants, etc.) and 10 for other miscellaneous indus tries. In additon, it is generally known that not all of the industries on the Fraser which possess effluents are registered with the Pollution Control Branch (Nemeth, pers. comm. ). 202. Pollution

13 (ii) DOMESTIC ORGANIC WASTE DISPOSAL

The earliest sewers servicing lower mainland communities were constructed in 1890. From this date until 1913 various trunks and outfalls were incorporated into the system to service newly developed areas. A study by Lea, in 1913, resulted in a 9 million dollar expansion of sewerage facilities by the early 1940's. Following World War II, the increasing populations in the lower mainland caused these facilities to become inadequate. Some shores and shore waters were becoming polluted, and so the Vancouver and Districts Joint Sewerage and Drainage Board engaged three sanitary engineers to study the prob lem and produce a long range sewerage plan. The outcome of this study was the Rawn Report (1953). This report has since been updated (Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District, 1973), and several of its recommenda tions instituted. To date, some 50 million dollars have been spent on such projects as the Brunette interceptor, the Burnaby Lake north interceptor, several small trunk sewers and pump stations, the Westridgc; combined sewer, the Hollyburn interceptor, Lions Gate treatment plant, North Vancouver interceptor, expansion of North Vancouver treatment plant, Iona Island sewage treatment plant, cros sing of the North Arm, the Highbury Tunnel, Fourth Avenue interceptor, Spanish Bank pump station, Eighth Avenue in terceptor, Lulu Island trunk system and treatment plant, and the Annacis Island treatment plant (Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District, 1973). Various other plans have yet to be implemented to service the south Surrey, Crescent Beach, and general lower delta areas, as well as expansions to various existing treatment facilities. 203. Pollution

The Rawn Report (1953) considered a wide variety of factors in reaching the final decisions for sewerage and drainage facilities in the lower mainland, and one is referred to this document for details of the following discussion. In general, disposal of sewage in the greater Vancouver area is to tidal waters of the Strait of Georgia and Burrard Inlet or to the Fraser River and its tributar ies. The factors dictating the location of discharge and type of treatment for sewage are not the same as those for drainage systems. Disposal of storm water is economi cally controlled, the main objective being safe, efficient diversion of surface water runoff into the nearest adequate waterway. Sewage disposal comes under the jurisdiction of several federal,provincial and municipal departments of government.

The capacity of sea water (in this case, the Fraser estuary) to receive sewage and render it harmless is directly related to its ability to dilute, destroy patho genic organisms, and oxidize organic matter. Sewage released below the water surface tends to rise immediately to the surface, mixing with the water column as it does so. Once diluted, the sewage will either sink below the surface, or

float over it.

The tidal pattern of the greater Vancouver area is one of diurnal inequality in which amplitude of the tide varies over a two-week cycle. Fresh water is released into the Strait of Georgia by the Fraser River at variable rates during the year. Various studies on surface current flow and general circulation patterns of water off the immediate delta shorelines had been conducted prior to preparation of the Rawn Report (1953), and these studies were used in deter mining outfall locations. The report indicated that sanitary sewage could be discharged to the lower reaches of the Fraser without treatment provided the outfalls, with several 204. Pollution outlets, were located in the deep channel of the river. [This is, however, no longer believed to be the case.] Construction of a dam across McDonald Slough to prevent back flow into the North Arm would permit the discharge of effluent from a high-rate primary treatment plant to a channel across Sturgeon Bank extending to the deep water of the Strait of Georgia. Sewage discharged to the North Arm, near its mouth, would require secondary treatment (a high-rate trickling filter plant with effluent chlorination at peak periods), as water from this:channel is carried around Point Grey to the beaches of English Bay.

The ability of a river to assimilate sewage is dir ectly related to the rate of flow, the water temperature, the concentration of dissolved oxygen present, the quantity and composition of sewage involved, and the alternate uses of the river. Using Fraser River water quality and riverflow data, it was estimated that the oxygen demand of the sewage, after ultimate development of the sewer system proposed in the re port, would be less than one percent of the oxygen carried by the Fraser. The velocities and currents affecting river dis charges from the lower North Arm showed that discharge of un treated sewage in this area was impossible. It was felt that sewage directed to the main river would need no treatment. However, owing to the ability of the Fraser River, upstream of its mouth, to assimilate untreated sewage, sewage discharge to the upper North Arm would require standard-rate primary treatment with chlorination during peak periods; and that to the Brunette River or Burnaby Lake would require secondary treatment (Rawn, 1953). These were the very basic criteria on which the sewer age and drainage systems of present-day greater Vancouver are based. The Rawn report (1953), in conjunction with various consultant reports, zoning regulations, and the need for primary treatment as a minimum at all locations, 205. Pollution

was used in making the decision that greater Vancouver could best be served by four major treatment plants - Lions Gate, Iona Island, Annacis Island, and Steveston. The proposed plans for these plants and treatment requirements for sew age passing through them are discussed in a report by MacLaren, Patrick, and Bunnell (1969). The Vancouver sewerage area's needs are, or will be, met by the Iona plant. Most of the sewage from the municipalities of the Fraser sewerage area end up in the Fraser River or its estuary via several outfalls (New Westminster, Brunette River, Pitt River, Fraser River, Port Moody, Serpentine River, and Campbell River). By 1975, all discharges to the lower Fraser and lower Pitt rivers must have not less than primary treatment plus chlorin ation, while all those to the Middle Arm, North Arm, and other large channels must have not less than secondary treatment and chlorination. All small creeks, streams, backwaters, and sloughs are not to receive effluent unless under extreme circumstances and these effluents are to undergo secondary treatment with chlorination. The same level of treatment will soon be required for sewage entering Port Moody and Boundary Bay areas. Richmond sewage is discharged from the Gilbert Road plant and outfall into the South Arm of the Fraser, while south Delta and part of Ladner pump their sewage to an outfall on the South Arm just downstream of the Deas Island tunnel. The remainder of Ladner collects its sewage in a lagoon, and the lagoon effluent is released to the South Arm through Ladner Reach. The needs of lower Delta are to be served by a new plant in the Ladner area (MacLaren, et aZ.,,1969).

A study by Rusch (1972), using a fecal coliform model, indicated that the bacterial levels of the South Arm will be improved with the opening of the Annacis Island plant. The North Arm levels will also improve as most of the sewage now entering this arm will be diverted to the South Arm. 206. Pollution

Even during severe tides, the model indicated that sewage from the proposed Annacis outfall probably could not be carried fur ther than Port Mann. The study concluded that much more work needs to be done on the Fraser River and estuary in order for proper planning decisions to be made. In a brief prepared for the Corporation of Delta on the environmental impact of proposed Delta sewerage facilities (Associated Engineering Services Ltd., 1973), the general environmental problems of sewage disposal in estuaries were outlined. Turbidity due to flocculation of sewage solids may develop near the outfall, but adequate dispersion and dilution should make this problem minimal in the already turbid Fraser. During the processes of microbial degradation of organic matter, a good deal of oxygen is consumed. Therefore, one must be certain that circulation processes are sufficient to assure a continually renewed oxygen supply. The degradation of organic matter triggers the release of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. These added nutrients may lead to "biostimulation", or an increase in the growth of algae,in the receiving waters. The effects of low dissolved oxygen and/or increased chlorine and other ions in receiving waters on the migrating and indigenous fish of the estuary, are not well known. In- stream bioassays to determine the toxicity of chlorine resid uals in domestic sewage from three small treatment plants (In: Environment Canada, 1973a) indicated that unchlorinated primary treated sewage killed 50% of fish (LT5()) in 3 hours. Chlorinated, untreated effluent killed 100% of fish in 20 minutes (chlorinated residual of 1.02 mg/1). Chlorinated primary treated effluent, with chlorine residuals measuring 0.09 to 0.18 mg/1 in a receiving stream, caused 100% mortality in 24 hours. Chlorinated secondary treated effluent from an aerated lagoon produced 50% mortality in three to four hours 207. Pollution

(chlorine levels of 0.20 to 0.22 mg/1 in receiving waters). In-stream residuals below 0.02 mg/1 were non-toxic, but examination of gill tissue showed death of epithelial cells. Dechlorinated secondary treated effluent (detention in lagoon of 30 to 60 days), where no chlorine was detectable, showed no mortality in 26 days and no evidence of gill damage. Other studies indicate that dechlorination by sodium sulphite, sulphur dioxide, and sodium thiosulphate render chlorinated sewage effluents non-toxic to fish. The above study recom mended that all municipal sewage receive secondary treatment to remove toxicity. Where chlorination is really necessary (such as near shellfish beds or recreational facilities), effluents should subsequently be dechlorinated to reduce the residual to less than 0.02 mg/1. Unless absolutely required for pathogenic reasons, effluents should be discharged unchlorinated. If economically feasible, ozone should replace chlorine as a germicide and oxidizing agent.

Organic wastes, however, are only one component of the effluent from municipal sewers. One is referred to the Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage Act (1971) for a list of substances permitted and not permitted to enter municipal sewers. These include a wide range of elements and compounds such as chemicals and heavy metals which could prove to be lethal or cause sub-lethal, long-term interference with growth, reproduction and/or other life processes. Although this will be discussed in more detail under the "Other Pollu tion Problems" sub-section of this chapter, it should be noted here that the salts of many heavy metals are fairly soluble and stable in solution, and can persist in the environment for long periods of time. Many are extremely toxic to man, fish, fowl, and invertebrate faunas, a characteristic compounded by the fact that many are stored in body tissues 208. Pollution

and concentrated in the cells. The permissable substances list referred to above is not presently strictly enforced. If it were, it is likely that an entirely new disposal facility would be required to handle the toxic and hazard ous substances not permitted to enter the present facilities (G. Webster, pers. comm.; Tanner, et aZ.,1973).

Pathogenic organisms are also carried in effluents, and, although occurrence of disease is rare, they can infect individuals either through direct contact during recreation, or through consumption of contaminated organisms. Chlorination is the most economical treatment at present for the control of pathogenic organisms in sewage, but, as noted previously, dechlorination should follow before release to the receiving waters. Shellfish are the main source of pathogenic infection, as these organisms filter feed on suspended material, includ ing pathogens, present in the water and concentrate these sub stances in their tissues. B.C. Fishery Regulations prevent the marketing of contaminated shellfish, and in the case of com mercial shellfish leases, contaminated areas can be closed. Presently,26% of the available commercial oyster grounds in B.C. are closed, including all of those areas within our zone of reference. However, there are no means for preventing individuals from taking shellfish recreationally from closed areas. Therefore, stringent criteria relating to sewage are necessary for the protection of the public. The Department of Environment's views on these criteria (Environment Canada, 1973a) include the following: a) ideal discharge is zero; solutions approaching this would be spray irrigation, sub-surface disposal of effluent, and seasonal-holding lagoons; b) outfalls should be designed to disperse waste effec tively into receiving waters, and at distances as great as possible away from existing shellfish areas. 209. Pollution

Outfalls should be posted for the information of the recreationing public; ^c) where sewage treatment occurs close to shellfish zones, the best possible and most reliable methods should be used; d) poor sanitary quality of the storm water during periods of high runoff makes it necessary for this water to be treated if at all possible; e) dumping of sludge into aquatic systems should be avoided,as heavy metal contamination or blanketing of organisms such as shellfish or other invertebrates might occur; and f) sewage disposal sites should be chosen and constructed after prolonged consultation with all levels and branches of government, which might be influenced or have an influence. This could also ease the cost of planning and building to any one group , as all levels could share in the financing of new developments.

Finally, one must not discount the aesthetics of organic waste disposal. Recreational areas, pleasing to the public, are those free of such wastes. Therefore, it is necessary for sewage treatment and discharge to occur in areas not used for recreation, or they must be of a type such that the effluent is undetectable to the eye or to the nose (obtainable through tertiary treatment).

13 (iii) AGRICULTURAL WASTES

Animal and poultry manures differ from domestic sewage, in that they contain a much higher proportion of solids and consequently have higher BOD. Current livestock and poultry populations in the lower Fraser valley create a 210. Pollution

waste disposal problem comparable to that of a city of three and one-half million. The annual nitrogen output is in the order of 12,000 tons (Clarke, 1973). The major method for disposal of these wastes has traditionally been through their re-application to the soil. However, with the recent losses of available agricultural land, there has been a swing towards "confinement" housing of poultry and livestock. Re moval of manure from these factory-like areas is very costly. With the continually expanding human population on the lower delta, there will be an increased demand for animal products, and, therefore, production systems will have to be even more intensified. Animal wastes will have to be disposed of by new methods such, as incineration, composting,, dehydration, or storage systems. The British Columbia Department of Agri culture is currently preparing a set of guidelines for such waste disposal, based on various research studies (Clarke, 1973).

Chemical fertilizers contain varying levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium salts. These are applied to soils only in the growing season. Fertilizer usage in this region amounts to about 34,000 tons annually, of which 30,000 tons contain various percentages of nitrogen. A further break down results in the annual use of 4,860 tons of nitrogen, 5,240 tons of phosphate (P-Oc), and 2,340 tons of potassium (K20). The combined load of this nitrogen plus that from manure is about 17,600 tons per year. A certain amount of these nutrients will find its way to drainage systems and eventually to the Fraser and its tributaries - the amount depending on season, soil type, level of soil fertility and the type of crop (Clarke, 1973).

Pesticide and herbicide chemicals include a wide range of compounds utilized in the control of plant diseases, insect pests, and weedy plants. As such compounds are often highly 211. Pollution

toxic to life other than that which they are designed to destroy, their use is monitored by provincial and federal agencies.

Feed additives are a series of bacteriostatic com pounds and synthetic hormones (such as oestrogen) administered to animals to stimulate growth. The use of such substances is under study, the main concern being the safety of the end pro ducts. The likelihood of these compounds occurring in wastes in significant amounts is very remote (Clarke, 1973).

Another environmental concern of agriculturists is soil erosion. This is a problem on the Fraser flood plain where silt from agricultural activities is washed into the river. Most of these sediments are carried downstream from the interior and are deposited on the delta.

13 (iv) OTHER POLLUTION PROBLEMS

The following is a list of some of the types of indus tries located on the lower Fraser, together with possible toxic, or otherwise deleterious substances, which they release to the environment (Pacific Northwest Pollution Control Council, 1971; Environmental Protection Service, 1972a and b) : 1) Tanneries: the main toxic constituents of leather tannery wastes include salts used in the curing operation, lime and sodium sulphide used in the dehairing processes, ammonium salts, organic and inorganic solvents used to degrease hides, chromium used in chrome tanning, and small amounts of dyes and bleaches used in finishing processes. 2) Non-metallic mineral products industries: this includes estab lishments manufacturing such products as plate glass and glass products, cement, clay products, concrete and gypsum products, cut stone, abrasive and asbestos products, and other materials 212. Pollution

made from stone, clay, and sand. Some constituents of their effluents are titanium salts, stannous chloride, acids, bases, vanadium, ferric oxide, and selenium. 3) Laundry establishments: laundry wastes (with a normal pH of 10-11) include soaps, detergents, and commercial cleaners used to remove grease, dirt, and starch. The main toxic con stituents of these products are boron salts, surface-active agents (such alkyl sulphonates), carbonates, silicates, sul phides, and alkalis. 4) Metal processing industry: this includes the primary metal, metal fabricating, and metal plating industries whose efflu ents contain substances such as sodium arsenite, phenols, chlorides, lead, zinc, zinc chloride, zinc sulphate, aluminum chloride, aluminum hydroxide, phosphorus, copper, copper chlo ride, tin, copper nitrate, nickel, nickel chloride, nickel ni trate, cyanide, magnesium chloride, magnesium sulphate, molyb denum, manganese chloride, potassium chloride, selenium, sil<- ver, acids and bases. 5) Carpet manufacturing: the manufacture of wool and synthetic carpets produces wastes such as hypochorite bleach, dyes, and

acids. 6) Potato and other food processing: such plants usually pro duce effluents high in suspended solids and dissolved starch. 7) Fish processing plants (including shellfish): the main consti tuents of effluents from the canning and/or freezing of fish products are suspended solids, ether-solublej oils, brine, soluble proteins, sodium hydroxide, and aluminum sulphate. 8) Wood products industry: this includes the pulp and paper industry, sawmills, and construction industries using wood products. Effluents from such operations include such substances as phenols, terpenes, suspended solids, 213. Pollution

resin acids, and unsaturated fatty acids. Besides the effluent, which may or may uot be coloured, these in dustries also produce debris which either floats or sinks to the bottom, having the usual suspended solids effects. Drifting "dead heads" also produce a small craft hazard

in local waters. 9) Oil and petro-chemical industries: this includes oil refining and shipping, the effluent of which contains substances such as phenols, oil, sulphides, ammonia, cyanides, suspended solids, copper, chromium, zinc, lead, nickel, alkaline or acid wastes, and water-oil emul sions (Environmental Protection Service, 1972a and b; Pacific Northwest Pollution Control Council, 1971). Aside from the constant loss of small amounts of oil from land-based operations and ships, the threat of oil pollution due to major spills remains very real in the delta waters. For information on this topic, one is referred to the reports by Paish and Associates Ltd. (1972 a, b, and c). 10) Other general light industries.

13 (v) SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL

1. GENERAL DISCUSSION: In Canadian cities, the 1972 average daily per capita amount of solid wastes generated was about 4.0 lbs. By 1980, this is expected to rise to between 4.69 and 5.37 lbs. per person per day. Solid wastes as landfill degrade chemically and biologically. Biological activity is ini tially aerobic, but as the oxygen supply is exhausted, facultative and anaerobic organisms take over, the result 214. Pollution

being the production of methane, carbon dioxide, water, organic acids, nitrogen, ammonia, and sulphides of iron, manganese and hydrogen. Leachates, produced by the pene tration of ground water and infiltration of surface water, are generally very high in dissolved solids and oxygen de mand. Even after 17 years, the BOD of abandoned sanitary landfill leachates can be Itigher than that of domestic sewage. Biodegradable materials do not travel far from a landfill area, but are decomposed by micro-organisms in soils. However, ions often remain unchelated for considerable distances from a landfill site. Generally, sands and gravels are not efficient attenuators of inorganic salts, whereas soils containing proportions of clay are more efficient.

At present, there are two basic methods of solid waste disposal by landfill. The "dry" method is most common and emphasizes the reduction of infiltration by sealing with a graded top blanket of impermeable soil, and by the provision of drains to divert land runoff. Gas vents must be provided to prevent explosions from gas build-up. The "wet" method entails leachate collection and recycling through the fill. Preliminary tests in Georgia and California indicate a higher rate of stabili zation, and an eventual lower concentration of most pollu tants using this method. In selecting sites for land fill, hydrogeological factors, such as depth and distri bution of the water table, together with soil type are of paramount importance in prediction of contaminant travel. It is also desirable to have a suitable cover source readily available. Inspection procedures should be est ablished to check on leachate toxicity, and for obvious reasons hospital wastes, flammable liquids, pesticides, septic tank pumpings, radio-active materials, and 215. Pollution

explosives should not be landfilled (Environment Canada, 19 73.V).

2. REFUSE DISPOSAL ON THE FRASER RIVFR DELTA:

Bunnell and MacKay (1973) compiled a report on refuse disposal in the greater Vancouver area. Initially, municipalities had their own landfill sites, usually on publicly owned land that was unsuitable for other develop ment, such as ravines or wet bottom land. When such sites were no longer available within their boundaries, arrange ments were made outside municipal lines or incineration was used. In the late 1950's, greater Vancouver designed an incinerator, but before it was buiIt,they negotiated the purchase of part of Burns Bog in Delta for landfill. After several studies, it was decided that the present landfill sites could not be relied on indefinitely and new sites should be found as soon as possible. New regu lations raised doubts as to the economic, as well as the ecological, feasibilities of continuing solid waste dis posal by landfilling.

The types of wastes included under the gen eral heading of "solid wastes" are:

1) domestic, institutional, and commercial refuse (garbage and trash; that is, food wastes,combustible organic material such as paper, wood, textiles, leather, rubber and garden wastes, and non-combustible inorganic materials like metal, glass, ceramics, dirt, and stones) ;

2) building and demolition refuse (combustible materials and dirt) ; 216. Pollution

3) municipal street cleanings and trash from public litter receptacles, including tree trimmings; and

4) land clearing wastes. At present, such municipal wastes total 500,000 tons annually or 1 million cubic yards of landfill per year. By the turn of the century, this could rise to 1 to 1.3 million tons per year or over 2 million cubic yards of landfill annually. At present, nearly all refuse from the region is deposited in six major landfills, of which three are municipally operated. The remainder are private enter prises, one of which is on public land. The six sites are Burns Bog (serving Vancouver, Delta, and White Rock), Terra Nova (serving Burnaby, New Westminster, and Coquitlam area), Premier Street (serving North and West Vancouver), Port Mann (serving Surrey), Richmond (serving Richmond), and Leeder (serving private contracts only). The advantages given for using landfill as op posed to other methods of disposal are low cost (1/4 to 1/3 less than other methods), greater flexibility (can handle varying amounts and composition), not irreplace able, can improve marginal land quality, and is able to accommodate partial processing if required. At the expected rates of increase, existing regional landfill sites have a life expectancy of about thirty-five more years (Bunnell and MacKay, 1973). Recycling of such things as metals, glass, paper, plastic, and rubber is desirable, but, according to Bunnell and MacKay (1973), was not economically fea sible at that time. This would appear to no longer be the case, as the City of Vancouver opened a recycling depot early in 1974 (S. Pond, pers. comm.). Other disposal me thods, other than incineration and perhaps pyrolysis (thermal 217. Pollution

degradation) or composting, are also not economically viable alternatives to landfilling. Other possible sites for landfill suggested in the study include Surrey Bend on the Fraser River, extension of Burns Bog to double its size, Pitt River flats, and Sturgeon Bank west of Iona Island.

A report by the Institute of Environmental Studies (1974) of Douglas College discusses the Bunnell and MacKay (1973) study in relation to the "ecological feasibility" of the four possible landfill sites suggest ed. Surrey Bend is a low-lying swamp and freshwater marsh situated between a steep slope and the Fraser River, into which it drains; and is one of the few natural swamp areas left on the banks of the Fraser. Its vegetation and wildlife (beaver, otter, mink, wood-duck, hooded-merganser, Virginia and sora rail, green heron, and American bittern) make it a biologically interesting environment. Partial development would destroy this natural habitat with the introduction of undesirable species such as rats, weasels, domestic cats, and dogs. The most important factor is, however, the effect of pollution due to leachates from the waste entering the wet soil and passing into the Fraser River. In view of these concerns, it would seem that the Surrey Bend area should be reconsidered as a possible landfill site.

The Pitt River flats comprise part of a public shooting area, a Green Belt for scenic and wildlife uses, and Pitt Polder Company farms. It is unlikely that the government or private owners would be willing to relin quish this area for landfill purposes. 218. Pollution

Sturgeon Bank is definitely not a desirable landfill site. One reason is its proximity to the air port, and any landfill would attract large bird pop ulations which would create an increased hazard to air craft. Not only would many fowl be killed, but the possibility of loss of human life due to aircraft accidents cannot be discounted. Also, the loss of the tidal marshes would mean the loss of the invertebrates and fish populations associated with them.

Burns Bog seems to be the best of the alter natives listed. However, as this area has already been abandoned as a proposed site for sewage disposal due to the possible pollution of Boundary Bay by runoff from the bog, this also seems like a poor choice for future landfilling. If pollution from sewage can reach Boundary Bay four miles away, what will become of the leachate from landfilling the same site? It would seem that an upland area, such as abandoned gravel pits with clay added to increase absorption, would be a much better ecological alternative (Institute for Environmental Studies, 1974). 219.

14. FOOD CHAINS

14 (i) GENERAL DISCUSSION

Most of the interactions between organisms involve food - competing for it, consuming it, avoiding being consumed. The series of organisms in which each uses the next lower member in the sequence as a food source, and in turn is consumed by the one above, thus passing energy from one to another, is known as a food chain, and the inter-relationship of all of the food chains in a community represents a food web. All food chains begin at the level of the autotrophs (green plants or protozoa). These organisms, using sunlight as an energy source, combine carbon dioxide (6CO2) and water (6H20) to form organic matter (C6Hi2°6) and oxygen (602), by the process known as photosynthesis. Organisms which manufacture food from inorganic raw materials are called primary producers, while any organism which feeds directly on an autotroph is a primary consumer. Secondary con sumers are organisms which feed on primary consumers, and so on. The decomposers are the organisms of decay which, through their action on dead material, release nutrients back to the environment to be re-cycled (see Figure 14.1). With each transfer some energy is lost as heat. Therefore, the closer an organism is to the beginning of the chain, the more energy is available to it. Generally, the re duction with each transformation (link in the chain) is about two orders of magnitude between the energy source and the primary producer, and one order of magnitude for each transformation thereafter. If a plant were to trap Page 220

CO:

LIGHT

'! t OETRITUS » DECOMPOSERS

Figure 14.1. GENERALIZED FOOD CHAIN AND ENERGY HIERARCHY 221. Food Chains

1,500 Calories of light energy, 15 Calories would end up as net plant production, 1.5 Calories would become secondary consumer, and so on.

An organism's ecological niche, or its role in the biotic community, may be difficult to determine. Its habitat (where it lives) is much easier to study, and often through the analysis of the habitat, one is able to determine the niche. An organism's place in the food chain is a part of its "profession" or niche. A community is an assemblage of closely tied niches, and a community and the non-living environment functioning together is termed an ecosystem. Such entities are closed systems - huge circles within circles, but each linked through every other, such that a break in one results in a disruption of

the whole.

This has been a long series of definitions, but it is necessary for one to state the general terms of reference in order for the details to be understood.

14 (ii) FOOD CHAINS OF THE LOWER FRASER AND DELTA AREA

Food chains would seem to be, from the above definition, very straight forward, easy to determine entities. However, in reality they are very complex. In the Fraser estuary there are hundreds and perhaps thou sands of individual food chains, some of which are terrestrial, some of which are aquatic, some of which are both. Within each micro-environment, there are dozens of "micro"-food chains. Some very simplified examples of 222. Food chains

Fraser estuary habitats and their food chains will be dis cussed here, to give the reader an indication of the types of ecosystems involved on the delta.

Sturgeon Bank is an important estuarine food factory. Fresh water from the Fraser deposits its load of sand, silt, clay and detritus (dead organic matter, both plant and animal in origin) on the tidal flats of the banks. Phytoplankton use the nutrients supplied by the river and ocean by converting them to plant material. These plants are consumed by clams, mussels, crabs, amphipods, isopods, and other benthic invertebrates. These are eaten by juvenile salmon and herring, plus many species of birds, which, in turn, are consumed by mammals such as bears, seals or man. With the death and decay of the tertiary consumer, the cycle is complete (Figure 14.2). This is the simplified situation. If one were to super impose another cycle on top of this, it would be somewhat more complex. For example, all of the consumers use up oxygen and give off carbon dioxide and water through respiration and the processes used in breaking down organic material. Producers, on the other hand, use up carbon dioxide and water in making organic molecules, and release oxygen as a waste product. Thus, another cycle (Figure 14.3). Super-impose a third cycle. Each consumer releases organic material (detritus), either as a waste product from metabolism or through dying, which is acted upon by decomposing bacteria. These bacteria derive nutrition from the waste and in doing so, release inorganic ions (nutrients) back into the system. Plants are then Page 223

JUVENILE SAL MOW «* HERRING, BIRDS Figure 14.2.

A SIMPLE CLAMS, MUSSELS, FRASER ESTUARY BIRDS, SEALS CR-BS, AMPHIPODS, FOOD CHAIN 8 MAN ISOPOOS 6 OTHER BENTHJC INVERTEBRATES

DEATH S DECAY

PHYTOPLANKTON

Figure 14.3.

A 90MEWHAT MORE COMPLEX FRASER ESTUARY FOOD CHAIN

Figure 14.4.

A FOOD CHAIN OF EVEN GREATER COMPLEXITY

DECOMPOSERS 224. Food Chains

able to recycle the nutrients, with carbon dioxide and water, to reform organic molecules and oxygen. With the death or consumption of the plant, the nutrients continue through the cycle (Figure 14.4). And so it goes - each cycle being linked to every other one, and dependent on each other for continuation.

14 (iii) EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENT ON FOOD CHAINS OF THE

LOWER FRASER

Because the actual number of species in estuarine food chains is relatively small, changes in the species, composition, numbers of individuals, or habitat, are quickly noticed in the cycle as a whole. Any changes in the natural conditions of the delta, whether through industrial ization, urbanization, agriculture, or recreation, do (and will continue to) drastically change the natural cycles of the flora and fauna inhabiting it.

The effects of various forms of development on the flora and fauna of the lower Fraser have been noted throughout this review, and those of some specific develop ments in particular. This section, therefore, will discuss in general terms what the effects of various phenomena such as siltation, low dissolved oxygen, changes in salinity, etc.,are on semi-aquatic and aquatic (freshwater or marine) flora and fauna, and what ramifications these would cause higher in the food chains. 225. Food Chains

1. TEMPERATURE :

Bradley and Cooke (1959) reported that, at shallow depths (less than 3m), the temperature of surface sediments increases as much as 11°C over that of the air during a mid-summer day. Such changes could have beneficial or detrimental effects on benthic populations, depending on the species. Crippen and Reish (1969) found that warmer water in Los Angeles harbour increased the species diversity of polychaetes, while Eltringham (1971) indicated that low temperatures killed a variety of invertebrates, including Mytilus3 Mya3 Littovina and Nereis (all of which occur on the Fraser delta mud flats). Crustaceans have a wide variety of temperature tolerances, depending on the species, age, sex, and normal habitat (Sprague,1963). In general, however, intertidal and estuarine benthic species are much more eurythermal (tolerant of variations in temperature) than are obligate deep-water, obligate fresh water, or obligate marine species The former are constantly being subjected to changing water depths, and therefore, temperatures, and are adapted to these fluctuations.

Small or very short-lived temperature fluctuations would not effect any change in the flora or fauna of the Fraser or its delta. Drastic changes over prolonged periods would, however, have dramatic effects on the communities. For example, if the temperature was warmer than normal, heat-sensitive animals would die or, in the case of mobile animal forms, leave the area. Phytoplankton would bloom, cutting out needed light for the benthic macrophytes, and 226. Food Chains

increasing detritus production, thereby increasing BOD levels, which in turn decrease available oxygen. This would be followed by increases in zooplankton and other primary consumers owing to the increased food supplies, and so on down the line. However, there would also be an increase in parasites, diseases, and other natural population controls. Eventually, the phytoplankton would use up all of the nutrient supplies, the result being a sudden drastic decline in numbers and species. Without the huge food source, the primary consumers would also drastically decline, and so it goes. However, should any one link in the consumer chain be under sufficient strain due to parasitism, disease or some other stress, the drastic loss of its food source could cause that link to be eliminated. Elimination of a vital link breaks the chain, and all of the secondary and tertiary consumers relying upon the lost species in the trophic ladder, could also suffer great declines in population.

2. SALINITY:

Several estuarine benthic studies have concluded that species diversity increases from the head of the estuary to its mouth, and is a function of the distance from the major source of fresh water entering the system (Sanders, 1958; Storrs, et aZ.,1969; Gage, 1972; Hoos, 1973) Many planktonic larvae of benthic invertebrates settle during the summer, and such forms are very sensitive to salinity changes. Therefore, only the euryhaline forms would survive. These two facts would contribute to low species diversity values noted previously for the biota directly in front of the Fraser mouth. It was also indicated earlier that phytoplankton blooms, marsh vegetation, and invertebrate faunas were all more abundant at some distance from the mouth than they were directly in 227. Food Chains

front of the outflow. The spring freshet would eliminate any s>1inity-sensitive organisms for some distance around the mouth, especially the marine larval species. Only the most salinity tolerant (euryhaline) organisms could sur vive such drastic habitat changes. Forms such as turbellarians (flatworms) and harpacticoid copepods are known to be tolerant of salinities as low as 15 °/oo (Jansson, 1968), and these, plus a few other species, are the organisms wh.i ^h could occur at: the Fraser mouth. Looking at the food chain, then, only the secondary consumers of these tolerant primary consumers would also live in this area. These include the anadromous fish species such as salmon, which can live in either fresh or salt water, and use these zones as adapting areas between

one habitat and the other.

3. DISSOLVED OXYGEN :

Oxygen can become depleted in an aquatic environment due to two main causes - insufficient circulation or heavy BOD loading. The result of either is the loss (either through death or emigration) of the biota.

Reish (1963) reported that, in only one year, the effects of poor circulation, and thus deoxygenation, on the benthos were apparent in a newly constructed California boat harbour. Such would probably be the case in areas around the Fraser delta for which proposals to enclose parts of the tidal flats for construction of beaches and marinas have been made. With the low dis solved oxygen, many mobile forms would leave the habitat (if a passage were left open). Sessile fauna and the 228. Food Chains

flora would die. With decomposition of dead material, the BOD demand on the environment would increase. More nutrients would become trapped in the bottom sediments instead of being recycled. Hydrogen sulphide and ammonia would be produced, and eventually the entire benthic and, later, pelagic communities would be decimated. Not only would such areas be unsuitable wildfowl resting or feeding grounds, but they would also be unfit for swimming or any other recreation. Marinas, and the various poll utants emanating from them (McDaniel, 1973), would only aggravate such a situation.

0fSullivan (1971), in a pollution review article, included accounts of various species and groups characteristic of anaerobic zones. He divided the list into three groups: a) regressive species (those that disappear under anaerobic conditions), including such organisms as Nephtys spp. and other polychaetes, sponges, echinoderms, most molluscs, and tunicates; b) transgressive species (those that move into anaer obic areas), such as Capitella sp., many spionid polychaetes, nematodes, and harpacticoid copepods; c) relatively indifferent species (those that seem unaffected) examples being Mya arenaria, Corophium sp .3 Mytilus edulis, and Nereis sp .

Levings' study (1973) on Sturgeon Bank, interestingly, listed many of the "transgressive" types noted above, particularly in the area of the Iona sewage 229. Food Chains

plant outlet, as well as on the rest of the delta. The high BOD resulting from the sewage from the outlet could exclude many of the species normally occurring on the banks from inhabiting this area. The; occurrence of such forms on the remainder of the bank was thought to be caused by large amounts of plant debris, which created reducing conditions (low dissolved oxygen) approximately 5 cm below the sediment surface (Levings, pers. comm.).

A wide /ariety of studies has been carried out on a multitude of organisms to determine low oxygen tolerance levels of species or nroups of species. One can find a list of pertinent references in Hoos, 1973. Despite their efforts, no real trends among groups have emerged, and like so many factors, tolerance or physiological reaction to reduced oxygen is highly species specific.

4. OTHER AQUATIC FACTORS-

A decline in oxygen results in an increase in phosphates, silicates, ammonia, and hydrogen sulphide. Increases in such nutrients as phosphate could result in floral blooms with all of their possible ramifications. Emery and Hulsemann (1962) noted that high concentrations of hydrogen sulphide had as great an effect as the loss of oxygen on the benthos of Santa Barbara basin, an effect also noted by Rhoads and Morse (1971) in a comparative study of the Black Sea, Gulf of California, and Californian borderland basins. Generally, the only organisms able to survive were nematodes and a few oligochaetes. Ken Wile (pers. comm.), doing surveys of Steveston Cannery channel, 230. Food Chains

indicated that the muds of this area were black, smelled of hydrogen sulphide, and appeared to the naked eye to be completely devoid of invertebrate life.

5. SEDIMENTS:

The degree of sediment instability is dependent upon its water content, specifically its "liquid limit" (that is, the lowest moisture content that permits liquid behaviour). The usual liquid limit of sediments is approximately 52%, a level of 50% dividing firm and soft muds (Rhoads, 1971). The problems of survival for settling larvae on unstable sediments are obvious. In order to respire, contact with the mud surface is essential. Due to the fluid nature of soft muds, however, small individ uals would continually experience resuspension and burial. Sessile forms (plant or animal) would lack suitable substrates to which they could attach, and, therefore, would also not survive. Thus, the entire epifaunal group is eliminated in fine sediments with high water content (Sanders, 1958; Rhoads, 1971), such as are found in dredging areas of the Fraser, on the subtidal fore-slope, and the area south of the Main Arm, west of Westham Island (Bernard, 1974; Luternauer, pers. comm.). Infaunal organisms that are able to survive in unstable sediments are often specifically adapted to this mode of life. Many are extremely fast burrowers (the worms). Others have light, thin shells and remain small in order to maintain a large surface to volume ratio (some clams) (Rhoads, 1971).

Sediments that are fine and have a high water content are, therefore, very specialized and difficult habitats, and the diversity of species there is naturally low 231, Food Chains

In somewhat sandier, more stable habitats tjiere is a greater variety of micro-habitats and, therefore, there is greater species diversity. Most of these organisms are epifaunal or small infaunal filter or suspension feeders. This includes such animals as Maeoma, Mya arenaria, Ceraetpd- erma3 and sabellid polychaetes. These are some of the same types of organisms as those recorded for the more populated areas of Sturgeon Bank (Levings, 1973a and b; Levings and Coustalin, 1974). On the other hand, silt/clay sediments usually contain many infaunal organisms, most of which are detritus feeders (recall the distribution and types of or ganisms found near the Iona sewage outfall, and in soft mud areas of Boundary and Mud bays). The physical instability of soft mud poses one major problem for the suspension feeder. Fine sediment in large quantities clogs filtering structures. Also, in an area already inhabited by detritus feeders which are constantly reworking the sediment, settling larvae have little chance of survival due to predation or burial. On the other hand, detritus feeders have difficulty moving and obtaining sufficient food in hard sands. Generally, rela tively little organic matter is found in sandy sediments, and it would, therefore, be difficult for a population of detritus feeders to sustain itself (Hoos, 1973).

The marsh and eelgrass beds of the delta pffer ideal habitats for a wide variety of biota, both flora and fauna. There are myriads of micro-habitats, both of coarse and of fine sediments, such that both epifaunal and infaunal life can thrive. Each of these is a food source for some type of consumer, be it a bacterium, a fish, or a duck. Such systems, be they simple or complex, are very vulnerable. 232. Food Chains

In general then, it can be seen that a wide variety of factors, including many others unmentioned here, are important in the establishment and maintenance of the natural estuarine ecosystems. A change (increase, decrease, change of type, elimination) of any kind will disrupt the balance and cause ramifications throughout the system. 233.

CONCLUSION

More than half of the human population of British Columbia lives within the Fraser valley. The Fraser River delta is also one of the most valuable fisheries and wild life areas on the entire Pacific coast of North America. The problem is how to make these two resources compatable. There is no doubt that the pressures of urban and industrial de velopment will continue to alienate natural habitats and their associated recreational areas oh the Fraser delta, as Figure 15.1 illustrates. At the same time, the demands for suitable "natural" recreational opportunities (fishing, hunting, bird watching, etc.), along with other forms of recreation will certainly increase (see Figure 15.2). The solution to the incompatibility of these two facts is to identify and to pro tect the minimal natural habitats required to sustain biotic populations.

Through the compilation of the available literature and the writing of this report, major areas of the estuary were indicated in one way or another as being vital habitats for the natural flora and fauna. Figure 15.3 illustrates that the largest remaining and biologically vital areas of the Fraser delta are Sturgeon and Roberts banks, the islands situated in or near the mouths of the Fraser River arms, Ladner marsh, the foreshore off the University of British Columbia endowment lands, Brunswick Point, Boundary and Mud bays, the Serpentine-Nicomekl lowlands, and a section of a bog (in the case of Figure 15.3, Richmond Bog). These areas, excluding Richmond Bog, support more than 50% of present con sumptive and non-consumptive recreation associated with the waterfowl resource of the delta, and greater than 25% of that for the province (Halladay and Harris, 1972), not to mention the other recreational activities in which the populace participate on the estuary. •D O

_^_\_ CANADA U.S. A.

0 1 2 S 4 9 6 Rfrts SCALE IM WILES

Figure 15.1. AREAS HAVING BEEN PROPOSED FOR FUTURE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. (LOWER MAINLANDREGIONALPLANNINGBOARD,1957,1961, G.V.R.D.1971) o

Figure 15.2. AREAS CITED FOR PROPOSED RECREATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. (LOWER MAINLAND REGIONAL PLANNING BOARD, 1966,1968} TAYLOR, 1970, G.V.R.D., 1972, US. NAT. PARKS and PARKS CAN., 1973.) Q *

r\> oj o>

•'#£tfrtt£'«Y:^4WkV: ^ v." **^'.v*i •.*.*•*•;*••.v.'i •V «vW

Figure 15.3. SENSITIVE AREAS FOR FISH AND WILDLIFE WHICH SHOULD BE SET ASIDE AS MINIMAL CONSERVATION HABITATS. 237. Conclusion

As the majority of the "minimal habitats" noted above are the same as tho^e indicated by Halladay and Harris (1972) as being vital areas for biota, they will not be dis cussed in detc i. here. The information provided by these authors is presently being up-dated and will be published when it becomes available. The addition to their list of the University endowment lands an-i the Richmond Bog are the result of information noted in this report. As indicated by Levings (1973), the shallow area off Point Grey is pro bably an important nursery ground for some flatfish. The Richmond Bog, Burns Bog, or any other bog for that matter, is a relic ecosystem destined to disappear naturally.

The value of these minimal habitats, while pro viding protection for the natural floral and faunal com munities, would lie in their use as a recreation source for the lower mainland population. Such areas would facilitate environmental education with a visible demonstra

tion of the human - natural fauna - natural flora interactions in an estuarine ecosystem. Besides such totally conservation- oriented activities, many areas could be used for water sports, fishing, hunting, and other forms of recreation so long as they did not pollute or otherwise interfere with the basic ecosystem. Owners of agricultural lands which now support forms of wildlife could be encouraged to use conservation farming practices, and perhaps even become involved in raising game birds or providing winter feeding areas for natural populations. A detailed discussion of the latter suggestion can be found in Paish et at. (1974). On all lands within, or directly adjacent to, these vital minimal habitats, urban and/or industrial development would have to be excluded. 228.

APPKDIC1S 239. Appendices - current research

Appendix 1.3. current research projects related to the Fraser estuary

Geology ongoing studies by Dr. Luternauer of Geological Survey, in conjunction v .r.h Dr. Fletcher of the University of British Columbia, including the fol lowing : (i) a budget survey to determine growth and erosion of the delta before and after the freshet;

(ii) monthly monitoring of the tidal flat sediments to determine incremental changes;

(iii) monthly geocho'iiicnl analyses of tidal flat sediments;

(iv) regular sampling if the foreslope; and (v) other planned studies .

prooable on^oinr studies of the delta area by the Univer sity of Dritish ia (Jathews and/or Hurray).

Climatology:

continual monitorinp of meteoroligical data at various stations by Atmospheric Environment Service.

Hydrology, Water Quality, Pollution Studies:

projects in progress at Westwater Research Centre, (University of British Columbia; Westwater, 1973):

(i) water chemistry survey of the Fraser River and its tributaries from Hope to the Strait of Georgia.

(ii) study of waste loading in the Fraser River from Hope to the Strait of Georgia.

(iii) planned project on toxic waste sources.

(iv) future water quality studies directed towards specific problems. 240. Appendices - current research

APPENDIX 1,1 (cont'd).

(v) water quality modelling: development of hydraulic models; 8) assessment of the influence of salinity intrusions; and (3) study of bacterial response and BOD decay. (vi) biological studies of the mainstem of the lower Fraser: (1) review of available biological information (Northcote, 1974); and (2) sampling and tissue analysis programme of biological communities. (vii) biological oceanography of the Fraser River estuary: (1) nature and current status of benthic com munities (Fraser River estuary); and (2) determination of the effects of river flow on the pelagic environment off the Fraser River mouth.

(viii) land use studies: to determine the effects of land use on water quality in four tributaries of the lower Fraser.

(ix) population and economy study: to develop esti mates of population growth and economic expansion.

(x) debris management study: study of the debris problem and opportunities for control.

(xi) evaluation studies: to produce evidence of what the value of clean water is re: (1) recreational boating; (2) wildlife and waterfowl viewing; (3) sand bar fishing; (4) Fraser River household survey; (5) recreational sites on shoreline; (6) value to salmon fishery.

(xii) institutional issues as applied to the lower Fraser: (1) effort to provide a systematic framework for the total set of institutional investigations; (2) examination of existing institutional arrange ments; and (3) theoretical analysis of specific new institu tional structures. 241. Appendices - current research

APPENDIX 1.1 (cont'd.).

(xiii) Canadian water pollution problems and issues to be used as a framework into which studies of the lower Fraser may be fitted (Joy, in '.press).

Environmental Protection Service : study of Steveston cannery channel.

Western Canada Hydraulics: work on Fraser River model.

Pollution Control Board: monitoring effluents.

Inland Waters Directorate: monitoring stations through out the Fraser system for streamflow, sediment, and water quality.

Oceanography:

Marine Sciences Directorate: numerical modelling studies:

(i) one dimensional model of the Fraser estuary;

(ii) study of the Fraser River plume.

Department of Civil Engineering (University of British Columbia): model study of the Fraser River estuary.

Botany:

Carol Bawden, graduate studies under Dr. Stein (Botany Dept. , University of British Columbia): diatom study of tidal flats, in conjunction with Dr. Stein's own work on blue-green algae distributions on Roberts and Sturgeon banks.

Dr. Beal, Botany Department (University of British Columbia): probable work on sedges.

Koji Yamanaka, graduate studies under Dr. Brink (Dept. of Agriculture, University of British Columbia): primary productivity of Fraser estuary marshlands.

Invertebrate Biology:

Dr. C. Levings, Pacific Environment Institute: study of anomalous intertidal zonation near engineering structures (jetties and causeways) on the Fraser River delta. Mr. G. Otte, in cooperation with Dr. Levings, is studying the ef feet of the Iona Island sewage effluent on benthos of Sturgeon Bank. 242. Appendices - current research

APPENDIX 1.1 (cont'd).

Fisheries:

International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission: continuing studies of salmon runs in the Fraser River.

Fisheries and Marine Service: continual monitoring of coastal fisheries.

Fish and Wildlife Branch of Provincial Government: probable ongoing studies.

Wildlife: Canadian Wildlife Service: ongoing work on bird censuses, hunter-kill data and environmental impact. Douglas College: environmental studies related to the Serpentine Wildlife Management area.

Richmond Nature Park: literature reviews on local wildlife.

Ken Summers, Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton: studies on shorebirds.

Fish and Wildlife Branch, Government of B.C.: probable ongoing studies. Bruce Burton, graduate studies under Dr. Hudson (Dept. Agriculture, University of British Columbia): food study of snow geese on the Fraser River estuary.

Miscellaneous: Dr. G.H. Geen, Biology Department, Simon Fraser University: probable studies planned. Dr. D.S. Lacate, Lands Directorate: preparing environmental baseline studies of all British Columbia estuaries with input from various governmental agencies. Greater Vancouver Regional District: various ongoing studies. Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District: various ongoing studies. Variety of consultant studies and literature reviews. 243. Appendices - current research

APPENDIX 1.1 (cont'd).

Literature review of Fraser estuary for Government of B.C..

lunicipalities of lower Fraser: studies re: industrial, urban and recreational planning.

Department of Agriculture: studies on land use, agri cultural waste disposal, fertilizers, etc. Dr. P. Dooling: Forestry 492 and 493 at University of British Columbia; class projects on Boundary Bay.

Various other University of British Columbia depart ments (Continuing Education, Oceanography, Zoology, Botany).

Various citizens' groups and private organizations, e.g. Society on Pollution and Environmental Control, B.C. Wildlife Federation, etc.

Steering Committee, Department of Environment Airport Study: studies on the environmental impact of airport expansion. Roberts Bank Expansion Committee: studies on the environ mental impact of Roberts Bank superport expansion. 244. Appendices - climatological data

Appendix 4.1<

(1)Climatological Data as Recorded at Vancouver International Airport (1937-1974).

Temperature:

Mean Temperature - Annual 49.7°F January 36.3°F July 63.4°F Extreme Maximum Temperature 92°F Extreme Minimum Temperature 0°F

Precipitation:

Mean Annual Total Precipitation 42.05" Mean Annual Total Rainfall 40.07" Mean Annual Total Snowfall 20.6"

Wind:

Prevailing wind direction by hours East Prevailing wind direction by miles East Mean annual wind speed 7.6 mph

Annual Number of Days with:

Frost 57 days Measurable Precipitation 161 days Thunder 3.8 days

Average Annual Hours of Bright Sunshine: 1,931 hours

Cloud Cover:

Mean annual cloud cover 6.8 tenths Mean December cloud cover (greatest) 8.1 tenths Mean July cloud cover (least) 4.8 tenths

Frost Free Period:

March 31 - October 30 212 days

Fog - Visibility less Than 5/8 of a Mile:

Annual number of days with fog 62.2 days Month with greatest average - October 11.3 days Month with least average - June 0.4 days 245. flppei dices - climatological data

APPEMDIX 4.1 (cont'd).

(2) Climatological Data frou Tsawwu.ssen Ferry Terminal:

Wind: Prevailing wind direction b/ hours southeast Mean annual wind speed 11.1 mph.

(3) Climatological Data from Sand Heads Lightstation:

Wind: Prevailing wind direction by hours east Mean annual wind speed 11.8 mph. 246. Appendices - air pollution

Appendix 4.2.

Major Atmospheric Pollutants and Sources

POLLUTANT SOURCE

Sulphur Compounds combustion of sulphur-containing fossil fuels sulphuric acid plants, sulphite pulp mills, metallurgical plants

Particulate Matter smoke from burning fossil fuels (solid or liquid) dust from bulk handling (i.e. grain, coal, potash) pulp and paper mill emissions

Carbon Monoxide by-product of incomplete burning of carbon-containing fuels and some industrial processes

Photochemical produced when reactive organic substances,

Oxidants chiefly hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, are exposed to sunlight Hydrocarbons processing marketing and use of petroleum products Nitrogen Oxides high temperature combustion processes essential ingredient in natural pro duction of photochemical oxidants Appendix 4.3.

Contribution to Air Pollution from Various Sources

(1)Domestic Fuel Consumption and Vehicular Emissions

(TABLE Al,'B.C. Research, 1970)

Source Benzo-K Aldehydes CO Hydro- Nitrogen Sulphur Organic Particu- NH pyrene carbons Oxides Oxides Acids lates lb/yr lb/yr ton/yr ton/yr ton/yr ton/yr ton/yr ton/yr ton/yr

Pollutants/year:

Domestic FuelConsumption 241 102 2,529 635 4,548 4,862 934 1,596 *"§.

o Vehicular w Emissions 232 734 478,706 87,479 20,252 1,782 892 2,635 330

-i

Pollutants/mi /yr: o

Domestic c Fuel Consumption 0.5 0.2 5 1 10 10.5 2.0 3.4 o 3

Vehicular Emissions 0.5 1.7 1,050 193 46 4.2 2 2 6.7 0.7 APPENDIX 4.3 (cont'd)

(2)pjl Refineries

(TABLE A2, B.C. Research, 1970)

Oxides Oxides Location Production ProductionHydro- of of Particulates NH, Aide- Organic Bbl/day Bbl/yr carbons Sulphur Nitrogen hydes Acids 3 xlO ton/yr ton/yr ton/yr ton/yr ton/yr ton/yr ton/yr N3

Greater Vancouver 88,500 32,300 4,520 5,230 2,460 440 220 131 131 £ T3

c r+

O 3 249. Appendices - air pollution

Appendix 4.3 (cont'd).

(3) Aircraft Emissions:

(Aircraft emissions for Vancouver International Airport. B.C. Research,1970).

Aircraft Emission Fan Jet Turboprop Piston Totals Automotive

Aircraft movements/ year 36,341 18,797 86,982 142,120 Aldehydes, ton/year 40 10 17 67 657 CO ton/ year 374 85 11,656 12,115 478,254 Hydro carbons , ton/year 527 11 2,175 2,713 86,120 Nitrogen Oxides, ton/year 167 47 548 762 18,573

Particu lates , ton/year 134 23 52 209 1,804

(4) Bulk Transport Industry (Dust from Bulk Transport. B.C. Research,1970)

Port Grain Ton/yr. Potash ton/yr. Sulfur ton/yr.

Shipments Dust Shipments Dust Shipments Dust

Vancouver § related ports 4,628,000 13,884 1,686,000 51 1,344,000 12 250. Appendices - air pollution

Appendix 4.3 (cont'd).

(5) Metallurgical Plants:

There are five metallurgical plants in the

greater Vancouver region producing a total of 121,800 tons of steel and iron castings,and 120,000 tons of bars and rods per year,plus an undetermined quantity

of tungsten and titanium carbides. Pollutants emitted by these plants are as follows:

Particulates - metal - metal oxide and slag (silicate) fumes - lime dust - coke dust - soot - fluorides

Gaseous - carbon monoxide - sulphur dioxide - volatile fluorides - nitrogen oxides - decomposition products of binder resins in foundry moulds.

(6) Solvent Useage: The drycleaning industry in the greater Vancouver region uses approximately 2,600 tons of solvent per year. Approximately 80% of this is dissipated into the atmosphere, with the hydrocarbons released being equivalent to those

released by aircraft emissions at the Vancouver International

Airport.

The paint industry releases approximately 5,000 tons of hydrocarbons per year. 251. Appendices - air pollution

Appendix 4.3 (cont'd).

(7) Miscellaneous Services and Other Small Industries in Greater Vancouver No. of Establishments

Bakeries 143 Chemicals 94 Electrical Prod. 51 Food § Beverages 179 Furniture § Fixtures 203 Knitting § Clothing 54 Leather Goods 15 Machinery Industries 65 Metal Fabricators 334 Paper § Allied Prod. 46 Plastic Fabricators 41 Printing § Publishing 231 Rubber 9 Textiles 50 Transportation Equip. 152 Miscellaneous 200

Total 1,866

Each of these activities contributes various pollut

ants to the atmosphere.

(8) Effects of Air Pollutants

Eye Danger Plant Irri Oxidant Visibility to Property Pollutant Damage tation Formation Reduction Health Odor Damage

Aldehydes X X X CO X Hydrocarbons X X X Nitrogen Oxides X X X X X Organic Acids X X X 3enzo-k- pyrene X Particulates X X Reduced Sulfur X Compounds Sulfur Oxides X X X X X

> 252. Appendices - hydrological data

Appendix 5.1

Fraser River Estuary Available Streamflow Uata (V/ater Survey of Canada, Ottawa) ,

Gauge Discharge Record Name Location (Stage only *) (Misc.Meas. #)

Fraser River at Hope 49" 22' 50" 12-49 121° 27' 05" 50-64, 65-72

Fraser River at Wahleach Power House 49" 14' 15" 61-64* 121° 41' 00"

Fraser River near Agassiz 49" 12' 16" 12# (formerly near Rosedale) 121° 46' 35" 49* 50-55*, 65* 56-64* 66-72

Fraser River at Magellan 49° 13 33" 64* (formerly near Harrison 121° 53 40" Mills)

Fraser River near Chilliwack 49° 11 56" 33-46* 121° 57 05" 47-48*, 50*

Fraser River at 49° 11 13" 62-64* Shefford Slough 121° 59 27"

Fraser River at 49° 10 07" 62-63* Chilliwack Sewer Outfall 122° 00 16"

Fraser River at 49° 09 48" 62-72* Chilliwack Mountain 122° 01 25" i'raser River at Cannor 49° 08 35" 52-63* 122° 03 51"

Fraser River near Cox 49° 07 41" 67-72* 122° 12 24"

Fraser River at 49" 08" 46" 61-64* Hatzic Pumphouse 122° 14' 47" (formerly near Hatzic) 253, Appendices - hydrological data

Appendix 5.1 (cont'd).

Fraser River Estuary Available Streamflow Data (Water Survey of Canada, Ottawa) .

Gauge Discharge Record Name Location (Stage only *) (Misc.Meas. #J

Fraser River at Mission 07' 39" 1876*, 82* (formerly at Mission City) 122° 18' 08" 1894-1935* 36-64*

Fraser River at Whonock 49o 10' 21'1 54-72* 122° 28' 26"

Fraser River at 49° 12 09" 54-72* Port Hammond 122° 39 14"

Fraser River at 49° 13 04" 67-69* Port Mann Pumping Station 122° 49 37" 70-72

Fraser River at Port Mann 49O 13 03" 35#, 48#,54# 122° 50 20" 56-64* 65-69

Fraser River at 49° 12 13" 19-20# New Westminster 122° 54 11" 35-36* 42-72*

Fraser River at Burr Landing 07 45" 54-61* (formerly near Ladner) 123° 02 ' 57"

Fraser River at 49° 07 ' 30" 49-51# Deas Island Tunnel 123° 04 ' 25" 56^60* 62-72* 61* North Arm Fraser River 49° 12 » 21" 34# at Vancouver 123° 05 ' 28" 45-72*

Fraser River at 49° 07 • 25" 19# Steveston 123° 10 • 52" 33-72 254. Appendices - hydrological data

Appendix 5.2.

Period of Record of Sediment pata. (Water Survey of Canada, Ottawa)

Suspended Bed Bed Particle Station Sediment Load Material Size

Chilliwack River at Vedder Crossing 1965-73 1971-73 1971-73 1971-73

Fraser River near Agassiz 1966-73 1968-73 1966-73

Fraser River at Hope 1965-73 1965-73

Fraser River at Mission 1965-73 1965-73 1965-73 1965-73

Fraser River at Port Mann 1965-73 1965-73 1965-73 1965-73

Harrison River near Harrison Hot Springs 1965-71

Pitt River near Port Coquitlam 1965-73

Silverhope Creek near Hope 1965-71

Stave River at Stave Falls 1965-71 /

Appendix 5.3.

(l)List of Water Quality Stations in the Fraser River Basin Monitored by the Water Quality Branch, Inland Waters Directorate.

Water Quality Stations British Columbia

Period Para- 1VCS Data Sr: nple Processing Basin, River and Latitude Sampl ox meters Streamflow Meas. Station Collector Number Location Longitude Freq. Record

00BC08KA0001 Fraser River at Nwy. 54 04 35'- 08KA004 16 bridge, Hansard 121 50 52" 62-63 to en cn 00BC08KB0001 Fraser River at 54 00 40;: Shelley 122c 37 00 ' M 67- A 08KB001

32:: OOBC08KE0001 Fraser River at Hwy. 52( 58 CD 97 bridge, Quesnel 122 29 50" M 62- G-

o 0OBC08MC0001 Fraser River at ferry ( CD crossing, 2 miles 52( 31 48' V) north of Marguerite 122 26 32" 71- A 08MC018

00BC08ME0001 Fraser River at highway bridge, north of 50 42 41' O -i Lillooet 121 54 39" 61-62

c 00BC08LB00O1 North Thompson River 02 31' "I 08LB064 at Hwy. 5 bridge, 120 14 28 •' M 62- Mclure

00BC08LE0001 South Thompson River at Kamloops, intake at50° _ 40 50' City Treatment Plant 120 19 29' 0 61- 08NL038 Appendix 5.3 (cont'd).

Cl) List of Water Quality Stations in the Fraser Kiver Basin Monitored by the Water Quality Branch, Inland Waters Directorate.

Water Quality Stations British Columbia

Data Period Para- WCS Processing Basin, River and Latitude Sampl. of meters Streamflow Sample Number Location Longitude Freq. Record Meas. Station Collector

00BC08LF001 Thompson River at Hwy. 50° 21 17" 1 bridge, bridj Spences 121° 23 35" M 61- 08LF051 to Bridge Cn

00BC08MF0001 Fraser River at Hwy.l 49" 23 12" bridge, Hope 121° 26 59" M A 08MF005

•a 00BC08MH0004 Fraser River at 49° 07 39" CD Mission City 122° 18 08" M 60 A 08MH024 P* H« O 00BC08JC0001 Nechako River at Dep't 53 57 37" CD en of Highways ferry 123( 14 01" M 67 A 08JC002 crossing, 0.5 miles north of Isle Pierre P

00BC08JE0001 Stuart River at Hwy. 54° 25 00" CD 27 bridge, 2 miles 124° 15 55" M 67- 08JE001 south of Fort St.James C P3

P z57. Appendices - water quality data Anpendix 5.3 (cont'd).

(2) Parameters Measured and List of Abbreviations Used in Appendix 5.3(1).

Basin, River and Location: The major river basin is given at the head of each page. Statior name, latitude and longi tude are given for each station.

Sampling Frcq\ic.icy .

D- Daily W- Weekly SM - Twice per month M- Monthly BM - Every two months Q- Quarterly P - Periodic (one or more per year) X - X = 1,2,3,4 18 - number of samples collected per year

C- Continuous

Period of Record: This is the period during which there are continuous or semi-continuous water quality records at the station.

Parameters Measured:

A - All samples are routinely analysed for major ions, (calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, bicarbonate, carbonate, chloride, and sulphate), pll, specific conductance, colour, turbidity, and total alkalinity In addition, about every third sample is analysed for extractable and dissolved iron, extractable and dissolved manganese, fluoride, phosphate, ammonia, and residue on evaporation at 105 C. Occasional samples are also analysed for heavy metals (copper, zinc, and lead). 258. Appendices - invertebrate species

Appendix 7.1.

Composite Species List of Known Benthic/Terrestrial Organisms of the Lower Fraser River Estuary.

PROTOZOA

Class Sarcodina Subclass Rhizopoda Order Foraminiferida Adercotryma glomerata (Brady) Alveolophragmium eolumbiensis (Cushman) A, robustum (Cushman and McCulloch) A. spp. Ammotium planissimum (Cushman) Eggerella advena (Cushman) Gaudryina arenaria Galloway and Wissler G. subglabrata Cushman and McCulloch Haplophragmoides neobradyi Uchio Involutina gullmarensis (Hoglund)

Psammatodendron arboresoens Norman Recurvoides turbinatus (Brady) Reophax curtus Cushman R, pilulifera Brady R. spp. Rhizamminida Saaoammina diffugiformes (Brady) S. longioollis (Wiesner) Spiropleatammina biformis (Parker and Jones) Trochammina eharlottensis Cushman

T. discorbis Earland T. nana (Brady) T. paoifioa Bushman T. squamata Parker and Jones T. squamiformis Cushman and McCulloch Trochamminita sp. 259. Appendices - inverteLr iU. species

Appendix 7.1 (cont'd).

Angulogerlna anguloea (Williamson) A, semitrigona (Galloway and Wissler) Astrononion gallowayi Loeblich and Tappan Bolivina aompacta Sidebottom B, paoifioa Cushman and McCulloch Buccella spp. Buli linella ^legantissima d'Orbigny 8. spv. Cassidulina californiea Cushman and Hughes c. depressa Asano and Nakamura C, limbata Cushman and Hughes C. nororossi Cushman C tortuosa Cushman and Hughes Cibioides fletoheri Galloway and Wissler C. lobatulus (Walker and Jacob

Dentalinida

"Disoorbis" ornatissima Cushman Elphidiella nitida Cushman Elphidium olavatum Cushman E. orispun (Linne) E. inoertum (Williamson) E. subaretioum Cushman Epistominella paoifioa Cushman Fissurina luoida (Williamson) Globobulimina aurioulata Bailey G. paoifioa Cushman Lagena dentaliniformis Bagg L. distoma Parker and Jones L. elongata (Ehrenberg) L, gracilis Williamson L. pliooenioa Cushman and Gray L, sulcata (Walker and Jacob) and Vars L. spp. Lagenonodosaria soalaris (Batsch) Nonionella basispinata (Cushman and Moyer) 260. Appendices - invertebrate species

Appendix 7.1 (cont'd).

N, labradorica (Dawson) N. miocenica Cushman var. etella Cushman and Moyer N. turgida (Williamson) var. digitata N^rvang Oolina apiopleura (Loeblich and Tappan) 0. borealis Loeblich and Tappan 0. melo d'Orbigny Patellina corrugata Williamson Polymorphina kinoaidi Cushman and Todd Poroeponides cribrorepandus Asano and Uchio Pseudononion auricula (Herron, Allen, and Earland) Pseudoplolymorphina charlottensis (Cushman) Pullenia salisburyi R.E, and K.C, Stewart Pyro williamsoni (Silvestri) Quinqueloculina spp. Robulus sp. Rosalina campanulata (Galloway and Wissler) R. columbiensis (Cushman) Sigmomorphina trilocularis (Bagg) Trichohyalus columbiensis (Cushman) Uvigerina juncea Cushman and Todd Globigerinida

Order Testacida

various freshwater forms

Class Mastigophora Subclass Phytomastigina Order Dinoflagellida

Adenoides eludens Amphidinium bipes A. klebsii

j4. latum

A, massartia

A. semilunatum

A, testudo 261. Appendices - invertebrate species Appendix 7.1 (cont'd).

A. sp. 4 A. sp. 6 Exuviella marina Glenodinium marinum Gymnodinium sp. 1 Hemidinium ochraceum Katodinium asymmetricum K. glandula Sinophysis ebroleum Thecadinium petasatum T. swedmarki T. sp. 1

various freshwater Protozoa

PORIFERA Aphrocallistes sp. various other species

CNIDARIA Class Hydrozoa various marine and freshwater forms

Class Anthozoa Subclass Zoantharia Pachyoerianthus fimbriatus Anthopleura artemisia various others in tide pools Subclass Alcyonaria Leioptilus guerneyi

NEMERTEA Paranemertes sp. other marine forms 262. Appendices - invertebrate species Appendix 7.1 (cont'd).

PLATYHELMINTHES

Class Turbellaria

marine forms also unidentified freshwater forms.

NEMATODA marine, freshwater, and terrestrial forms.

BRYOZOA unidentified forms encrusting eelgrass.

ROTIFERA

various freshwater forms

SIPUNCULIDA

marine forms

ECHIURIDA marine spp.

ANNELIDA Class Oligochaeta various marine, freshwater, and terrestrial forms. Class Polychaeta Eteone longa Platynereis dumerilli Nereis limnicola Goniada brunnea Hemipodus borealis Lumbrinereis latreilli Lumbrinereis sp. Nephtys caeooides Nephtys sp. Nephtys caeca Nereis spp. Cheilonereis cyclurus 263. Appendices - invertebrate species Appendix 7.1 (cont'd).

Chaetopterus sp, Branchiomma burrardum Polynoidae Cirratulidae Haploscoloplos sp. Lanoice cirrata Pygospio elegans Polydora ligni Polydora kempi japonioa Maldane glebifex Maldanidae Phyllochaetopterus prolifica

Pista cristata Prionospio sp. Rhodine sp. Manayunkia aestuarina Sabellidae Sternaspis fossor Terebellides stroemi Nereis procera Syllis alternata Syllis spp. Arenicola sp. Abarenicola paoifioa Chone sp. Praxillella affinis pacifica Praxillella gracilis Praxillella sp. Terebellidae Tharyx parvus Paraonice sp. Capitellidae Amphicteis sp. Travisia sp. variety of unidentified marine forms 264. Appendices - invertebrate species

Appendix 7.1 (cont'd).

MOLLUSCA Class Gastropoda Nassarius mendicus Turbonilla sp. Alvania sp. Lacuna sp. Mitrella sp. Nassarius sp. Trachyrhynchus sp. Cerithium moerchi Thais lamellosa Purpura foliatum Cerithium sp.. Polinices lewisii Mitrella gouldi Acteocina culoitella Various other freshwater and terrestrial forms

Class Bivalvia Yoldia ensifera Macoma spi Axinopsis sericatus Axinopsis sp. Compsomyax subdiaphana Lucinoma tenuisculpta Lucinoma sp. Macoma alaskana Macoma carlottensis Macoma eliminata Nuoula sp. Thyasira bisecta Thyasira sp. Aoila oastrensis Nuoula tenuis Psephidia sp. Yoldia amygdalea . Mytilus edulis Clinocardium nuttallii Axinulus ferruginosus Macoma calcarea Maooma incongrua 265. Appendices - invertebrate species Appendix 7.1 (cont'd).

Yoldia thraeciaformis Psephidia lovdi Clinocavdium sp, Saxidomus giganteus Schizothaerus nuttallil Mya arenaria Mya sp. Tellina sp, Venerupis japonioa Protothaca staminea Ostrea sp. Tellina carpenteri Cryptomya californica Cardium corbis

Macoma nasuta Crassostrea gigas Ostrea lurida Crassostrea virginica Schizothaerus capax Bankia setacea

various other marine and freshwater forms.

Class Cephalopoda Order Decapoda pctopod and squid spp. Class Scaphopoda Dentalium dalli

ARTHROPODA

Class Arachnida mites, estuarine and freshwater forms Class Insecta Order Ephemeroptera (mayflies) Order Plecoptera (stoneflies) Order Odonata (dragonflies and damsel flies) Order Coleoptera (beetles) various aquatic forms and larvae Family Staphylinidae (rove beetles) 266. Appendices - invertebrate species

Appendix 7.1 (cont'd). Family Carabidae (ground beetles) Family Coccinellidae (ladybird beetles) Family Cantheridae (soldier beetles) Family Elateridae (click beetles) Family Curculiordae (weevils) Order Trichoptera (caddisflies) Family Branchycentridae Family Hydroptilidae Family Hydropsychidae Family Limnephilidae other unidentified forms. Order Diptera (flies and mosquitos) Family Tendipedidae (= Chironomidae, midges) Family Ceratopogonidae Family Rhagonidae Family Simulidae (blackflies) Family Culicidae (mosquitos) Family Tabanidae (horseflies) Family Tipulidae (craneflies) Family Tachinidae Family Anthomyidae Family Psychodidae (sandflies) Family Empididae (dance flies) Family Syrphidae (flower flies) Family Cecidomyidae (gall micjges) Family Calliphoridae (blowflies)

Order Hemiptera (bugs) various aquatic bugs Family Pentatomidae (shield stink bugs) Family Lygaeidae (seed bugs)

Order Homoptera (aphids) Family Cicadellidae (leafhoppers) 267. Appendices - invertebrate species

Appendix 7.1 (cont'd).

Order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps) Family Formicidae (ants) Family Vespidae (wasps) Famil; Tenthredinidae (sawflies) Family Andrenidae Family Apidae (honey and bumble bees) Family Halticidae

other unidentified orders

Class Crustacea Subclaim Branchiopoda Order Diplostraca

Suborder Cladocera marine and freshwater forms

Subclass Ostracoda

marine and freshwater forms Subclass Copepoda

various freshwater forms Order Harpacticoida

marine forms

Order Calanoida marine spp. Subclass Cirripedia Balanus glandula Balanus sp. Subclass Malacostraca

Order Nebaliacea

estuarine form Order Mysidacea Mysis sp. Neomysis sp. other forms

Order Tanaidacea Tanais sp. 268. Appendices - invertebrate species

Appendix 7.1 (cont'd).

Order Isopoda Argeia puggettensis Gnorimosphaeroma lutra other marine and freshwater forms

Order Amphipoda Corophium salmonis C, spinicorne

C. brevis C. sp. (juvenile) C. sp. Anisogammarus confervicolus A, pugettensis A, sp. (juvenile) Proharpina sp. 1 Pontogeneia sp, 1

Macra dubia Gammarus sp. 1 Orchestoidea pugettensis Amphithoe humeralis Gammarus sp, 2 other marine and freshwater forms

Order Decapoda

Suborder Natantia Callianassa californiensis Upogebia sp. Crago alaskensis C. nigricauda Upogebia pugettensis Pandalid shrimp sp, Suborder Reptantia Cancer magister C. productus Pugettia sp. Eemigrapsus oregonensis Hemigrapsus sp. Munida quadrispina other species 269. Appendices - invertebrate species

Appendix 7.1 (cont'd).

ECHINODERMATA

Class Asteroidea

Pisaster oohraceous

Evas terras troschelii other species Class Ophiuroidea Amphiodia urtica Amphiodia periereta Amphiuridae sp. Ophiura sarsi Ophiura leptootenia other species

Class Echinoidea StrongylooentrotUi spp. Brisaster latifrons Brisaster toxonsendi

Dendraster excentricus Class Holothuroidea Cuoumaria piperata Pentamera lissoplioa Pentamera sp. Molpadia intermedia Chiridota sp, other species Eendigia californica (unknown classification)

CHORDATA

Class Ascidiacea tunicate species 270, Appendices - invertebrate species

Appendix 7. 2.

Composite Species List of Known Zooplankton Organisms of the Lower Fraser River Estuary.

PROTOZOA

Class Sarcodina

Order Radiolarida Ceratium furca (Ehrenberg) Dinophysis hastata Stein Dis tephanus speculum var. regularia Lemmerman Gonyaulax spinifera (Claparede and Lachmann) Nematodinium armatum Dogiel other species

Class Ciliata

Order Tintinnida unidentified spp.

CNIDARIA Class Hydrozoa various Hydromedusae various Siphonophore spp. various Siphonophore and other Cnidarian planula larvae

CTENOPHORA unidentified spp

CHAETOGNATHA unidentified spp 271. Appendices - invertebrate species Appendix 7.2 (cont'd).

ANNELIDA Class Polychaeta Tomopteris spp. polychaete trochophore larvae unidentified spp.

MOLLUSCA Class Gastropoda Pteropod spp. Pteropod spp. larvae unidentified gastropod spp.

Class Bivalvia clam spp. larvae

Class Cephalopoda cephalopod egg cases

ECIIINODERMATA Class Ophiuroidea pluteus larvae

Class Holothuroidea unidentified spp,

CHORDATA

Class Larvacea Appendicularian spp. Oikopleura spp. 272. Appendices - invertebrate species

Appendix 7.2 (cont'd).

Class Pisces

fish larvae

ARTHROPODA

Class Crustacea Subclass Branchiopoda Order Diplostraca

Suborder Cladocera unidentified spp.

Subclass Ostracoda unidentified spp. Subclass Copepoda

Order Calanoida

Acartia clausi Giesbrecht A, longiremis (Lilljeborg) Calanus cristatus (Kr0yer) C. finmarchicus (Gunnerus) C. pacificus Brodsky C. tonsus Brady C, plumchrus Marukawa Candacia columbiae Campbell Centrogaptilus porcellus Johnson Centropages mcmurrichi Willey Chiridius tenuispinus Sars Diaptomus sp, Westwood Epilabidooera amphitrites (McMurrich) Eucalanus bungii Giesbrecht Euchaeta japonioa Marukawa Eurytemora hirundoides (Nordquist) E. johanseni Willey Gaidius pungens Geisbrecht Metridia longa (Lubbock) M. lucens Boeck 273. Appendices - invertebrate species Appendix 7.2 (cont'd).

Microealanus pusillus Sars Paracalanur parvus (Claus) Pseudooalanus minutus (Kr^yer) Sooleoithricella minor (Brady) Tortanus discaudatus (Thomson and Scott) Aetideus armatus (Boeck) Order Cyclopoida Asnomyaon rubrum Campbell Covycaeus affinis McMurrich Oithana helgolandica Claus 0. pi waifera Baird Oncaea aonifera Giesbrecht Oithonu spp. 'iaird Order Harpacticoida Diosaccus spinaeus Campbell Earpacticus uniremus Kr^yer Idya fuvoata (Baird) Microseiella rosea (Dana) copepod larvae unidentified spp. Subclass Cirripedia

barnacle larvae

Subclass Malacostraca Order Mysidacea My sis spp. Neomysie sp. Order Amphipoda Corophium spp. unidentified spp. Order Euphausiacea unidentified spp. euphausid larvae 274. Appendices - invertebrate species

Appendix 7.2 (cont'd).

Order Decapoda crab zoea and megalops shrimp larvae unidentified spp. various crustacean nauplii Unidentified eggs and egg cases 275. Appendices - fish species

Appendix 8.1.

List of fish species of the lower Fraser estuary as compiled from the cited literature, and other commercially important species from the Strait of Georgia ( * = Shepard and Stevenson, 1956).

1. Acipenser medirostris (green sturgeon) I. A, transmontanus (white sturgeon) 3. Agonus acipenserinus (sturgeon poacher) 4. Alosa sapidissima (American shad) 5. Ammodytes hexapterus (Pacific sandlance) 6. Anoplopoma fimbria (sablefish) * 7. Atheresthes stomias (turbot or arrowtooth flounder) 8. Bathymaster signatus (searcher) 9. Catostomus oatostomus (longnose sucker) 10. Cetorhinurs maximus (basking shark) * 11. Cithariohthys sordidus (Pacific sanddab) 12. C, stigmaeus (speckled sanddab) 13. Clevelandia ios (Arrow goby) 14. Clinooottus acutioeps (sharpnose sculpin) 15. Clupea harengus pallasi (Pacific herring) 16. Cottus aleuticus (Aleutian sculpin) 17. Cymatogaster aggregata (shiner perch) 18. Cyprinus carpio (carp) 19. Dasyoottus setiger (spinyhead sculpin) 20. Eopsetta jordani (Petrale sole) * 21. Gadus macrocephalus (Pacific cod) * 22. Galeorhinus zyopterus (soupfin shark) *% 23. Gasterosteus aouleatus (threespine stickleback) 24. Glyptocephalus zachirus (rex sole) 25. Eexagrammos stelleri (whitespotted greenling) 26. Eexanchus griseus (sixgill shark) * 27. Eippoglossoides elassodon (flathead sole) 28. Eippvglossus stenolepis (Pacific halibut) * 276, Appendices - fish species

Appendix 8,1 (cont'd).

29. Eydrolagus colliei (ratfish) 30. Eypomesus pretiosus pretiosus (surf or silver smelt) 31. Icelinus tenuis (spotfin sculpin) 32. Ictalurus nebulosus (brown bullhead or catfish) 33. Isopsetta isolepis (butter sole) * 34. Lamna ditropis (salmon shark) * 35 Lampetra ayresi (river lamprey) 36. L. tridentatus (Pacific lamprey) 37. Lepidogobius lepidus (Bay goby) 38. Lepidopsetta bilineata (rock sole) 39. Leptdcottus armatus (Pacific staghorn sculpin) 40. Limanda aspera (yellowfin sole) * 41. Lumpenus sagitta (Pacific snake prickleback) 42. Lycodopsis paoifioa (blackbelly eelpout) 43. Lyopsetta exilis (slender sole) 44. Mallotus villosus (capelin) * 45. Merluccius productus (Pacific hake) 46. Microgadus proximus (Pacific tomcod) 47. Microstomus pacificus (Dover sole) 48. Mylocheilus caurinus (peamouth chub) 49. Notorhynchus maculatus (sevengill shark) * 50. Oligocottus maoulosus (tidepool sculpin) 51. 0. rimensie (saddleback sculpin) 52. Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (pink salmon) 53. 0. keta (chum salmon) 54. 0. kisutch (coho salmon) 55. 0, nerka (sockeye salmon) 56. 0. tshawytscha (chinook salmon) 57. Ophiodon elongatus (lingcod) 58. Parophrys vetulus (lemon or English sole) 59. Pholis sp. (blennie or gunnel) 60. Platichthys stellatus (starry flounder) 277. Appendices - fish species

Appendix 8.1 (cont'd).

61. Plychocheilu8 oregonesis (northern squawfish) 62. Pomoxis nigromaoulatus (calico bass) 63. Porichthys notatus (plainfin midshipman) 64. Poroclinus rothrocki (whitebarred prickleback) 65. Prionaoe glauca (blue shark) * 66. Prosopium williamsoni (mountain whitefish) 67. Psettichthys melanostictus (sand sole) 68. Psychvolutes paradoxus (tadpole sculpin) 69. Radulinus asprellus (slim sculpin) 70. Raja binoculata (big skate) * 71. R. rhina (longnose skate) 72. Rhacochilus vacca (pile perch) 73. Riohardsonius balteatus (redside shiner) 74. Ronquilus jordani (northern ronquil) 75. Salmo clarki clarki (coastal cutthroat trout) 76. 5. clarki lewisi 77. S. gairdneri (steelhead trout or rainbow trout) 78. Salvelinus malma (Dolly Varden) 79. Sebastes maliger (quillback rockfish) 80. Sebastodes (rockfish) * 81. Spirinchus thaleichthys (longfin smelt) 82. Squalu8 suckleyi (dogfish) 83. Syngnathus griseolineatus (bay pipefish) 84. Thaleichthys pacifious (eulachon) 85. Theragra chalcogrammus (whiting, big-eye, or walleye pollock) 278. Appendices - floral species

APPENDIX 10.1.

Species list of flora (other than phytoplankton, and benthic macrophytes and algae) compiled from the lit erature cited.

(i) Fungi

A. Terrestrial Forms 1. Dacrymyce8 palmatus (witch's butter) 2. Fleurotus sp. (oyster mushroom) 3. Pomes sp. (bracket fungus) 4. Lenzites saepiaria 5. Lycoperdon sp. (gemmed puffball) 6. Nidula sp. (bird's nest fungus) 7. Psilocybe sp.

B. Marine Forms

1. Amylocarpus encephaloides Currey 2. Cirrenalia macrooephala (Kohlmeyer) Meyers 3. Ealigena spartinae Jones 4. Ealonectria appendiculata Linder 5. Ealosphaeria mediosetigera Cribb and Cribb 6. E. tubulifera Kohlmeyer 7. Eumicola alopallonella Meyers and Moore 8. Leptosphaeria discors Saccardo and Ellis 9. Lulworthia opaca Cribb and Cribb 10. Microthelia maritima (Linder) Kohlmeyer 11. Monodicty8 pelagica (Johnson) Jones 12. Remispora hamata (Hohnk) Kohlmeyer 13. R. stellata Kohlmeyer 14. Schizochytrium aggregatum Goldstein and Belsky 15. Stagonospora vitensis Unamuno 16. Thrau8tochytrium proliferum Sparrow 17. T. sp. 18. Zalerion maritimum (Linder) Anastasiou 279. Appendices - floral species

APPENDIX 10.1 (cont'd).

(ii) Mosses

1. Aulacomnium androgynum 2. Brachytheoium sp. 3. Ceratodon purpureus

4. Dicranowei8ia cirvhata 5. Dicranum sp. 6. Eurhync't.lum oreganum 7. Funaria hygrometrica 8. Eypnum circinale 9. Isothecium sp. 10. Polytrichum juniperinum 11. Rhacomitrium canescens 12. Sphagnum sp.

(iii) Lichens

1. Cladonia fimbriata 2. C. gracilis

3. Parmelia sulcata 4. Xanthoria sp.

(iv) Ferns and Closely Related Species

1. Athyrium filix-femina (lady fern) 2. Dryopteris austriaca (spiny wood fern) 3. Equisetum arvense (common horsetail) 4. E. fluviatile (swamp horsetail) 5. E, hiemale (horsetail) 6. E, palustre (marsh horsetail) 7. Polystichum munitum (sword fern) 8. Pteridium aquilinum (bracken) 9. Thelypteris phegopteris (long beech fern) 280. Appendices - floral species

APPENDIX 10.1 (cont'd).

(v) Herbaceous Plants (including grasses, weeds ancl aquatics)

1. Achillea millefolium (yarrow) 2. Agropyron caninum (wheat grass) 3. A. repens (quack grass) 4. A, smithii (western wheat grass) 5. Agrostis alba (spiked red top) 6. A. exarata (bent grass) 7. A, exarata var. exarata (creeping bent grass) 8. A, palustris (creeping bent grass) 9. A. semiverticillata (bent grass) 10. A. spp. (bent grass) 11. Aira praecox (early hair grass) 12. Alisma plantago-aquatica L. (water plantain) 13. Allium cepa (onion) 14. Alopecurus geniculatus (meadow foxtail) 15. Amaranthus retroflexus (red root pigweed) 16. Anaphalis margaritacea (pearly everlasting) 17. Angelica genuflexa (Angelica) 18. A. lucida (sea-watch, seacoast Angelica) 19. Anthemis arvensis (field chamomile) 20. A. ootula (chamomile, mayweed) 21. Arctium lappa (great burdock) 22. A, minus (common burdock) 23. Artemisia campestris (wormwood) 24. A. douglasiana (common wormwood) 25. A. suksdorfii (wormwood) 26. Aster eatonii (Eaton's aster) 27. A. subspicatus (Douglas aster) 28. A. spp. (aster) 29. Atriplex patula (spearscale) 30. A, patula var. hastata (Orache) 31. Avena fatua (wild oats) 281. Appendices - floral species

APPENDIX 10.1 (cont'd).

32. Avena sativa (oats) 33. Barbarea sp. (winter cress) 34. Beta vulgaris (suger beet) 35. 5. spp. (beet) 36. Brassica botrytis (cauliflower) 37. B. campestris (turnip) 38. B. capita (cabbage) 39. £. nigra (black mustard) 40. B. rapa (turnip) 41. Bromus mollis (soft chess) 42. B. sitchensis (sitka brome) 43. B. sitchensis var. aleutensis (sitka brome) 44. B, sterilis (brome) 45. Cakile eduleuta (sea rocket) 46. Calamagrostis nutkaensis (Pacific reed grass) 47. Caltha asarifolia (marsh marigold) 48. Capsella bursa-pastoris (Shepherd's purse) 49. Cardamine oligosperma 50. Carex lyngbyei (Lyngbye's sedge) 51. C. macrocephalum (large-headed sedge) 52. C, rostrata (beaked sedge) 53. Cerastium arvense (chickweed) 54. C. vulgatum (chickweed) 55. Ceratophyllum demersum (coontail, hornwort) 56. Chenopodium album L. (lamb's quarters) 57. c. botrys (lamb's quarters) 58. C. capitum (strawberry blight) 59. C, murale (goosefoot) 60. Chichorium intybus (chicory) 61. Chrysanthemum leuchanthemum (ox-eye daisy) 62. Cirscium arvensis (Canada thistle) 63. C. lancelatum (bull thistle) 282. Appendices - floral species

APPENDIX 10.1 (cont'd).

64. Cirscium undulatum (woody thistle) 65. C. vulgare (bull thistle) 66. c. spp. (thistle) 67. Convolvulvus arvensis (wild morning glory) 68. Conyza canadensis (horsewood) 69. Cotula oornopifolia (mud-disk) 70. Cruciferae spp. (mustard) 71. Cryptantha ambigua (hound's tongue) 72. Cucumis satira (cucumber) 73. Cucurbita maxima (squash) 74. C. pepo (pumpkin) 75. Cytisus scoparius (broom) 76. Dactylis glomerata (orchard grass) 77. Dauous carota (carrot) 78. Desohampsia oaespitosa var. longiflqria (tall hair gras: 79. Distiohlis spicata (green seashore saltgrass) 80. D. spicata var. dentata (desert saltgrass) 81. Draba verna (vernal whitlow grass) 82. Echinoohloa orusgalli (barnyard grass) 83. Eleocharis palustris (spike rush) 84. Elodea canadensis (waterweed) 85. Elymus ambiguus (rye grass) 86. E. cinereus (tall Canada rye grass) 87. E. condensatus (rye grass) 88. E. glaucus (blue wild rye grass) 89. E. mollis (sea lyme-grass, dune grass, bunch grass) 90. E. vancouverensis (wild rye grass) 91. Epilobium angustifolium (fireweed) 92. E. mintum (willowherb) 93. E, watsonii (northern willowherb) 94. Erigeron canadensis (Canada fleabane) 95. E. oompositus (compound fleabane, horseweed) 283. Appendices - floral species

APPENDIX 10.1 (cont'd).

96. Erigeron spp. (fleabane) 97. Festuoa arundinacea (reed fescue or beach grass) 98. F. ovina (sheep fescue) 99. F. rubra (fescue) 100. F. rubra var. littoralis (fescue) 101. Galeopsis tetrahit (hemp nettle) 102. Galium trifidum (small bedstraw) 103. G. spp. (bedstraw) 104. Glaux maritima (saltwort) 105. Gnaphalium palustre (lowland cudweed) 106. Grindelia integrifolia (gum weed) 10 7. Eelianthus annuus ('sunflower) 108. Eeracleum lanatum (cow parsnip) 109. Eolcus lanatus (Yorkshire fog, velvet grass) 110. Eolodiscus discolor (ocean spray) 111. Eordeum sativum (barley) 112. E. vulgare (barley) 113. Eypericum perforatum (common St. John's wort) 114. Eypochaeris glabra (smooth cat's ear) 115. E. radicata (hairy cat's ear) 116. Impatiens noli-tangere L. (impatiens, jewelweed) 117. Iris pseudacorus (Iris, yellow flag) 118. Juncus acuminatus (sharp-fruited rush) 119.' d articulatus (jointed rush) 120. J. balticus (Baltic rush) 121. J. buffonius (common toad rush) 122.' d effusus (common rush) 123. J. gerardi (rush) 124. J. validus (great rush) 12 5. J. spp. (rush) 126. Lactuca biennis (tall blue lettuce) 127. L. pulchella (blue lettuce) 284. Appendices - floral species

APPENDIX 10.1 (cont'd).

128. Laotuca soariola (prickly lettuce) 129. L. serriola (lobed prickly lettuce) 130. Lathyrus japonious (beach pea) 131. L. nevadensis (purple pea) 132. L. palustris (marsh pea) 133. Lepidium densifolium (pepper grass) 134. Lolium italioum (darnel) 135. L. perenne (perennial rye grass) 136. Lysichiton americanum (yellow skunk cabbage) 137. Lythrum salicaria (purple loosestrife) 138. Matricaria matricaroides (pineapple weed) 139. Medioago sativa (alfalfa) 140. Melilotus alba (sweet clover) 141. Mentha arvensis (wild mint) 142. Narcissus pseudonarcissus (daffodil) 143. Nasturtium sp. (nasturtium) 144. Oenanthe sarmentose (water parsley) 145. Oenthera biennis (western yellow evening primrose) 146. 0. hookeri (evening primrose) 147. Oplopanax horridus (devil's club) 148. Osmorhiza occidentalis (sweet Cicely) 149. Papaver spp. 150. Parentucellia viscosa 151. Phalaris arundinacea (reed canary grass) 152. Phaseolus vulgaris (bean) 153. Phleum pratense (Timothy) 154. Phragmites phragmites (tall reed grass) 155. Phyllostaohys aurea (yellow bamboo) 156. Pisum sativum (pea) 157. Plantago lanoeolata (narrow-leaved plantain, rib grass) 158. P. major (broad-leaved plantain, common plantain) 159. P. maritima (seaside plantain) 285. Appendices - floral species

APPENDIX 10.1 (cont'd).

160. Plantago spp. (plantain) 161. Poa annua (annual bluegrass) 162. P. compressa (Canada bluegrass) 163. P. howelli (meadow grass) 164. P. pratensis (bluegrass) 165. Polygonum amphibium (knotweed) 166. P. avioulare (doorweed, knotweed) 167. P. convolvulus (bindweed) 168. P. cuspidatum (knotweed) 169. P. persicaria (lady's thumb) 170. P. punctatum (dotted smartweed, water smartweed) 171. Potamogeton natans (floating pondweed) 172. P. pectinatus (sago pondweed) 173. P. pusillus (small pondweed) 174. Potentilla paoifioa (cinquefoil, silverweed) 175. Pseudocarpus oapitatus (ninebark) 176. Psoralea agrophylla (silverleaf Psoralea) 111. Ranunculus maoounii (Macoun's buttercup) 178. R. repens (creeping buttercup) 179. R. seleratus (cursed buttercup) 180. R. spp. (buttercup) 181. Raphanus sativus (radish) 182. Rhamnus purshiana (cascara) 183. Rorippa islandica (marsh yellow cress) 184. Rorippa spp. (water cress) 185. Rumex acetosella (sheep sorrel) 186. R. oonglomeratus (sorrel) 187. i?. crispus (curled dock) 188. #. oocidentalis (western dock) 189. R. patientia (patience dock) 190. R. salicofolius (tufted dock) 191. Ruppis maritima (widgeon grass)

"V 286. Appendices - floral species

APPENDIX 10.1 (cont'd).

192. Sagittaria cuneata 193. Salicornia virginica (woody glasswort) 194. Scirpus acutus (viscid bulrush) 195. S. americanus (three-square bulrush) 196. 5. microcarpus (small-fruited bulrush) 197. S. paludosus (prairie bulrush) 198. s. validus (American great bulrush, soft-stem bulrush) 199.-s. spp. (bulrush) 200. Senecio vulgaris (groundsel) 201. Setaria lutescens (yellow bristle grass) 202. Sidalcea hendersonii (marsh hollyhock) 203. Sisymbrium officinale (hedge mustard) 204. Sium suave (water parsnip) 205. Solanum tuberosum (potatoe) 206. S. dulcamara (bittersweet nightshade) 207. Solidago canadensis (goldenrod) 208. S. spp. (goldenrod) 209. Sonchus asper (common sow thistle) 210. S. oleraceus (sow thistle) 211. Spergularia sp. 212. Sphaeraloea glossulariaefolia (globe mallow) 213. Spirodela polyrhiza (duckweed) 214. Staohys cooleyae (hedge nettle) 215. Stellaria media (chickweed) 216. Tdnacetum vulgare (tansy) 217. Taraxicum officinale (dandelion) 218. Trifolium hybridum (Alsike clover) 219. T. pratense (red clover) 220. T. procumbens (low hop clover) 221. T. repens (white clover) 222. T. spp. (clover) 223. Trigochin maritima (arrow grass) 287. Appendices - floral species

APPENDIX 10.1 (cont'd).

224. Triticum aestivum (wheat) 225. Typha latifolia (cat-tail) 226. Urtica dioioa (common nettle) 227. U. lyalli (stinging nettle) 228. Veronica americana (booklime) 229. Vicia gigantea (giant vetch) 230. V. sativa (common vetch) 231. V. spp. (vetch) 232. lea mays (corn)

(vi) Shrubs

1. Amelanchier alnifolia (Saskatoon berry, June berry, 9 t x • •• /• u * „a service berry) l* Arbutusa menzvesvv (arbutus) *J 3. Cormus natalli (western dogwood) 4. C. oocidentalis (dogwood) 5. C. stolonifera (red osier dogwood) 6. Cytisus 8oopariu8 (broom) 7. Gaultheria shallon (salal) 8. Ilex aquifolium (holly) 9. J. opaoa (American holly) 10. Lonicera cilosa (orange honeysuckle) 11. I. involucrata (honeysuckle, black twinberry) 12. Myrica gale (sweet gale) 13. Rosa macounii (wild rose) 14. R, nutkana (Nootka rose) 15. Rubus laciniatus (evergreen blackberry) 16. R. leucodermis (black raspberry) 17. R. parvifloru8 (thimbleberry) 18. r, procerus (Himalayan blackberry) 19. /?. speotabilis (salmonberry) 20. R. ursinus (trailing or native blackberry) 288. Appendices - floral species

APPENDIX 10.1 (cont'd).

21. Sambucua racemosa (red elderberry) 22. S. racemosa var. melanocarpa (black elderberry) 23. S. spp. (elderberry) 24. Spiraea douglasii (meadowsweet hardhack) 25. Symphoricarpus albus (snowberry, waxberry) 26. Vaocinium ovalifolium (tall blue huckleberry) 27. V. parvifolium (red huckleberry) 28. V. scopium (blueberry) 29. Viburnum edule (squashberry)

(vii) Trees

1. Abies amabilis (balsam fir, lovely fir) 2. A. grandis (grand fir) 3. Acer oircinatum (vine maple) 4. A. dasycarpum (silver maple) 5. A. ginnala (Manchurian maple) 6. A. macrophyllum (broadleaf maple) 7. A. palmatum (Japanese maple) 8. A. pseudoplatanus (Sycamore maple) 9. Alnus rubra (red alder) 10. A. sinuata (Sitka alder) 11. A. tenuifolia (mountain alder) 12. Betula alba (European white birch) 13. B. dalecarlica (weeping birch) 14. B. lutea (yellow birch) 15. B. oocidentalis (water birch) 16. B. papyrifera (white birch) 17. Castanea arenata (Japanese chestnut) 18. C. dentata (American chestnut) 19. C. sativa (Spanish chestnut) 20. Crataegus douglasii (Douglas hawthorn) 289. Appendices - floral species

APPENDIX 10.1 (cont'd).

21. Crataegus monogyna (hawthorn) 22. Geum macrophyllum (large-leaved yellow avens) 23. Eolodiscus discolor (ocean spray) 24. Larix occidentalis (western larch) 25. Malus diversifolia (Pacific crabapple, wild crabapple) 26. M. pumila (apple) 27. Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce) 28. Planatus subhirtella (spring cherry) 29. P. subhirtella var. autumnalis (autumn cherry) 30. Populus nigra italica (Lombardy popular) 31. P. tremuloides (aspen poplar) 32. P. trichocarpa (northern black cottonwood) 33. Prunus armenica (apricot) 34. P. domestioa (plum) 35. P. emarginata (bitter cherry) 36. P. virginiana (choke cherry) 37. P. spp. (cherry) 38. Pseudotsuga menziessi (Douglas fir) 39. Pyrus communis (pear) 40. P. fuaoa (western crabapple) 41. Salix exigua (sandbar willow) 42. 5. hookerianna (Hooker's willow) 43. S. lasiandra (Pacific willow) 44. s. mackenzieana (Mackenzie's willow) 45. s. scouleriana (Scouler's willow) 46. s. sessifolia (sandbar willow) 47. 5. sitchensis (Sitka willow) 48. 5. spp. (willow) 49. Sorbus aucuparia (mountain ash) 50. S. sitchensi8 (Sitka ash) 51. Thuja plicata (western red cedar) 52. Tsuga heterophylla (hemlock) 290. Appendices - floral species

Appendix 10.2,

Species List of Phytoplankton, Benthic Macrophytes and Benthic Algae.

(i) DIATOMS 1. Asterionella japonica Cleve 2. Bacteriastrum delicatulumCleve 3. Biddulphia aurita (Lyngbye) Brebisson and Godey 4. B. laevis Ehrenberg 5. B, longicruris Greville 6. Chaetoceros affinis Lauder

7. C. brevis Schiitt 8. C. ooncavicornis Mangin 9. C. oonstrictus Gran 10. C. convolutus Castracane 11. C. cur visetus Cleve 12. C. debilis Cleve 13. C. decipiens Cleve 14. C. didymus Ehrenberg 15. C. laoinosus Schiitt 16. C. lorenzanus Gruno 17. C. radioans Schiitt 18. C. similis Cleve 19. C. teres Cleve 20. Cy vanheurcki Gran 21. Corethron hystrix Hensen 22. Cosoinodisous excentricus Ehrenberg 23. C, wailesii Gran and Angst 24. Ditylum brightwellii (West) Grunow 25. Euoampia zoodiaous Ehrenberg 26. Fragilaria orotonensis Kitton 27. F. straitula Lyngbye 28. Grammatophora marina (Lyngbye) KUtzing 29. Leptocylindrus danicus Cleve 30. Melosira monoliformis (Miiller) Agardh 291. Appendices - floral species

Appendix 10.2 (cont'd).

31. M. sulcata Kutzing 32. Navicula sp. Bory 33. Nitzsohia spp. Hassal 34. Pleurosigma spp. Smith 35. Rhizosolenia delicatula Cleve 36. R. hebetata forma semispina (Hensen) Gran 37. R. stolterfothii Peregallo 38. R. styliformis Brightwell 39. Skeletonema costatum- (Greville) Cleve 40. Stephanopyxi- nippom •' G^in and Yendo 41. Thalassionema nitzschioides Grunow 4 2 Thatassiosira condensata Cleve 43. T. deoipiens (Grunow) Jr/rgenson 44. T. nordenskioldii Cleve 45. Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii Grunow 46. miscellaneous colonial forms

(ii) Benthic Macrophytes and Algae 1. Acroohaetium densum 2. Enteromorpha intestinalis 3. E. linza 4. E. tubulosa 5. Fueus distichus 6. Gracilaria verrucosa 1. Laminaria saccharina 8. Lola lubrica 9. Mie.rocleus spp. 10. Monostroma fuscum 11. Phormidium spp. 12. Porphyra sanjuanensis 13. Prasiola meridionalis 14. Rhizoclonium reparium 15. Smithora naiadum 292. Appendices - floral species

Appendix 10.2 (cont'd).

16.* Viva scagellii (sea lettuce) 17. U. sp. (sea lettuce) 18. Urospora mirabilis (eelgrass) 19. Zostera latifolia (eelgrass) 20. Z. marina (eelgrass) 21. Z. nana (eelgrass) Appendix 11.1. Utilization of the Fraser delta area by avian, mammalian, amphibian, and reptilian species. Usage Species Area Utilized Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans- Food Abundance Ref.c 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Common Loon open water small common (Gavia immer) fish

Arctic Loon open water small freq. (Gavia avctioa) fish

Red-throated Loon open water small common (Gavia stellata) fish

Red-necked Grebe marshes, crust freq. 15 (Podiaeps grisegena) sloughs aceans , > insects , fish a>

p* Horned Grebe x x x x marshes, XX X crust freq. 15 O (Podiceps auritus) sloughs (rare) (rare) (common) aceans , CD 1/3 insects, fish cr Eared Grebe x marshes, amphipods , rare 15 *1 (Podiceps nigricollis) sloughs mysids

Western Grebe x x open water fish common 15 O (Aeohmophorus n occidentalis) o

Pied-billed Grebe x x marshes, inverte freq. 15 (Podilymbus podiceps) sloughs brates , some seeds Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Usage Species Area Utilized' Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundance*3 Ref.c 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Double-crested log booms, fish uncommon Cormorant pilings in (Phalacrocorax river arms auritus)

Brandt's Cormorant log booms, fish rare (Phalacrocorax pilings in penicillatus) river arms Pelagic Cormorant log booms, ts) fish freq. (Phalacrocorax pilings in pelagicus) river armi-

Great Blue Heron > mud flats, x fish, common xi (Ardea herodias X3 marshes, frogs herodias) sloughs

American Bittern x x marshes fish, rare (Botaurus frogs lentiginosus)

"3 Whistling Swan O marshes, n aquatic rare 6,9 (Olor columbianus) sloughs plants o v. Trumpeter Swan marshes, aquatic very 6,9 (Olor buccinator) sloughs plants rare

"\ J

Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Usage Species Area Utilizeda Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundance^ Ref.c 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Canada Goose x marshes, aquatic freq. 6,9 (Branta canadensis) sloughs plants Black Brant x mud § eelgrass common (Branta bernicla sandflats nigricans)

White-fronted Goose x marshes X X aquatic rare 6,9 S (Anser albifrons sloughs plants, albifrons) snails, insects > Xi Snow Goose x outer marshes, Xi X X aquatic freq. (D (Chen caerulescens river mouth, plants 3 caerulescens) tidal flats

Mallard x marshes, (in aquatic common 2,5,6,9? (Anas platyrhynchos) sloughs, part) plants 10,13,17' ponds, bars molluscs , 21,22 o- H- dead salmon •-* a. Gadwall marshes, (in aquatic freq. w (Anas strepera) sloughs Xi part) plants, o inverte n brates , CD fish CO

Pintail marshes, X X aquatic common 2,5,6,9, (Anas acuta) sloughs plants 10,18,22 Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

a b Usage Species Area Utilized Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter Trans Food Abundance Ref. dent ing ing ient

Green-winged Teal x x x x marshes, aquatic very 2,5,6,9, (Anas crecca) sloughs plants, common 10,19,22 insects, dead salmon

Blue-winged Teal x x x x marshes, aquatic freq. 6,9,22 (Anas discors) sloughs plants

Cinnamon Teal x x x x marshes, aquatic common 6,9,22 (Anas cyonoptera) sloughs plants

American Wigeon x x x x marshes, aquatic very 2,5,6,9, (Anas americana) sloughs plants common 10,11,20, 22

Northern Shoveler x x x x marshes, x aquatic freq. 6,9,10,<£ (Anas clypeata) sloughs (common) plants, inverte > brates xi Xi Wood Duck marshes, x aquatic freq. (Aix sponsa) sloughs, (in plants, 22 £• banks part) few inverte o CD brates in

Redhead x marshes aquatic uncommon 6,9 a* (Aythya americana) sloughs plants H> H CL Ring-necked Duck x x marshes aquatic rare 6,9 w (Aythya collaris) sloughs plants xi a> o

\ Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). a Usage Species Area Utilized Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundance b Ref .c 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Canvasback x x x x deeper waters of marshes, aquatic common 1,5,6, (Aythya valisineria) plants 9,12 sloughs, mainstem rivers Greater Scaup x x x marshes,river aquatic (Aythya marila) common 5,6,16 £ plants, 22 5 inverte • brates > Lesser Scaup xi marshes,river aquatic freq. 10,16 (Aythya affinis) *% plants, 3 Cl inverte brates O CD 17) Common Goldeneye x x x x marshes,river (few) mainly common 6,12,14. (Bucephala inverte clangula) CT brates

CL Barrow's Goldeneye x x x x marshes,river (few) mainly common 6,10,12t/) (Bucephala inverte 14 "2 islandica) cd brates o Bufflehead x x x x marshes,river CD inverte common 6,12 w (Bucephala albeola) brates , small fish, dead salmon

Oldsquaw x open river molluscs , common 6 (Clangula hyemalis) crusta ceans Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Usage Species Area Utilizeda Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundance*5 Ref .c 12 3 4 dent ingine ine ient

Harlequin Duck marshes,river molluscs, freq. (Histrionicus crusta histrionicus) ceans

White-winged tidal slough (few) inverte freq. 6,10 Scoter mouths, brates , (Melanitta deglandi) river arms fish

Surf Scoter tidal slough inverte common 6 ts) (Melanitta mouths, brates , CO river arms fish perspicillata) "

> Black Scoter tidal slough inverte freq. 6 xi brates , xi (Melanitta nigra) mouths, CD river arms fish 3 CL aquatic freq. 6,9 O Ruddy Duck tidal sloughs (rare) CD (Oxuura river arms plants , jamaicensis) inverte i brates

Hooded Merganser river,sloughs, (in frogs, freq. 6 CL part) inverte (Lophodytes streams (/) brates xi cucullatus) CD o fish, freq. 6,20 Common Merganser river,sloughs, CD (Mergus merganser) streams inverte W) brates

Red-breasted river arms fish, common 6,10 Merganser mouth inverte ("er^us £•>":•'••' i^sr) brates Appendix 11.1 (cont'd) .

Species Area Utilized3 Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundance*5 Ref.c 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Turkey Vulture various terrain scavenger 28 (Cathartes aura) other than heavy forest

Goshawk x x fields field rare 26 (Accipiter voles, gentilis) passerine birds, water fowl t>0

Sharp-shinned x fields passerine freq 26 Hawk birds (Accipiter striatus) > "0 Xi Cooper's Hawk x fields passerine freq 26 CD 3 (Acaipter aooperii) birds Cu H- o Red-tailed Hawk x fields field 26' CD freq (/) (Buteo jamaicensis) vole, rabbits, other C H- rodents Cl

Rough-legged Hawk fields field freq 23 (/> Xi (Buteo lagopus) vole CD O H« Golden Eagle mountainous various rare 28 CD U) (Aquila chrysaetos) terrain animal life

Bald Eagle river,slough (in (Haliaeetus streams part) fish freq 22 leuoocephalus) Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

Usage Species Area Utilized3 Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans- Food Abundance** Ref.c 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Marsh Hawk x x fields field freq 23 (Circus cyaneus) vole

Gyrfalcon open country passer rare 28 (Falco rusticolis) ines, waterfowl

Peregrine Falcon open fields passer- freq 26 (Falco peregrinus) ines, waterfowl,

some rodents o o

Pigeon Hawk fields passerines, 26 (Falco columbarius) small mammals, xi insects CD 3 CL rodents, freq H- Sparrow Hawk. open fields 26 n (Falco sparverius) insect's CD w

Osprey x x x x river,slough fish rare 26 (Pandion haliaetus) streams n a Ruffed Grouse mixed woodland seeds, rare 27 (Bonasa umbellus) fruit, buds, w xi insects CD o H- California Quail rare CD in (Lophortyx californicus)

Ring-necked x x x x hedgerows, buds , common 23 Pheasant tall grass shoots, (Phasianus colchicus) insects, seeds Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Usage Species b c Area Utilized' Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundance Ref. 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Gray Partridge open grassland shoots, rare 27 (Perdix perdix) and agricultur seeds, al land. insects

Sandhill Crane marshes (summer) inverte rare (Grus canadensis) brates Virginia Rail marshes inverte rare (Rallus limicola) brates

Sora Rail marshes inverte rare (Porzana Carolina) brates o

American Coot marshes (in aquatic very 22 (Fulica americana) part) plants, common inverte Xi CD brates , 3 fish Pu n Semipalmated Plover x CD beaches,mud x worms, freq. 24 in (Charadrius flats,marsh small semipalmatus) and siough molluscs, shoreline Crustacea -i CL Killdeer marsh § slough insects, common 24 w (Charadrius shoreline, crusta xi vociferus) CD beaches, mud ceans O flats, fields, H- CD upland meadows (/>

American Golden marsh § slough insects rare 24 Plover shoreline, (Pluvialis dominica) beaches, mud flats ,pasture Appendix 11.1 (cont'd)

Usage Species Area Utilized3 Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans- Food Abundance Ref. 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Black-bellied beach,mudflats, small freq. 24 Plover marsh § slough molluscs, (Pluvialis shoreline marine squatorola) worms, Crustacea,, insects

Black Turnstone rocky shores barnacles, freq. 24,25 (Arenaria peri melanocephala) winkles , insect larvae w o to Common Snipe x marsh,slough (in inverte freq. 7 • (Capella gallinago) shorelines part) brates > xi beach,mudflats Arenicola freq. 24 ^ Whimbrel x CD (Numenius phaeopus) marsh,slough sp.,insects 3 Cl shorelines terrestrial § marine o CD molluscs V)

1 Spotted Sandpiper x x x x marsh,slough (in crusta freq. 7 er (Actitis macular.ia) shorelines part) ceans , H- insects, CL small fish tn Xi 7 CD Greater Yellowlegs x x tidal marsh inverte common 'O brates , (Tringa melanoleucus) shorelines CD small fish c/>

Lesser Yellowlegs x tidal marsh inverte- common (Tringa flavipes) shorelines brates, small fish Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Usage Species Area Utilized Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundance ^ Ref. c 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Pectoral Sandpiper x mud flats, inverte common (Calidris melanotos) marsh,slough brates shorelines

Dunlin x mud flats, (few) (Calidris alpina) inverte common marsh,slough brates shoreiines *

Short-billed x mud flats, (few) inverte common Dowitcher marsh, slough brates , (Limnodromus griseus) shorelines aquatic O plants Long-billed mud flats, inverte rare Dowitcher > marsh,slough brates , Xi (Limnodromus shorelines xi aquatic CD scolopaceus) plants 3 CL H- Least Sandpiper mud flats, O inverte common CD (Calidris minutilla) marsh,slough brates (/) shoreiines

cr Semipalmated x mud flats, H- Sandpiper inverte rare marsh,slough brates Cl (Calidris pusilla) shoreiines in Xi Western Sandpiper x x O mud flats, (few) inverte very O (Calidris mauri) H- marsh,slough brates common CD shorelines I/) Sanderling mud flats, inverte freq. (Calidris alba) marsh,slough brates shorelines Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Usage b c Species Area utilized Habitat used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundance Ref. 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Wilson's Phalarope (Steganopus tricolor)

Glaucous-winged x x x x mud flats, (in inverte very 8,11 Gull sloughs,main- part) brates , common (Larus glaucescens) stem river fish

Herring Gull x x x x mud flats, X inverte freq. 8,11 (Larus argentatus) sloughs,main brates , stem river fish C/4 O Thayer's Gull x x x x mud flats, X inverte freq. (Larus thayeri) sloughs,main- brates y stem river fish 5

California Gull x mud flats, X X inverte freq. 24 CD 3 (Larus californicus) sloughs,main- brates Cu H- stem river fish O CD

Cu Mew Gull x x x x mud flats, (rare) inverte common 8,11 (Larus canus) sloughs, brates , (A Xi river fish CD n H- Franklin's Gull x river arms, X X very CD inverte 4,8 in (Larus pipixcan) mouth brates rare

Bonaparte's Gull x mud flats, (summer) (rare) (in inverte freq. 8,11 (Larus Philadelphia) sloughs, part) brates , river fish Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

Us 3. P^G Species Area Utilized21 Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundancek Ref.c 1234 dent ing ing ient

Common Tern mud flats, fish freq. 8,11 (Sterna hirundo) sloughs, river

Black Tern mud flats, (Chlidonias niger) sloughs, rare river

Common Murre river arms fish, uncommon (Uria aalge) mouth crusta ceans 04 Pigeon Guillemot river arms, CD fish uncommon en (Cepphus columba) mouth

Marbled Murrelet river arms, fish? uncommon (Brachyramphus mouth xi CD marmoratus) 3 P-

Band-tailed Pigeon () nuts, 27 CD (Columba fasciata l/J fasciata) berries 1 Mourning Dove cr (Zenaida macroura) seeds 27 Cl

Barn Owl w open country rodents Xi (Tyto alba) freq. 26 CD n H- Screech Owl CD field borders in small freq. 26 (Otus asio) marsh borders passerines > rodents, insects Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Usage Species Area Utilized Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundance d Ref. dent ing ing ient

Great Horned Owl wooded areas small, rare 26 (Bubo virginianus) medium- sized mammals, waterfowl

Snowy Owl open fields ducks, occas 26 (Nyctea scandiaca) field freq. voles, smaller owls

o Burrowing Owl insects, 28 OS (Speotyto cuniaularia) rodents

> Short-eared Owl open fields, field freq-. 26 xi saltmarsh xi (Asio flammeus) voles CD 3 Cl Long-eared Owl wooded areas rodents freq. 26 H* O (Asio otus wilsonianus) CD W Saw-whet Owl woodland mice,small 26,2 8 (Aegolius acadicus) passerines

Black Swift cliffs insects freq. CL

(Cypseloides niger) l/J xi CD Vaux' Swift woodland areas insects freq. o

(Chaetura vauxi) near water CD l/> Anna's Hummingbird nectar casual (Calypte anna)

Rufous Hummingbird meadows (if x nectar3 common (Selasphorus rufus) flowers available) insects Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Usage b c Species Area Utilized" Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundance Ref. 12 2 2 dent ing ing ient

Caliope open woodland, x nectar, rare Hummingbird flower meadows insects (Stellula calliope)

Belted Kingfisher river, slough fish freq. (Megaceryle alcyon) banks

Common Flicker open woodland insects freq. (Colaptes auratus)

Pileated Woodpecker open woodland x insects freq. o (Dryocopos pileatus)

Yellow-bellied woodland x insects rare > Sapsucker Xi Xi (Sphyrapicus varius) CD 3 CL Downy Woodpecker open woodland x insects common H- O (Denrocopos CD pubescens) in

Hairy Woodpecker open woodland x insects common cr

(Dendrocopus -i Cl villosus) to Eastern Kingbird field borders x insects freq. xi CD (Tyrannus tyrannus) o thickets along x insects freq. CD Traill's Flycatcher (/) (Empidonax streams traillii) Hammond's Flycatcher mixed forests x insects freq. (Empidonax hammondii)

Western Flycatcher wooded areas x insects common (Empidonax difficilis) Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Usage Species Area Utilized Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans- Food Abundance*3 Ref.c 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Cliff Swallow nest on cliffs, insects common (Petrochelidon forage over pyrrhonata) open water Gray Jay forest,forest x scavenger, freq. (Perisoreus openings,bogs fruit, canadensis) gram, insects Steller's Jay forests, scavenger, freq. (Cyanocitta orchards, Lri fruit, o stelleri) gardens gram, CO insects

> Common Raven forests scavenger common Xi Xi (Ccrvus corax) CD 3 Cl Northwestern Crow forages on scavenger common H' O (Corvus caurinus) beaches and CD tide flats to

Black-capped mixed seeds common cr Chickadee woodland *-* (Parus CL atricapillus) to Xi CD Mountain coniferous seeds rare o Chickadee forests CD (Parus gambeli) to

Chestnut-backed deciduous and seeds common Chickadee coniferous (Parus rufescens) forests Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Usage b c Species Area Utilized Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans- Food Abundance Ref. 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Common Bushtit mixed woodland seeds freq. (Psaltriparus minimus)

Red-breasted mixed forests nuts freq. Nuthatch (Sitta canadensis)

Brown Creeper mature insects common (Certhia woodland familiaris)

o Dipper stream and inverte uncommon (Cinclus river banks brates mexicanus) •& Xi House Wren open woodland insects rare CD (Troglodytes 3 CL aedon) H- O CD Winter Wren coniferous insects common to (Troglodytes forest troglodytes) cr

Bewick's Wren thickets in insects common CL

( Thryomanes farming areas to bewickii) Xi CD n

Long-billed saltmarshes insects freq. CD Marsh Wren to ( Telmatodytes palustris)

Catbird thickets fruits, rare 30 (Dumetella berries carolinensis) Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Usage c Species Area Utilized Habitat Used Re s i - Breed - Winter Trans Food Abundance 1 Ref dent ing ing ient

American Robin near human X X inverte common (Turdus habitation brates migratorius)

Varied Thrush shady,damp X X X inverte freq. 31 (Ixoreus naevius) forest brates , seeds , fruit

Hermit Thrush mixed forests, X insects, freq. 31 (Catharus bogs seeds Lri guttatus) h-> O

Swainson's Thrush shrubs and X X insects, common 31 (Catharus thickets fruit •& ustalatus) Xi CD 3 Mountain farmland X mainly freq. 31 Cu H- Bluebird insects, n (Sialia some fruit CD to currucoides)

cr Townsend's open forest X insects freq. 31 Solitaire fruit -i (Myadestes a townsendi) to Xi CD O Golden-crowned coniferous X insects common 31 H' Kinglet forests CD to (Regulus satrapa)

Ruby-crowned tall shrubbery insects, freq. 31 Kinglet limited (Regulus calendula) fruit and seeds Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). a Usage y Species b c Area Utilized Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundance Ref. 12 3 4 dent ing ing lent

Water Pipit shores,beaches , insects common 32 (Anthus mud flats molluscs, spinoletta) Crustacea, seeds, berries

Bohemian Waxwing trees and fruits, rare (Bombycilla garrula) shrubs berries, insects Cedar Waxwing open, sparse (Bombycilla woodland fruits, common cedrorum) berries, insects

Northern Shrike shrubs,lightly Microtus freq. Xi wooded areas CD (Lanius excubitor) sp.,small 3 passerines, CL insects o CD to Loggerhead Shrike shrubs,open insects, casual | (Lanius country small birds cr ludovicianus) and mammals

CL Common Starling winter roosts inverte common 32 • to (Sturnus vulgaris) in man-made brates , xi structures fruits, CD o seeds CD W Hutton's Vireo mixed woodland insects rare (Vireo huttoni) and shrubbery caterpillars

Solitary Vireo open woodland insects freq (Vireo solitarius) caterpillars Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

Usage h r Species Area Utilizeda Habitat Used Resi Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundance Ref. 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Red-eyed Vireo open woodland insects, freq. (Vireo olivaceus) caterpillars

Warbling Vireo open woodland insects, common (Vireo gilvus) caterpillars

Orange- crowned brush, open insects, common Warbler woods seeds, (Vermivora celata) fruit

Nashville Warbler immature decid insects, rare (Vermivora rufica- uous and mixed seeds, tsj pilla) woods fruit > Yellow Warbler Xi thickets along insects, common xi (Dendroica streams,lakes, seeds, CD 3 petechia) bogs fruit Cl

O Yellow-rumped thickets insects, freq. CD Warbler seeds, to (Dendroica fruit i coronata) cr

Audubon's Warbler mixed woodland insects, trans. Cl (Dendroica seeds, in Xi auduboni) fruit CD o H- Black-throated open woodland insects, common CD Gray Warbler with bushy seeds, to (Dendroica undergrowth fruit nigrescens) Appendix 11.1 (cont'd) Usage Species Area Utilized Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans Food Abundanceb Ref.c 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Townsend's coniferous insects, freq. , Warbler forest seeds, casual (Dendroica fruit in winter townsendi)

Palm Warbler scattered trees, insects, casual (Dendroica shrubbery seeds, palmarum) fruit MacGillivray's brush, insects, freq., Warbler thickets seeds, casual IaJ (Oporornis fruit in winter tolmiei)

Yellowthroat extensive insects, common •& Geothlypis trichas) marsh seeds,fruit Xi CD 3 Wilson's Warbler CL shrubbery along insects, common, (Wilsonia pusilla) streams § bogs O seeds, casual CD fruit in winter to

House Sparrow human seeds common cr (Passer domesticus) habitation domesticus) Cl

Western to fields insects, freq. 33 Xi Meadowlark CD seeds O (Sturnella CD neglecta) to

Yellow-headed sloughs § insects, freq., 33 Blackbird marshes seeds casual (Xanthocephalus in winter xanthocephalus) Appendix 11.1 (cont'd) Usage Species Area Utilized Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans- Food Abundance Ref. dent ing ing ient

Red-winged sloughs and insects, common 33 Blackbird marshes seeds (Agelaius phoeniceus)

Northern Oriole woodland along insects, rare 33 (Icterus galbula streams fruit bullockii)

casual 33 Rusty Blackbird marshes, bogs insects, Ul (Euphagus seeds carolinus)

> Brewer's Blackbird bushes, insects common 33 (Euphagus shrubbery seeds xi cyanocephalus) 3 Cl H« insects common O Brown-headed fields CD Cowbird to (Molothrus ater)

Western Tanager open woodland insects freq. (Piranga fruit

ludoviciana) to Xi CD Balck-headed open woodland seeds freq. n H- Grosbeak CD (Pheucticus to me lanocephalus)

Rufous-sided Townee thickets seeds common (Pipilo erythrophthalmus) Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

Species Usage Area Utilizeda Habitat Used Resi- Breed-c Winter- Trans 12 3 4 dent Food Abundancek Ref.c ing ing lent Savannah Sparrow fields seeds (Passerculus common, sandwichensis) rare in winter

Dark-eyed Junco fields (Jy.nco kyemalis) thickets seeds common Tree Sparrow weedy fields seeds ( Spizella arborea) rare Chipping Sparrow grassy areas seeds freq. (spizella i—» passerine.) en

Harris' Sparrow thickets seeds ( Zonovric'nia rare Xi zuerula) CD 3 Cu White-crowned H» thickets seeds freq. o Sparrow CD to (Zonotrichia Zeucophrys) cr Golden-crowned thickets Sparrow seeds common, Cl ( Zono trichia rare in to xi azrioapilla) winter CD o H- Lazuli Bunting bushland CD (Passerine amoena) seeds freq. to

Evening Grosbeak mixed forest (r.esperiphona seeds common vespertina) Appendix 11.1 (cont'd) . Usage b c Species Area Utilized4 Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter- Trans- Food Abundance Ref. 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Purple Finch mixed forest seeds freq. (Carpodacus purpureus)

House Finch shrubbery seeds common (Carpodacus mexicanus)

Pine Grosbeak open seeds rare (Pinicola woodland enucleator) C*\

seeds rare Common Redpoll open > woodland Xi (Acanthis flammea ) Xi CD 3 seeds common Pine Siskin mixed CL woodland (Spinus pinus) n CD to American Goldfinch open seeds common, (Spinus tristis) weedy fields rare in winter cr

'-i Red Crossbill coniferous seeds freq. CL (Loxia woodland to Xi curvirostra) CD n

Fox Sparrow thickets seeds common, CD to (Passerella rare in iliaca) winter Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Usage Species Area Utilized' Habitat Used Resi- Breed- Winter Trans Food Abundance b Ref. c 12 3 4 dent ing ing ient

Lincoln's Sparrow bogs, moist x seeds freq., (Melospiza meadows lincolnii) casual in winter Song Sparrow shrubbery seeds common (Melospiza along water melodia)

Lapland Longspur weedy fields seeds rare (Calcarius lapponicus)

Snow Bunting weedy fields seeds rare (Plectrophenax •5 nivalis) xi CD 3 CL H- o CD to Areas defined as follows:

cr 1 - mouth of river arms to junction with mainstem river near New Westminster. H« H 2 - New Westminster to Mission. Cl

3 - Mission to Chilliwack. to Xi CD 4 - Chilliwack to Hope. o

CD to Refers to delta only, on a relative scale (very rare, rare, uncommon, frequent common, very common) using comments from references cited and designations of Campbell et al. (1972) where applicable. Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

In addition to information on most species given in Campbell et al. (1972), Godfrey (1966) and Rodgers (1971), the following provide data on particular species:

i;) Benson (1961) 18 Munro (1944) r ) Burgess (1971) 19 Munro (1949a) 3;) Campbell (1972) 20 Munro and Clemens (1937) 4;) Campbell and Foot.it (1972) 21 Schmidt (1971) 5;) Church and Rubin (1970) 22 Tener (1948) 6;) Guiguet (1958) 23 Halladay (1968) 7; CM ) Guiguet (1962) 24 Bent (1927, 1929) »-• CO 8;) Guiguet (1967) 25 Smith (1952) ) Leach (1972) 9: 26 Sprunt (1935) > Xi 10: ) Malysheff (1951) 27 Bent (1932) xi CD I McLaren (1972) 3 11] 28 Bent (1937-1938) CL H- 12: > Mitchell (1952) 29 Bent (1942) O CD 13] Munro (1936) 30 Bent (1948) to 14] Munro (1939) 31 Bent (1949) 15]) Munro (1941a) 32 Bent (1950) Cl 16]) Munro (1941b) 33 Bent (1958) to Xi 17] Munro (1943) CD o

CD to Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

MAMMALS (Cowan and Guiguet, 1965)

Species Habitat Food Abundance

American Oppossom wooded areas fruit, insects, small introduced (Didelphis marsupialis mammals, eggs species, be virginiana) coming more prevalent Bendire Shrew wet ground, streambanks invertebrates common (Sorex bendiri bendiri) § beaeh debris, strong swimmer CM

to Trowbridge Shrew coniferous forests and insects, isopods (Sorex trowbridgii adjacent wooded areas trowbridgii)

xi Wandering Shrew CD marshy areas worms, insects, common 3 (Sorex vagrans vagrans) salamanders CL H- o Townsend Mole CD cultivated fields, brush earthworms, ground- to (Scapanus townsendi) land, deep loose soil inhabiting insects, with little gravel soft roots 3 P Coast Mole cultivated ground, past 3 earthworms, insects 3 (Scapanus orarius ure, also in forested P orarius) h-> areas and gravelly soil H- P 3 Shrew Mole soft woodland soil, earthworms, isopods, to (Neurotrichus gibbsi) under logs insect larvae § pupae Xi CD n Western Big-eared Bat open dry forest insects CD (Corynorhinus townsendi to townsendi) Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

Species Habitat Food Abundance

Flying Squirrel open forest leaves, buds, fruits, (Glaucomys sabrinus seeds, insects, birds, eggs oregonensis)

American Beaver wooded areas near water, leaves § bark of various (Castor canadensis will enter salt water deciduous trees, and other leucodontus) nlant life

White-footed Mouse or human habitation § seeds, fruits, grass, stems, common Deer Mouse agricultural areas insects § small shore animals (Peromyscus maniculatus such as limpets § crabs CM austerus) o Western Redback Vole forest floor of mixed (Clethrionomy s second-growth forest •s occidentalis) Xi CD 3 Creeping Vole deciduous forest, edges plant stems § roots, common CL of cultivated areas plant crops H« (Microtus oregoni o serpens) CD to

Townsend Vole moist fields § sedge stem bases § roots of common (Microtus townsendi meadows grass § sedge townsendi)

Muskrat freshwater marshy areas dead fish, freshwater mussels, (Ondatra zibethica any other matter available. osoyoosensis)

Black Rat around human habitation seeds, nuts, insects, dead (Rattus rattus rattus) animals

Norway Rat garbage dumps, brush fruits, animal matter (Rattus norvegicus) margin of sand beach Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

Species Habitat Food Abundance

House Mouse human habitation, field seed, fruits etc. (Mus musculus domesticus) borders, near cultivated areas

Northwestern Jumping Mouse moist meadowland, edges ( Zapus trinotatus of riparian thickets trinotatus)

Porcupine forested areas green vegetation and (Erethizon dorsatum bark of trees nigrescens) CM

Nutria streambanks (Myocaster coypus bonariensis) > Xi xi Pacific Killer Whale CD Puget Sound, Boundary Bay fish, smaller marine mammals 3 (Grampus rectipinna) CL

o Coyote open areas CD rodents, birds uncommon to (Canis latrans lestes

Red Fox 3 meadows interspersed with birds, small mammals, P (Vulpes fulva groves of bush or trees, insects, fruits, berries 3 3 cascadensis) riverbanks P h-» H- Racoon deciduous and coniferous omnivorous; fish, crayfish, P .(Procyon lotor pacificus) forests, feeds on beaches snails, snakes, birds, frogs, 3 to fruits, vegetables xi CD o Short-tailed Weasel grassland, beach debris small birds % mammals CD (Mustela erminea streambanks, cultivated to fallenda) areas

Long-tailed Weasel riverbanks, forest edge small mammals § birds (Mustela frenata altifrontalis) Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

Species Habitat Food Abundance

Big Brown Bat woodlands insects (Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus)

Hoary Bat wooded areas insects (Lasiurus cinereus)

California Myotis clumps of trees and densely insects (Myotis californicus forested areas caurinus) CM

Long-eared Myotis forested areas with rock insects 1SJ (Myotis evotis pacificus) outcroppings

> Little Brown Myotis forested areas, also around insects xi xt (Myotis lucifugus buildings and clearings CD alascensis) 3 a

o Yuma Myotis open spaces around lakes, insects CD (Myotis yumanensis waterways and roads to saturatus)

Snowshoe Hare lakeshores, riparian variety of plant life (Lepus americanus thickets washingtoni)

Eastern Cottontail weed-grown roadside, plant life (Sylvilagus floridanus field borders mearnsi)

Townsend Chipmunk edges of wooded areas, wild berries, seeds. (Eutamias townsendi lakeshores, streamsides townsendi) Douglas Squirrel forest edges seeds, berries, fruits (Tamiasciurus douglasi mushrooms mol lipilosus) Appendix 11.1 (cont'd). Species Habitat Food Abundance

Mink river § slough banks fish, amphibians, rep (Mustela vison energumenos) § marshes tiles, muskrats, vole, marine Crustacea

Spotted Skunk open fields, marshes rodents, birds, eggs (Spilogale gracilis streamside thickets insects, reptiles, am latifrons) phibians, fruit, carrion

Striped Skunk open fields, marshes, omnivorous; rodents, birds (Mephitis mephitis) streamside thickets § eggs, insects, reptiles amphibians, fruit, carrion CM Canadian River Otter river banks fish § crabs (Lutra canadensis paoifica) CM

Northern Fur Seal > river mouthy transient large fish uncommon xi (Callorhinus ursinus in autumn and spring xi CD cynocephalus) 3 Cl H- Hair Seal mainstem river or large fish n common CD (Phoca vitulina richardi) tributaries, resident (Fisher,1952) to colony in Boundary Bay

Columbian Blacktail Deer Burns bog area browse on trees isolated (Odocoileus lemionus § shrubs population columbianus)

American Black Bear Burns bog area p omnivorous: insects, isolated 3 (Ursus americanus PallasJ mammals (marmot and population to dear), grasses, crops, Xi CD vegetables, fruit, fish, n marine invertebrates H- CD to Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

AMPHIBIANS (Carl, 1966)

Species Habitat Food Abundance

Northwestern Toad anywhere insects (Bufo boreas boreas)

Pacific Tree Toad shrubs and trees insects (Eyla regilla)

Red-legged Frog woods, banks, streams insects, worms (Rana aurora aurora) lake edges

CM Western Spotted Frog ponds, rivers, sloughs insects tN) (Rana pretiosa pretiosa)

Bullfrog ponds, rivers, sloughs insects (Rana catesbeiana) Xi CD 3 ponds, sloughs, streams insects CL Green Frog H* (Rana clamitans) o CD to Pacific Coast Newt under bark of rotting logs, insects, worms ( Taricha granulosa always close to water p granulosa) 3 Xi 3* Long-toed Salamander damp areas; under logs, insects, worms H-

(Ambystoma bark, and debris H- P macrodactylum) 3

British Columbia Salamander damp areas; under logs, insects, worms Xi (Ambystoma gracile bark, and debris O o decorticatum) CD to Pacific Giant Salamander damp areas; under logs, insects, worms (Dicamptodon ensatus) bark, and debris Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

Species Habitat Food Abundance

Western Red-backed rotting logs, moist areas termites § other Salamander soft-bodied insects (Plethodon vehiculum)

Red Salamander damp areas under bark § insects, worms (Ensatina eschscholtzi) debris

CM CsJ

xi CD 3 CL H- o CD to

p 3 Xi 3- H' cr

p 3

w Xi CD O H- CD to Appendix 11.1 (cont'd).

REPTILES (Carl, 1960)

Species Habitat Food Abundance

Northwestern Garter Snake sloughs, beaches, good small fish, frogs, (Thamnophis sirtalis) swimmer, will take to salamanders, insects, etc. ocean

Puget Garter Snake dense thickets on road slugs, leaches, fish, (Thamnophis ordinoides) sides, field margins snails, worms, salamanders, frogs, toads, birds, mice Wandering Garter Snake grassy meadows § beaches , water beetles § other (Campbell, CM (Thamnophis elegans vagrans) brackish water aquatic insects 1969) tsi

Pacific Terrapin ponds, small lakes, water beetles § other (Clemys marmorata) sloughs, brackish water aquatic insects

Western Painted Turtle ponds, small lakes, CD aquatic insects, small 3 (Chrysemys picta belli) sloughs fish; aquatic plants CL H« O CD to

CD Xi r* H-

H- P 3

to xi CD o

CD to

32 8. Appendices - bird data

Appendix 11. 3. Raptor census (from Vancouver Natural History Society ,1970)

" • *—* ^ o t-L- >-> j < c_> Q w u-

|2; 2 !2 w CO AREA :z: m w

•

cd tn tn cd rH rH tn o Td C C o I/) H i cd cd Td Cd r-1 rH cd I—I rH Cd cd 6 SPECIES in (/) in P •p p rH P P cd 3 P cd rH • rH I/) rH rH P P cd rH rH •P

HAWKS i .3 Goshawk 1 Sharp-shinned 1 l .3 5 1.5 Cooper1s 1 1 1 1 1 44L2.7 Red-tailed 14 10 1 1 1 5 5 3 1 3 1 .3 Swainson's 1 3 33 9.5 Rough-legged 2 4 1 3 3 5 2 4 6 4 1.2 Bald Eagle 1 1 2 10 2.9 Unidentified Buteo 4 1 1 4 125 56.3 Marsh Hawk 15 4 9 9 1 3 11 22 7 LI 22 11

FALCONS .3 Gyrfalcon 1 1 Peregrine 1 1 2 .6 6 1.7 Merlin 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1.2 Kestrel 1 1 1 1

OWLS 2 .6 Barn Owl 1 1 Screech Owl 1 1 .3 Great Horned Owl 2 2 .6 Snowy Owl 2 3 1 5 11 3.1 Long-eared Owl 4 4 1.2

Short-eared Owl 3 1 14I 17 3 1 1 7 7 18 72 21.0

SHRIKI-S Northern Shrike 2 2. 5 2 2 1 1 ISi 4.4

41 24 2£5 34 4 1C1 27 42 31 20 4S1 34 34^UOO.

jll.c>7.C18.]L9.9 1.2 2.S)7.9 12.:>9.C15. 11145>9.9 10() % Appendix 13.1. Effluent Sources on the Lower Fraser with Applications for Permits, Permits, or Registrations to the Pollution Control Branch,Including Daily Discharge 9ua?JJIi?sv52D' and Total Suspended Solids (T.S.S.). (This list was compiled in 1973 by EPS, and may now be incomplete. Up-to-date information can be ob tained from the B.C. Pollution Control Branch, Water Resources, Victoria B.C.).

(1) Industrial Effluents

FRASER RIVER ESTUARY

PCB ID Present Effluent Number Discharger I Gal/day Requirements Comments

Canadian White Septic Tank Pine Sawmill 25,000 BOD £50 T.S.S. £150 to Canadian White Sanitary Sewage Pine Sawmill 1,440 BOD ^55 T.S.S. ^250

Canadian White Papermill, Boiler House a Pine Sawmill 500,000 Surface Drainage o BOD $80 T.S.S. £180

Canadian White Boiler House Surface Drainage Pine Sawmill 70,000 BOD £80 r+ T.S.S. ^120

Canadian White Hydraulic Debarker O Pine Sawmill 70,000 Bucking Saw BOD ^110 c T.S.S. £110 o 3 Canadian White ^ Boiler House - Condenser Pine Sawmill 14.7x10 § Compressor Cooling Water BOD £.40 T.S.S. ^180 Appendix 13.1 (cont'd). FRASER RIVER ESTUARY

PCB ID Present Effluent Number Discharger I Gal/day Requirements Comments

Canadian White Sawmill Pine Sawmill 300,000 BOD ^130 T.S.S. £800

Canadian White Sawmill Pine Sawmill 10,000 BOD £80 T.S.S. £500 Oil £250

Canadian Fishing Herring Processing Operation period Feb. to April Co. Ltd. 40,000 BOD ^3500 T.S.S. £2000

o Canadian Fishing Herring Unloading Operation period Feb. to April Co. Ltd. 5,000 BOD ^10000 T.S.S. £7500 >

a> Canadian Fishing Typical Septic Tank 3 Co. Ltd. 1,400 BOD «s.l60 a* T.S.S. £.125 n CD

Canadian Fishing Reduction Plant Co. Ltd. 50,000 BOD ^175 T.S.S. £225

a> Canadian Fishing Fillet, Wash, Dress Flume -i Co. Ltd. 85,000 BOD ^250 T.S.S. <200 O

C Canadian Fishing Reduction Plant r+

Co. Ltd. 300,000 BOD

Swift Canadian Meat Processing - Catch Basin Co. Ltd. 91,500 BOD

PCB ID Present Effluent Number Discharger I Gal/day Requirements Comments

Swift Canadian Septic Tank Typical of Co. Ltd. 1,500 Domestic Sewage

B.C. Packers Ltd. Fish Processing Operating period October to (Paramount) 20,000 BOD ^950 December and February to April T.S.S. <400

B.C. Packers Ltd. Salmon Cannery Operating period June to (Imperial) 0.64x10 BOD *5 30 October T.S.S. «a60

04 B.C. Packers Ltd. 0.3xl06 Reduction Plant Condenser Operating period June to Water October § February to April BOD *60 T.S.S.

T.S.S. £5,000 r+ CD B.C. Packers Ltd. Domestic Operating period June to (Imperial) 10,000 •a BOD $160 October O T.S.S. £120

B.C. Packers Ltd. Can Cooling § Compressor Operating period June to (Imperial) 90,000 Cooling October No Parameter Levels

B.C. Packers Ltd. Herring Roe Processing Operating period February to (Imperial) 60,000 BOD £7,000 April T.S.S. £900 Appendix 13.1 (cont'd). FRASER RIVER ESTUARY

PCB ID Present Effluent Numb er Discharger I Gal/day Requirements Comments

Construction Gravel Tower Wash Water Aggregates 3.5x10 BOD £5 T.S.S. *18,000

Construction Sand Plant Aggregates 6.5x10 BOD <5 T.S.S.^12,000

Delta Food Pro- 80,000 to Salmon Canning cessing Ltd. 160,000 BOD <1,100 T.S.S. <350

Standard Brands 90,000 to Canning Plant 110,000 BOD 6 70 T.S.S. 6100

CD Canadian Forest Steam Condensate 3 p. Products 5,000 BOD <1 n (Eburne Division) T.S.S. 610 CD (A Canadian Forest Cooling Water Products 13,000 BOD 6 1 (Eburne Division T.S.S. 6100 rt CD Canadian Forest Hydraulic Debarker Condensate Products 880,000 BOD 6300 o (Eburne Division) T.S.S. 4425

Canadian Forest Sanitary Sanitary to G.V.S. § D.D. Products 1,000 Typical sewer (Eburne Division)

Canadian Forest Steam Condensate Products 2,000 (Eburne Division) Appendix 13.1 (cont'd)

FRASER RIVER ESTUARY

PCB ID Present Effluent Number Discharger I Gal/day Requirements Comments Canadian Forest Condenser Cooling Products 6 x 106 BOD -el (Eburne Division) T.S.S.

Canadian Forest Sanitary Typical To G.V.S. § D.D. sewer Products 18,000 (Eburne Division)

Canadian Forest Steam Condensate Products 3,000 BOD ^1 04 (Eburne Division) T.S.S. <5

17-13-19 Westcoast Trans 0.864x10° fi Cooling Water mission Co. to 1.44x10°

(Rosedale) CD 3 PL. 17-13-29 Hope Ready 100,800 Gravel Washing o Mix Ltd. to 1.008x10° T.S.S. ^500 CD (A Ocean Construction 36,421 to a) 8 Outfalls in Plant Supplies 434,780 T.S.S. ^4,900

(New West.) pH 7-12 r+ CD >-i Ocean Construction 33,600 to b) 4 Truck Washout

Supplies 121,400 T.S.S. «c860 O (New West.) pH 12 c ESCO Ltd. 96,500 to a) Foundry Cooling Water 110,000 T.S.S. 50 o * 3 BOD *10

ESCO Ltd. 19,500 to b) Air Compressor 25,000 T.S.S. ^50 BOD * 10 Appendix 13.1 (cont'd). FRASER RIVER ESTUARY

PCB Present Effluent Number Discharger I Gal/day Requirements Comments

B.C. Forest 0.624xl06 a) Debarker Products (Hammond Cedar Mill)

B.C. Forest 1.716x10 b) Turbine Cooling Products (Hammond Cedar Mill)

B.C. Forest 0.672x10 c) Miscellaneous Industry Products 04 (Hammond Cedar Mill)

Fraser Valley 600,000 Frozen Food Processing Frosted Foods Ltd.

CD Rayonier - Silver- 384,000 Hydraulic Debarker 3 P- tree Division n CD Rayonier - New 1.065xlOu Debarker (A Westminster

s: B.C. Distillery 65,000 a) Sanitary rt CD B.C. Distillery 690,000 b) Industrial H

O Rayonier - Silva- 2,490,720 Industrial Chemical Division e rf H- Winrav Gravel § 126,000 Industrial O Supply 3

Crown Zellerbach 576,000 Industrial Richmond Mill

Crown Zellerbach - 13,000 Miscellaneous Richmond Mill Appendix 13.1 (cont'd). FRASER RIVER ESTUARY

PCB ID Present Effluent Number Discharger I Gal/day Requirements Comments

Fruit § Vegetable 23,000 to Industrial Cannery - Richmond 35,000

Monsanto Canada 124,000 Industrial - Cooling

Westcoast Cellufibre 400,000 Industrial

Pacific Resins Ltd.- 108,000 Industrial - Cooling New Westminster

Weldwood of Canada - 30,000 Industrial en Surrey

> Columbia Bithulithic 120,000 to Industrial Coquitlam 288,000 xi CD 3 Capilano Timber - 792,000 Cooling Water pu New Westminster o CD (A Miscellaneous 100,000 Discharges

Ocean Construction 280 to a) Storm Water CD Supplies 50,900 T.S.S. <:12 -i Xi BOD <5 O pH 6.8 C Ocean Construction 4,320 to b) Mixer Plant Sump Water Supplies 12,600 T.S.S. <3,800 BOD ^5 pH H.l

Ocean Construction 562 to c) Storm Water Supplies 102,200 T.S.S. ^170 BOD ^10 pH 7.6 Appendix 13.1 (cont'd).

FRASER RIVER ESTUARY

PCB ID Present Effluent Number Discharger I Gal/day Requirements Comments

Ocean Construction 33,600 to d) Mixer Truck Washout Water Supplies 121,400 T.S.S. ^860 BOD *-5 pH 12.3

Ocean Construction 3,067 to e) Storm Water Supplies 41,400 T.S.S. <^58,200 BOD *S pH 8.6

Ocean Construction 2,800 to f) Wash Water Supplies 8,400 T.S.S. ^1,600 BOD ^5 pH 9.3 Xi CD Ocean Construction 2,933 to g) Storm Water 3 p- Supplies 17,980 T.S.S. *820 o BOD *5 CD pH 8.6 (A

Ocean Construction 439 to h) Storm Water Supplies 79,900 T.S.S. ^490 P f+ BOD ^-10 CD pH 8.9 H Xi o Belkin Paperboard 3xlOu BOD <150 Ltd. T.S.S. <220

Fraser Valley Milk BOD <3750 Producers Associa 350,000 T.S.S. <. 100 tion. Sardis

Island Paper Mills l.lxlO6 BOD <400 T.S.S <650 Appendices 13.1 (cont'd).

FRASER RIVER ESTUARY

PCB ID Present Effluent Number Discharger I Gal/day Requirements Comments

Registration Dow Chemical 7.18x10° Phenol 60.005 15-41

17-15-431 LaFarge Cement 300,000 BOD 6 5 Toxic - metals 17-15-304 T.S.S. s-2000 pH 6.7-8.5 04

> Grosvenor Laing 150,000 BOD *500 xi Domestic and potato chip Xi T.S.S. ^700 wastes to Annacis Island CD 3 when available p-

n PE 260 Berryland Canning 120,000 BOD £-700 Process effluent mixed CD (A Co.Ltd. T.S.S. 6100 with cooling water, 1/3 volume is cooling wateT

6 Scott Paper 2.25 x 10 Machine Room Area Industrial with sanitary, BOD *75 mg/1 to be diverted when sewer T.S.S. 6270 mg/1 available CD •-* Scott Paper 380,000 Groundwood Pulping Area xi Industrial with sanitary, o BOD £,250 mg/1 to be diverted when sewer

T.S.S. ^870 mg/1 available C rf Temp. 100° F H» O Fraser Mills 11.76x10° BOD 6 2 mg/1 Cooling water 98%, 3 T.S.S. ^Fraser + 35 mg/1 flyash settling, Temp. 80° F facilities 2% Appendices 13.1 (cont'd).

FRASER RIVER ESTUARY

PCB ID Present Effluent Number Discharger I Gal/day Requirements Comments

Canada Packers Ltd. 50,000 Cooling Water - Jam - Juice BOD 125 T.S.S. 130 Temp. 75v F (Max.)

Canada Packers Ltd. 150,000 Can Cooling Canals 00 BOD 125 T.S.S. 120 > Temp. 75w F (Max.) xi xi CD New Westminster 3 Hydraulic Debarker P- Sawmills (M § B) 720,000 BOD 1300 H» O T.S.S. 1320 CD (A New Westminster Boiler House, Compressor Sawmills (M § B) 30,000 Planer Mill, Surface Drainage P BOD 150 rt T.S.S. 1180 CD

New Westminster Xi Steam Condensate O Sawmills (M § B) 60,000 BOD 1100 T.S.S. 11000 c

New Westminster Cooling Water O 3 Sawmills (M $ B) 10,000 BOD 120 T.S.S. <50 Appendix 13.1 (cont'd) (2) Domestic Effluents

FRASER RIVER

PCB ID Present Effluent Number Discharger I Gal/day Requirements Comments

Burnaby - Westridge 1.62x10° BOD 6126 To be diverted to Iona T.S.S. $153 (1975-86)

Central Valley 21.1x10° Toxic ci2 residual To be diverted to Annacis chloram: Island (1970-74) W vO Burnaby South Slope 5.18x10° BOD <165 To be diverted to Annacis (Fraser) T.S.S. $200 Island (1970-74) 5 Surrey - Bonnacord 1.1x10° BOD *165 To be diverted to Annacis Xi CD T.S.S. £200 Island (1970-74) 3 P- H- Surrey - Manson Rd, 0.33x10° o CD (A PE-81 Port Coquitlam 700,000 BOD £165 To be diverted to Annacis T.S.S. $165 Island (1970-74) p PE-14 Mission r+ Corp, 1.15x10° BOD ^180 CD Village T.S.S. ^200 Hj Xi o PE-15 Hope a) 60,000 fi BOD *180 Two outfalls b) 1.58x10° T.S.S. ^200

Surrey River Road 0.45x10° BOD '180 T.S.S. *200

Iona Island 70x10° BOD <100 Possibility of toxic CI. T.S.S. <70 residual:

Surrey Roebuck 3x10° BOD ^180 T.S.S. ^200 Appendix 13.1 (cont'd).

FRASER RIVER

PCB ID Present Effluent Number Discharger I Gal/day Requirfimenfs Comments

Port Moody 1x10° As of 1973 directed to Braid St. To be directed to Annacis Island (1970-74)

Chilliwack 2.7x10° BOD '45 Possibility of toxic C12 T.S.S. *60 residuals

Cloverdale BOD *40 Recently diverted to G.V.S. Lagoon 334,000 T.S.S. <-70 5 D.D. system. Eventually connect with Annacis Island. Toxic CI- residuals w

O Delta BOD *30 Ladner 300,000 T.S.S. '50 Lagoon

Lulu Island 29.1x10° BOD 6170 Possibility of toxic Cl2 5 T.S.S. 6130 residuals and heavy metalsg;

CD Matsqui (A (Clearbrook) 830,000

PE-313 BOD Mission City 2.1xl06 <45 p T.S.S. £60 rt CD •H. Central Fraser Possibility of toxic CI 9 xi Valley Regional 1.5xl06 BOD *140 residuals L o M District T.S.S. £140 r-«

PE-378 Pitt Meadows 334,000 BOD <75 Possibility of toxic CI '-'• 2 o T.S.S. 6100 residuals L 3 Appendix 13.1 (cont'd). FRASER RIVER

PCB ID Present Effluent Number Discharger I Gal/day Requirements Comments

Annacis Island 129 x 106 BOD <45 Possibility of toxic Cl9 T.S.S. 160 residuals l

New Westminster 333,600 Dryweather flow to cease in 1974

District of Mission 500,000 BOD <40 T.S.S. <4 5

City of New 169,000 45» Westminster

New Westminster § 2.09 x 10 B.C. Penitentiary 5 Xi CD 3 p.

o CD

P r+ CD *i

xi o M r-« c rt H« O 3 342.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 343.

BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX

Page Bibliography 344

I. General Information and Other Miscellaneous References 344

(i) General information (including references used in the Introduction and Conclusion).... 344 (ii) Miscellaneous references 354

II. Geology and Soils 355

(i) Geology and soils 355 (ii) Geology in relation to oil drilling 369

III. Climatology and Air Quality 369

(i) Climatology 369 (ii) Air quality 372

IV. Hydrology, Water Quality, and Model Systems .... 372

(i) Hydrology 372 (ii) Water quality 376 (iii) Model studies 379

V. Oceanography 381

VI. Biology (including Biological Oceanography and Food Chains) 391

(i) General biology and food chain references .. 391 (ii) Invertebrate biology (benthic, terrestrial, and zooplanktonic) 395 (iii) Fish 407 (iv) Bacteria 429 (v) Flora (including terrestrial and benthic vegetation, and phytoplankton) 430 (vi) Wildlife (including wildlife recreation) 438

VII. Land Use (including agriculture, urban develop ment, industrial development, recreation excluding wildlife, and waterfront land use) ... 454

VIII. Waste Disposal and Pollution Problems 472

IX. Maps 484 344. Biblio. - general

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. GENERAL INFORMATION AND OTHER MISCELLANEOUS REFERENCES

(i) General Information (including references used in the Introduction and Conclusion). American Geological Institute. 1973. The estuarine environment: estuaries and estuarine sedimentation. Short Course Lecture Notes (H.R. Schubel, convenor). Anonymous. 1964. Annual report, 1963. Fish. Cult. Devel. Br., Dept. Fish., Can. 13 pp. . 1970. Annual report, 1969. Res. Devel. Br., Pac. Reg., Dept. Fish., Can. 78 pp. . 1971. Annual report for 1970. Fish. Serv., Dept. Environ., Can. . 1972. Annual report - 1971. Mar. Sci. Br., Pac. Reg., Pac. Mar. Sci. Rept. (72-5). 53pp. . 1973(a). Annual report - 1972. Mar. Sci. Direct., Pac. Reg., Environ. Can. 53 pp. . 1973(b). Brief: Estuaries in British Columbia. Report to Estuary Working Group. 7 pp. . 1974. Annual report - 1973. Mar. Sci. Direct., Environ. Can. 6 7 pp. Armstrong, J.M. and E.H. Bradley. 1972(a). Status of state coastal zone management programmes, I. Spot light MTS Journal 6(5): 7-16. . 1972(b). Status of state coastal zone management programmes, II. Spotlight MTS Journal 6(6): 7-16. Atherton, L.; C. Crichton; and D. Lane. 1973. A scenic inventory of Boundary Bay. University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry. Forestry 492 paper on Boundary Bay. Barnes, R.S.K. and J. Green. 1972. Estuarine environment Estuarine and Brackish-water Sci. Assoc. Applied Sci. Publ. Ltd. London, England. 133 pp. 345. Biblio. - general

Bates, C.C. 1953. Rational theory of delta formation. Amer. Assoc. Prof. Geol. Bull. _37 (9): 2119-2162.

Battelle Memorial Institute. 1971. The economic and social importance of estuaries. Environ. Prot. Agency, Water Qual. Off., Tech. Supp. Div., U.S. Gov't Printing Off., Washington. Bauer, W. 1972. A collection of published and unpub lished shoreline papers (1970-72). Seattle, Wash.

Bawden, C.A.; W.A. Heath; andA.B. Norton. 1973. Pre liminary baseline study of Roberts and Sturgeon banks. Westwater Research Centre Tech. Rept. (1). Becker, R.E. 1968. An ecological perspective of the Fraser River delta foreshores. M.Sc. Essay, Dept. Plant Sci., University of British Columbia. 49 pp. Benson, W.A. 1962. A report on the salt marsh of Mud Bay near Crescent Beach, B.C. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, B.C.

Beverage, J.P. and M.N. Swecker. 1969. Estuarine studies in Upper Grays Harbour, Washington - environmental quality. U.S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1873-B). 87 pp.

Boyce, S.V.L. 1972. Letter to Right Honourable Pierre E. Trudeau and Honourable D. Barrett re: What is happening in the estuary of the Fraser River. Sub mitted by British Columbia Environ. Council. 11 pp. Brahtze, J.F.P. (editor). 1972. Coastal zone manage ment - multiple use with conservation. Univ. Calif. Engin. Phys. Sci. Ext. Series. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 352 pp. Brett, J.R.; J.R. Calaprice; R.J. Ghelardi; W.A. Kennedy; D.B. Quayle; and C.I. Shoop. 1972. A brief on mari- culture. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (301). 45 pp.

British Columbia Environmental Council. 1974. B.C. En vironmental News - Spring, 1974. 3(1). 23 pp. British Columbia Lands Service. 1965. The lower coast bulletin, area no. 3. Victoria, B.C. 60 pp. and map. 346. Biblio. - general

Cairns, A. 1973. Natural history in Richmond - Richmond Nature Park bog; Shady Island; and Sturgeon Bank tidal marsh. Report for Richmond Nature Park. 29 pp.

Cameron, W.M. and D.W. Pritchard. 1963. Estuaries. In: The Sea, Volume 2_. (M.N. Hill, editor). John Wiley and Sons, New York. pp. 306-324.

Canadian Wildlife Service. Reference material pertinent to the environment, ecology, and land-use of the Fraser River estuary and environs. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane. Unpubl. data. 6 pp. Carter, L.J. 1970. Galveston Bay: test case of an es tuary in crisis. Sci. 167(3921).

Church, I.R. and D.S. Ruben. 1970. An ecological review of our southwestern shores. Prepared for Greater Vancouver Regional District Planning Dept.

Coleman, J.M. and L.D. Wright. 1971. Analysis of major river systems and their deltas: procedures and ra tionale, with two examples. Louisiana State Uni versity Press. Coastal Stud. Ser. (28). Copeland, B.J. 1970. Estuarine classification and res ponse to disturbances. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(4): 826-835. Department of Environment. 19 72. Annual report of the Pacific Environment Institute, West Vancouver, B.C., 1972. Fish. Serv., Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 29 pp. . 1973. Fraser River estuary. Information provided by different Department of Environment agencies, Pacific Region. Pac. Environ. Inst. Unpubl. data. Department of Fisheries and Forestry. 1971. Annual report, 1970. Resource Devel. Br., Pac. Reg. 104 pp. Ditsworth, G.R. 1966. Environmental factors in coastal and estuarine waters - bibliographic series. Water Poll. Cont. Res. Series. 61 pp. Dobson, D. 1972. The upstream and downstream effects of the proposed Moran Dam. B. App. Sc. Thesis, Dept. of Geol. , University of British Columbia. 347. Biblio. - general

Dodd, C. 1974. The needs and expectations of people. Presented at Wildlife for Tomorrow Conference: wild life and agriculture in the Fraser valley. March 9, 1974.

Emery, K.O. and J. Hulsemann. 1962. The relationships of sediments, life, and water in a marine basin. Deep- Sea Res. 8: 165-180.

English, W.N. 1974. Memorandum to Director-General, Marine Sciences Directorate re: Summary of MSD projects in estuaries. 4 pp.

Environment Canada. 1974. Environment Canada Bulletin. DOE, Pac, Reg. 1(1): 4 pp.

Environmental Management and Pollution Control Commission 1973. Report by sub-committee on land use, pollution control, and recreation. 172 pp. Environmental Protection Service. Fraser River system - present and future uses. 2 pp.

Forrester, E.A.M.; G.B. Squire; and M.E.A. North. 1974. Lower Fraser flood plain study, phase II. Dept. Environ, Rept. 8 pp. Gargett, A.E. (convenor) 1973. Proceedings of the es tuaries workshop, November 23-24, 1973; Pacific Biological Station, Nanaimo, B.C. Sponsored by Specific Subcommittee on Oceanog., C.C.O. Fish. Mar. Serv.; Mar. Sci. Direct.; and DOE, Pac. Reg.; Pac. Mar. Sci. Rept. (Unpubl. MS.). 9 pp. Geen, G.H. 1971. Downstream effects of hydro-electric development at Moran Canyon. In: Report of Fish Passage Sub-committee of the B.C. Energy Board. Appendix (1-A) - Annex (1), Appendix (ii). 29 pp. Gibbard, J.E. 1937. Early history of the Fraser valley, 1808-1885. MA. Thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. 308 pp. Gosselink, J.G.; E.P. Odum; and R.M. Pope. 1973. The value of the tidal marsh. Urban Regional Devel. Centre. Work Paper (3). University of Florida, (prepublic. draft). 348. Biblio. - general

Greater Vancouver Regional District, 1974(a). Greater Vancouver Regional District annual report, 72/73. . 1974(b). Greater Vancouver Regional District - regional government: what it is; how it works. Pamphlet of Greater Vancouver Regional District. 1 pp.

Halladay, D.R.. and R.D. Harris. 1972. A proposal for the conservation of vital wetlands and aquatic birds of the Fraser delta. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, B.C. Hanson, D.V. and M. Rattray. 1966. New dimensions in estuary classification. Limnol. Oceangr. 11^(3): 319. Harris, R.D. 1971. River estuaries - our responsibility. Submission to Can. Wildl. Serv., Dept. Environ., Vane. Canada. 3 pp. , and E.W. Taylor. 1973. Human impact on estuarine habitat. Can. Wildl. Serv. Mimeo. Revision. 16 pp. Houston Geological Society. 1971. Deltas of the world - ancient and modern. Delta Study Grp. Rept., Houston Geol. Soc. Howay, F.W. 1914. British Columbia from the earliest times to the present. 2_. Vancouver, B.C. Howell-Jones, G. 1966. A Century of Settlement Change: A study of the evolution of settlement patterns in the lower mainland of British Columbia. MA. Thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. Hutchison, B. 1950. The Fraser. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.; and Clarke, Irwin, and Company Limited.

Institute of Environmental Studies, Douglas College. 1970(a). Mud Bay -A case study of the tidal marsh. Information Booklet (7). . 1970(b). Boundary Bay. Conservation Div. Infor mation Booklet (12). 19 pp. . 1972. A short guide to the Serpentine Fen. 12 pp.

Kellerhals, P. and J.W. Murray. 1969. Tidal flats at Boundary Bay, Fraser River delta, British Columbia. Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol. 17(1): 67-91. 349. Biblio. - general

Ketchum, B.H. 1951(a). The exchanges of fresh and salt waters in tidal estuaries. J. Mar. Res. 10^(1): 18. . 1951(b). Stream pollution: the flushing of tidal estuaries. Sewage Indus. Wastes 2_3(2) : 198. , and B.W. Trip. 1972. Coastal Zone Work-shop: Pre- publication summary. 43 pp. and appendices. Kidd, T. 1927. A History of Richmond. Wrigley Printing Company Ltd. Lauff, G.H. (editor). 1967. Estuaries. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. (83). 757 pp. Leach, B.A. 1972. Waterfowl of the Fraser delta. Inst. Environ. Stud., Douglas College, Info. Booklet (16).

Lee, T.N. and R. Cleas. 1972. Exchange processes in shallow estuaries. University of Miami Sea Grant Program, Sea Grant Bull. (4). 33 pp. LeRoy, O.E. 1908. Preliminary report on a portion of the main coast of British Columbia and adjacent islands. Geol. Surv. Can. Publ. (996).

Levings, CD. 1973. Sediments and abundance of Lyco- dopsis paoifica (Pisces, Zoarcidae) near Point Grey, B.C. with catch data for associated demersal fish. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (393). 14 pp. and appendices.

Lewis, J.R. and D.B. Quayle. 1972. Some aspects of the littoral ecology of British Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (1213). 23 pp.

Livingstone, R.Jr. 1965. A preliminary bibliography with KWIC index on the ecology of estuaries and coastal areas of the eastern United States. U.S.D.I. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Fish. Rept. (507). 352 pp.

Mallard, D. 1970. Fraser River Report. S.P.E.C. 51 pp.

McAllister, CD. 1974. Report on alienated habitat, lower Fraser River. Letter and report (Lower Fraser Flood Plain Study), submitted to the Estuary Working Group. 8 pp. 350. Biblio. - general

McCabe, T.T. and E.B. McCabe. 1937. On the British Columbia coast. New York Nat. Assoc. Audobon Soc, 1937. pp. 269-276.

McLusky, D.S. 1971. Ecology of estuaries. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London. 144 pp.

Miller, D.M. et at. 1967. Estuarine ecology studies. University of Washington. 24 pp.

Morgan, J.P. 1970. Deltas - a resume. J. Geol. Educ. 18: 107-117.

Morley, A. 1961. Vancouver: from Milltown to Metro polis. Mitchell Press, Vancouver.

Nath, J.N. and L.S. Slotta. 1971. Estuaries of the Pacific northwest. Proc. 1971 Tech. Conf., O.S.U. Sea Grant Circ. (42). 342 pp.

Nelson, B.N. 1972. Environmental framework of coastal plain estuaries. Geol. Soc. Amer. Memoir (133).

Newsom, J.D. 1968. Marsh and estuary management sym posium. Louisiana State University. 250 pp.

Odum, W.E. 1970. Insidious alteration of the estuarine environment. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 9£ (4): 836.

Oregon State University. 1971. Proceedings of the 1971 conference on estuaries of the Pacific northwest. Engin. Exper. Stat., Oregon State University Circ. (42). 343 pp.

Paish, H. and Associates Ltd. 1970(a). A study of the ecology of Boundary Bay - Mud Bay. Prepared for B.A.C.M. Industries Ltd. Vancouver, B.C. . 1970(b). A theme study of the marine environment of the straits between Vancouver Island and the British Columbia mainland. Project B: The Vancouver Island-mainland coast inland sea. A marine park reconnaissance study prepared for National Parks Branch, D.I.A.N.D. Ottawa. Vancouver, B.C. 71 pp. . 1974. Policy and action for hunting in the lower mainland. Prepared for the B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br. 152 pp. 351. Biblio. - general

Parker, V.J. 1968. Our southwestern shores. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Report. 56 pp. Pearson, N. 1972. The Fraser River harbour in perspec tive. Report to Fraser River Harbour Commission. 23 pp.

Pollutech Pollution Advisory Service Ltd. 1974. Vancouver Airport Expansion - Study of effects on the aquatic environment. Environ. Prot. Serv. Rept. Pond, S. 1973. Fraser River Estuary Working Group sub mission. Pac. Environ. Inst. Unpubl. data. pp. 2-8. Pritchard, D.W. 1950. A review of our present know ledge of the dynamics and flushing of estuaries. Chesapeake Bay Inst., John Hopkins University Tech. Rept. (4). • 1967. What is an estuary: physical viewpoint. In: Estuaries. (G.H. Lauff, editor). Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. (83): 3-5. Quayle, D.B. British Columbia shores. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, B.C. Unpubl. Rept. 4 pp. Reid, G.K. 1961. Ecology of inland waters and estuaries. Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York. 375 pp. Ricker,K.E.1974. List of references for the Strait of Georgia area. Expected completion date is March, 1974. Additional references from consulting engineers will be added by approximately October, 1974. Can. Dept. Energy, Mines and Res. Vancouver, B.C.

Rousseau, R. 1970. Estuaries - where the rivers meet the sea. Oregon State Game Bull. Russell, D. 1971. Fraser River delta - Boundary Bay marshes. Forestry 491 paper. University of British Columbia. 44 pp. Russell, R.J. Delta dictionary.

• 1967. River plains and sea coasts. Schubel, J.R. and D.W. Pritchard. 1972. The estuarine environment. Part I. J. Geolog. Educ. 20(2): 60-68. 352. Biblio. - general

Schubel, J.R. and D.W. Pritchard. 1972. The estuarine environment. Part II. J. Geolog. Educ. 20^(4): 179-188.

Sherk, J.A. and E.L. Cronin. 1970. The effects of sus pended and deposited sediments' on estuarine organisms and annotated bibliography ot selected references. Solomons, University of Maryland. 61 pp.

Sherk, J.A. ; J..M. O'Connor; and D.A. Neumann. 1972. Effects of suspended and deposited sediments on es tuarine organisms. Phase III. Dept. Environ. Res., Chesapeake Biol. Lab., Nat. Res. Inst., University of Maryland. 107 pp.

Siemens, A.H. (ed.).1968 (a). Lower Fraser valley: evolu tion of a cultural landscape. Tantalus Research Ltd. Vancouver, B.C. B.C. Geog. Series (9). 207 pp. . 1968(b). Selected source material on the lower Fraser valley of British Columbia. Dept. of Geog., University of British Columbia. 37 pp. (from "Lower Fraser valley: evolution of a cultural landscape", B.C. Geog. Series (9)). Sorensen, J.C 1971. A framework for identification and control of resource degradation and conflict in the multiple use of the coastal zone. M. Thesis, Univer sity of California, Berkley.

Spagnoli, J.J. 1971. What's happening to our saltwater marshes? The Conservationist (April - May, 1971). pp. 22-27. Stommel, H. 1951. Recent studies in the study of tidal estuaries. Woods Hole Oceanogr. Inst. Tech. Rept.

Tayelor, F.A. ; CP. Brett; and G.T. Silver. 1971. Re port to the Pacific Region Task Force on the Lower Fraser River and Strait of Georgia. Submitted by Canadian Forestry Service, Vancouver. Unpubl. Rept. 17 pp

Teal, J. and M. Teal. 1969. Life and death of a salt marsh. Ballantine Publ. Tiffin, D.L. 1969. Continuous seismic profiling in the Strait of Georgia, B.C. Ph.D. Thesis, University of British Columbia. 166 pp. 353. Biblio. - general

United States Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. 1970. National estuary study. 7 volumes. United States Congress. 1966. Authorizing the Secretary of the Interior to preserve, protect, develop, restore, and make accessible estuarine areas of the nation. Rept. to accompany House Comm. on Merchant Marine Fisheries Rept. (13447). 39 pp. . 1970. Coastal zone management hearing. 91st Congress, lst_ Session, House Comm. Public Worlcs", Subcomm. on Rivers and Harbors (14845). 48 pp.

.1972. Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Com mittee on Government Operations on Protecting America's Estuaries: Puget Sound, and Straits of Georgia and Juan de Fuca. 741 pp.

United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 1970. National estuary study 3. Appendix B - Management studies in specific estuaries. 327 pp. University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry. 1974. Forestry 492: Master Plan for Boundary Bay. (P.J. Dooling, instructor). Expected completion date is April, 1974.

Venables, R. and B. Otway. 1973. B.C.W.F. Newsletter 3(2): 8 pp.

Void, T. and D. Lacate. 1974. Reference list on land capability, soils, geology, vegetation and ecology, recreation and wildlife, and general topics. 22 pp. Wade, L. 1972. Sturgeon Bank - ecological study. A report to Richmond Nature Park. 31 pp. Waldichuk, M. 1973. Ecological significance of estuaries and their importance to preservation of fisheries re sources. Report to Estuary Working Group.Unpubl.Rept. 3 pp Wass, E.F. 1974. Bibliography on geology, pedology, flora, vegetation analysis and recreation planning in the Greater Vancouver Regional District. Prepared for Environmental Baseline Inventory for Lower Fraser Valley and Estuary. Water Survey of Canada. 1972. Hydrological data for the Fraser River basin. In: Fraser River Estuary. Info, provided by DOE agencies, Pacific Region.. 354. Biblio. - general

Watmough, D. 1972(a). An ecological approach to the development of the Richmond foreshore. Report for the Richmond Nature Park. 60 pp. . 1972(b). Shady Island - a natural history. Publ. of Richmond Nature Park. 30 pp.

Westwater Research Centre. 1972(a). Notes on water re search in western Canada. Westwater Newsletter 1^:4 pp . 1972(b). Notes on water research in western Canada. Westwater Newsletter 2_: 4 pp. . 1972(c). Notes on water research in western Canada. Westwater Newsletter 3^: 4 pp. . 1973(a). Notes on water research in western Canada. Westwater Newsletter £: 4 pp. . 1973(b). Notes on water research in western Canada. Westwater Newsletter S_: 4 pp. . 1973(c). Notes on water research in western Canada. Westwater Newsletter 6^: 8 pp. . 1973(d). Westwater Research Centre annual report. April 1, 1972 to August 21, 1973. University of British Columbia. 69 pp. Wiley, J. and Sons. 1973. Physical aspects of estuaries.

Woodland, A. 1973. New Westminster: the early years 1858 - 1898. Nunaga Publishing Company, New Westmin ster, B.C. 72 pp.

(ii) Miscellaneous References

British Columbia Parks Branch. 1974. Files: Park Re serves No. 1-1-4-90; 1-1-4-8; 1-1-4-37; and 1-1-4-11. Victoria, B.C. Canada Centre for Remote Sensing. 1973. Information and price lists for high altitude aircraft photography and ERTS-1. Images. 9 pp. and figures. 355. Biblio. - geology

Greater Vancouver Regional District Librarian. 1973. List of out-of-print and contract publications. Greater Vancouver Regional District Unpubl. Paper. 28 pp.

Harris, J.W.E. and A.F. Dawson. 1973. Indices to satellite imagery and small-scale aerial photo graphy of British Columbia, 1971-72. DOE, Pac. Forest Res. Centre, Can. Forestry Serv. Informa tion Rept. (B.C-X-82). 6 pp. and figures.

Province of British Columbia, Department of Lands, Forests, and Water Resources. 1971. Price lists and air photo cover keys 15-18. Surv. and Mapping Br. 1 pp. and figures.

Warrington, P. The British Columbia ERTS users hand book. Publ. by British Columbia ERTS Centre for Remote Sensing. 66 pp.

II. GEOLOGY AND SOILS

(i) Geology and Soils

Ahmad, N. 1955. Investigation of some physical and chemical properties of the stony marine clays in the lower Fraser valley area of British Columbia. M.Sc. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Allan, J. 1957. Landslides, washouts and mudlows in the lower Fraser valley, B.C. B.A.Sc. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Anonymous. 1962. Grain size analysis, 1960-1961. Inst. Oceanog., University of British Columbia, Data Rept. (20). 12 pp. Map notations and legend.

. 1963. Grain size analysis, 1951-1960, and 1962. Inst. Oceanog., University of British Columbia, Data Rept. (22). Map notations and legend.

Armstrong, J.E. Geology of sand and gravel deposits in the lower Fraser valley. Can. Mining and Metall urgical Bull. 46: 234-241. 356. Biblio. - geology

Armstrong, J.E. 1956(a). Application of geology to soil problems in the lower mainland of British Columbia. Nat. Res. Council Can., Assoc. Comm. Soil and Snow Mechanics, Tech. Memo. (41): 11-19. . 1956(b). Surficial geology of Vancouver area, British Columbia. Geol. Surv. Can., Dept. Energy, Mines and Res. Paper (55-40). 16 pp. and figures. . 1957. Surficial geology of New Westminster, British Columbia, map-area. Geol. Surv. Can., Dept. Energy, Mines and Res. Paper (57-5). 25 pp. and figures. (Map 16 - 1957). . 1961. Soils of the coastal area of southwestern British Columbia. In: Soils in Canada. The Royal Society of Canada Spec. Publ. (3): 22-32. , and W.L. Brown. 1953. Groundwater resources of Surrey municipality, British Columbia. Geol Surv. of Can. Water Supply Paper (322). . 1954. Late Wisconsin marine drift and associated sediments of the lower Fraser valley, British Columbia, Canada. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 65: 349-364. Armstrong, J.E.; D.R. Crandell; D.J. Easterbrook; and J.B. Noble. 1965. Late Pleistocene stratigraphy and chronology in southwestern British Columbia and north western Washington. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 76^: 321-330 Backler, B.E. 1960. A groundwater and soil mechanics in vestigation of the erosional problems of the Point Grey sea cliffs. B.A.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Geol. Eng., University of British Columbia. Barr, S.M. 1973. Geology of the northern end of Juan de Fuca ridge and adjacent continental slope. Ph.D. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Bart, A.L. 1969. Some factors affecting the extraction of sulphate from selected lower Fraser valley soils. M. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Beaton, J.D. 1951. A study of the soil nutrient level on a dairy farm in the Fraser valley. 357. Biblio. - geology

Bernard, F.R. 1974. Vancouver International Airport en vironmental effects study - subtidal macrofauna. In ternal memorandum, Pac. Biol. Stat., Nanaimo. 5 pp.

Berry, E.W. and W.A. Johnston.1922. Pleistocene inter- glacial deposits in the Vancouver region, British Columbia. Trans. Royal Soc. Can., Sec. (4)16: 133-139.

Bismanis, J.K. 1966. Description and interpretation of Pleistocene glacial till at Point Roberts, Wash. B.Sc. Thesis, Dept. of Geol., University of British Columbia.

Blunden, R.H. 1968. Fraser Street replacement bridge. Note on geology of the site area. Consulting report presented on behalf of C.B.A. Engineering Ltd. to Province of British Columbia, Dept. of Highways. 6 pp. and figures.

. 1971. Vancouver's downtown (coal) peninsula urban geology. B.Sc. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

. 1973. Urban geology of Richmond, British Columbia. Dept. Geol. Sci., University of British Columbia, Rept. (15). 13 pp. and figures.

Bourgeois, W.S. Some upland soils in Surrey municip ality. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Bourne, R. Marine geology of the Port Moody area (trace element geochemistry emphasis). Proposed B.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Geol., University of British Columbia. Boyle, H.C. 1973. The recent geology of Queensborough District, City of New Westminster, B.C. B.Ap.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Geol. Eng., University of British Colum bia. 36 pp.

Bradley, O.E. 1960. Gravel correlation of foundation material at the proposed Port Mann Bridge site. B.Ap.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Geol., University of British Columbia. 20 pp. and figures. British Columbia Department of Highways. Several soil mechanic engineering studies on the Deas Island Tunnel and Sea Island crossings (?). Reports are in part the work of outside consultants and drillers. Some data are in the Urban Geology File, Geol. Survey Can., Vancouver office. 358. Biblio. - geology

Burwash, E.M.J. 1918, The geology of Vancouver and vicinity. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago, Uni versity of Chicago Press.

Canadian Department of Agriculture. 1970. The system of soil classification for Canada. Queen's Printer, Ottawa. 249 pp. Canadian Geological Survey. List of peat companies of Vancouver area. Can. Geol. Surv. files. 1 pp. Canadian Hydrographic Survey. 1969. Fraser delta bench marks. Unpubl, data sheets. 24 pp. Carswell, H.T. 1955. The ground-water and related ero sion of Point Grey. B.A. Thesis, Dept. Geol. and Geog. , University of British Columbia. 44 pp. and figures. Chao, C.T. 1963. Some physical and chemical properties of the Ladner soil series and their relationship to peat yields. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Chapman, CK. 1950. A study of the vertical movement of fertilizer in three Fraser valley soils. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Christie, R.L. 1949. Geology of the Lions Region, Van couver, B.C., with notes on physiography and glaciation of Vancouver area. B.A.Sc. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Church, M. and R. Wahlgren. 1974, Reference materials on sedimentation and morphology of the lower Fraser River. Dept. Geol., University of British Columbia Publ. 125 pp. (preliminary edition). Cockbain, A.E. 1962. Studies on the marine geology of the continental shelf off British Columbia, Canada. First Nat. Shallow Water Res. Conf. 1961. pp, 741-743. Cook, P.M. 1967, Preliminary soil report, Sturgeon and Roberts banks. Prepared for Swan Wooster Eng-. Co, 12 pp. and appendices. . 1968. Soils and foundation report, Roberts Bank development. Prepared for Swan Wooster Engineering Co. 7 pp. and appendices. 359. Biblio. - geology

Cook, Pickering, and Doyle Ltd. 1974. Reclamation study for Vancouver airport expansion: soils report. Pro ject (3817-R/S). 8 pp. and appendix.

Cordonier, J. 1973. An urban geology study in the down town peninsula area of Vancouver, B.C. B.A.Sc. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Crickmay, CH. and S.A.J. Pocock. 1963. Cretaceous of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Bull. Amer. Assoc Petrol. Geol. 47: 1928-1942.

Davis, N.F.G. and W.H. Mathews. 1944. Four phases of glaciation with illustrations from southwestern British Columbia. J. Geol. 5_2: 403-413.

Dawson, CM. 1876. On the superficial geology of British Columbia. Quart. J., Geol. Soc. London 34:95.

. 1879. Area between Fraser River and Coast Range. Geol. Surv. Can. Prog. Rept., 1876-1877. Map (120). Scale: 1 inch = 8 miles. deBoer, L.J. 1972. Pitt River bridge foundation condi tion. Geotech. Br., B.C. Dept. Highways.

Department of Public Works. 1972. Dredging summary, Fraser River and North Arm, 1959- . 2 pp.

Derics, I.A. 1963. The effect of lime on mineralization of organic nitrogen in three Fraser valley soils. B. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Easterbrook, D.J. 1962. Pleistocene geology of the northern part of the Puget lowlands, Washington. Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Geology, University of Wash ington. 160 pp. and figures.

• 1969. Pleistocene chronology of the Puget lowland and San Juan Islands, Washington. Geol. Surv. Amer. Bull. 80: 2273-2286. Eisbacher, CH. 1973. Vancouver geology - a short guide. Prepared for Geol. Assoc. Can., Cordilleran Section. 56 pp.

Engineering Drillers Ltd. 1953. Soil report: Munici pality of Richmond. 19 pp. 360. Biblio. - geology

Esler, J.A. 1949. The character of the Fraser valley flood sediments. B.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Agric., Uni versity of British Columbia. 21 pp. Evans, C 1965. Intertidal flat sediments and their de position in the wash. Geol. Soc. Quart. J. 121: 209- 245. Farkas, F.D. 1962. The stratigraphy of Pleistocene sedi ments at Point Roberts, Washington (Boundary Bay area). B.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Geol., University of British Columbia. Fletcher, H.F. 1951. Potassium estimation, fixation, and release in lower Fraser valley soils. M. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Fletcher, K. Cation distribution of the Fraser delta flats. Geol. Dept., University of British Columbia, Unpubl. Rept. Fraser River Joint Program Committee. Foundation assessment studies along the Fraser River dykes. Based on test drilling. (Rept. status unknown). Fulton, R.J. 1971. Radiocarbon geochronology of southern British Columbia. Geol. Surv. of Canada Paper (71- 37). 28 pp. Garrison, R.E. and J.L. Luternauer. 1969. Textures of calcitic cements formed during early diagenesis, Fraser delta, British Columbia. In: Carbonate Cements, Bermuda Biol. Station for Research, Spec. Publ. 3: 106-109 and figures. ; E.V. Grill; R.D. Macdonald; and J.W. Murray. 1969. Early diagenetic cementation of recent sands, Fraser River delta, British Columbia. Sedim. 12_: 27-46. Geological Discussion Club. 1960. Guidebook for geo logical field trips in south western British Columbia. Geol. Discuss. Club, University of British Columbia. 53 pp. ' Geological Survey of Canada. 1973. List of geological reports of British Columbia. Geol. Surv. Can., Dept. Energy, Mines and Res. 27 pp. 361. Biblio. - geology

Gilders, C.J. 1956. A palynological study of the Point Grey sediments. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Gobin, C.A. 1960. Mottles in some poorly drained soils of the lower Fraser valley, British Columbia. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Golder, Brawner and Associates Ltd. 1965. Soil investi gation, proposed waterfowl management area. Mud Bay, B.C. Report to Dept. of Public Works, Can.

Golder, H.Q. and R.A. Spence. 1961. Engineering proper ties of the marine clay at Port Mann, British Columbia. Natl. Res. Council Can., Assoc. Comm. on Soil Mech., Tech. Mem. (69): 128-138. (see also discussions of paper by Hillis, S.F. and Webster, Tech. Mem. (69): 143-148; and by Klohn, E., Tech. Mem. (69): 139-142).

Greenhalgh, W. 1966. Some cation exchange properties and time requirements of Fraser valley soils. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Griffin, J.J.; H. Windom; and E.D. Goldberg. 1968. The distribution of clay minerals in the world ocean. Deep-Sea Res. L5: 433-459.

Hayes, G.W. 1948. A study of the sub-soil of the Univer sity of British Columbia. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Hodge, R.A.L. 1971. The movement of beach materials, south side, Tsawwassen causeway. 3rd year Appl. Sc. Res. Rept., University of British Columbia. 17 pp. and figures.

Holbek, N.E. 1973. Soil salinity investigations at Oyster River and Mud Bay. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Holland, S.S. 1964. Land forms of British Columbia, a physiographic outline. B.C. Dept. Mines and Pet. Res. Bull. (48). 138 pp. and map. International Geological Congress. 1972. Geology of Vancouver area of British Columbia. Field excursion A05-C05. Internat., Geol. Cong., Montreal, Quebec. 362. Biblio. - geology

Johnston, W.A. 1921(a). Sedimentation of the Fraser River delta. Can. Dept. Mines, Geol. Surv. Memoir (125), Geol. Ser. 107 (1868). 46 pp. and figures. . 1921(b). The occurrence of calcareous sandstone in the recent delta of Fraser River, British Columbia, Canada. Amer. J. Sci. 1_: 447-449. . 1921(c). The age of the recent delta of Fraser River, British Columbia, Canada. Amer. J. Sci. (1): 450-453. . 1921(d). Pleistocene oscillations of sea levels in the Vancouver region, British Columbia. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Sec. IV, 15: 9-19. . 1922(a). The character of stratification of the sediment in the recent delta of the Fraser River, British Columbia. Can. J. Geol. 30: 115-129. . 1922(b). Imbricated structure in river gravels. Amer. J. Sci. 5th Ser., 2: 387-390. . 1923. Geology of Fraser River delta map-area. Geol. Surv., Dept. Mines, Canada. Memoir (135), Geol. Series 116 (2008). 87 pp. and figures. Kellerhals, P. and J.W. Murray. 1969. Tidal flats at Boundary Bay, Fraser River delta, British Columbia. Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol. 12(1): 67-91. Kelley, C.C. and R.H. Spilsbury. 1939. Soil survey of the lower Fraser valley. Gov't. Canada, Dept. Agric, Publ. (650) Tech. Bull. 20: 67 pp. and figures. Kendell, M.D. 1959. The practical significance of the Atterberg limits of some soil of the lower Fraser valley. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Kestner, T.J.F. 1961. Short term changes in the distri bution of fine sediments in estuaries. Proc. Inst. Engin. Paper (6494). Knox, W.R.A. 1972. Report on foundation recommendations, Pitt River bridge. Geo. Tech. Br., British Columbia Dept. Highways. 363. Biblio. - geology

Kopisch-Obuch, F.W. 1964. Nature and distribution of phosphorus in genetically related soils of the lower Fraser valley. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Lavkulich, L.M. 1971. Alluvial soils of the lower Fraser valley, B.C. - their properties and utilization. Proc. 12th Pac. Sci. Congr., 1971. 1 (Abst.). 17 pp. . 1972. Physical environment of the lower Fraser valley. University of British Columbia, Centre for Continuing Education and Faculty of Agri. Sci. 15 pp.

Learning, S.F. 1968. Sand and gravel in the Strait of Georgia area. Geol. Surv. Can., Dept. Energy, Mines and Res. Paper (66-60). 149 pp. and figures.

Leckie, P.G. 1936. The mineralogy of the sands in the vicinity of Vancouver. M.A. Thesis, Dept. Geol., University of British Columbia. 20 pp.

Lesko, G.L. 1961. Ecological study of soils in the coastal western hemlock zone. M.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Biol, and Bot., University of British Columbia. 141 pp

Lewis, T. and L.M. Lavkulich. 1972. Soil folisols in the Vancouver area, B.C. Can. J. Soil Sci. 5^: 91-98.

Luternauer, J.L. and J.W. Murray. 1973. Sedimentation on the western delta-front of the Fraser River, British Columbia. Can. J. Earth Sci. 10(11): 1642-1663.

Luternauer, J.L. and others, (in progress). Sixty test cores for port locations in the lower mainland, B.C. Geol. Surv. Can., Vancouver, B.C.

Luttmerding, H.A. 1969. Soil survey of Delta and Rich- Richmond municipalities. B.C. Dept. Agric, Soil Surv. Prelim. Rept. (10) and soil map tracing (120). 126 pp. (Scale: 1 inch = 2,000 feet). and P.N. Sprout. 1969. Soil survey of Langley Muni cipality and Barnston Island. B.C. Dept. Agric, Kelowna, B.C. Prelim. Rept. (7). 161 pp. MacKintosh, E.E. and E.H. Gardner. 1966. A mineralogical and chemical study of lower Fraser valley alluvial sediments. Can. J. Soil Sci. 46: 37-46. 364. Biblio. - geology

Mathews, W.H. 1947. Calcareous deposits of the Georgia Strait area, B.C. B.C. Dept. Mines Bull. (23) (out of print). . 1972. Geology of Vancouver area of British Columbia. Intern. Geol. Congr., Field Excursion A05-C05 Guide book (D.J. Glass, ed.). 47 pp. and figures. , and J.W. McCammon. Calcareous deposits of south western B.C. B.C. Dept. Mines Bull. (40). (out of print). Mathews, W.H. and F.P. Shepard. 1962. Sedimentation of the Fraser River delta, British Columbia. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 46(8): 1416-1438. Mathews, W.H.; J.W. Murray; and N.J. McMillan. 1966. Recent sediments and their environment of deposition, Strait of Georgia and Fraser River delta. (A manual for field conferences). Prepared by Tenneco Oil and Minerals, Ltd., Calgary, Alberta. Mathews, W.H.; J.G. Fyles; and H.W. Nasmith. 1970. Post glacial crustal movements in southwestern British Colum bia and adjacent Washington State. Can. J. Earth Sci. 7(2): 690-702. Mayers, I.R. 1968. An analysis of the form and origin of the Fraser River delta's subaqueous slump deposits. B.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Geophysics, University of British Columbia. Meeson, J.H. 1972. Topography and slope of the Boundary Bay area and soils of region 1 - an appraisal. Uni versity of British Columbia, Dept. Forestry, Forestry 492 paper. Milne, W.G.; W.E.T. Smith; and G.C. Rogers. 1970. Cana dian seismicity and micro-earthquake research in Canada Can. J. Earth Sci. 7: 591-601. Murphy, A.S. et at. 1973. Distribution of major cations in estuarine environments. In: Clays and Clay Mineralogy. 21.Pergamon Press, Gt. Britain.

Murray, J.W. 1969. Sedimentation in B.C. inlets. In: Inst. Oceanogr., University of British Columbia, Annual Rept. pp. A22-A24. 365. Biblio. - geology

Nasmith, H.N. Engineering geology of the southern Cordillera of B.C.

Neufeld, J.H. 1950. Determination of sodium on the ex change complex on some lower Fraser valley soils, with special attention to distance from the ocean and method of analysis. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia Northcote, K.E. 1961. Distribution of sulfur, iron, copper, and zinc in modern marine sediments of Mud Bay, Crescent Beach, British Columbia. M.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Geol., University of British Columbia.

Parasher, CD. 1969. The distribution and characterization of organo-clay complexes in selected lower Fraser soils. M. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Paynton, L.R. 1964. Characteristics of some organic soils of the lower Fraser valley. B.A. Thesis, Uni versity of British Columbia. Pearson, N. 1972. Fraser River harbour development study. Fraser River Harbour Comm. Rept. 23 pp. Peters, N. 1973. The Pleistocene geology and the geo- technical aspects of the proposed Pitt River bridge, Port Coquitlam, B.C. B.Ap. Sc. Thesis, Dept. Geol. Eng., University of British Columbia. 20 pp. and figures.

Pharo, C.H. 1972. Sediments of the central and southern Strait of Georgia. Ph.D. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Phemister, T.C. 1945. The coast range batholith near Vancouver, British Columbia. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. London 101: 37-88. Poulson, E.N. and R.D. Flannery. 1953. Soil survey of Whatcom County, Washington. U.S.D.A. Soil Conserva tion Service Series, 1941 (7).

Pretious, E.S. 1972. Downstream sedimentation effects of dams on the Fraser River, British Columbia. Dept. Civil Eng., University of British Columbia, Water Re sources Series 6. 91 pp. and figures. Ricker, K.E. 1966. Diamictons, southeast corner, Point Roberts, Washington. Res. Proj. for Geol. 520. (Dr. W.H. Mathews, Instr.). Dept. Geol., University of British Columbia. Unpubl. Rept. 366. Biblio. - geology

Ricker, K.E. 1974. Inventory of marine surficial geology, sedimentology, geomorphology, quaternary paleontology and palaeoecology, geochemistry, and related studies of the Pacific shelf of Canada. Part I. Coastal areas of British Columbia, Washington, and Alaska. Geol. Surv. Can. Open File Rept. (197). 46 pp. and map.

Ripley, Klohn and Leonoff International, Ltd. Soil me chanics report (s) on the Iona sewage outfall diffuser channel and treatment plant. Consultant Rept. for Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District. Rowles, C.A.; L. Farstad; and D.G. Laird. 1956. Soil resources of British Columbia. Proc. 9th B.C. Nat. Res. Conf. pp. 84-121. Safo, E.Y. 1970. Manganese status of some lower Fraser valley soils developed from alluvial and marine de posits. M. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Salisbury, H.F. 1935. A compilation of all available data concerning the soils of British Columbia. B. Thesis, University of British Columbia. 210 pp. Schwartz, M.L. 1967. Littoral zone tidal cycle sedimen tation. J. Sedim. Petrol. 37: 677-683. Shepard, F.P. 1962. Sedimentation of the Fraser River delta, British Columbia. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 46(8): 1416-1443. Shirley, M. Deltas in the geologic framework. Delta Study Grp., Houston Geol. Soc. Smith, H.I. 1903. Shell heaps of the lower Fraser, British Columbia. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 4: 133-191. Sprout, P.N. and W.D. Holland. 1959. Soil survey of Delta Municipality. B.C. Dept. Agric, Soil Surv. Prelim. Rept. (2), and soil map tracing (79). 80 pp. (Scale: 1 inch = 2,000 ft.) (out of print). Sprout, P.N. and C.C. Kelley. 1961. Soil survey of Surrey Municipality. B.C. Dept. Agric, Soil Surv. Prelim. Rept. (3), and revised soil map tracing (109, 1965). 80 pp. (Scale: 1 inch = 2,000 ft.). 367. Biblio. - geology

Stewart, J. 1953. The use of saline irrigation water on Fraser River delta soils. M. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Stickling, W. and T.F. Smith. 1968. Sediment surveys in Canada. Inland Waters Branch, Ottawa.

Straaten, J.M. and J.W. Van. 1961. Sedimentation in tidal flat areas. J. Alta. Soc. Petrol. Geol. 9(7): 203-226. Swan Wooster Engineering Co. Ltd. 1967(a). Planning study for outer port development at Vancouver, B.C. Part I. 87 pp.

. 1967(b). Planning study for outer port development at Vancouver, B.C. Part II. 38 pp.

• 1967(c). Planning study for outer port development at Vancouver, B.C. Part III. 21 pp.

. 1970. Point Grey erosion control study. Prepared for the Vancouver Board of Public Recreation. Van couver, B.C. 14 pp.

, and Spence and Brown Consultant Geologists. 1972. Point Grey erosion, stability and remedial action. Unpubl. rept. to the chairman and members of the Point Grey Erosion Comm., Vancouver, B.C. Swinnerton, A.A. 1950. The peat moss industry in Canada. Can. Dept. Mines and Tech. Surv., Mines Br., Fuels Div., Mem. Ser. (107): 10-14.

• 1957. Peat in Canada, 1957. Can. Mineral Indus. Dept. Mines and Tech. Surv., Review (62). 4 pp. Terzaghi, K. 1956. Varieties of sub-marine slope failures Harvard University. Soil Mech. Ser. (52): 17-22. • 1962. Discussion of Mathews and Shepard, 1962. Sedimentation of the Fraser River delta, British Columbia. Bull. Amer. Assoc Petrol. Geol. 46(8): 1438-1443. — Thomson, R.E. (in press). Longshore current generation in a two layer fluid with application to Georgia Strait Environ. Can., Mar. Sci. Direct., Pac Reg. (draft). 368. Biblio. - geology

Thurber Consultants. Investigation of foundations for both Dinsmore and Hudson Street bridges across the Fraser River to Vancouver International Airport. Phillips, Barratt, Hillier, and Pratt for Dept. of Transport. Tiffin, D.L. 1969. Continuous seismic profiling in the Strait of Georgia, B.C. Ph.D. Thesis, University of British Columbia. 166 pp. ; J.W. Murray; I.R. Mayers; and R.E. Garrison. 1971. Structure and origin of foreslope hills, Fraser delta, British Columbia. Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol. 19(3): 589-600.

Tywoniuk, N. 1972. Sediment budget of the lower Fraser River (estuary). Water Surv. Can. Paper presented at 13th Intern. Conf. on Coastal Engineering, Vancouver. 6 pp. and figures. United States Department of Agriculture. 1965. Sedimenta tion in estuaries, harbors, and coastal areas. Proc Fed. Inter-agency Sedimentation Conf., Symp. (3): 593-775. Void, T. 1972. Surface sediment distribution in Boundary Bay. University of British Columbia, Forestry 492 paper. 41 pp. Wagner, J.E. 1959. Palaeoecology of the marine Pleis tocene faunas of southwestern British Columbia. Geol. Surv. Can. Bull. (52). 67 pp. and figures. Wainwright, P.R. 1942. Major soil zones of western Canada and British Columbia. B.Sc Thesis, Dept. of Agronomy, University of British Columbia. 62 pp. Waslenchuk, D.G. 1973. The analysis and correlation of sediments from the Fraser River, the Point Grey cliffs and beaches, and Spanish Banks at Vancouver, British Columbia. B.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Geol., University of British Columbia.

Wiens, J.H. 1970. Some aspects of buffering of acid soils of the lower Fraser valley. M. Thesis, Univer sity of British Columbia. 369. Biblio. - geology

Wilson, B.W. and A. TjzJrum. 1968. The Tsunami of the Alaskan earthquake, 1964: engineering evaluation. Tech. Memorandum (25). U.S. Army Corps of Eng., Coastal Engineering Research Centre. Witt, E.W. 1966. Moisture retention properties, ash content, and reaction of some processed and unpro cessed peats of the lower Fraser valley, British Colum bia. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Wright, J.C. 1951. A study of the effect of boron appli cation on certain Fraser valley soils. B. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Wyder, J.E. 1961. The correlation of Pleistocene glacial tills of the Boundary Bay area, British Columbia, by mechanical analysis. B.A. Sc Thesis, University of British Columbia.

(ii) Geology in Relation to Oil Drilling

Camsell, C. 1918. Boring operations for oil in the vi cinity of Vancouver, B.C. Geol. Surv. Can. Summary Rept. (1918), Pt.B. pp. 22B-25B. Haggen, E.A. 1918. Petroleum in the Fraser valley. Min ing and Engineer. Res. 1_3: 40-43.

.1919. Oil prospects of Fraser delta and flat-head. Mining and Engineer. Res. 14_: 385-387.

_. 1921. Report on oil prospects of the Fraser delta and operation of the Spartan Oil Co. Ltd., Vancouver, B.C.

III. CLIMATOLOGY AND AIR QUALITY

(i) Climatology Atmospheric Environment Service. Climatic normals, charts, data summaries for British Columbia. Detailed data sum maries based on hourly observations at Vancouver Inter national Airport. Atmos. Environ. Serv., Vancouver, B.C Unpubl. data. 370. Biblio. - climatology

Atmospheric Environment Service. 1971. Temperature and precipitation: 1941 - 1970 (British Columbia). Atmos. Environ. Serv. Publ., D.O.E. pp. 78. Baudat, C. and J.B. Wright. 1969. The unusual winter of 1968-69 in British Columbia. A.E.S. Technical Memo randa (730). 23 pp. Bruce, J.P. 1961. Frequency of heavy rainfalls in the lower Fraser valley. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (354). 22 pp. Crowe, R.B. 1958. Recent temperature fluctuations and trends for the B.C. coast. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (288). 14 pp. . 1960. Recent precipitation fluctuations and trends for the B.C. coast. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (318). 10 pp. Emslie, J.H. 1968. Wind flow in Burrard Inlet, Vancouver, B.C. A summary of six years of data. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (686). 13 pp. . 1972. Surface temperature field, greater Vancouver, B.C. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (768). 16 pp. Gibson, G. 1972. The climate of Boundary Bay. University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry, Forestry 492 paper. 7 pp. Harry, K.F. and J.B. Wright. 1951. An investigation into the development of the northwest wind at Vancouver. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (107). 10 pp. . 1957. Climate of Vancouver. A.E.S. Technical Memo randa (258). 53 pp. Kendrew, W.G. and D. Kerr. 1955. The climate of British Columbia and the Yukon Territory. Queen's Printer, Ottawa. 222 pp. Krajina, V.J. 1959. Bioclimatic zones in British Columbia University of British Columbia, Bot. Series (1). 47 pp. . 1965. Biogeoclimatic zones and classification of British Columbia. Ecol. of Western North America 1: 1-17. 371. Biblio. - climatology

Nikleva, S.N. 1967. A case study of a California cold low moving into southern B.C. A.E.S. Technical Memo randa (648). 14 pp.

Sanderson, A. 1973. Climate of the Boundary Bay area. University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry, Forestry 492 paper. 27 pp.

Schaefer, P.G. 1973. A record breaking summer rainstorm over the lower Fraser valley. A.E.S. Technical Memo randa (787). 29 pp.

Sporns, U. 1962. Occurrence of severe storms in the lower Fraser valley. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (404). 11 pp. • 1963. Frequency and severity of storms in the lower Fraser valley. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (469). 44 pp.

Stager, J.K. and J.H. Wallis. 1968. The climatic factor- variations on a mean. In: Lower Fraser valley - evol ution of a cultural landscape. (A.H. Siemens, ed.) B.C. Geog. Ser. (9), Tantalas Res. Ltd., Vancouver, B.C. Turner, J.A. 1953. Intense drying periods over the southern coast of B.C. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (154). 11 pp. Tyner, R.B. 1951. Paths taken by the cold air in polar outbreaks in British Columbia. A.E.S. Technical Memo randa (106). 13 pp. Verge, R.W. Climate of the Fraser valley. A.E.S. Toronto. 10 pp. and appendices. Wright, J.B. 1966(a). Longterm trends in Vancouver's wea ther. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (596). 9 pp. • 1966(b). Precipitation patterns over Vancouver city and the lower Fraser valley. A.E.S. Technical Memo randa (623). 14 pp. • 1973. Inventory of climatological data - Fraser River estuary. Submission to Fraser River Estuary Working Group. Pac Environ. Inst., Unpubl. data. » and C.H. Trenholm. 1969. Greater Vancouver precipi tation. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (722). 36 pp. Wright, J.B. and N.E. Penny. 1970. The incidence of fog at Vancouver International Airport. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (748). 26 pp. 372. Biblio. - hydrology

(ii) Air Quality Anonymous. 1973. Status of forest product's air dis charges in greater Vancouver and surrounding munici palities. 44 pp. (confidential). B.C. Research. 1970. Air quality in British Columbia. Project 2328, Environ. Pollution Studies. B.C. Res., Dec. 1, 1970. 125 pp. and appendices. . 1972. Air quality in British Columbia. Project 2328, Appendix Rept. B.C. Res., Feb. 29, 1972. 95 pp. Emslie, J.H. and J. Satterthwaite. 1966. Air pollution - meteorological relationships at Vancouver. A.E.S. Technical Memoranda (605). 14 pp. Lynch, A.J. and J.H. Emslie. 1972. Lower mainland air quality study final report. Province of British Columbia.

IV. HYDROLOGY, WATER QUALITY, AND MODEL SYSTEMS

(i) Hydrology Anonymous. 1968. Fraser River flood control programme, information guide. 25 pp. (fold map). British Columbia Remote Sensing Centre. 1974. Quick notes from seminars on freshwater (Jan. 15); estuaries and marine (Jan. 17); frozen water (Jan. 18). 15 pp. British Columbia Research Council. Particle size analysis of Fraser River water samples. . 1972. Water movement studies in the South Arm of the Fraser River. Project (1462). Crippen, G.E. and Associates Ltd. 1973. Flood control bene fit study for Fraser River below Hope. B.C. Energy Board Easleson, P.S. et al. 1966. Estuary and coastline hydro dynamics. Mass. Inst. Tech., Hydrodyna. Lab. McGraw- Hill Book Co. 744 pp. Foundation of Canada Engineering Corp. Ltd. and Christiani and Nielsen of Canada Ltd. 1957. Deas Island Tunnel, report on hydrological studies in the Main Arm of the Fraser River. Unpubl. MS. 373. Biblio. - hydrology

Fraser River Board. Annual progress report.

. 1956. Interim report on investigations into mea sures for flood control in the Fraser River basin. Vol. I. 71 pp. and appendices A-E inclusive in 3 volumes.

. 1963. Final report of the Fraser River Board on flood control and hydroelectric power in the Fraser River basin.

Fraser River Joint Advisory Board. 1968. Fraser River flood control programme information guide. Victoria, British Columbia.

Greater Vancouver Regional District. 1972. Floodplain and floodproofing policy in the lower Fraser valley. Report to the Greater Vancouver Regional District, (includes Hurst Report, Pearson Report, Westwater News letter, excerpts from R. Chorley, newspaper clippings and excerpts from B.C. Energy Board).

Inland Waters Directorate. 1970. Reverse flow in the Fraser River for 1969.

. 1973. Hydrologic data on selected estuarine rivers. Publ. of Inland Waters Directorate, Pac Reg., June, 1973. 56 pp.

Johnston, W.A. 1921. Sedimentation of the Fraser River delta. Can. Dept. Mines, Geol. Surv. Memoir (125), Geol. Ser. 107 (1868). 46 pp. and figures.

Keane, J.C.B. 1957. Report on the hydrometric surveys and discharge computations for the Fraser River es tuary for May, June and August, 1954. Tech. Monograph, Fraser River Board, Victoria, B.C. Open file rept. Kidd, G.J.A. 1953. Fraser River suspended sediment survey Interim Rept. 1949-52. Water Rights Br., Dept. Lands and Forests, Victoria, B.C. 46 pp. Lewis, T. 1968. The hydrologic consequences of compaction of coarse glacial soils during forest harvesting in coastal British Columbia. B.S.F. Thesis, University of British Columbia. 92 pp. 374. Biblio. - hydrology

Luternauer, J.L. and J.W. Murray. 1973. Sedimentation on the western delta-front of the Fraser River, British Columbia. Can. J. Earth Sci. 10(11): 1642-1663. Municipality of Surrey. 1963(a). District of Surrey drain age report. Mun. Surrey Engineering Dept., Cloverdale, B.C. . 1963(b). Flooding in the Serpentine and Nicomekl rivers' valley: drainage report, App. A. Munic Surrey Engineer. Dept., Cloverdale, B.C. Murray, J.W.; J.L. Luternauer; C.H. Pharo; and I.M. McGee. 1972. Preliminary study of the sediment budget of the Fraser River delta-front. University of British Col umbia, Dept. Geol. Sci. MS. Rept. Pretious, E.S. 1972. Downstream sedimentation effects of dams on the Fraser River, British Columbia. Dept. Civil Eng., University of British Columbia, Water Resources Series 6: 91 pp. and figures. Pritchard, D.W. 1952. Estuarine hydrography. In: H.E. Landsberg (editor), Advances in Geophysics. Academic Press Inc., New York. pp. 243-280. Ross, Hon. Wm. R. 1914. South fork of the Fraser River. Dept. of Lands. Queen's Printer, Victoria. Sewell, W.R.D. 1965. Water management and floods in the Fraser River basin. Dept. Geol., University of Chicago. Swanson, H.S. and C.S. Beightler. 1970. The network flow analysis of water allocation decisions in a river sys tem and their effect on estuarine ecology. Water Re sources Res. Center, University of Texas, Tech. Rept. (63). 123 pp. Tabata, S. 1972. The movement of Fraser River influenced surface water in the Strait of Georgia as deduced from a series of aerial photographs. Mar. Sci. Direct. Pac. Reg., Rept. (72-6). 69 pp. , and R.J. LeBrasseur. 1958. Sea water intrusion into the Fraser River and its relation to incidence of shipworms in Steveston Cannery Basin. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 15(1): 91-113. 375. Biblio. - hydrology-

Thomas, J.F.J. 1954. Industrial water sources of Canada. Fraser River drainage basin, 1950-51. Can. Dept. Mines and Tech. Surv., Mines Br., Indust. Min. Div., Water Surv. Rept. (6).

Tredcroft, E.H. and G.J.A. Kidd. 1953. Fraser River sus pended sediment survey. Interim rept. for period 1949- 1952. Water Res. Div., Water Rights Br., B.C. Dept. Lands and Forests.

Tywoniuk, N. 1972. Sediment budget of the lower Fraser River (estuary). Water Surv. Can. Paper presented at 13th Intern. Conf. on Coastal Engineering, Vancouver. 6 pp. and figures.

Unesco. 1970. Hydrology of deltas. Proc. Bucharest Symp. Internat. Assoc. Scientific Hydrol., May, 1969. 1 and 2.

Vou Roen, G. 1962. Fraser River alluvium. B.Sc. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Waldichuk, M. 1957. Physical oceanography of the Strait of Georgia. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 14(3): 321-486.

. 1967. Currents from aerial photography in coastal pollution studies. Advances in water pollution re search. Proc. 3rd Inter. Conf. on Water Pollution Res., Munich, Germany. Sept. 5-9, 1966. _3:263-284 (discussions pp. 284-294). Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington, D.C.

Wallace, R. 1968. River training works on the Fraser River. Seminar on Alluvial Problems in River Engineer ing, Vancouver.

. 1970. The trifurcation project - Fraser River, B.C. Published by Dept. Publ. Works of Can., Pac. Region, British Columbia District. Submission to 4th Marine Engineering Seminar, Vancouver, B.C. 24 pp. and figures, Water Rights Branch, British Columbia Department of Lands and Forests. Sedimentation programme. Interim rept. for 1951 and 1952.

Water Survey of Canada. 1969. Sediment data for Canadian rivers. Inland Waters Direct., Dept. of Environ., Ottawa. 261 pp. and figures. 376. Biblio. - hydrology

Water Survey of Canada. 1970(a). Historical stream flow summary, British Columbia. Inland Waters Direct., Dept. of Environ., Ottawa. 393 pp. . 1970(b). Hydrometric and sediment survey lower Fraser River. Progress rept., 1965-1958. Ottawa. . 1970(c). Sediment data for Canadian rivers-water year 1967. Inland Waters Br., Dept. Energy,Mines and Res. . 1970(d). Surface water data, British Columbia, 1968. Inland Waters Br., Dept. Energy, Mines and Res. 642 pp. . 1971(a). Proposal for sediment survey, lower Fraser (downstream from Port Mann). Ottawa. . 1971(b). Surface water data, British Columbia, 1969. Inland Waters Br., Dept. of Environ. 284 pp. . 1972. Surface water data-reference index. Inland Waters Direct., Dept. of Environ., Ottawa. 411 pp. . 1973. Hydrological data for the Fraser River basin. In: Fraser River Estuary. Info, provided by D.O.E. agencies, Pacific Region. Western Development and Power Ltd. 1959. A preliminary engineering and economic study of water supply in the Fraser valley. 12 pp.

(ii) Water Quality Barter, J. 1973. Status of forest products industries and some municipalities discharging liquid effluents to the Fraser River below the town of Hope. Pollution Control Branch. Bennedict, A.H.; K.J. Hall; and F.A. Koch. 1973. Prelimin ary water quality survey of the lower Fraser River sys tem. Westwater Research Centre. Tech. Rept. (2).

Bistwell and Leach. 1973. Water quality studies in the lower Fraser River. B.C. Research for Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District. 377. Biblio. - water quality

British Columbia Research Council. Progress report on survey of Fraser River water quality.

1951. Survey of Fraser River water quality, 3rd progress report. Vancouver. 11 pp. and tables.

. 1952. Water quality in the Fraser-Thompson River system of British Columbia. Report for Dominion- Provincial Board, Fraser River Basin. 40 pp. and figures. . 1972(a). Fraser River in the vicinity of Lulu Island. Water quality sampling progress reports for Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District.

. 1972(b). Water quality survey of the lower Fraser River. In: Provincial Power Study ,3, Appendix I-A. Montreal Engin. Co. Ltd.

Chan, K.S. and P.M. Williams. 1966. Distribution and speciation of iron in natural waters: transition from river water to a marine environment, British Columbia, Canada. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 23(4): 575-593.

Clark, M.J.R. 1974. Reports and studies re: the lower Fraser River, the upper Fraser River and the Fraser River in general. Pollution Control Branch.

Goldie, C.A. 1967. Pollution and the Fraser. Rept. I. Preliminary investigations of waste disposal to the lower Fraser River. B.C. Poll. Control Br. 55 pp. and appendices.

Hood, D.W.; I.L. Knowles; and D. Burrell. 1966. Ecolo gical implications of clay-metal association in aquatic environments. Inst. Mar. Aci., University of Alaska, A.E.C. Contract AT(04-3)- 310, June, 1955 - January, 1966. Proj. Rept. 35 pp.

Howard, Leach and Walden. 1971. Water quality survey of the lower Fraser River. B.C. Research Rept. for the B.C Energy Board.

Inland Waters Directorate. 1971. Index of national water quality monitoring stations. Water Quality Br. Publ. 100 pp. 378. Biblio. - water quality

Kirsch, M. 1953. Ionic ratios in some B.C. estuaries. In: Can. Jnt. Comm. Oceanog. Annual Report, 1953. pp. 41-42.

McKee, J.E. and H.W. Wolf. 1963. Water quality criteria. Second edition. Publ. (3-A ). 548 pp.

Paget, A.F. 1968. The policy of the Pollution Control Board of the Province of British Columbia regarding '" pollution control on the Fraser River below the town of Hope.

Powers, E.B. and A. Hickman. 192 8. The carbon dioxide . tensions of the Fraser River and its tributaries and ^*- of certain tributaries of the Columbia River. Publ. Puget Snd. Biol. St. 5: 373-380.

Rusch, W.C. 1972. A computer simulation of fecal con forms in the Fraser estuary. M. App. Sc. Thesis, Dept. Civil Eng., University of British Columbia.

Servizi, J.A. and R.A. Burkhalter. 1970. Selected measure ments of water quality and bottom-dwelling organisms of the Fraser River system, 1963-1968. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Rept. 70 pp.

Stewart, J. and A.L. Van Ryswyk. 1950. Quality of irriga tion waters in the Fraser valley delta area. B.A. The sis, University of British Columbia. Stewart, R.W. A statement concerning water quality and related matters with respect to the proposed Strait of Georgia marine park. 13 pp. Storrs, P.N.; E.A. Pearson; H.F. Ludwig; R. Walsh; and E.J. Stan. 1969. Estuarine water quality and biologic population indices. Intern. Conf. on Water Pollut., Prague. (S.H. Jenkins, editor) Pergammon Press, New York.

Sylvester, R.O. 1965. A review of the Fraser River basin with respect to water quality. B.C. Water Res. Serv., Pollut. Cont. Bd. Water Quality Branch, Inland Waters Directorate. 1972. Data summary report of federal data for the Fraser for January 1, 1961 to January 1, 1972. 379. Biblio. - models

Water Quality Branch, Inland Waters Directorate. 1974. Computer print-out sheets of Fraser River water quality stations: Fraser at Hope; Miami Creek at Harrison Hot Springs; Lillooet River near Pemberton; Fraser at Deas Tunnel; Fraser at Mission; Brunette River at Hume Park, New Westminster; Pitt River at Highway #7 Bridge; Stave River at Stave Falls; Sumas River above Vedder Canal; Chilliwack River at Vedder Crossing; Sumas River at Highway #401; Fraser at Whonock; Fraser at Port Hammond; Kanaka Creek near Websters Corners; Alouette River near Haney; Brunette River at Sapperton; Coquitlam River at Port Coquitlam; Still Creek at Gilmore Ave. in Burnaby; Noons Creek in Port Moody; Yorkson Creek at Walnut Grove; Coghlan Creek in Langley; West Creek in Fort Langley; Fraser at Steveston; Fraser at New Westminster; Jacobs Creek above Jacobs Lake; Fraser at Port Mann; Fraser at Oak Street Bridge.

Westwater Research Centre. 1973. Westwater Research Centre annual report. April 1, 1972 to August 21, 1973. Uni versity of British Columbia. 69 pp. Williams, I.V. 1969. Implication of water quality and sa linity in the survival of Fraser River sockeye smolts. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (22). 46 pp. Williams, P.M. and K.S. Chan. 1966. Distribution and spe ciation of iron in natural waters: transition from river water to a marine environment, British Columbia, Canada. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 23(4): 575-593.

(iii) Model Studies

Ages, A.B. 1974. Numerical model in the Fraser delta area - predicting heights and velocities including circulation on Roberts Bank. Pac. Mar. Sci. Rept. (74). Burns, R.E. 1962. A model of sedimentation in small, sill- less, embayed estuaries of the Pacific northwest. Thesis, University of Washington. Crean, P.B. 1969. A one-dimensional hydrodynamical numeri cal tidal model of the Georgia-Juan de Fuca Strait sys tem. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (156). 32 pp.

• 1972. Numerical model studies of the waters between Vancouver Island and the mainland coast. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, England. 168 pp. 380. Biblio. - models

Hodgins, D.O. and M.C. Quick. 1972. Computer studies of estuary water quality. Abstr. 13£h Intern. Conf. Coastal Eng., Nat. Res. Council, pp. 553-555. Isfeld, E.O.; D. Hay; and J. Rossow. 1973. Field and model studies on a siltation problem in the Fraser River. Canadian Hydraulics Conf., Edmonton. Joy, C.S. 1974. Water quality monitoring in estuaries. Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia. 205 pp. Neu, H.J.A. 1972. Proposals for improving flood and naviga tion conditions in the lower Fraser River. Personal Publ. 79 pp. Parkinson, W. 1955. Prototype studies of the lower Fraser River, British Columbia. Fraser River model. Dept. Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia and Nat. Res. Council, Canada. MS. Rept. (220). Pretious, E.S. 1956. Bed load movement in the Main Arm of the Fraser River estuary. Report prepared for the Dept. of Publ. Works, Can. (Fraser River Model Project). . 1958. Estimate of quantity rate of bed load transport in the Fraser River estuary. Report prepared for Dept. of Publ. Works, Can. (Fraser River Model Project). . 1961(a). The Fraser River model project - some facts relating to the project and a summary of the studies made. Civil Engineering Section. E.I.C. Annual Conven tion, Vancouver, B.C., May 13-June 2, 1961. . 1961(b). The Fraser River, model and prototype. The B.C. Professional Engineer. 12 (11). . 1969. The sediment load of the lower Fraser River, British Columbia. MS. Rept., Dept. Civil Eng., Univer sity of British Columbia. . 1972. Downstream sedimentation effects of dams on the Fraser River, British Columbia. Dept. Civil Eng., Uni versity of British Columbia, Water Resources Series 6. 91 pp. and figures. , and T. Blench. 1951. A final report on special obser vations of bed movement in lower Fraser River at Ladner Reach during 1950 freshet. Nat. Res. Council. July, 1951 381. Biblio. - oceanography

Pretious, E.S.; E. Vollmer; and J.W. Barlow. 1961. Fraser River model studies and prototype confirmations. Report prepared for Dept. of Publ. Works, Can. (Fraser River Model Project).

Quick, M.C. A hydro-meteorological study of the Fraser River

. 1974. Letter re: Fraser River water quality model. February 24, 1974.

Smith, I.D. 1953. A detailed report on the controls and indicators of the Fraser River model. Nat. Res. Coun cil Can. Rept. (MH-41). 41 pp. Western Canada Hydraulic Labs Limited. 1973. Report on hy draulic model studies, Fraser River: Phase 3 - trifurcation, siltation, and Fraser-Surrey dock extension. Pre pared for Publ. Works of Can. 46 pp. and figures.

V. OCEANOGRAPHY

Ages, A.B. Salinity and temperature in the Fraser delta region. Mar. Sci. Dir. Rept.

Baines, W.D. 1952. Water surface elevations and tidal dis charges in the Fraser River estuary, January 23 and 24, 1952. Nat. Res. Council, Can., Rept. (MH-32). 51 pp.

1953. Survey of tidal effects on flow in the Fraser River estuary, June 10 and 11, 1952. Nat. Res. Council, Can., Rept. (MH-41). 41 pp.

Barraclough, W.E. and M. Waldichuk. 1954. Offshore charac teristics in the deep waters of the Strait of Georgia as indicated by bathypelagic fish. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 11(5): 501-506. Bishop, S.O.; J.D. Fulton; O.D. Kennedy; and K. Stephens. 1966. Data record: physical, chemical, and biological data, Strait of Georgia, March to October, 1965. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (Oceanog. Limnol.) (211). British Columbia Research Council. 1951. Study of tidal effects in the North Arm of the Fraser River, April 23-24, 1951. MS. Rept., University of British Columbia. Canadian Hydrographic Service. 1973. Canadian tide and current tables. _5: Juan de Fuca and Georgia straits. Can. Hydrogr. Serv., Mar. Sci. Br., Dept. Environ. 382. Biblio. - oceanography

Centre for Research in Water Resources, University of Texas. 1970. Influence of tidal inlets on salinity and related phenomena in estuaries. Univ. Texas Publ. Chow, T.J. and T.G. Thompson. 1954. Seasonal variation in the concentration of copper in the surface waters of San Juan Channel, Washington. J. Mar. Res. 13(3): 233-244. Crean, P.B.; W.R. Harling; R.B. Tripp; F.W. Dobson; J.H. Meikle; and H.J. Hollister. 1962. Oceanographic data record. Monitor project, July 24 to November 16, 1961. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (Oceanog. Limnol.) (111). 409 pp. Crean, P.B.; R.B. Tripp; and H.J. Hollister. 1962. Oceano graphic data record. Monitor project, January 15 to February 5, 1962. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (Oceanog. Limnol.) (113). 169 pp. Crean, P.B.; H.H. Dobson; and H.J. Hollister. 1963. Oceano graphic data record. Monitor project, September 19 to October 9, 1962. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (Oceanog. Limnol.) (142). 203 pp. Crean, P.B. and A.B. Ages. 1971(a). Oceanographic records from twelve cruises in the Strait of Georgia and Juan de Fuca Strait, 1968. I. Introduction. Dept. Energy, Mines, and Res., Marine Sci. Br., Victoria, B.C. 55 pp. . 1971(b). Oceanographic records from twelve cruises in the Strait of Georgia and Juan de Fuca Strait, 1968. II. Winter. Dept. Energy, Mines and Res.,Marine Sci. Br., Victoria, B.C. 76 pp. . 1971(c). Oceanographic records from twelve cruises in the Strait of Georgia and Juan de Fuca Strait, 1968. III. Spring. Dept. Energy, Mines, and Res., Marine Sci. Br., Victoria, B.C. 79 pp. . 1971(d). Oceanographic records from twelve cruises in the Strait of Georgia and Juan de Fuca Strait, 1968. IV. Summer. Dept. Energy, Mines, and Res., Marine Sci. Br., Victoria, B.C. 79 pp. . 1971(e). Oceanographic records from twelve cruises in the Strait of Georgia and Juan de Fuca Strait, 1968. V. Autumn. Dept. Energy, Mines and Res., Marine Sci. Br., Victoria, B.C. 79 pp. 383. Biblio. - oceanography

Dawson, W. 1959. Coastal cruising: an authoratative guide to British Columbia and Puget Sound - San Juan Island waters. Mitchell Press, Vancouver, B.C.

Department of the Environment. 1971. Wave-buoy monitoring off Sturgeon Bank. Wave Current Study Group Rept.

Dodimead, A.J. 1952. Properties of the water in Georgia Strait. In: Can. Jnt. Comm. Oceanogr. Annual Report, 1952. pp. 21.

Fjarlie, R.L.1.1950 (a).The oceanographic phase of the Vancouver sewage problem. Pac. Oceanogr. Grp. MS. Rept. .1950(b).The Fraser River estuary project. In: Can. Jnt. Comm. Oceanogr. Annual Report, 1950. pp. 19. .1950(c).Memorandum: Oceanographic investigation, Van couver harbour and Fraser River estuary. In: Can. Jnt. Comm. Oceanogr. Annual Report, 1950. pp. 21.

Fraser, CM. and A.T. Cameron. 1916. Variations in density and temperature in the coastal waters of British Columbia. Contr. Can. Biol., 1914-1915. pp. 133-143.

Fulton, J.D.; O.D. Kennedy; K. Stephens; and J. Skelding. 1967. Data record: physical, chemical, and biological data, Strait of Georgia, 1966. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (915). 145 pp.

. 1968. Data record: physical, chemical, and biological data, Strait of Georgia, 1967. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (968). 79 pp.

Fulton, J.D.; O.D. Kennedy; J. Skelding; and K. Stephens. 1969. Data record: physical, chemical and biological data, Strait of Georgia, 1968. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (1049). 34 pp.

Gargett, A.E. and B.A. Hughes. 1972. On the interaction of surface and internal waves. J. Fluid Mech. 52(1): 179-191.

Giovando, L.F. and S. Tabata. 1970. Measurements of sur face flow in the Strait of Georgia by means of free- floating current followers. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (163). 69 pp. 384. Biblio. - oceanography

Harris, R.G. and M. Rattray. 1954. The surface winds over Puget Sound the their oceanographic effects. Dept. of Oceanog., University of Washington, Tech. Rept. (37). 101 pp. Hay, D. 1970. Coastal processes and case histories in British Columbia. Seminars on Coastal Eng., University of British Columbia. May, 1970.

Herlinveaux, R.H. 1954. Tidal currents in Juan de Fuca Strait. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. U(6): 799-815. , and J.P. Tully. 1961. Some oceanographic features of Juan de Fuca Strait. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 18(6): 1027-1031.

Herlinveaux, R.H. and L.F. Giovando. 1969. Some oceano graphic features of the inside passage between Vancouver Island and the mainland of British Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (142). 48 pp.

Hutchinson, A.H. 1929. The economic effect of the Fraser River on the waters of the Strait of Georgia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Prog. Rept. (4): 3-6. ; C.C. Lucas; and M. McPhail. 1929. Season variations in the chemical and physical properties of the water of the Strait of Georgia in relation to phytoplankton. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Series (3) 23: 177-183. Hutchinson, A.H. and C.C. Lucas. 1930. Effect of the Fraser River on the waters and phytoplankton of the Strait of Georgia. Proc. 4th Pac. Sci. Congr. (1929) 3: 443-448. , and M. McPhail. 1930. An oceanographic survey of the Strait of Georgia. Contr. Mar. Biol. VII, Stanford University Press, Stanford University, California, pp. 87-90. Hutchinson, A.H. and C.C. Lucas. 1931. Epithalassa of the Strait of Georgia. Can. J. Res. 5_: 231-284. Institute of Oceanography. 1968. Annual Report, 1967. Institute of Oceanography, University of British Colum bia, pp. A.17, A20-21. . 1972. Proceedings of the Strait of Georgia workshop, November 3-4, 1972. A.E. Gargett (convenor). 385. Biblio. - oceanography

Joint Committee on Oceanography. Data record: Fraser River estuary, Steveston Cannery Basin, August 3, 1954 to October 6, 1955. Fish. Res. Bd., Pac. Oceanog. Grp. MS. Rept. 33 pp. Lane, R.K.; R.H. Herlinveaux; W.R. Harling; and H.J. Hollister 1960. Oceanographic data record. Coastal and seaways projects, October 3-26, 1960. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (Oceanog. Limnol.) (83). 142 pp. 7 Lane, R.K.; J. Butters; W. Atkinson; and H.J. Hollister. 1961. Oceanographic data record. Coastal and seaways projects, February 6 to March 2, 1961. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (Oceanog. Limnol.) (19). 128 pp. Lane, R.K.; A.M. Haller; J.H. Meikle; and H.J. Hollister. 1961. Oceanographic data record. Monitor and coastal projects, March 20 - Arpil 14, 1961. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (Oceanog. Limnol.) (94). 188 pp. LeBlond, P.H.; T.R. Parsons; and B. de Lange Boom. 1971. Fraser River plume. In: Inst. Oceanog., University of British Columbia, Annual Report, 1971. pp. A1'4. Lucas, C.C. 1927. A bio-hydrographical investigation of the sea adjacent to the Fraser River mouth. Part I. The effect of the Fraser water on the physical and che mical properties of the adjacent sea. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Ser. (3) 21(v): 485-520. • 1928. Further oceanographic studies of the sea adja cent to the Fraser River mouth. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Studies (83): 29-58. , and A.H. Hutchinson. 1927. A bio-hydrographical in vestigation of the sea adjacent to the Fraser River mouth. Part I. The effect of the Fraser River water on the physical and chemical properties of the adjacent sea. (C.C. Lucas). Part II. The factors affecting the distribution of phytoplankton in the sea adjacent to the Fraser River mouth. (A.H. Hutchinson). Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Studies (56): 485-512. Maries, E.W. 1973. Bibliography of oceanographic informa tion for the inside waters of the southern British Columbia coast. Vol. I. Physical oceanography. Mar. Sci. Direct., Pac. Reg. Rept. (73-1). 82 pp. 386. Biblio. - oceanography

Maries, E.W. 1973. Bibliography of oceanographic informa tion for the inside waters of the southern British Colum bia coast. Vol. 2. Biological oceanography. Mar. Sci. Direct.,Pac. Reg. Rept. (73-2). ; B.M. Lusk; and W.I. Rapatz. 1973. Summary of hydrographic and oceanographic information on some British Columbia estuaries. Mar. Sci. Direct., Pac. Reg. Rept. (73-7). 56 pp. Pacific Oceanographic Group. 1950. Data record - Fraser River estuary project. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (459). 489 pp. . 1951. Data record, Fraser River estuary project, 1950. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept., Nanaimo Biol. Station. . 1953. Physical and chemical data record, Strait of Georgia,1930, 1931, 1932. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. , Nanaimo Biol. Station. . 1954. Physical and chemical data record, Strait of Georgia, 1949-1953, with Appendix I- current measure ments, March 1953. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept., Nanaimo Biol. Station. 437 pp. . 1955(a). Physical and chemical data record, Juan de Fuca Strait project, 1951-52 with Appendix I- current measurements. Joint Committee on Oceanography. 182 pp. . 1955(b). Data record, Fraser River estuary, Steveston Cannery Basin, August 4, 1954 to October 6, 1955. Joint Committee on Oceanography. 33 pp. . 1956. Data record, Fraser River estuary, Steveston Cannery Basin, August 3, 1954 to October 6, 1955. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept., Nanaimo Biol. Station. . 1957. Observations of sea water temperature, salinity and density on the Pacific coast of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Mimeo. Vol. 1-16 (covering years 1914-1956). . 1959(a). Physical and chemical data record, coastal "seaways project, November 12 to December 5, 1958. Fish Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (Oceanog. Limnol.) (36). 120 pp . 1959(b). Physical and chemical data record, coastal "seaways project, March 31 to April 22, 1959. Fish. Res Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (Oceanog. Limnol.) (47). 170 pp. 387. Biblio. - oceanography

Pacific Oceanographic Group. 1959(c). Oceanographic data record, coastal seaways project, June 8 to July 1, 1959. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (Oceanog. Limnol.) (52). 201 pp. Parsons, T.R.; R.J. LeBrasseur; and W.E. Barraclough. 1970. Levels of production in the pelagic environment of the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia: a review. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 22(7): 1251-1264. Phifer, L.D. and T.G. Thompson. 1937. Seasonal variations in the surface waters of San Juan Channel during the five year period, January, 1931 to December 30, 1935. J. Mar. Res. 1(1): 34-59.

Pickard, G.L. 1956. Surface and bottom currents in the Strait of Georgia. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 13(4): 581-590. —

• 1962. Physical oceanography in British Columbia. First Nat. Shallow Water Res. Conf., 1961. pp. 746-747.

, and L.F. Giovando. 1960. Some observations of tur bidity in Britsh Columbia inlets. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS Rept. (Oceanog. Limnol.) 5_: 162-170. Redfield, A.C. 1950(a). The analysis of tidal phenomena in narrow embayments. Phys. Oceanog. Meteor. Paper 11(4): 1-36. • 1950(b). Note on the circulation of a deep estuary - the Juan de Fuca - Georgia straits. Prog. Colloq. on Flushing of Estuaries, Woods Hole, Oceanog. Inst. (Henry Stommel, ed.). Shand, J.A. 1953. Internal waves in Georgia Strait. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union 34 (6): 849-856. Slaney, T.L. 1972. Some aspects of tides and currents in the Georgia Strait and Boundary Bay area. Forestry 492 paper, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Colum bia. 27 pp. Tabata, S. 1954. Sea water intrusion in Steveston Cannery Basin. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Pac. Reg., Prog. Rept. (106): 3-6.

.1955(a).Oceanographic conditions in the Steveston Har bour during normal discharge of the Fraser River. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Pac. Reg., Prog. Rept. (104): 26-29. 388. Biblio. - oceanography

Tabata, S.1955(b). Studies on Steveston Harbour Basin. Part I Seawater intrusion into the Steveston Harbour basin. Jnt. Comm. Oceanog., Pac. Oceanog. Grp. Data Record Public, Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. Ser. (11). . 1956. Seawater intrusion in Steveston Cannery Basin. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Prog. Rept. (106): 3-6. . 1970. A brief oceanographic description of the waters of Burrard Inlet and Indian Arm. Report prepared as background material for the Environmental Impact Study associated with the Third Burrard Inlet Crossing. Mar. Sci. Direct., Pac. Reg., Rept. . 1972(a). The movement of Fraser River influenced sur face water in the Strait of Georgia as deduced from a series of aerial photographs. Mar. Sci. Direct.,Pac. Reg. Rept. (72-6). 69 pp. . 1972(b). A brief review of the oceanography of the Strait of Georgia and the probable consequences of the regulation of the Fraser River upon the contiguous marine areas. 36 pp. ; L.F. Giovando; J.A. Stickland; and J. Wong. 1970(a). Current velocity measurements in the Strait of Georgia, 1967. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (169). 245 pp. . 1970(b). Current velocity measurements in the Strait of Georgia, 1968. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (178). 110 pp. . 1970(c). Current velocity measurements in the Strait of Georgia, 1969. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (191). 72 pp. Tabata, S.; L.F. Giovando; and D.G.Devlin. 1971. Current velocities in the vicinity of the Greater Vancouver Sewerage District's Iona Island outfall, 1968. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (263). 109 pp. Tabata, S. and J.A. Stickland. 1972(a). Summary of oceano graphic records obtained by moored instruments in the Strait of Georgia, 1969-1970. Vol. I. Mar. Sci. Direct., Pac. Reg. Rept. (72-7). . 1972(b). Summary of oceanographic records obtained by moored instruments in the Strait of Georgia, 1969-1970. Vol. II. Mar. Sci. Direct., Pac. -Reg. Rept. (72-8). 389. Biblio. - oceanography

Tabata, S. and J.A. Stickland. 1972(c). Summary of oceano graphic records obtained by moored instruments in the Strait of Georgia, 1969-1970. Vol. III. Mar. Sci. Direct., Pac. Reg. Rept. (72-9).

Thompson, T.G.; M.W. Johnson; and S.P. Todd. 1928. The sea water at the Puget Sound Biological Station from Septem ber, 1926 to September, 1927. Publ. Puget Sound Biol. Stn. 6: 371-392.

Thomson, R.E. (in press). Longshore current generation in a two layer fluid with application to Georgia Strait. Environ. Can., Mar. Sci. Direct., Pac. Reg. (draft).

Tully, J.P. 1942. Surface non-tidal currents in the app roaches to Juan de Fuca Strait. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 5(4): 398-409. . 1949. Oceanography in Vancouver approaches. In: Can. Jnt. Comm. Oceanog. Annual Report, 1949. Appendix (20), Demonstration and Consultation (3). 28 pp. . 1950. Memorandum: Vancouver Sewerage Board project. In: Can. Jnt. Comm. Oceanog. Annual Report, 1950. pp. 21. . 1951. Fraser River estuary project. In: Can. Jnt. Comm. Oceanog. Annual Report, 1951. pp. 16-17. . 1952. Review of Canadian Pacific oceanography since 1938. Fish. Res. Bd. Studies (344): 1-8. . 1958. On structure, entrainment and transport in estuarine embayments. J. Mar. Res. _17: 523-535. , and R.L.I. Fjarlie. 1950. The Vancouver sewage problem. In: Can. Jnt. Comm. Oceanog. Annual Report, 1950. pp. 21.

Tully, J.P. and A.J. Dodimead. 1957. Properties of the water in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia, and influen cing factors. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 14-(3) : 241-319.

University of British Columbia. 1968. Annual report, 1967. Institute of Oceanography, University of British Columbia. Utterback, C.L. and J.W. Boyle. 1933. Light penetration in the waters of the San Juan Archipelago. J. Optical Soc. Amer. 23(10): 333-338. 390. Biblio. - oceanography

Utterback, C.L. and E.K. Miller. 1937. Variations in com ponents of submarine daylight for 1935 and 19 36. J. Cons. Internat. Explor. Mer. 1_2 (3) : 305-310. Waldichuk, M. 1952(a). Georgia Strait project. In: Can. Jnt. Comm. Oceanog. Annual Report, 1952. pp. 19.

. 1952(b). Oceanography of the Strait of Georgia. I. Salinity distribution. Pac. Coast. Stn., Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Prog. Rept. (93): 26-29. . 1953(a). Oceanography of the Strait of Georgia. II. Temperature distribution. Pac. Coast. Stn., Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Prog. Rept. (94): 19-23. . 1953(b). Oceanography of the Strait of Georgia. III. Character of the bottom. Pac. Coast. Stn., Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Prog. Rept. (95): 59-63. . 1953(c). Oceanography of the Strait of Georgia. IV. Dissolved oxygen distribution. Pac. Coast. Stn., Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Prog. Rept. (96): 6-10. . 1955. Physical oceanography of the Strait of Georgia. Dissert. Abstracts, Publ. 26^(14): 1993-1994. . 1956. Oceanography of the Strait of Georgia. VI. Freshwater budget. Pac. Coast. Stn., Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Prog. Rept. (107): 24-27. . 1957(a). Oceanography of the Strait of Georgia. VII. Water masses. Pac. Coast. Stn., Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Prog. Rept. (108): 3-6. . 1957(b). Physical oceanography of the Strait of Georgia J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 14.(3): 321-486. . 1958. Drift bottle observations in the Strait of Georgia. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 15(5): 1065-1102. . 1964. Daily and seasonal sea-level oscillations on the Pacific coast of Canada. In: Studies on Oceano graphy. (Dedicated to Prof. Hidaka in commemoration of his sixtieth birthday). International Academic Printing Co., Tokyo, pp. 181-201. 391. Biblio. - oceanography

Waldichuk, M. 1967. Currents from aerial photography in coastal pollution studies. Advances in water pollution research. Proc. 3rd Intern. Conf. on Water Pollution Res., Munich, Germany. September 5-9, 1966. 3>: 263- 284 (discussions pp. 284-294). Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington, D.C.

, and S. Tabata. 1955. Oceanography of the Strait of Georgia. V. Surface currents. Pac. Coast. Stn., Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Prog. Rept. (104): 30-33.

Waldichuk, M; J.R. Markert; and J.H. Meikle. 1968. Fraser River estuary, Burrard Inlet, Howe Sound and Malaspina Strait - physical and chemical oceanographic data, 1957-1966. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (939).

Waldie, R.J. 1950. Freshwater in Georgia Strait. Fish. Res Bd. Can. Prog. Rept. (3): 42-44.

. 1951. Georgia Strait project. In: Can. Jnt. Comm. Oceanog. Annual Report, 1951. pp. 13-15.

Weir, W. 1963. Boundary Bay reclamation. Part III. Report on current measurement and tidal analysis. C.B.A. Eng. Co., Vancouver, B.C.

Wright, L.D. and J.M. Coleman. 1973. Variations in mor phology of major river deltas as functions of ocean wave and river discharge regimes. Amer. Assoc. Prof. Geol. Bull. 57(2).

VI. BIOLOGY (Including Biological Oceanography and Food Chains)

(i) General Biology and Food Chain References

Anonymous. 1974. Publication list for research by Dr. D.B. Quayle. 5 pp.

Bary, B.M. 1962. Biology in coastal inlets in British Columbia. ls_t Nat. Shallow Water Res. Conf. pp. 738-740. Bernard, F.R. 1974. Vancouver International Airport environ mental effects study - subtidal macrofauna. Internal Memorandum, Pac. Biol. Stn., Nanaimo. 5 pp. 392. Biblio. - general biology

Bourn, W.S. and C. Coltam. 1950. Some biological effects of ditching tidewater marshes. U.S. Fish. Wildl. Serv. Res. Rept. (19): 1-30. Bousfield, E.L. 1957. Ecological investigation of shore invertebrates of the Pacific coast of Canada, 1955. National Mus. Can. Bull. (147): 105-155.

Bradley, W.H. and P. Cooke. 1959. Living and ancient popu lations of the clam Gemma gemma in a marine coast tidal flat. U.S. Fish. Wildl. Serv. Fish. Bull. 132: 304-334. British Columbia Department of Recreation and Conservation. Anticipated effects on sport-fish, game animals, and waterfowl of development of hydroelectric and flood con trol reservoirs in the Fraser River basin.

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(ii) Invertebrate Biology (benthic, terrestrial, and zooplanktonic)

Austin, W.C. and M.P. Haylock. British Columbia marine faunistic survey report: Ophiuroids from the northeast Pacific. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (426). 36 pp. Baillie, K.D. 1971. A taxonomic and ecological study of the intertidal, sand-dwelling dinoflagellates of the north-eastern Pacific Ocean. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Botany, University of British Columbia. Barlow, J.P. 1955. Physical and biological processes de termining the distribution of zooplankton in a tidal estuary. Biol. Bull. 109(2) : 211. Barnes, R.D. 1963. Invertebrate Zoology. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Barraclough, W.E. 1967(a). Data record: number, size and food of larval and juvenile fish caught with a two-boat surface trawl in the Strait of Georgia, April 25-29, 1966. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (922). 54 pp. • 1967(b). Data record: number, size and food of larval and juvenile fish caught in an Isaacs-Kidd trawl in the surface waters of the Strait of Georgia, April 25-29, 1966 . Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (926). 79 pp. • 1967(c). Data record: number, size, composition and food of larval and juvenile fish caught with a two-boat surface trawl in the Strait of Georgia, June 6-8, 1966. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (928). 58 pp.

> and D.N. Outram. 1963. An estimation of the numbers of mature and immature salmon in herring purse-seine catches from B.C. coastal waters during winters of 1959, 1960, and 1961. Fish Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (753).

Barraclough, W.E. and J.D. Fulton. 1967. Data record: number, size, composition and food of larval and ju venile fish caught with a two-boat trawl in the Strait of Georgia, July 4-8, 1966. Fish Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (940). 82 pp. 396. Biblio. - invertebrates

Bawden, CA. ; W.A. Heath; and A.B. Norton. 1973. Pre liminary baseline study of Roberts and Sturgeon banks. Westwater Research Centre Tech. Rept. (1). Becker, CD. and M. Katz. 1965. Distribution, ecology, and biology of the salmonid leech, Pisoioola salmositioa (Rhynchobdellae: Piscicolidae). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 22: 1175-1195. Behrens, S. 1971. The distribution and abundance of the intertidal prosobranchs Littorina aoutulata (Gould, 1849) and L. sitkana (Philippi 1845). M.Sc. Thesis, Dept. of Zoology, University of British Columbia. 175 pp, Berkeley, A.A. 1930. The post embryonic development of the common pandalids of British Columbia. Contr. Can. Biol. 6: 81-163. Berkeley, C 1966. Records of some species of Polychaeta new to British Columbia, and of extensions in distribu tion of some others. Can. J. Zool. 4£: 839-849. . 1967. A checklist of Polychaeta recorded from British Columbia since 1923, with references to name changes, descriptions, and synonymies. (1). Errantia. Can. J. Zool. 45: 1049-1059. . 1968(a). A checklist of Polychaeta recorded from British Columbia since 1923, with references to name changes, descriptions, and synonymies. (2). Sedentaria. Can. J. Zool. A6_: 557-567. . 1968(b). Record of earthworms from Vancouver, British Columbia. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 25.C1) : 205. Berkeley, E. and C Berkeley. 1936. Notes on Polychaeta from the coast of western Canada. Part (1): Spionidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. (10)18: 468-477. . 1938. Notes on Polychaeta from the coast of western Canada. Part (2): Syllidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. (11)1: 33-49. . 1945. Notes on the Polychaeta from the coast of west- ~ern Canada. Part (3): Further notes on Syllidae and some observations on other Polychaeta, Errantia. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. (11)12: 316-335. 397. Biblio. - invertebrates

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1962. Polychaeta from British Columbia, with a note on some western Canadian Arctic forms. Can. J. Zool 40: 571-577.

Bernard, F.R. 1967. Prodrome for a distributional check list and bibliography of the recent marine Mollusca of the west coast of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (2). 261 pp.

. 1969. The parasitic copepod Mytilicola orientalis in British Columbia bivalves. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 26: 190-191.

. 1970. A distributional checklist of the marine molluscs of British Columbia: based on faunistic surveys since 1950. Syesis 3: 75-94.

_. 1971. British Columbia marine faunistic survey report on the Brachiopoda. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (268). 10 pp.

. 1972. The living Brachiopoda of British Columbia. "Syesis S_: 73-82.

_. 1974. Vancouver International Airport environmental effects study - subtidal macrofauna. Internal memoran dum, Pac. Biol Stat., Nanaimo. 5 pp.

_; N. Bourne; and D.B. Quayle. 1967. British Columbia faunistic survey. A summary of dredging activities in western Canada, 1878-1966. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (920). 61 pp.

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Bernard, F.R. and D.B. Quayle. 1973. British Columbia faunistic survey - a summary of dredging activities, 1970-1972. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (1240). 11 pp.

Bourne, N. 1969. Scallop resources of British Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (104). 60 pp. . 1972. Molluscan aquaculture in British Columbia. Bull. Amer. Malacolog. Union, Inc. pp. 25-27. , and D.B. Quayle. 1970. Breeding and growth of razor clams in British Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (2 32). 42 pp.

Bradley, W.H. and P. Cook. 1959. Living and ancient popu lations of the clam Gemma gemma in a marine coast tidal flat. United States Wild. Serv., Fish. Bull, 137: 304- 334.

Butler, T.H. 1949. The status of the pink shrimp (prawn) Pandalus borealis Kr^yer in the commercial shrimp fishery of English Bay, B.C. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

. 1953. A shrimp survey by the Investigator No. I, April, 1953. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (28). 4 pp. _. 1960. Maturity and breeding of the Pacific edible crab, Canoer magister Dana. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 12(5): 641-646. . 1961(a). Growth and age determination of the Pacific "edible crab, Canoer magister Dana. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 18(5): 873-889.

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. 1967. A bibliography of the Dungeness crab, Canoer 'magister Dana. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (1). 12 pp 399. Biblio. - invertebrates

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• 1970. Synopsis of biological data on the prawn Panda lus platyoeros Brandt, 1851. F.A.O. Fish. Rept. (57)4: 1289-1315.

• 1971. Eualus berkeleyorum n.sp. and records of other Caridean shrimps (Order Decapoda) from British Columbia. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 2£: 1615-1620. , and H.E.J. Legare. 1954. Shrimp prospecting in regions of the British Columbia coast, November 1953, to March, 1954. Fish Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (31). 42 pp. Butler, T.H. and G.V. Dubokovic. 1955(a). Shrimp and prawn prospecting on the British Columbia coast, June to Decem ber, 1954. Fish Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (35). 82 pp. . 1955(b). Shrimp and prawn prospecting on the British Columbia coast, June to August, 1955. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (36). 92 pp. • 1955(c). Shrimp prospecting in the offshore region of the British Columbia coast, June to August, 1955. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (39). 23 pp. Cairns, A. 1973. Natural history in Richmond - Richmond Nature Park bog; Shady Island; and Sturgeon Bank tidal marsh. Report for Richmond Nature Park. 29 pp. Campbell, M.H. 1929. A preliminary study of the zooplankton in the Strait of Georgia. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Ser,(3), 23(v): 1-28. Cockbain, A.E. 1963. Distribution of Foraminifera in Juan de Fuca and Georgia straits, British Columbia, Canada. Contrib. from Cushman Foundation for Foraminiferal Re search 14_(Part 2): 37-57.

Cornwall, I.E. 1970. The barnacles of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (7). 69 pp. Crippen, R.W. and D.J. Reish. 1969. An ecological study of the polychaetous annelids associated with fouling material in Los Angeles harbor, with specific refer ence to pollution. Bull. So. Calif. Acad. Sci. 68(3): 169-186. — 400. Biblio. - invertebrates

Ellis, D.V. 1968(a). Quantitative benthic investigations. III. Locality and environmental data for selected sta tions (mainly from Satellite Channel, Straits of Georgia, and adjacent inlets), February, 1965 - December, 1967. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (59). 10 pp., tables and figures. . 1968(b). Quantitative benthic investigations. IV. Biomass summaries and major taxon rank orders *or selected stations mainly Straits of Georgia and adjacent inlets), May, 1965 to December, 1967. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (60): 1-6. . 1968(c). Quantitative benthic instigations. V. * Species data from selected stations (Straits of Georgia and adjacent inlets), May, 1965 - May, 1966. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (73). . 1969. Ecologically significant species in the coastal marine sediments of southern British Columbia. Syesis z. 171-182. Enns, A.J. 1968. Distribution of beach hoppers of the genus Orohestoidea pugettensis (Crustacea: Amphipoda) on the southern tip of Spanish Banks and Point Grey. Zoology 401*t\i paper, Universityti^a^t^^vI -i--vr of,-*-£ BritishRriti«;h Columbia. 7 pp. Fulton,J.D.1968. A laboratory manual for the lden?^lca" tion of British Columbia marine zooplankton. tisn. Kes. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (55). 141 pp. . 1972. Keys and references to the marine Copepoda of British Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (313). 63 pp. . 1973. Some aspects of the life history of Calanus plumohrus in the Strait of Georgia. J. Fish. Res. aa. Can. 30: 811-815. Gage, J. 1972. Community structure of the benthos in Scottish sea-lochs. I. Introduction and species diver sity. Mar. Biol. 14(4): 281-297. Garrison, R.E.; E.V. Grill; R.D. Macdonald; and J.W. Murray 1969. Early diagenetic cementation of recent sands, Fraser River delta, British Columbia. Sedim. 1£: Z/-40. Grass, A.L. 1966. Some land and freshwater Mollusca from British Columbia, Canada. Hawaiian Shell News. March, 1966. 401. Biblio. - invertebrates

Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District. 1973. Project report: environmental studies at Iona Island. Grt. Vane. Sew. Drain. Dist. Rept. 100 pp. Griffith, L.M. 1967. The intertidal univalves of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (26). 101 pp. Hallam, R. 1973. Memo to K. Wile re: Burrard Seafood Pro ducts, dredge sample Sept. 12, 1973. Dept. of Environ., Environ. Prot. Serv. Unpubl. data. 3pp, Hardy, A.C. 1935. The plankton of the south Georgia whal ing grounds and adjacent waters, 1926-1927. Part (5). The plankton community, the whale fisheries, and the hypothesis of animal exclusion. Discovery Repts. 11: 273-370.

Harger, R.J.E. 1972. Competitive co-existence among inter tidal invertebrates. Amer. Scientist 60_: 600-607.

Heath, W.A. 1972. Some factors influencing the distribution of harpacticoid copepods in Mud Bay, B.C. Biology 405 class project, University of British Columbia, Unpubl. Rept.

Hoos, L.M. 1973. A study of the benthos of an anoxic marine basin and factors affecting its distribution. M.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Biology, Dalhousie University. 149 pp.

Kabata, Z. 1967. The genus Haemobaphes (Copepoda: Lernaeo- ceridae) in the waters of British Columbia. Can. J. Zool. 45_: 853-875. . 1968. Some Chondracanthidae (Copepoda) from fishes of British Columbia. J. Fish Res. Bd. Can. 25_(2) : 321-345.

Kellerhals, P. and J.W. Murray. 1969. Tidal flats at Boun dary Bay, Fraser River delta, British Columbia. Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol. 17(1): 67-91.

LeBrasseur, R.J. Oceanography of British Columbia mainland inlets. VI. Plankton distribution. Fish. Res. Bd. Can, Prog. Rept. (103): 19-21.

. 1955. Studies in Steveston Harbour basin. Part II. Shipworm infestation at Steveston Harbour basin. Jnt. Comm. Oceanog., Pac. Oceanog. Grp. Rept. pp. 28-35. , and J.D. Fulton. 1967. A guide to zooplankton of the northeastern Pacific Ocean. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (84) . 34 pp. 402. Biblio. - invertebrates

LeBrasseur, R.J.; W.E, Barraclough; 0,D, Kennedy; and T.R, Parsons. 1969. Production studies in the Strait of Georgia. Part III. Observations on the food of lar val and juvenile fish in the Fraser River plume, Feb ruary to May, 1967, J.Exp, Mar. Biol. Ecol, i3: 51-61.

Legare,• J.E.H. 1957. The qualitative and quantitative distribution of plankton in the Strait of Georgia in relation to certain oceanographic factors. J.Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 14(4): 521-552. Levings, CD. 1973(a). Preliminary report on benthic in vertebrate studies pertaining to Vancouver Airport ex pansion (Sturgeon Bank, Iona Island). Pac. Environ. Inst. Unpubl. data. 8 pp. . 1973(b). Preliminary reports on benthic invertebrate studies pertaining to Vancouver Airport expansion (Stur geon Bank, Iona Island); Cruise report, CFAV Laymore; and subsequent progress reports re: above topic. Pac. Environ. Inst. Unpubl, data. . 1974. Memo to L. Hoos re: Ken Summers, Can. Wildl. Serv., Edmonton. Pac. Environ. Inst. Unpubl. data, 1 pp. . (in progress). Sediment-faunule relationships, biomass studies of Sturgeon and Roberts banks - several transects off the airport and delta front from Iona Is land to Tsawwassen. Pac, Environ, Inst., Dept. Environ. yes*"" , and J,B. Coustalin. 1974. Benthic ecology studies on Sturgeon Bank in relation to the runway extension for Vancouver Airport, Fish. Mar. Serv., Pac. Environ. Inst Unpubl. Rept. 15 pp. (draft: confidential). . 1974. Species composition and zonation of intertidal benthos on Sturgeon Bank, Fraser River delta, B.C. Fish, and Mar. Serv., Pac. Environ. Institute, (draft). Levings, CD. and N. McDaniel. 1974, A unique collection of baseline biological data: benthic invertebrates from an underwater cable across the Strait of Georgia, Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (441). 19 pp. Low, C.J. 1970. Factors affecting the distribution and abundance of two species of beach crab, Hemigrapsus oregonensis and #. nudus. M.Sc. Thesis, Dept. of Zoology, University of British Columbia. 70 pp. MacKay, D.C.G. 1942. The Pacific edible crab, Cancer magister. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bull. (62). 32 pp. 403. Biblio. - invertebrates

MacKay, D.C.G. 1943. The branchyuran crabs of Boundary Bay, B.C. Can. Field Nat. 5^(9): 147-152.

McDaniel, N. 1973. A survey of the benthic macro-inverte brate fauna and solid pollutants in Howe Sound. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (385). 64 pp.

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Northcote, T.G. 1952. An analysis of variation in quanti tative sampling of bottom fauna in lakes. MA. Thesis, Dept. of Zoology, University of British Columbia. 95 pp

Parsons, T.R.; R.J. LeBrasseur; and J.D. Fulton. 1967. Some observations on the dependence of zooplankton grazing on the cell size and concentration of phytoplankton blooms. Oceanog. Soc. Japan. 2_3(1) : 10-17. , and O.D. Kennedy. 1969. Production studies in the Strait of Georgia. Part II. Secondary production under the Fraser River plume, February to May, 1967. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 3: 39-50.

Parsons, T.R.; R.J. LeBrasseur; and W.E. Barraclough. 1970. Levels of production in the pelagic environment of the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia: a review. J. Fish, Res. Bd. Can. 27(7): 1251-1264.

Parsons, T.R. and W.A. Heath. 1973. Preliminary survey of mercury and other metals contained in animals from the Fraser River mudflats. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 30(7): 1014-1016.

Patching, D. 1972. The economically and recreationally important molluscs and crustaceans of Boundary Bay, and notes on their ecology and life history. Univer sity of British Columbia, Forestry 492 paper. 64 pp.

Quayle, D.B. 1939(a). A preliminary report on the B.C. clam investigation. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Studies (238): R67-71.

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Quayle, D.B. 1940(b). Japanese oyster propagation. Pac. Prog. Rept. (43): 8-9. . 1940(c). How to identify some British Columbia clams. Pac. Prog. Rept. (46): 6-11. . 1941(a). The edible molluscs of British Columbia. B.C. Dept. Fish. Rept. pp. J75-J87. . 1941(b). The Japanese "little-neck" clam accidentally introduced into British Columbia waters. Pac. Prog. Rept. (48): 17-18. . 1941(c). Some natural enemies of the clam in British Columbia. Pac. Prog. Rept. (50): 21-22. . 1953. The Pacific oyster in British Columbia. Can. Dept. Fish. Trade News 5(8): 3-5. . 1955. Pacific oyster propagation in British Columbia. Pac. Prog. Rept. (102): 20-22. . 1956(a). Growth of the British Columbia shipworm. Pac. Prog. Rept. (105): 3-5. . 1956(b). The British Columbia shipworm. B.C. Dept. "Fish. Rept. pp. 92-104. . 1956(c). The raft culture of the Pacific oyster in 'British Columbia. Pac. Prog. Rept. (107): 7-10.

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Quayle, D.B. and M.J. Tynen. 1968. The breeding of the Pacific oyster in British Columbia in 1967. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (978). 26 pp.

Quayle, D.B. and N.B. Bourne. 1972. The clam fisheries of British Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bull. (179). 70 pp.

Ricker, W.E. 1965. New records and descriptions of Plecoptera (class Insecta). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 22: 475-501.

Sanders, H.L. 1958. Benthic studies in Buzzard's Bay. I. Animal - sediment relationships. Limnol. Oceanogr. 3(3): 245-258.

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LeBrasseur, R.J. 1966. Stomach contents of salmon and steel head trout in the northeastern Pacific ocean. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 23(1): 85-100. 420. Biblio. - fish

LeBrasseur, R.J. 1972. Utilization of herbivore zooplankton by maturing salmon. In: Biological Oceanography of the Northern North Pacific Ocean. (A.Y. Takenouti, et at., editors). Idemitsu Shoten, Tokyo, Japan. ; W.E. Barraclough; O.D. Kennedy; and T.R. Parsons. 1969. Production studies in the Strait of Georgia. Part III. Observations on the food of larval and juvenile fish in the Fraser River plume, February to May, 1967. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 3: 51-61. Lee, W.R. 1971. The economic cost of maintaining the Fraser River salmon fishery. Prepared by Acres Consulting Ser vice, Ltd., Vancouver, for the Dept. Fish, and For., Ottawa. 168 pp. Leggett, W.C. 1973. The migrations of shad. Sci. Amer. 228: 92-98. , and R.R. Whitney. 1972. Water temperature and the mi grations of American shad. Fish. Bull. 7£: 659-670.

Levings, CD. 1969. The zoarcid Lycodopsis pacifica in outer Burrard Inlet, British Columbia. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 26(9): 2403-2412. . 1973. Sediments and abundance of Lycodopsis pacifica (Pisces, Zoarcidae) near Point Grey, B.C. with catch data for associated demersal fish. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (393). 14 pp. and appendices.

Lyons, C 1969. Salmon: Our Heritage. Mitchell Press Limited, Vancouver, B.C. 768 pp. MacKay, D.C; G.V. Howard; and S.R. Killick. 1944. Sockeye salmon tagging at Sooke and Johnstone Strait. Annual report, 1943. pp. 21-36.

Maher, F.P. 1950. Fraser River steelhead report, 1949- 1950. B.C. Game Comm., Fish. Mgmt. Rept. (3). 5 pp. . 1951. Some notes on the steelhead investigation. B.C. Game Comm. Fish. Mgmt. Rept. (7). 8 pp.

, and P.A. Larkin. 1955. Life history of the steelhead "trout of the Chilliwack River, British Columbia. Trans, Amer. Fish. Soc. 84: 27-38. 421. Biblio. - fish

Manzer, J.I. 1954(?). Pink and chum salmon tagging experi ments in Johnstone Strait and Discovery Passage, 1953. Fish. Res. Bd, Can. MS. Rept. 35 pp.

Martens, D.W.; R.W. Gordon; and J.A. Servizi. 1970. Toxi city of copper to sockeye and pink salmon during their early freshwater life. Internat, Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. MS. Rept.

Mason, J.C. 1974. Behavioral ecology of chum salmon fry (Oncorhynchus keta) in a small estuary. J. Fish, Res. Bd. Can. 31: 83-92.

Mason, J.E. 1965. Salmon of the north Pacific Ocean. Part IX. Coho, chinook, and masu salmon in offshore waters. 2. Chinook salmon in offshore waters. Internat. North Pac. Fish. Comm. Bull. L6: 41-73.

McAllister, D.E. 1957. The systematics of the freshwater sculpins of British Columbia. M.A. Thesis, Dept. Zool., University of British Columbia. 109 pp.

, and C.C. Lindsey. 1959. Systematics of freshwater sculpins (Cottus) of British Columbia. National Mus. Can. Contrib. Zool. Bull. (172): 66-89.

. 1960. List of marine fishes of Canada. National Mus. Can. Bull. (168), Biol. Ser. (62): 1-76.

McErlean, A.J. and J.A. Mihursky. 1968. Species diversity, species abundance of fish populations: an examination of various methods. Presented at 22nd Annual Conf., S.E. Assoc, of Game and Fish. Comm., Baltimore, Maryland. 10 pp

Meyer, P.A. 1974. Recreational and preservation values as sociated with salmon of the Fraser River. Environ. Can., Fish. Mar. Serv., Sth. Oper. Br., Info. Rept, Ser. (PAC/ N-74-1). 49 pp.

Milne, D.J. 1963. Survey of spawning escapements of spring salmon to the Fraser River system. C.I.O. summaries of research on the fish-power problem and related work. Res. Sub-comm., Fish. Dev. Council, B.C. Energy Board.

Natural Resource Bureau. 1938?. "Net" profits. Compiled by the Natural Resources Bureau, Vancouver, 46 pp.

Neave, F. 1954. Introduction of anadromous fishes on the Pacific coast. Fish. Cult. 16: 25-26.

. 1958. Stream ecology and production of anadromous fish. The investigation of fish-power problems. H.R. MacMillan Lectures in Fisheries, University of British Columbia. 422. Biblio, - fish

Neave, F. 1962. The observed fluctuations of pink salmon in British Columbia. H.R. MacMillan Lectures in Fisheries, Symp. on Pink Salmon. University of British Columbia, pp. 3-14. . 1966(a). Salmon of the north Pacific Ocean. Part III. A review of the life history of north Pacific salmon. 5. Pink salmon in British Columbia. Internat. North Pac. Fish. Comm. Bull. (18): 71-79. . 1966(b). Salmon of the north Pacific Ocean. Part III. A review of the life history of the north Pacific salmon. 6. Chum salmon in British Columbia. Internat. North Pac. Fish. Comm. Bull. (18): 81-85. ; J.L. Hart; and D.B. Quayle. 1949. A brief concerning fisheries resources of B.C. Trans. 2nd B.C. Res. Conf., 1949. pp. 90-123. Nilsson, W.A. 1971. The cutthroat trout. Fish. Tech. Circ. (7). Northcote, T.G. 1974. Biology of the lower Fraser River: a review. Westwater Research Centre Tech,Rept. (3). 94 pp. O'Malley, H. and W.H. Rich. 1919. Migration of adult sock eye salmon in Puget Sound and Fraser River. U.S. Bur. Fish., Rept. Comm. Fish, for 1918, Appendix VIII. Doc. (873): 1-38.

Outram, D.N. 1961. The multitudinous Pacific herring. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (63). 15 pp. . 1961. The propagation of herring (Clupea pallasii) in the coastal waters of British Columbia, with a summary of spawning success in 1960. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (60) 17 pp. and figures. . 1963. The extent of herring spawning in British Colum bia in 1963. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (70). 12 pp. , and C Haegele. 1969. The time and extent of herring spawning along the British Columbia coast in 1969. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (88). 15 pp. Ozere, S.V. 1961. Survey of legislation and treaties affect ing fisheries. Reprinted from Vol. 2 "Resources for Tomorrow" Conf. background papers, pp. 797-805. 423. Biblio. - fish

Palmer, R.N. 1966. Fraser River chum salmon investigation, 1965. Can. Dept. Fish. Rept. (1966-5). 27 pp.

. 1972. Fraser River chum salmon. Canada Dept. Envir onment, Fish. Serv. Tech. Rept. (1972-1). 284 pp. Partlo, J.M. 1955. Distribution, age, and growth of eastern Pacific albacore (Thunnus alalunga Gmelin). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 12: 35-60.

Pautzke, CF. and R.C Meigs. 1940. Studies on the life history of the Puget Sound steelhead trout (Salmo gaird- nerii). Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 7£: 209-220.

Pearse Bowden Economic Consultants Limited. 19 71. The value of fresh water sport fishing in British Columbia. Rept. to Fish, and Wildl. Br., Dept. Recreat. and Conserv., Victoria.

Peterson, G.R. and R.C. Thomas. 1968. Steelhead trout sport fishery analysis 1967/68. B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br., Fish. Mgmt. Rept. (59). 38 pp.

Pletcher, F.T. 1963. The life history and distribution of lampreys in the Salmon and certain other rivers in British Columbia, Canada. M.Sc. Thesis, Dept. of Zoo logy, University of British Columbia.

Prakash, A. 1962. Seasonal changes in feeding of coho and chinook (spring) salmon in southern British Columbia waters. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 1£(5): 851-866.

Pretious, E.S. et al. 1957. Fish protection and power development on the Fraser River.

Pritchard, A.L. 1930. Pacific salmon migration: the tagging of the pink salmon and the chum salmon in British Colum bia in 1928. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bull (14). 17 pp.

1932. Pacific salmon migration: the tagging of the pink salmon and the chum salmon in British Columbia in 1929 and 1930. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bull. (31). 16 pp.

Pugh, W.G. 1973. Boundary Bay - the fish resource. Fores try 492 paper, University of British Columbia. 21 pp. and references.

Pyper, J. and E.H. Vernon. 1955. Characteristics of spawn ing grounds of Fraser River sockeye and pink salmon. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. MS. Rept. 424. Biblio. - fish

Reid, D.J. 1973. The development of the Fraser River salmon canning industry, 1885-1913. Report of the Economics and Sociology Unit, Northern Operations Br., Fish, and Mar. Ser., Pac. Reg., Dept. of Environ. 87 pp. Remington, J.D. 1959. Speed of downstream migration of sockeye smolts. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Un publ. Rept. Ricker, W.E. 1950. Cyclic dominance among Fraser River sockeye. Ecol. 31: 6-26. . 1966. Salmon of the north Pacific ocean. Part III. A review of the life history of the north Pacific sal mon. 4. Sockeye salmon in British Columbia. Internat. North Pac. Fish. Comm. Bull. (18): 59-70. Robinson, D.G.; W.E. Barraclough; and J.D. Fulton. 1968(a), Data record: number, size composition, weight, and food of larval and juvenile fish caught with a two-boat sur face trawl in the Strait of Georgia, May 1 - May 4, 1967. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (964). 105 pp. and 1 figure. . 1968(b). Number, size composition, weight, and food of larval and juvenile fish caught with a two-boat sur face trawl in the Strait of Georgia, June 5-9, 1967. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (972). 109 pp. and 1 figure. Roos, J.F.; P. Gilhousen; S.R. Killick; and E.R. Zyblut. 1973. Parasitism on juvenile Pacific salmon (Oncor-^ hynchus) and Pacific herring (Clupea harengus pallasi) in the Strait of Georgia by the river lamprey (Lampetra ayresi). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 30: 565-568. Rounselfell, G.A. and G.B. Kelez. 1938. The salmon and salmon fisheries of Swiftsure Bank, Puget Sound and Fraser River. U.S. Bur. Fish. Bull. (49): 693-823. Royal, L.A. 1953. The effects of regulatory selectivity on the productivity of Fraser River sockeye. Can. Fish. Cult. 14: 1-12. , and J.P. Tully. 1960. Relationship of variable ocean ographic factors to migration and survival of Fraser River salmon. Calif. Co-op. Oceanic Fish Invest. Re port VIII, July 1, 1950 - June 30, 1960. pp. 65-68. 425. Biblio. - fish

Schutz, D.C. 1969. An experimental study of feeding be haviour and interaction of coastal cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki clarki) and Dolly Varden (Salvelinus malma) . M.Sc. Thesis, University of British Columbia 81 pp. Semakula, S.N. 1963. The age and growth of the white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus Richardson) of the Fraser River, B.C. M.Sc. Thesis, Dept. of Zoology, University of British Columbia. , and P.A. Larkin. 1968. Age, growth, food and yield of the white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) of the Fraser River, British Columbia. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 25(12): 2589-2602.

Servizi, J.A.; E.T. Stone; and R.W. Gordon. 1966. Toxic ity and treatment of Kraft pulp bleach plant waste. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish Comm. Prog. Rept. (13). 34 pp.

Servizi, J.A.; R.W. Gordon; and D.W. Martens. 1968. Toxic ity of two chlorinated catechols, possible components of Kraft pulp mill bleach waste. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (17). 43 pp.

Servizi, J.A.; D.W. Martens; and R.W. Gordon. 1970. Effects of decaying bark on incubating salmon eggs. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (24). 28 pp. . 1971. Toxicity and oxygen demand of decaying bark. J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 43: 278-292.

Servizi, J.A. and D.W. Martens. 1971. Heavy metal cri teria for sockeye and pink salmon. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. MS. Rept. 23 pp.

Shepard, M.P. and J.C Stevenson. 1956. Abundance, dis tribution, and commercial exploitation of the fisheries resources of Canada's west coast. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Studies (453): 1-60. Sibert, J. and R.R. Parker. 1972. A model of juvenile pink salmon growth in the estuary. Fish Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (321). 62 pp. Sinclair, W.F. 1972. The British Columbia sport fishermen. Dept. of Environ., Fish. Ser., Pac. Reg. pp. 56-59. 426. Biblio. - fish

Smith, S.B. 1969. Reproductive isolation in summer and winter races of steelhead trout. In: T.G. Northcote (ed.), Symposium on Salmon and Trout in Streams. H.R. MacMillan Lectures in Fisheries, University of British Columbia, pp. 21-38. Stenton, CE. 1966. Fisheries management, lower mainland region, 1965. B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br. Rept. 32 pp. . 1967. Fisheries management, lower mainland region, 1966. B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br. Rept. 30 pp. Swann, L.G. A Century of B.C. Fishing. Dept. of Fish. Inform. Pamphlet, pp. 3-8. Taler, D.R. 1959. The energy expenditures of Fraser River sockeye salmon during the spawning migration to Chilko and Stuart lakes. Taylor, G.T. and R.J. LeBrasseur. 1957. Distribution, age and food of steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri Richardson) caught in the northeast Pacific Ocean, 1956. Pac. Biol. Stat. Prog. Rept. (109): 9-11. Tester, A.L. 1945. Catch statistics of the British Columbia herring fishery to 1943-44. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bull. (67): 3-47. . 1948. The efficacy of catch limitations in regulating the British Columbia herring fishery. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. Sect. V, 42: 135-163. . 1955. Estimation of recruitment and natural mortality rate from age composition and catch data in British Columbia herring populations. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 12: 649-691. Thomas, R.C. 1971. The British Columbia steelhead sport fishery, (1969-70). B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br., Fish. Tech. Circ. (6). 9 pp. Thompson, W.F. The Hell's Gate blockade and the salmon. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. 19 pp. . 1945. Effects of the obstruction at Hell's Gate on the sockeye salmon of the Fraser River. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Bull. (1) 175 pp. 427. Biblio. - fish

Thompson, W.F. 1950. The effect of fishing on stocks of halibut in the Pacific. Fish. Res. Inst., University of Washington Public. 60 pp.

, and W.C. Herrington. 1931. Life history of the Pacific halibut. (1). Marking experiments. Internat. North Pac. Fish. Comm. Rept. (2). 137 pp. Thompson, W.F. and F.H. Bell. 1934. Biological statistics of the Pacific halibut fishery. (2). Effect of changes in intensity upon total yield per unit of gear. Internat North Pac. Fish. Comm. Rept. (8). 49 pp.

Todd, I.S. 1964. Fraser River chum salmon investigation, 1963. Can. Dept. Fish. Rept. (1964-1). 23 pp.

. 1965. Fraser River chum salmon investigation, 1964. Can. Dept. Fish. Rept.(1965-2).31 pp.

. 1966. A technique for the enumeration of chum salmon fry in the Fraser River, British Columbia. Can. Fish. Cult. _38: 3-35.

Van Cleve, R. 1949. The International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission and conservation of the Fraser River salmon runs. Trans. 14th N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. pp. 451-455.

Verhoeven, L.A. and E.B. Davidoff. 1962. Marine tagging of Fraser River sockeye salmon. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (5). 49 pp.

Vernon, E.H. 1958(a). An examination of factors affecting the abundance of pink salmon in the Fraser River. In ternat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (5). 49 pp.

. 1958(b). Overwinter survival of pink salmon in the main Fraser, 1957-1958. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Unpubl. Rept. 1 pp.

. 1962. Pink salmon populations of the Fraser River system. In: Symposium on Pink Salmon; H.R. MacMillan Lectures in Fisheries, University of British Columbia, 1960. pp. 53-58.

1966. Enumeration of migrant pink salmon fry in the Fraser River estuary. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm Bull. (19). 83 pp. 428. Biblio. - fish

Waldichuk, M. The ecological signigicance of estuaries and their importance to preservation of fisheries resources. Unpubl. Mimeo. 3 pp. Walker, C.E.; D.B. Lister; and R.A.L. Harvey. 1967. Migra tion of chum salmon from lower Johnstone Strait to Strait of Georgia and tributary streams. Dept. Fish, and For. Can. 30 pp. and appendices. Ward, F.J. 1952. Escapement of pink salmon to the Fraser River and tributaries. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm.Rept . 1959. Character of the spawning migration of pink sal mon to Fraser River spawning grounds in 195 7. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Bull. (10). 70 pp. , and P.A. Larkin. 1964. Cyclic dominance in Adams River sockeye salmon. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (11). 116 pp. Ward, H.B. Factors controlling salmon migration. In: The Migration and Conservation of Salmon. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. (A.G. Huntsman, Chairman), pp. 60-71. Watmough, D. 1972. An ecological approach to the develop ment of Richmond foreshore. Report for the Richmond Nature Park. 60 pp. West, G.A. 1970. Lower mainland sturgeon report, 1969. B.C. Fish Wildl. Br. Mimeo Rept. 5 pp. . 1971. Lower mainland sturgeon report, 1970. B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br. Mimeo. Rept. 7 pp. Westrheim, S.J. 1964. Rockfish (Sebastodes brevispinis) in British Columbia waters. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 21(4) : 855-857. ; D.R. Gunderson; and J.M. Meehan. 1972. On the status of Pacific ocean perch (Sebastes alutus) stocks off British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon in 1970. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (326). 48 pp. Wicket, W.P. 1954. The oxygen supply to salmon eggs in spawning beds. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 11: 933-953. Williams, A.B. 1919. Rod and creel in British Columbia. Progress Publishing Co., Vancouver. 144 pp. 429. Biblio. - fish

Williams, I.V. Tests with Ni-furpirinol (P.7138) to control prespawning mortalitites of Fraser River sockeye. In ternat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (28). 30 pp.

. 1969. Implication of water quality and salinity in the survival of Fraser River sockeye smolts. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (22). 46 pp. . 1973. Investigation of the prespawning mortality of sockeye in Horsefly River and McKinley Creek in 1969. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. 27(2). 42 pp.

, and P. Gilhousen. 1968. Lamprey parasitism on Fraser River sockeye and pink salmon during 1967. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (18). 22 pp.

Williamson, H.C 1927. Pacific salmon migration: report on tagging operations in 1925. Contrib. Can. Biol. MS. Rept, 3: 265-306.

Withler, F.C 1972. Research need for intensive management of British Columbia steelhead. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (92). 41 pp.

Withler, I.L. 1966. Variability of life history character istics of steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri) along the Pacific coast of North America. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 23: 365-393.

Zyblut, E.R. 1972. The 1972 report on chum salmon stocks of the Johnstone Strait - Fraser River study area. Fish. Serv. Tech. Rept.(1972-9)(Dept. of Environ., Fish. Serv., Pac. Reg.). 11 pp.

(iv) Bacteria

Bennedict, A.H.; K.J. Hall; and F.A. Koch. 1973. Prelimin ary water quality survey of the lower Fraser River system. Westwater Research Centre. Tech. Rept. (2).

Colgrove, D.J. 1965(a). The demonstration of Chondrococcus columnaris in suckers (Catostomus sp.) from the lower Fraser River. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Rept. 8 pp. 430. Biblio. - bacteria

Colgrove, D.J. 1965(b). Studies on the isolation and control of Chondrococcus columnaris from suckers of the lower Fraser River. Part I: Isolation. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Rept. 6 pp. . 1965(c). Studies on the isolation and control of Chondrococcus columnaris from suckers of the lower Fraser River. Part II: Control. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Rept. 8 pp. , and J.S. Wood. 1966. Occurrence and control of Chrondro- coccus columnaris as related to Fraser River sockeye salmon. Internat. Pac-Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (15). 51 pp. Farry, G. ;C Justice; E. Levin; and W. Paterson. 1953. The North Arm of the Fraser River: a problem of regional resource development. In: Transactions of the 6th British Columbia Natural Resources Conference, pp. 202- 212 and figures. Oloffs, P.C; L.J. Albright; and S-Y.Sz.eto. 1972. Fate and behaviour of 5 chlorinated hydrocarbons in three natural waters. Can. J. Microbiol. 18(9): 1393-1398. Servizi, J.A. and R.A. Burkhalter. 1970. Selected measure ments of water quality and bottom-dwelling organisms of the Fraser River system, 1963 to 1968. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Rept. 70 pp.

(v) Flora (including terrestrial and benthic vegetation, and phytoplankton)

Anonymous. 1971. Totem Park. Davidsonia 2_(2) : 10-28. Bandoni, R.J. and A.F. Szczawinski. Guide to the common mushrooms of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (24). 179 pp. Bawden, C.A.; W.A. Heath; and A.B. Norton. 1973. Prelimin ary baseline study of Roberts and Sturgeon banks. West- water Research Centre Tech. Rept. (1). Bell, M.A.M. 1971. Forest ecology. In: Forestry Handbook for British Columbia. The Forest Club, University of British Columbia, pp. 200-287. 431. Biblio. - flora

Booth, T. 1969. Marine fungi from British Columbia: mono- centric chytrids and chytridiaceous species from coastal and interior halomorphic soils. Syesis 2_: 141-161. Burrows, E.M. 1971. Assessment of pollution effects by the use of algae. Proc. Roy. Soc, London. (B) 177: 295- 306.

Cairns, A. 1973. Natural history in Richmond - Richmond Nature Park bog; Shady Island; and Sturgeon Bank tidal marsh. Report for Richmond Nature Park. 29 pp. Cameron, A.T. The commerical value of kelp beds of the Canadian Pacific coast - a preliminary report and survey of the beds. Contrib. Can. Biol. 1914-1915. Chapman, V.J. 1964. Coastal vegetation. MacMillan Co., New York.

Clemens, W.A. 1953. Red water bloom in British Columbia waters. Nature. 152: 473.

Eastham, J.W. 1947. Supplement to "Flora of Southern British Columbia" (J.K. Henry). B.C. Prov. Mus. Spec. Publ. (1), Victoria, B.C. 119 pp. Eis, S. 1962. Statistical analysis of several methods for estimation of forest habitats and tree growth near Van couver. University of British Columbia Forestry Bull. (4). 76 pp. Forbes, R.D. 1972(a). A floral description of the Fraser River estuary and Boundary and Mud bays, B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br., B.C. Dept. Recrea. and Conserv. 94 pp. .1972(b). Additional catalogue to "A floral descrip tion of the Fraser River estuary, and Boundary and Mud bays, B.C." B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br. Rept. 20 pp. • 1972(c). A note on eelgrass (lostera spp.), an adden dum to "A floral description of Fraser River estuary, and Boundary and Mud bays, B.C.". B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br. Rept. 2 pp. • 1973. Wild rice plantings project, spring 1973. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Rept. 3pp. and 3 pp. addendum. 432. Biblio. - flora

Forest Soil Committee of the Douglas-fir Region. 1957. An introduction to the forest soils of the Douglas fir re gion of the Pacific northwest. Anderson Hall, University of Washington, Seattle.

Forestry Service. 1972. Reports and publications, 1970-71. Pac. For. Res. Centre, For. Serv., Environ. Can. Info. Rept. (B.C-X-70). 18 pp. Gardner, J.W. 1971. Quality and growth of several species of native sedge. Plant Science 530 paper, University of British Columbia.

Garman, E.H. 1970. Pocket guide to the trees and shrubs in British Columbia. Dept. Lands, Forests and Water Res., B.C. For. Serv. 131 pp. . 1973. Guide to the trees and shrubs of British Colum- bia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (31). 131 pp. Gran, H.H. and T.G. Thompson. 1930. The diatoms and the physical and chemical conditions of the seawater of the San Juan Archipelago. Publ. Puget. Snd. Biol. Sta. 7_: 169-204.

Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District. 1973. Project report: Environmental studies at Iona Island. Grt. Vane. Sew. Drain. Dist. Rept. 100 pp. Greenius, A.W. 1973. The general status of the seaweed in dustry in British Columbia. 37 pp. Halladay, D.R. 1968. Avian ecology as it relates to the bird hazard problem at Vancouver Airport. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Plant Science, University of British Colum bia.

Halliday, W.E.D. 1937. A forest classification for Canada. For. Serv. Bull. (89). Harris, R.D. 1953. Eelgrass status in 1953. Can. Wildl. Serv. Unpubl. Rept. pp. 3-4. Henry, J.K. 1915. Flora of southern British Columbia and Vancouver Island. W.J. Gage and Co., Toronto. 363 pp. 433. Biblio. - flora

Hitchcock, C.L.; A. Cronquist; M. Ownbey; and J.W. Thompson. 1955. Vascular plants of the Pacific northwest. Part 5. Compositae. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.

. 1959. Vascular plant of the Pacific northwest. Part 4. Ericaceae through Campanulaceae. University of Wash ington Press, Seattle, Washington.

. 1961. Vascular plants of the Pacific northwest. Part 3. Saxifragaceae to Ericaceae. University of Washing ton Press, Seattle, Washington.

. 1964. Vascular plants of the Pacific northwest. Part 2. Salicacoe to Saxifragaceae. University of Washing ton Press, Seattle, Washington.

. 1969. Vascular plants of the Pacific northwest. Part 1. Vascular Cryptograms, gymnosperms, and monocotyle dons. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washing ton.

Hosie, R.C 1973. Native trees of Canada. Can. For. Serv., Dept. of Environ. 380 pp. Hubbard, W.A. 1955. The grasses of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (9). 205 pp.

Hughes, G.C 1969. Marine fungi from British Columbia. Occurrence and distribution of lignicolous species. Syesis 2: 121-140.

Hutchinson, A.H. 1928. A bio-hydrographical investigation of the sea adjacent to the Fraser River mouth. Part II. The factors affecting the distribution of phytoplankton. Trans. Roy Soc. Can., Ser. (3), ^l(v) : 485-520.

Keefe, CW. 1972. Marsh production: a summary of the litera ture. Contrib. Mar. Sci. (Texas University) 16: 163-181.

Kellerhals, P. and J.W. Murray. 1969. Tidal flats at Boun dary Bay, Fraser River delta, British Columbia. Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol. 17_(1) : 67-91.

Kimmins, J.P. 1973. Plant associations in Cypress Bowl, B.C. Class project, University of British Columbia.

Klinka, K. 1974. Exosystematic units, their variations, mapping and interpretation in the Research Forest. Ph.D. Thesis, University of British Columbia. 434. Biblio. - flora

Krajina, V.J. 1965. Ecology of western North America. 1. Dept. Bot., University of British Columbia. 112 pp. . 1969. Ecology of western North America. 2. Ecology of forest trees in British Columbia. 146 pp. Legare, J.E.H. 1957. The qualitative and quantitative dis tribution of plankton in the Strait of Georgia in rela tion to certain oceanographic factors. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 14(4): 521-552. Leverin, H.A. 1943. Peat moss or Sphagnum moss - its uses in agriculture, in industry, and in the home. Can. Dept. Mines and Res., Mines and Geol. Br., Bureau of Mines (809). 10 pp. . 1944. Peat moss deposits in western Canada. Bureau of Mines, Mines and Geol. Br., Dept. of Mines and Res. Memorandum Ser. (86). pp. 13-16. . 1946. Peat moss deposits in Canada. Canada Dept. of Mines and Res. Mines and Geol. Br., Bureau of Mines; Rept. (817). pp. 88-94. Lindstrom, S.C and R.E. Foreman. 1974. Preliminary esti mates of the benthic macrophyte standing crop on the Fraser River delta. Rept. (2) to Environ. Can. , Fish. Mar. Ser., Fish. Res. Bd. Nanaimo. 3 pp. and appendices, (draft). Lucas, CC and A.H. Hutchinson. 1927. A bio-hydrographical investigation of the sea adjacent to the Fraser River mouth. Part I. The effect of Fraser River water on the physical and chemical properties of the adjacent sea. (C.C.Lucas). Part II. The factors affecting the dis tribution of phytoplankton in the sea adjacent to the Fraser River mouth. (A.H. Hutchinson). Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Studies (56): 485-512. Luttmerding, H.A. and P.N. Sprout. 1969. Soil survey of Langley Municipality and Barnston Island. B.C. Dept. Agric, Kelowna, B.C. Prelim. Rept. (7). 161 pp. Lyons, CP. 1965. Trees, shrubs, and flowers to know in British Columbia. J.M. Dent and Sons (Canada) Ltd. Vancouver. 194 pp. Mahon, J. 1966. Empirical yields from standsof black cottonwood in the lower Fraser valley. B.S.F. Thesis, University of British Columbia. 435. Biblio. - flora

McLaren, K.A. 1972. A vegetation study of the islands and associated marshes in the South Arm of the Fraser River, B.C., from the Deas Island Tunnel to Westham Island foreshore. Fish and Wildl. Br., B.C. Dept. Recrea. and Conserv. 54 pp. and figures. Morris, G. 1973. Report on vegetation - inventory and evaluation, region 2 (Boundary Bay development plan). University of British Columbia, Forestry 492 paper. 22 pp. and figures. Neill, J.W. 1970. Nitobe Memorial Garden: history and development. Davidsonia .1(2) : 10-17. • 1971. Vines and climbers at University of British Columbia. Davidsonia 2^(4) : 37-40. Northcote, T.G. 1974. Biology of the lower Fraser River: a review. Westwater Research Centre Tech. Rept. (3). 94 pp.

Orloci, L. 1961. Forest types of the coastal western hem lock zone. M.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Biol, and Bot., Univer sity of British Columbia. 206 pp.

• 1964. Vegetational and environmental variations in the ecosystems of the coastal western hemlock zone. Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. Biol, and Bot., University of British Columbia. 199 pp.

• 1965. The coastal western hemlock zone on the south western British Columbia mainland. Ecol. of Western North Amer. 1: 18-34. Otto, G.F. and T. Ahti. 1967. Lichens of British Columbia, preliminary checklist. Dept. of Botany, University of British Columbia. 40 pp. Outram, D.N. 1957. Guide to marine vegetation encountered during herring spawn surveys in southern British Colum bia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (44). 18 pp. Parsons, T.R. 1965. A general description of some factors governing primary production in the Strait of Georgia, Hecate Strait and Queen Charlotte Sound, and the north east Pacific Ocean. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. (Oceanog. Limnol.) MS. Rept. (193). 436, Biblio. - flora

Parsons, T.R.; K. Stephens; and R.J. LeBrasseur. 1969(a). Production studies in the Strait of Georgia. Part I. Primary production under the Fraser River plume, Feb ruary - May, 1967. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 3: 27-38. , and O.D. Kennedy. 1969(b). Production studies in the Strait of Georgia. Part II. Secondary production under the Fraser River plume, February to May, 1967. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 3: 39-50. Phifer, L.D. 1933. Seasonal distribution and occurrence of planktonic diatoms at Friday Harbour. University of Washington Publ. Oceanog. 1_: 39-82. . 1934. Periodicity of diatom growth in the San Juan Archipelago. Proc. 5th Pac. Sci. Congr. (1933) 3: 2047-2049. Roe, J.S. 1959. Forest regions of Canada. Can. Dept. Northern Affairs and Nat. Res., For. Br. Bull. (123). Queen's Printer, Ottawa. 71 pp. Scagel, R.F. 1971. Guide to common seaweeds of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (27). 330 pp. Schofield, W.B. 1969(a). A checklist of Hepaticae and An- thocerotae of British Columbia. Syesis 1^ (1968): 163- 175. . 1969(b). A selectively annotated checklist of British Columbia mosses. Syesis 1 (1968): 163-175. . 1969(c). Some common mosses of British Columbia. B.C Prov. Mus. Handbook (2 8). 262 pp. Spilsbury, R.H. and D.S. Smith. 1947. Forest site types of the Pacific northwest. B.C. For. Serv. Tech. Publ. (30). 46 pp. Sprout, P.N. and W.D. Holland. 1959. Soil survey of Delta Municipality. B.C. Dept. Agric, Soil Surv. Prelim. Rept. (2), and soil map tracing (79). 80 pp. (Scale: 1 inch = 2,000 ft.) (out of print). Stein, J.R. 1973. Algae distribution studies in lower main land, British Columbia. Unpubl. Rept., Dept. Botany, University of British Columbia. 437. Biblio. - flora

Stephens, K. 1968. Surface distribution of chlorophyll a in the Strait of Georgia, 1966 and 1967. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (971). 4 pp. and 22 figures.

Szczawinski, A.F. 1959. Orchids of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (16). 124 pp.

. 1962. The heather family (Ericaceae) of British Col umbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (19). 205 pp.

, and G.A. Hardy. 1962. Guide to common edible plants of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (20). 90 pp.

Takahashi, M. ; K. Fujii; and T.R. Parsons. 1973. Simula tion study of phytoplankton and growth in the Fraser River estuary. Mar. Biol. 19: 102-116.

Taylor, E.W. 1970. A report on the ecology of Boundary Bay - Mud Bay. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane., Unpubl. Rept.

Taylor, R.L. 1972. Campus plants. Davidsonia .3(2): 9-35.

Taylor, T.M.C 1963. The ferns and fern-allies of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (12). 172 pp. . 1966(a). The lily family of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (25). 109 pp. . 1966(b). Vascular flora of British Columbia, prelimi nary checklist. Dept. Bot., University of British Columbia. 31 pp. . 1972. Estuary plants of Sturgeon Bank. Discovery 1 (3) (September-November). . 1973. The rose family of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (30). 22 3 pp.

Teal, J.M. and J.W. Kanwisher. 1970. Total energy balance in salt marsh grasses. Ecol. 5^1(4): 690-695.

Tully, J.P. and A.J. Dodimead. 1957. Properties of the water in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia, and influen cing factors. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 14(3): 241-319.

Wade, L. 1972. Sturgeon Bank - ecological study. A report to Richmond Nature Park. 31 pp.

Watmough, D. 1972. Shady Island - a natural history. Publ. of Richmond Nature Park. 30 pp.

Whitford, H.N. and R.D. Craig. 1918. Forests of British Columbia. Can. Comm. Conserv., Ottawa. 409 pp.

(vi) Wildlife (including wildlife recreation)

Aldrich, J.W. 1949. Migration of some North American water fowl. Spec. Sci. Rept., Wildl. (1), U.S.D.I. Fish and Wildl. Ser., Washington.

American Ornithologists' Union. 1973. Thirty-second supple ment to the American Ornithologists' Union checklist of North American birds. The Auk. 9j0: 411-419.

Anonymous. 1952. Outline for ecological life history studies of marine mammals. Ecol. 33(2): 287-296. . 1973. The Birdlife of Boundary Bay. University of British Columbia, Forestry 492 paper.

Aron, W. 1962. The distribution of animals in the eastern north Pacific and its relationship to physical and chemical conditions. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 19(2): 271- 314.

Becker, R.E. 1968. An ecological perspective of the Fraser River delta foreshores. M.Sc. Essay, Dept. Plant Sci., University of British Columbia. 49 pp.

Benson, W.A. 1961. An inventory of recreation of the Pacific coast with special emphasis on waterfowl. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. 53 pp. . 196 2. Mud Bay waterfowl management project. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane., Unpubl. Rept. 439. Biblio, - wildlife

Benson, W.A. 1964. A waterfowl management proposal and multipurpose recreational proposal for the lower Fraser valley in British Columbia. Can. Wildl. Serv. Unpubl. Rept.

Bent, A.C 1925. Life histories of North American water fowl. U.S. Mus. Bull. (130).

. 1927. Life histories of North American shorebirds. Part I. Dover Publ. Inc. New York.

1929. Life histories of North American shorebirds. Part II. Dover Publ. Inc. New York.

. 1932. Life histories of North American gallinaceous "birds. U.S. Gov't. Printing Office. 458 pp. . 1937. Life histories of North American birds of prey. Part I. U.S. Gov't. Printing Office. 381 pp. 1938. Life histories of North American birds of prey. Part II. U.S. Gov't. Printing Office. 445 pp. • 1942. Life histories of North American flycatchers, larks, swallows and their allies. U.S. Gov't. Printing Office. 516 pp. . 1948. Life histories of North American nuthatches, wrens, thrushes and their allies. U.S. Gov't. Printing Office. 435 pp. . 1949. Life histories of North American thrushes, kinglets and their allies. U.S. Gov't. Printing Office. 418 pp. • 1950. Life histories of North American wagtails, shrikes, vireos and their allies. U.S. Gov't. Printing Office. 382 pp. . 1958. Life histories of North American blackbirds, orioles, tanagers and allies. U.S. Gov't. Printing Office. 509 pp.

Bigg, M.A. 1969. The harbour seal in British Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bull. (172). 33 pp. British Columbia Natural History Society. 1893. Bulletin. Victoria, B.C. 72 pp. 440, Biblio. - wildlife

British Columbia Waterfowl Society, Vancouver. G.C Reifel Waterfowl Refuge. B.C. Waterfowl Soc. Public. 1 pp.

British Trust for Conservation Volunteers Ltd. 1971. Con servation Corps. 12 pp. Brooks, A. and H.S. Swarth. 1925. A distributional list of the birds of British Columbia. Pacific Coast Avifauna (17). 158 pp. Burgess, T.E. 1970. Foods and habitat of four anatinids wintering on the Fraser delta tidal marshes. M.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Zoology, University of Victoria. 124 pp. Cameron, J.N. 1970. The George C Reifel Waterfowl Sanctu ary. University of British Columbia, Forestry 492 paper. 84 pp. Campbell, R.W. Fishing lures, a hazard to sea birds. . 1968(a). Occurrence and nesting of the black oyster catcher near Vancouver, British Columbia. The Murrelet 49(1): 11. . 1968(b). Two records of the ruddy duck nesting at Vancouver, British Columbia. Can. Field Nat. ^2: 220- 228. . 1969(a). Occurrence and nesting of Wilson's phalaropes at Vancouver, British Columbia. Condor 7^: 434. . 1969(b). Notes on some foods of the wandering garter snake on Mitlenatch Island, British Columbia. Syesis 2: 183-187. . 1970(a). Occurrence and nesting of black terns in southwestern British Columbia. Condor 12_\ 500. . 1970(b). Vancouver Natural History Society raptor census. . 1971. Status of the Caspian tern in British Columbia. Syesis 4: 185-189. . 1972(a). Compilers comments re: Vancouver Christmas bird count. 9 pp. . 1972(b). The American avocet (Recurvirostra americana) "in British Columbia (1908-70). Syesis 5: 173-178. 441, Biblio. - wildlife

Campbell, R.W. 1972(c). The green heron in British Colum bia. Syesis 5: 235-247.

• 1972(d). Summary of selected winter bird counts in British Columbia. Vane. Nat, Hist. Soc., Discovery 1 (1-154): 2-5. , and W.J. Anderson. 1968. Mockingbird at Vancouver, British Columbia. Can. Field Nat. £2(3): 227. Campbell, R.W. and K.P. Morrison. 1969, Specimen of Gyrfal con from southwestern British Columbia. Can. Field Nat. Notes, pp. 57. Campbell, R.W. and R.E. Luscher. 1970. Semipalmated plover breeding at Vancouver, British Columbia. Murrelet 53 (1): 11-12. — Campbell, R.W. and R.G. Foottit. 1972. The Franklin's gull in British Columbia. Syesis 5_: 99-106. Campbell, R.W. and M.G. Shepard. 1972. Checklist of Vancou ver birds, Dept. Zool,, University of British Columbia, and Vane. Nat. Hist. Soc. Public.

, andR, H. Drent. 1972. Status of birds in Vancouver area in 1970. Syesis 5_: 137-167. Campbell, R.W.; M.G. Shepard; and W.C. Weber. 1972. Vancouver birds in 1971. Vane. Nat. Hist. Soc. 88 pp. Canadian Wildlife Service. 1954. Ten year duck shooting record. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane.,Unpubl. Rept. . 1959. Present use of Boundary Bay by migrating birds and by waterfowl hunters,and the effects of reclamation thereon. Can, Wildl,, Serv. , Vane., Rept.

. 1967. Aerial census of Fraser River foreshore and Boundary Bay area, Vancouver, B.C. Can, Wildl. Serv., Vane, Unpubl. data.

• 1969. Waterfowl census - Fraser foreshore, October, November and December, 1969. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane, Unpubl. data. • 1970. Herring Gull. Queen's Printer, Ottawa. 3 pp.

Car, G.C. 1943. The amphibians of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (2), 63 pp. 442. Biblio. - wildlife

Carl, CC 1944. The reptiles of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (3). 60 pp. . 1947. The Alaska fur seal industry and Canada's in terest. Prov. Mus. Nat. Hist, and Anthrop. pp. 21-24.

. 1966. The amphibians of British Columbia. B.C Prov. Mus. Handbook (2). 63 pp.

, and C.J. Guiguet. 1958. Alien animals in British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (14). 94 pp.

Caverhill, P. and B.R. Gates. 1970. The black brant and snow goose harvest 1969-70, coast mainland region. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver. Chadbreck, R. 1962. Impoundments provide better duck habi tat. Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commission, Wild life Education Bulletin (92).

Colls, D.C. 1956. A summary of data available in the Van couver office of the Canadian Wildlife Service on the wintering population of the snow geese in the Pacific coast region. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver.

, and R.H. MacKay. 1955. Aerial waterfowl reconnaissance of portions of coastal British Columbia. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver. Cottam, C 1939. Food habits of North American diving ducks. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bull. (643). 140 pp. Cottle, W.H. 1949. A study of the feeding behaviour of some members of the Anatinae wintering in the lower Fraser valley of British Columbia. B. Thesis, Univer sity of British Columbia. Cowan, I. Met. and C.J, Guiguet. 1965, The mammals of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook QL1). 414 pp. Cumming, R.A. 1932. Birds of the Vancouver district, British Columbia, Murrelet L3: 1-15. Drent, R.H. and C.J. Guiguet. 1961. A catalogue of British Columbia sea-bird colonies. B,C, Prov. Mus. Occass. Paper (12). 173 pp. 443. Biblio. - wildlife

Drent, R. and J. Ward. 1970. Report on co-operative gull counts on the lower mainland, November-January, 1969/70. Vancouver, B.C. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane., Mimeo. Einarsen, A.S. 1965. Black brant, sea goose of the Pacific coast. University of Washington Press, Seattle.

Fish and Wildlife Branch. 1965. Hunter-use of foreshore and public shooting grounds in portions of the lower main land. Mo. Rept. of Reg. Biol., Vancouver.

Fisher, H.D. 1952. The status of the harbour seal in British Columbia with particular reference to the Skeena River. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bull. (93). 58 pp. Forbes, R.D. 1972. A floral description of the Fraser River estuary and Boundary and Mud bays, B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br., B.C. Dept. Recrea. and Conserv. 94 pp. Gates, B.R. 1966. Wildlife management, lower mainland re gion.

• 1967. The 1966-67 hunting season - lower mainland region.

: 1969. Proposal for the development of Duck and Barber islands for waterfowl management purposes. B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br. Unpubl. Rept. • 1970. Progress report, Serpentine flats wetland pro ject. B.C. Fish, and Wildl. Br. Biol. Rept.

» and D. Udvardy. 1967. Notes on the black brant har vest, lower mainland region, spring 1967. B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br., Victoria. George C Reifel Migratory Brid Sanctuary. 1974. A bird sanctuary for all seasons. Pamphlet prepared by G.C Reifel Migratory Bird Sanctuary. 15 pp. Godfrey, W.E. 1966. Birds of Canada. Nat. Mus. Can. Bull. (203). Biol. Series (3). 428 pp. Guiguet, C.J. 1958. The birds of British Columbia (6) Waterfowl. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (15). 84 pp. . 1960(a). The birds of British Columbia. (2) The owls.B.C "Prov. Mus. Handbook (18). 62 pp. 444. Biblio. - wildlife

Guiguet, C.J. 1960(b). Some recent sight records of European starling nesting on new territory in western British Columbia. Prov. Mus. Nat. Hist. Anthrop. 3 pp. . 1962. The birds of British Columbia. (3) Shorebirds. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (8). 54 pp. . 1967(a). The birds of British Columbia. (5) Gulls, terns, jaegers, and skua. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (13). 42 pp. . 1967(b). The birds of British Columbia. (8) Chickadees, thrushes, kinglets, pippits, waxwings and shrikes. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (22). 66 pp. . 1970. Birds of British Columbia. (4) Upland game birds. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (10). 47 pp. . 1971. The birds of British Columbia. (9) Diving birds and tube-nosed swimmers. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (29). 104 pp. . 1973. The birds of British Columbia. (1) The wood peckers. (2) The crows and their allies. B.C. Prov. Mus. Handbook (6). 51 pp. Halladay, D.R. 1968. Avian ecology as it relates to the bird hazard problem at Vancouver Airport. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Plant Science, University of British Colum bia. . 1971(a). Standard procedures: waterfowl population and habitat surveys, British Columbia. B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br., Victoria. . 1971(b). The Woodward, Duck, Barber island co-opera tive wildfowl management project. B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br. Unpubl. Rept. . 1973. Background information on a federal-provincial co-operative migratory bird wetland preservation and management program in British Columbia. B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br., Victoria. , and R.D. Harris. 1972. A proposal for the conserva tion of vital wetlands and aquatic birds of the Fraser delta. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, B.C Halladay, D.R.; B.R. Gates; and W.C Smith. 1970. A pro posal for the conservation and management of lower Fraser valley wildfowl resources. B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br., Victoria. 445. Biblio. - wildlife

Harris, R.D. 1966. An examination of the lower mainland salt marshes - their value to waterfowl and recreation. Unpubl. Rept., Can. Wild. Serv., Vancouver.

Harvey, N. Animals and tracks of Richmond Nature Park. 20 pp.

Hedlin, Menzies and Associates Ltd.1967. Waterfowl in the Boundary Bay area. A preliminary economic assessment of their value in relation to other potential recrea tional activities in the area. Vancouver.

Hodson, K. (in press). Winter raptor population study, Fraser River delta, 1968-69, 1969-70. The Blue Jay.

Hughes, W.M. 1966. Bird counts on Vancouver Airport and environs. Survey notes for Can. Wildl. Serv.

Hunter, T. 1972. Wildlife of British Columbia. Reprinted from "B.C. Outdoors Magazine". Foremost Publishing Com pany, Limited, Surrey, B.C. 64 pp.

Institute of Environmental Studies, Douglas College. 1973. Guide to the game habitat management circuit. Serpen tine Wildlife Management Area. 18 pp. Jeffery, R.C 1948. Waterfowl food resources of Skagit and Port Susan bays. In: Annual report, Wash. State Dept. of Game, Olympia, Washington.

Kenyon, K.W. 1969. The sea otter in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

Kilgour and Morton. 1966. Evaluation of George C Reifel Waterfowl Refuge, Westham Island, B.C. University of British Columbia, Term Essay. Leach, B.A. A waterfowl management plan for the Mud Bay- Nicomekl-Serpentine flats.

. 1972. Waterfowl of the Fraser delta. Inst. Environ. Stud., Douglas College, Info. Booklet (16).

. 1973. Notes on waterfowl management opportunities in the Nicomekl and Serpentine river valleys. Douglas College Info. Booklet (21). 446. Biblio. - wildlife

Leach, B.A, 1974. Waterfowl and the Fraser delta. West. Fish. Wildl. 9(1): 24-31. Leatherwood, A. 1972, The whales, dolphins, and porpoises of the eastern north Pacific: a guide to their identifi cation in the water. 175 pp.

Linduska, J,P. 1964. Waterfowl Tomorrow. United States Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildl. Serv.

Lord, J.K. 1866(a). The naturalist in Vancouver Island and British Columbia. Richard Bentley, London, 1: 1-358.

. 1866(b). The naturalist in Vancouver Island and British Columbia. Richard Bentley, London, 2_: 1-375.

MacAskie, I.B. Unusual example of group behaviour by killer whales (Orcinus rectipinna).

MacKay, R.H. 1949. Waterfowl kill data for the lower main land. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Unpubl. data. . 1955. Waterfowl kill data for the lower mainland. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Unpubl. data.

. 1956(a), Waterfowl kill data from the lower mainland of British Columbia, 1956. Can. Wildl, Serv., Vancouver, Unpubl. data. . 1956(b). Black brant hunting in British Columbia in winter 1955/56. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Unpubl. data. . 1957. Waterfowl kill data from the lower mainland of British Columbia, 1957. Can, Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Unpubl. data. . 1958. Waterfowl kill data for the lower mainland. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Unpubl. data. . 1959(a). Present use of Boundary Bay by migrating birds and by waterfowl hunters, and the effects of re clamation thereon. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver. . 1959(b). Waterfowl kill data for the lower mainland. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Unpubl. data.

MacNab, G.F. 1965. Preliminary recreation survey of the Fraser River. B.C. Dept, of Recrea. Conserv., Victoria. 447. Biblio. - wildlife

March, G.L. and R.M.F.S. Sadleir. 1972. Studies on the band-tailed pigeon(Columbia fasciata) in British Colum bia. II. Food resource and mineral-gravelling activity. Syesis _5: 279-284.

Margolis, L. and M.D. Dailey. 1972. Revised annotated list of parasites from sea mammals caught off the west coast of North America. N.O.A.A. Tech. Rept. (NMFS SSRF- 647). 23 pp.

Mitchell, G.J. 1952. A study of the distribution of some members of the Nyrocinae wintering on the coastal waters of southern British Columbia. M.A. Thesis, Dept. of Zoology, University of British Columbia. 93 pp.

Morris, W.A. 1965. Hunter sample results, 1965, lower main land. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver.

. 1966(a). A panel discussion report on waterfowl habi tat acquisition. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane., Unpubl. Rept. . 1966(b). Pacific waterfowl flyway management plan. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Rept, . 1969. A brief on the status of the trumpeter swan (Olor buccinator) in British Columbia, 1969. Can. Wildl. Serv. Mimeo Rept. 9 pp. • 1971. A review of state public waterfowl hunting areas in the Pacific flyway with some suggested specifications of managed public duck shooting grounds for British Columbia. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver. • 1972(a). Controlled hunting in the Municipality of Delta. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver.

• 1972(b). Waterfowl status report in British Columbia. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver.

, and M.D. Noble. 1972. British Columbia waterfowl sur veys. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver. Munro, D.A. Summary of data on the biology and management of the Canada goose. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. 16 pp. • 1947. A preliminary study of the waterfowl of Burnaby Lake, B.C. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia. 448. Biblio, - wildlife

Munro, D.A. and R.H. MacKay. 1949. Waterfowl kill data from the lower mainland of British Columbia, 1949. Can. Wildl. Serv.

Munro, J.A. 1931. An introduction to bird study in British Columbia. Dept. of Education, Victoria (Charles F. Banfield, printer).

. 1934. Stomach analyses, January-March, 1934. Can. Wildl. Serv. Unpubl. Rept. . 1936. Food of the common mallard in the lower Fraser valley, British Columbia. Condor _38: 109-111. . 1937. The American merganser in British Columbia. Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bull. (55): 1-49. . 1939. Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. (9) Barrow's Goldeneye, American Goldeneye. Trans. Roy. Can, Inst. 22_ (Part 2): 259-318. . 1941(a). Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. The Grebes. B.C. Prov. Mus. Occas. Paper (3). 71 pp. . 1941(b). Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. Greater Scaup duck, lesser Scaup duck. Can. J. Res. D19: 113-138. . 1942(a). Studies of the waterfowl in British Columbia, The Bufflehead. Can. J. Res. 20: 133-160. . 1942(b). The trumpeter swan in British Columbia. Dept. Mines, Res. Rept. . 1943. Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. Mallard. Can. J. Res. D21: 223-226. . 1944. Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. Pintail. Can. J. Res. D22j 60-68. . 1949(a). Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. Green-winged teal. Can. J. Res. D2_7 (3) : 149-178. . 1949(b). Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. "Baldpate. Can. J. Res. D27(5): 289-307. 449. Biblio. - wildlife

Munro, J.A. and W.A. Clemens. 1931. Waterfowl in relation to the spawning herring of British Columbia. Biol. Bd. Can. Bull. (17). 46 pp.

. 1932. Food of the American merganser in British Colum- bia. Can. Field Nat. 4j6: 166-168. • 1937. The American merganser in British Columbia and its relation to the fish population. Biol. Bd. Can. Bull (55): 1-49.

. 1939. The food and feeding habits of the red-breasted merganser in British Columbia. Journal of Wildlife Management _3(1) : 46-53.

Munro, J.A. and I. McT. Cowan. 1947. A review of the bird fauna of British Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Spec. Public. (2). 285 pp.

Myres, M.T. 1957. An introduction to the behaviour of the goldeneye: Bucephala islandica and B. clangula ( Class Aves, Fam. Anatidae). M.A. Thesis, Dept. of Zoology, University of British Columbia. . 1959. The behaviour of the sea-ducks. Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Zoology, University of British Columbia. Nagel, J.E. Snow goose migrations in the eastern segment of the Pacific flyway. Utah State Div. Fish. Game Publ. 17 pp.

Natural History Society of British Columbia. 1893. Bulletin of the Natural History Society of British Columbia. R. Wolfenden, Queen's Printer, Victoria. 72 pp. Nelson, U.C and H.A. Hansen. 1959. The cackling goose - its migration and management. Trans. 24th N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. pp. 174-186.

Newcombe, C.F.; W.H. Greenwood; and C McL. Fraser. 1918. Preliminary report of the Commission on the sea Lion In vestigation, 1915. II. Report and conclusions of the sea lion investigation, 1916. Contrib. Can. Biol., 1917-18. pp. 5-39.

Noble, M.D. 1972. Notes on food habits of waterfowl in estuaries, marshes, and open bays of British Columbia. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. 8 pp. 450. Biblio. - wildlife

Noble, M.D., and W.A. Morris. 1972. British Columbia water fowl surveys. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Unpubl. Rept

Northcote, T.G. 1974. Biology of the lower Fraser River: a review. Westwater Res. Centre Tech. Rept. (3). 94 pp. Oseychuk, J. 1972. Boundary Bay in relation to the Pacific flyway. Forestry 492 paper, Fac. Forestry, University of British Columbia. 70 pp. Paine, J. McK. 1972. A study of colonial nesting in the Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias). B.Sc. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Paish, H. 1974. Letter to Dr. Hatter (Dept. Recreat. and Conserv.) re: Paish and Associates rept. on "Policy and Action for Hunting in the Lower Mainland"; and summary, taken from this report. 7 pp. Paish, H. and Associates Ltd. 1973. A study proposal for a policy-oriented overview appraisal of the potential for wildlife management, hunting opportunity and out door recreation on farmland and public land in the lower mainland of British Columbia. . 1974. Policy and action for hunting in the lower mainland. Prepared for the B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br. 152 pp. Palmer, R.S. 1962. Handbook of North American birds. Volume 1: loons and flamingos. Amer. Ornithol. Union, N.Y. State Mus. Sci. Serv. Patton, D.R. and B.I. Judd. 1970. The role of wet meadows as wildlife habitat in the southwest. J. Range Mgmt. 2J5(4): 272-275. Pike, G.C. 1954. Whaling on the coast of British Columbia. Norweg. Whaling Gaz. 3: 1-13. . 1956. Guide to the whales, porpoises, and dolphins of the north-east Pacific and Arctic waters of Canada and Alaska. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (32). 15 pp. . 1961. The northern sea lion in British Columbia. Can. Audubon 23(1): 1-5. 451. Biblio. - wildlife

Pike, G.C. and L. Giovando. 1963. Whales and dolphins of the west coast of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Circ. (68). 15 pp. and figures.

Pike, G.C. and I.B. MacAskie. 1969. Marine mammals of British Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bull. (171). 54 pp.

Renewable Resources Consulting Services Ltd. 1969. A study of potential for recreational hunting and waterfowl de velopments on the lower mainland of British Columbia. Renewable Resources Consulting Services Ltd., Edmonton, Alberta.

Robinson, D.J. 1953. The impact of recent land-use practices upon wildlife recreation. In: Transactions of the 6th British Columbia Natural Resources Conf. pp. 145-150.

Rodgers, J. 1971. The Birds of Vancouver. Bryan Publ. Ltd., Vancouver, B.C. 167 pp.

Russell, L. and H. Paish. 1968. Waterfowl populations and outdoor recreational opportunity on the Fraser delta foreshore. B.C. Wildl. Fed. Unpubl. Rept. 59 pp.

Schaeffer, V.B. 1952. Outline for ecological life history studies of marine mammals. Ecol., 1952: 287-296.

. 1958. Seals,sea lions, and walruses: a review of Pinnipedia. Stanford University Press. 179 pp.

, and J.W. Slipp. 1948. The whales and dolphins of Washington State, with a key to the cetaceans of the west coast of North America, pp. 257-337. Schmidt, C.H.G. 1971. The behaviour and ecology of the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos L) during winter. B.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Zoology, University of British Columbia. 52 pp.

Sealy, S.G. and R.W. Nelson. 1973. The occurrences and status of the horned puffin in British Columbia. Syesis 6_: 51-55.

Seed, A. 1972. Sea otter in eastern north Pacific waters. Seattle. 37 pp. 452. Biblio. - wildlife

Smith, W.C-1952. The food habits of a population of black turnstones, Aleutian sandpipers and surf-birds wintering in southern British Columbia. B.Sc. Thesis, University of British Columbia. 52 pp. and appendices.

Sprunt, A. 1955. North American birds of prey. Harper and Brothers, New York. 277 pp. and appendices. Sterling, R.T. 1968. Wetland development for waterfowl in British Columbia. Ducks Unlimited, Victoria, B.C. Sverre, S.F. 1974. Assessment of the impact of the proposed Vancouver International Airport expansion on birds using the wetlands of the Fraser delta, British Columbia. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane., Unpubl. Rept. Swan Wooster Engineering Co. Ltd. 1967(a). Planning study for outer port development at Vancouver, B.C Part I. 87 pp. 1967(b). Planning study for outer port development at "Vancouver, B.C. Part II. 38 pp 196 7(c). Planning study for outer port development at Vancouver, B.C. Part III. 21 pp Talbot, J.F.; J. Wiebe; and B. Beedle. 1973. The importance of wildlife in the development of Boundary Bay. Univer sity of British Columbia, Forestry 492 paper. 40 pp. and appendices. Taylor, E.W. 1965. Hunter-use of foreshore and public shooting grounds in portions of the lower mainland. B.C. Fish Wildl. Br. Rept. . 1970(a). A report on the ecology of Boundary Bay - Mud Bay. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane.,Unpubl. Rept. . 1970(b). Wildlife and recreation in Boundary Bay. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. 26 pp. . 1970(c). Wildlife and recreation in Boundary Bay - a review of the wildlife and recreation potential of Bound ary Bay, British Columbia. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. 51 pp . 1971(a). A proposal to acquire a migratory bird win tering and migration area on the west coast of Vancouver Island. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Unpubl. Rept. 6 pp. 453. Biblio. - wildlife

Taylor, E.W. 1971(b). The George C Reifel Refuge in the lower mainland waterfowl complex. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane • 1971(c). A proposal for wildlife and recreation, Lulu Island foreshore. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, • 1972. Marine associated birds of the British Columbia coast. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver. 65 pp. • 1973(a). The importance and problems of estuaries from a wildlife viewpoint. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane, Unpubl. Rept. 7 pp.

• 1973(b). Inventory of wildlife data for 18 selected British Columbia estuaries. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane., data . 1973(c). Vancouver International Airport expansion proposals and possible impact on wildlife of the Fraser River estuary. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. 58 pp. » and J.F. Carreiro. Land capability for wildlife - waterfowl. C.L.I. Vancouver 92C Dept. Reg. Econ. Expan.

Taylor, F.H.C; M. Fujinaga; and F. Wilke. 1952. Distribu tion and food habits of the fur seals of the north Pacific Ocean. Co-op. Invest, by Gov'ts. Can., Japan, U.S.A. 86 pp.

Tener, J.S. 1948. An investigation of some of the members of the sub-family Anatinae in the lower Fraser valley of British Columbia. B.A. Thesis, Dept. Zoology, University of British Columbia. 67 pp. Udvardy, M.D.F. 1954. Report of waterfowl population survey in the Fraser mouth area of British Columbia during early fall, 1954. Urhahn, H.J.M. 1968. Feeding ecology of the great blue heron. B.Sc. Directed Studies Rept., Dept. Zool., Uni versity of British Columbia. 20 pp. and tables. Vancouver Natural History Society. 1971(a). Raptor census (1). Vane. Nat. Hist. Soc. Public. 4 pp. . 1971(b). Raptor census (2), December 12, 1970. Vane. Nat. Hist. Soc. Public. 4 pp. 454. Biblio. - wildlife

Vancouver Natural History Society. 1971(c). Raptor census (3). Vane. Nat. Hist. Soc. Public. 3 pp. . 1971(d). Raptor census (4), June 12, 1971; and raptor census (5), August 14, 19 71. Vane. Nat. Hist. Soc. Public. 3 pp. . 1971(e). Raptor census (6), September 11, 1971. Vane. Nat. Hist. Soc. Public. 1 pp. . 1971(f). Raptor census (7), October 16, 1971. Vane. Nat. Hist. Soc. Public. 1 pp. . 1971(g). Raptor census (8), November 13, 1971. Vane. Nat. Hist. Soc. Public. 2 pp. . 1972. Raptor census (9). Vane. Nat. Hist. Soc. Public. 2 pp. Wade, L. 1972. Birds of Sturgeon Bank. Publication of the Richmond Nature Park Committee through an L.I.P. Grant. 16 pp. Wick, W.O. 1972. Managing Pacific coast estuarine wildlife in a competitive, multiple-use society. Presented to 52nd Conf. of West. Assoc. State Game and Fish. Comm. 10 pp. Wildlife for Tomorrow Conference. 1974. Wildlife and agriculture in the Fraser valley, March 9, 1974. Agenda. 2 pp. Wilke, F. 1957. Food of sea otters and harbour seals at Amchitka Island. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 21(2): 240-241. Wilkinson, A.T.S. 1971. Gut contents of birds from Vancou ver International Airport. Summary report Research Station. CD.A. Vancouver, B.C.

VII. LAND USE (including agriculture, urban development, industrial development, recreation ex cluding wildlife, and waterfront land use ) Alkier and O'Brien. 1973. A recreational classification system for Boundary Bay. University of British Colum bia, Faculty of Forestry, Forestry 492 paper. 23 pp. 455, Biblio, •> land use

Alonso, W. 1964. Location and land use. Harvard Univer sity Press, Cambridge.

Anonymous. Concept A: Natural resource conservation; Concept B: International seashore; and Concept C: Resort centers. Greater Vancouver Regional District, Planning Dept. unref. data. 10 pp. . The development of Boundary Bay. Report from files of Dr. Peter Dooling, Department of Soil Science, Uni versity of British Columbia. 44 pp. • The effects of development on the Fraser River and on the foreshores of the Fraser River delta. 10 pp. and figures. • 1958. Preliminary report on flood control and hydro electric power in the Fraser River basin, B.C Fraser River Board, Victoria. 171 pp. • 1969. Soil capability classification for agriculture. Canada Land Inventory Rept. (2). 16 pp. • 1970. Land capability classification for forestry. Canada Land Inventory Rept. (4). 72 pp. • 1972. Report of electric energy resources and future power supply, British Columbia, 1972-1990. Presented by Montreal Engineering to British Columbia Energy Board, pp. 40-45. 5 . 1974. Coastal marine parks and resource mapping pro gram. 2 pp. Arvanitidis, N.V. et al. 1972. A computer simulation mo del for flood plain development. Part (1): land use planning and benefit evaluation. I.N.T.A.S.A. Consul tants. U.S. Dept. Commerce, Washington. B.A.CM. Industries. 1970. A comprehensive plan for re sidential development in Boundary Bay. B.A. CM, In dustries Ltd. Bartholomew, H. and Associates. 1929. A plan for the south Vancouver area. City of Vancouver Rept. . 1945. A report upon a general plan for the University Endowment Lands, Point Grey, British Columbia. B.C Dept. Lands Rept. 456, Biblio. - land use

Beaulieu, A.G. and J. Maxwell. 1972. Notes on land use and land planning. In: Coastal Zone 3^, selected back ground papers. (Environment Canada, editors). Benson, W.A, 1961. An inventory of recreation of the Pacific coast with special reference to waterfowl. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vane., Unpubl. Rept. Brieve, D.; L. Birch; and P. Epp. 1973. Soil capability classification for recreation in Boundary Bay. Uni versity of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry, Fores try 492 paper. 35 pp.

British Columbia Department of Agriculture. 1966. Agricul ture in the Fraser valley, 1964-1965, 1974-1984. Second approximation report prepared by I.C Cairne and others. Victoria, B.C. 74 pp.

British Columbia Department of Industrial Development, Trade, and Commerce. 1960-1972. Industrial expansion in British Columbia. B.C. Dept. Indus. Dev., Trade, Comm. Rept. . 1972. The sawmill industry of British Columbia. B.C. Dept. Indus. Devel., Trade, Comm. Rept. British Columbia Department of Recreation and Conservation. 1959. A brief to the Minister of Lands and Forests of British Columbia opposing certain applications to acquire foreshore lands in Boundary Bay. B.C. Dept. Recrea. Con- serv. Unpubl. Rept.

British Columbia Fish and Wildlife Branch. 1974. Land status information for various B.C. estuaries. Fish. Wildl. Br. Unpubl. data. 22 pp. and figures.

British Columbia Forest Service. 1970. Monthly statistics of logs stored in the Main Arm. B.C. For. Serv. Unpubl. data. . 1971. Monthly statistics of logs stored in the Main "Arm. B.C. For. Serv. Unpubl. data. 1972. Monthly statistics of logs stored in the Main Arm. B.C. For, Serv. Unpubl. data.

British Columbia Government. 1971. The Municipal Act. Prov. B.C., Victoria.

British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority. 1963. Poten tial deep-sea industrial sites in southwestern British Columbia. Indus. Develop. Dept. Rept. 457. Biblio. - land use

British Columbia Land Inventory. 1973. An inventory of land resources and resource potentials in the capital regional district. A co-operative report by British Columbia Land Inventory, Pacific Forestry Service, Soil Survey Section, Canada Department of Agriculture, 186 pp.

British Columbia Parks Branch. 1972. Lower mainland park objectives study. B.C Parks Br., Victoria.

British Columbia Research Council. 1958. Forecast of econo mic activity in the North Fraser harbour in 1975. Vancouver.

. 1967. Vancouver harbour: traffic trends and facilities analysis. 42 pp.

. 1970. Benefit-cost study of an enlarged North Arm channel.

Canadian National Railway. 1955. Industrial potential of the south shore of Lulu Island in the greater Vancouver district. Dept. Res. and Devel., Can. Nat. Railway, Montreal, P.Q. Canadian Wildlife Service. 1969. Land-use planning - biological approach. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. 15pp. C.B.A. Engineering Ltd. 1957. Boundary Bay reclamation project. Part I. Reconnaissance. 11 pp,

. 1958. An introductory study for the development of the tidal sections of the Fraser River. Prepared for New Westminster Harbour Commission, Vancouver, B.C.

, and Swan Wooster Engineering Co. Ltd. 1968. The de velopment of Delta: concerning the impact of the Boun dary Bay potential and Roberts Bank. 62 pp.

. 1970. The development of Boundary Bay - a 1970 re port. Prepared for B.A.CM. Industries Ltd. 58 pp.

Chapin, F. 1965. Urban land use planning. University of Illinois Press.

Chinitz, B. (editor). 1964. City and suburb - the econo mics of metropolitan growth. Prentice-Hall (Publishers). Christian, C 1957. The concept of land units and land systems. Proc. 9th Pac. Sci. Cong. 20: 74-81. 458. Biblio. - land use

Clark, K.B. 1969. The formulation and application of a marine recreation planning methodology: a case study of the Gulf Islands and the San Juan Islands. M.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Clarke, M.F. 1973. Agriculture and the environment. Re port to the Pacific Region Task Force on the Lower Fraser River and Strait of Georgia. 16 pp. (prelimin ary report, 7 pp.) Clawson, M. and J. Knetsch. 1966. Economics of outdoor recreation. In: Resources for the Future. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore. Coastal Research Corporation. 1969. Estuarine landscape survey and analysis. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Nat'1. Estuary Study.

DeLeuw Cather of Canada. 1970. Greater Vancouver area rapid transit study. Report to the Joint Transporta tion Committee, Greater Vancouver Regional District and B.C. Hydro and Power Authority. 62 pp. and appendices and figures. Delta Action Group. 1964. A report on the Boundary Bay issue. Delta Action Group. Ladner, B.C. Delta Planning Department. 1970(a). A proposed industrial park area for Delta. 33 pp. . 1970(b). The Boundary Bay airport study. Delta, B.C 9 pp. . 1972. Delta plan review. Delta, B.C. 39 pp. Department of Environment. 1972. Moran Dam: impact and alternative for energy and environment. An advisory report on the Cross-Mission Task Force, Dept. of the Environ., Pac. Reg., May, 1972. 35 pp. Department of Fisheries and Forestry, and Department of Indian Affairs. 1970. Proceedings of the Symposium on the Proposal to Name Strait of Georgia a National Underwater Park. University of British Columbia (October 2-4, 1970). 44 pp. Department of Public Works. 1972. Dredging summary, Fraser River and North Arm, 1959- . 2 pp. Department of Regional Economic Expansion. 1969. Land capability classification for outdoor recreation. Can. Land Inventory Rept. (6). 459. Biblio. - land use de Vries, J. 1972. The role of agricultural use of land in an urban society. University of British Columbia, Centre for Continuing Education and the Faculty of Agric. Sciences. 11 pp.

Dominion Bureau of Statistics. 1960-1972. New manufactur ing establishments in Canada. Info. Can. (annual) Publ.

. 1970. Standard industrial classification manual. Info. Can. Publ.

Dominion Public Works Department. 1949. Fraser River system - a history of improvements (1871 to date). Fraser River Basin, Dominion Prov. Works Dept. 54 pp. Doyle, B. 1973. Accessibility to Boundary Bay. Univer sity of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry, Forestry 492 paper. 15 pp. and appendices. Draeseke, G.L. 1972. Shoreline management - an industry perspective. Westwater Forum Paper, October 20. Dutfield, D.O. 1969. Report of survey of Canoe Passage channel, May 5th, 1969, from Vancouver International Airport Hovercraft Station, M.O.T. 3 pp.

Employer's Council of British Columbia. 1969. Limitations and attractions of British Columbia for industry. Endowment Lands Regional Park Committee. Most major cities would give just about anything for an unspoiled recrea tion area like this. Pamphlet of Endowment Lands Reg. Park. Comm.

Environment Canada. 1974. Vancouver airport expansion examined in a regional context. Environ. Can. Bull. 1(3). 4 pp.

Fairbairn, B. 1974. Sawlog pollution in the lower Fraser River. M.S. Thesis, School Comm. Reg. Plan., Univer sity of British Columbia. Farina, J. 1961. The social and cultural aspects of re creation. In: Resources for Tomorrow. Conf. Back ground Papers 2. 60. Biblio. - land use

Farry, C;C Justice; E. Levin; and W. Paterson. 1953. The North Arm of the Fraser River: a problem of re gional resource development. In: Transactions of the 6th British Columbia Natural Resources Conference, pp. 2DT-212 and figures. Forbes, R.D. 1972. A floral description of the Fraser River estuary and Boundary and Mud bays, B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br., B.C. Dept. Recrea. and Conserv. 94 pp. Forward, C.N. 1968. Waterfront land use in metropolitan Vancouver, British Columbia. Geographical Paper (41), Geog. Br., Dept. of Energy, Mines and Res. 54 pp. Franson, R.T. 1972. The legal and institutional structure for planning in the Fraser valley. University of Bri tish Columbia, Centre for Continuing Education and the Faculty of Agric. Sciences. 9 pp. Friesen, B.F.J. 1974. A study of the opportunities and costs of preserving recreation sites along the lower Fraser River. M.S. Thesis, Comm. Reg. Planning Dept., University of British Columbia. 174 pp. Gardner, A.C 1971. A linear programming model for land resource allocation in the lower mainland of British Columbia. M.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Agric. Economics, Uni versity of British Columbia. 115 pp. Gates, B.R. 1967. The status of wetland reserves in the lower mainland of British Columbia. Fish and Wildl. Br., Dept. of Recrea. and Conserv., Unpubl. Rept. Gilmour, A.J. 1965. The implications of industrial devel opment on the ecology of a marine estuary. B.C. Fish Wildl., Fish. Contrib. (20). 11 pp. Graham, J.D. 1972. A new approach to land use planning- multiple goal programming. University of British Columbia, Centre for Continuing Education and the Fac ulty of Agric. Sciences. 23 pp. Gray, J. 1969. The character and pervasiveness of transport competition in the movement of commodities from greater Vancouver origins to British Columbia destinations. M.S. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Greater Vancouver Real Estate Board. 1969-1973. Real es tate trends. C V. Real Est. Bd. (annual) Public. 461. Biblio. - land use

Greater Vancouver Regional District. 1970. The lower mainland's economy: trends and prospects. A tech nical report of Greater Vancouver Regional District Planning Dept. 51 pp. and appendices.

. 1971(a). Space for industry/summary report. 51 pp.

_. 1971(b). Space for industry - a technical report. Report for Greater Vancouver Regional District Plan ning Dept. 108 pp. and appendices.

_. 1972. A report on livability. 31 pp.

. 1973(a). The housing issue in the Greater Vancouver "Regional District. 38 pp.

. 1973(b). Official regional plan booklet of Greater "Vancouver Regional District. 26 pp.

. 1973(c). Population forecast. 7 pp.

Halladay, D.R.; B.R. Gates; and W.G. Smith. 1970. A pro posal for the conservation and management of the lower Fraser valley foreshores. B.C. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Dept. of Recrea. and Conserv.

Halladay, D.R. and R.D. Harris. 1972. A commitment to the future - a proposal for the protection and management of the Fraser wetlands. B.C. Dept. of Recrea. and Conserv., and Fed. Dept. of Environ. 16 pp.

Hardwick, W.G. 1961. Changing logging and sawmilling sites in coastal British Columbia. In: Readings in Canadian Geography. (R.M. Irving, editor). Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, pp. 333-340.

Harris, R.D. 1966. Preliminary acquisition proposal for all tidal marshes lying seaward of Lulu Island. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Unpubl. Rept. , and E.W. Taylor. 1972. A proposal for wildlife and recreation - Lulu Island foreshore. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Rept.

Hills, G. 1961. The ecological basis for land use planning. Ont. Dept. Lands For., Res. Rept. (46). 462. Biblio, - land use

Hodge, G. and I.M. Robinson. 1960. Jobs, people, and transportation: their role in metropolitan physical development. Metro. Jt. Comm. Rept. 194 pp.

Hutchison, B. 1950. Rivers of America: the Fraser. Clark and Irwin, Toronto. Inglis, Sir CC and T.J.F. Kestner. 1958. The long:term effects of training walls, reclamation, and dredging on estuaries. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. 9_, Pap. (6268). Institute of Environmental Studies, Douglas College. 1972. The Surrey River systems - a collection of problems and proposals for the future use of the Nicomekl, Serpen tine, and Little Campbell rivers. Douglas College Information Booklet (6). International Power and Engineering Consultants, Ltd. 1970. Duck, Barber and Woodward island development feasibility study. I.P.E.C Vancouver. Jackson, J.N. and J.L. Northey. 1963. The impact of high way development on land use: a study of selected locali ties in the greater Vancouver area. Research Proj. Rept (1). 121 pp. Jameson, E. and S. Warren. 1973. Estuary and watershed land status for selected river systems in B.C. Pre pared for R. Halliday, B.C. Fish and Wildl. Br. 30 pp. Jorden, M. 1970. Land for expansion in Delta. Paper sub mitted to the Corporation of Delta, B.C. 25 pp. Karlsen, E. 1972. Potential for recreational boating on Boundary Bay. Greater Vancouver Regional District, Vancouver, B.C. 32 pp. Kellock, J.N. 1970. An examination of environmental con trol in the lower Fraser River. B.A. Thesis, Simon Fraser University. 120 pp. Kerr, W. 1970. Steveston study: renewal concept. Rich mond Plan. Dept. Rept. 61 pp. and appendices. . 1971. Report on the preservation of agricultural land in the lower Fraser valley. Community Planning Assoc, of Canada, B.C. Division. 8 pp. 463. Biblio. - land use

Koon, Z.J.K. 1971. Greater Vancouver Regional District synopsis of transportation plans: 1960-1970. Greater Vancouver Regional District. 500 pp. Kowalenko, S. 1973. Recreation study of the Coquitlam - Port Coquitlam district. L.I.P. Grant, Project Rept, (draft).

Ladner, P. 1973. Boundary Bay (recreational)demand assess ment. Forestry 492 paper, University of British Colum bia. Lands Directorate. 1972. Shoreland: its use, ownership, access, and management. Proc. of Shorelands Seminar, Rept. (90). Lang, M. Parks of White Rock and south Surrey. File of articles with Dr. P.J. Dooling, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia.

Lea, N.D. and Associates. 1966. Analysis of recreational boating in the Strait of Georgia area, British Columbia. Can. Dept. Publ. Works. 92 pp. and maps.

. 1967. Sea Island access and North Arm of Fraser River crossings, Vancouver, B.C. 131 pp. and maps.

Leach, B.A. 1972. A proposal for the establishment of the Mud Bay - Serpentine River environmental reserve. Doug las College Info. Booklet (18). Leitch and Associates, Ltd. 1971. South Surrey plan/study. Surrey, B.C. Levesque, E. 1974. Impact of the Knight Street bridge on the allocation of industrial land. M.S. Thesis, School Comm. Reg. Plann., University of British Columbia. Liebzeit, F. 1972. Land-use assessment of Boundary Bay, B.C. Forestry 492 paper, Faculty of Forestry, Uni versity of British Columbia. 50 pp. and appendices. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board. Roberts Bank area. 4 pp.

• 1956(a). Economic aspects of urban sprawl - a techni cal report. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Rept 45 pp. 464. Biblio. - land use

Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board. 1956(b). Urban sprawl. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Rept. 20 pp.

. 1957. Delta; plans for the future. Lower Main land Regional Planning Board Rept. 26 pp. . 1959(a). An appreciation of the Boundary Bay reclama tion. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Rept. 12 pp.

. 1959(b). Report on a municipal planning department for Delta. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Rept. 16 pp. . 1960. Manufacturing industry in the lower mainland of British Columbia - in retrospect and in prospect. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Rept. 76 pp. . 1961(a). Dynamics of industrial land settlement. New Westminster.

. 1961(b). Industrial land prospects in the lower mainland of British Columbia. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Rept. 40 pp.

. 1961(c). Land for leisure. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Rept. 59 pp.

. 1961 (d). The prospect for Langley. 14 pp. . 1961(e). The proposed Boundary Bay industrial develop ment scheme. A brief and recommendation from the Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board to the Honourable R.S. Williston, Minister of Lands and Forests; May 12, 1961. 14 pp. . 1962. Land for farming. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Rept. 46 pp. . 1963. Change and challenge; a concept for the develop ment of the lower mainland region. 24 pp. . 1964. Delta: reports to Council on development policy, zoning, main roads, and community facilities (parks, schools, shopping areas). Lower Mainland Regional Plan ning Board Rept. 44 pp. 465, Biblio. - land use

Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board. 1965. Problems and progress in rationalizing the use of the resources of the lower Fraser valley. 7 pp. (Draft: March, 1965). • 1966 (a). Summary report: a regional parks plan for the lower mainland region. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Rept. 11 pp. and figures. • 1966(b). White Rock City study. Part I: An apprai sal. Part II: Proposals. 83 pp. and appendices. • 1967(a). A report on lower mainland regional parks - action recommendations. A technical staff report to the inaugural session of the Vancouver-Fraser Regional Parks District. 13 pp. . 1967(b). What price suburbia? 30 pp. • 1968(a). Population, trends in the lower mainland, 1921-1986. Summary report. 4 pp. • 1968(b). Rail service to the Roberts Bank port facil ity. A brief to the Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board, the lower mainland municipalities, and the Pro vince of British Columbia. 30 pp. and figures.

• 1968(c). Regional districts in the lower mainland. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Rept. 50 pp.

• 1969. Co-ordinate systems for the lower mainland. 23 pp. Lukey, L.J. 1960. An approach to the problem of land use in Delta Municipality, B.C. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia.

Lulu Island South Shore Industries. 1955. The industrial potential of the south shore of Lulu Island in the Greater Vancouver District. 12 pp. MacKay, R.H. 1959. Brief against the proposed reclamation of Boundary Bay. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Rept. MacNab, G.F. 1965. A preliminary recreations survey of the Fraser River. B.C. Dept. Recrea. Conserv. Mimeo. Rept. 466. Biblio. - land use

Marshall, K.B. 1973. An assessment of the waterfront pro perty values of Boundary Bay. University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry, Forestry 492 paper. 10 pp. and maps.

McAllister, CD. 1974. Report on alienated habitat, lower Fraser River. 8 pp.

McCallum, N.M. 1955. Future crossings of the Fraser River. Dept. Publ. Works. Rept. 78 pp.

McLaren, K.A. 1972. A vegetation study of the islands and associated marshes in the South Arm of the Fraser River, B.C, from the Deas Island Tunnel to Westham Island foreshore. Fish and Wildl. Br., B.C. Dept. Recrea. and Conserv. 54 pp. and figures.

Mills, J.D. 1973. Population pressure on Boundary Bay. University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry, Forestry 492 paper. 7 pp. and maps and appendices.

Modeland, R.C. 1966. The function of the demand for and the supply of recreational land in British Columbia's lower mainland for the period 1960-1985. B.Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver.

Morris, W.A. 1966. Preliminary acquisition proposal for all tidal marshes lying seaward of Lulu Island. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver. 1965. A multiple use plan for Boundary Bay area with particular reference to controlled waterfowl shooting, flood control and marine natural history. Can. Wildl. Serv., Vancouver, Unpubl. Rept.

Morrison, D. Steveston study: renewal concepts. Unpubl. Rept. to Richmond Planning Dept.

Morton, K.W. 1949. History of improvements 1871-1948, Fraser River system. Province of British Columbia and Public Works of Canada.

Nathan, C 1959. Preliminary report on erosion and land- use of Point Grey. Dept. Civil Eng., University of British Columbia. 467. Biblio. - land use

Naumann, D.K. 1963. Development in Delta: an initial planning study of the municipality for the Corporation of Delta. West Vancouver, B.C. 144 pp. New Westminster Harbour Commission. 1963. The deficien cies of the present navigable channel in the Fraser River. A brief submitted to the Minister of Public Works, Ottawa. Norris, D. 1971. The University Endowment Lands. M. Thesis, University of British Columbia. 43 pp. North Fraser Harbour Commissioners. 1965. Reference plan of North Fraser harbour area. In: Vancouver Annual Report,1964. Vancouver.

• 1972. 59th annual report, North Fraser Harbour Commissioners. 24 pp. O'Brien, J.J. 1972. The development of Boundary Bay: schemes past and present and an assessment of their impact upon the development of the full recreational and waterfowl potential of the bay. University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry, Forestry 492 paper. 45 pp. Paish, H. and L. Russell. 1970. The ecological, recrea tional and environmental implications of a residential development on Boundary Bay. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Unpubl. Rept. Paish, H. and Associates, Ltd. 1970. A theme study of the marine environment of the straits between Vancouver Island the British Columbia mainland. Project B: The Vancouver Island - mainland coast inland sea - a marine park reconnaissance study. Joint National Parks Br., D.I.A.N.D. Rept. 71 pp.

. 1971. An appraisal of intertidal land-use within the inland sea study area. Report prepared for Dept. of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, and Dept. of Environ. (Canada). • 19 73. An overview environmental impact assessment of the south Surrey plan study area. Prepared for the District of Surrey, B.C. 468. Biblio. - land use

Parker, V.J. 1965. Problems and progress in rationaliz ing the use of the resources of the lower Fraser valley Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Rept. 7 pp. (draft). Parkinson, T.E. 1972. A preliminary study of light rapid transit in Vancouver, British Columbia. Greater Van couver Regional District Rept. 47 pp.

Paton, Smith, and Gram Ltd. 1973. Viability of farming study: Phase I. A subjective report on the viability of agriculture in certain sections of Delta Municipa lity. Greater Vancouver Regional District Rept. 66 pp.

Pearson, N. 1971. Project Alpha. Greater Vancouver Re gional District Planning Dept. Rept. 11 pp. . 1972. Fraser valley - rape it or preserve it? Uni versity of British Columbia, Centre for Continuing Edu cation and the Faculty of Agric. Sciences. 14 pp. . 1973. Operation open space. Greater Vancouver Re gional District. 23 pp.and figures. Planning Institute of British Columbia. 1972. The public and the waterfront: conference report. 28 pp.

Pretious, E.S. 1960. Principles of river training as an aid to navigation, with occasional reference to the Fraser River, B.C. Basic Laws of River Behaviour. Dept. of Publ. Works, Can. (Fraser River Model Project) Rept. , and E. Vollmer. 1960. Historical review of Fraser River training and its effects in the New Westminster area, Fraser River, B.C. Dept. of Publ. Works, Can. (Fraser River Model Project) Rept.

Public Works of Canada (B.C. and Yukon District). Report on proposed improvements - Fraser River trifurcation area New Westminster, B.C. 16 pp. and fold maps.

Rawson, M. and Wiles Ltd. 1967. A development plan for Musqueam Indian Reserves Two and Three. 25 pp. and appendices. 469. Biblio. - land use

Richmond, G. 1973. An analysis of manufacturing location in greater Vancouver. M.A. Thesis, School Comm. Reg. Plann., University of British Columbia.

Russel, Sir F. and H.C. Gilson (editors). 1972. A dis cussion on freshwater and estuarine studies of the effects of industry. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, B. 180 (1061):363-541. Save-the-Beaches Association. 1964. The Boundary Bay recrea tional development plan. Save-the-Beaches Association, Vancouver, B.C. Seelig, M.Y. 1973. Time present and time past: proposal for area conservation in Vancouver. Dept. Social Plan. Rept. 76 pp. Sewell, W.R.D. 1964. Economic and institutional aspects of adjustments to floods in the lower Fraser valley. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. 269 pp.

1965. Water management and floods in the Fraser River basin. Dept. Geogr. Res. Paper (100). University of Chicago. Siemens, A.H. (ed.) 1968. Lower Fraser valley: evolution of a cultural landscape. Tantalus Research Ltd. Van couver, B.C. B.C. Geog. Series (9). 207pp. South Surrey Planning Committee. 1973. South Surrey study. Surrey, B.C. 63 pp. Straight, L. Fishing guide - map of local fishing bars. Vancouver Sun Publishing. Sullivan, B. 1971. Immediate improvements to public trans portation in Greater Vancouver Regional District, pre liminary plan. Greater Vancouver Regional District Planning Dept., Vancouver, B.C. Swan Wooster Engineering Co. Ltd. 1967(a). Planning study for outer port development, at Vancouver, B.C. Part I. 87 pp. 1967(b). Planning study for outer port development at Vancouver, B.C. Part II. 38 pp. 470. Biblio. - land use

Swan Wooster Engineering Co, Ltd. 1967Cc). Planning study for outer port development at Vancouver, B.C. Part III. 21 pp. . 1968. Roberts Bank, Stage 1: dredging and reclamation. (General arrangement, wind information, soil information, and soundings before dredging of terminal area). Nos. V-1835-02-101 to 109. National Harbours Board, Vancou ver, B.C. , and Associated Engineering Services Ltd. 1966. Pre- liminary feasibility study of the proposed Tsawwassen marine development. Prepared for the Municipality of Delta, B.C. Swinnerton, G.S. 1969. Small farm function: a study of small farms in Matsqui Municipality in the lower main land of British Columbia. M.A. Thesis, Dept. Geog. , University of British Columbia. 166 pp. Task Force Technical Working Group. 1971. National Marine Parks - Strait of Georgia and Juan de Fuca. A report to the Interdepartmental Task Force on national marine parks. R.P. Malis, Chairman; Regional Director; National Parks Br.; D.I.A.N.D.; Ottawa. 16 pp. and appendices A and B. Taylor, D.G.B. 1972. The concept of development rights. University of British Columbia, Centre for Continuing Education and the Fac. of Agric. Sci. 8 pp. , and H.K. Eidsvik. 1965. Boundary Bay - Point Roberts examination of park potential. Natural and Historic Resources Br., Dept, of Northern Affairs and Nat. Res., Planning Div. Rept, (45). 10 pp. and addenda. Thompson, J. 1972. Landscape change and decision-making process: Roberts Bank, a case study. B.A. Thesis, Dept. Geog., University of Victoria. 42 pp. Turner, R.D. 1969. Provincial park planning in British Columbia. B.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Geog., University of Victoria. 84 pp. Underwood, McLellan, and Associates Limited. 1971. A study of pipeline corridors in the lower mainland of British Columbia. Greater Vancouver Regional District Planning Dept. Rept. 11 pp. 471. Biblio. - land use

United States Army, Coastal Engineering Center. 1966. Shore protection: planning and design. Dept. Army Corps of Engin. Tech. Rept. (4). 401 pp. and appendices.

United States National Parks Service and Parks Canada. 1973 An inventory of international park possibilities: Point Roberts, Boundary Bay, San Juan, and Gulf Islands Archi pelago. International Point Roberts Board Joint Rept. (various pages, and figures). University of British Columbia. 1965. Residential land subdivision: a physical evaluation (a study of selected cases in greater Vancouver). 155 pp. University of British Columbia, Centre for Continuing Edu cation. 1972. Land-use in the Fraser valley - whose concern? Compilation of papers presented at Resource Industries Programmes, Centre for Continuing Education, University of British Columbia. University of British Columbia, School of Community and Re gional Planning. 1965(a). Residential land subdivision: a physical evaluation. A study of selected cases in greater Vancouver, B.C Staff Research Project (2). Vancouver, B.C 155 pp. . 1965(b). Bridgeview: A surburban renewal study in Surrey, B.C. Student Project (4). Vancouver, B.C. 119 pp. . 1970. Delta in transition: a projection of trends. Planning Workshop 500 Papers. Vancouver, B.C 200 pp.

Vancouver Sun. 1974. At Ladner slough - harbour project planned by Delta. Vancouver Sun, Feb. 21, 1974.

Verner, C 1971(a). A socio-economic survey of the lower Fraser valley. University of British Columbia, Dept. Adult Educ, Res. Centre. . 1971(b). Rural people in the lower Fraser valley. University of British Columbia, Dept. Adult Educ, Res. Centre.

Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission. 1968. Pleasure boating study: Puget Sound and adjacent waters. Olympia, Washington. 472. Biblio. - land use

Webster, G.R. 1953. Trends in irrigation in the southern coastal area of B.C. In: Transactions of the 6th British Columbia Natural Resources Conference, pp. 49-51. Wersta, E. 1973. Proposal for bar fishing within the Fraser River delta. L.M.R. Wildl. Assoc. Rept. Widgeon Keys Organizers Ltd. 1961. The Boundary Bay pro ject to be known as Widgeon Keys. Vancouver, B.C. Wilcox, D. 1973. Open space and Boundary Bay. Forestry 492 paper, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia. 42 pp. Willis, Cunliffe, Tait and Company, Ltd. Feasibility study on the S. Spetifore and Sons Ltd. Boundary Bay farm. Victoria, B.C. 23 pp.

. 1969. A proposed development for the Semiahmoo Indian Reserve, British Columbia. Victoria, B.C. 44 pp. and appendices.

Wood, J.S. 1970. The Tsawwassen and Roberts Bank cause ways. Paper presented to Seminar on Coastal Engineer ing, University of British Columbia, May 29-30, 1970. Zonailo, G.W. 1973. Addendum to 1970 report on small craft harbour, Ladner, B.C. Prepared for the Corpora tion of Delta, Delta, B.C. by Swan Wooster Engineering Co. Ltd. 17 pp., and appendices and figures.

VIII. WASTE DISPOSAL AND POLLUTION PROBLEMS

Adams, E.C.W. 1973. Appendix C Sewage treatment plant study. Prepared for Corporation of Delta. 17 pp. (draft).

Anonymous. 1953. Sewerage and drainage of the Greater Vancouver area, British Columbia. MS. Rept. to the chairman and members, Vancouver and Districts Joint Sewerage and Drainage Board.

. 1971(a). Report of the Task Force on the Environmental Problems of the Lower Fraser and Strait of Georgia. Dept. Environ. Publ. 1_. 22 pp. and appendices. 473. Biblio. - pollution

Anonymous. 19 71(b). Report of the Task Force on the En vironmental Problems of the Lower Fraser and Strait of Georgia. Dept. Environ. Publ. 2. 106 pp. and appendices. . 1971(c). Report of the Task Force on the Environmen- tal Problems of the Lower Fraser and Strait of Georgia. Dept. Environ. Publ. 3>- 107 PP* Associated Engineering Services Ltd. 1973. Environmental impact study, Delta sewerage facilities. Corporation of Delta Rept. Barron and Strachan Associates. 1971. A community noise survey of Greater Vancouver regional district. Greater Vancouver Regional District, Surrey, B.C. Bayley, R.W.; E.V. Thomas; and P.F. Cooper. 1972. Some problems associated with the treatment of sewage by non-biological processes. In: Applications of New Concepts of Physical-Chemical Wastewater Treatment, pp. 119-132. Bernard, F.R, 1970. Factors influencing the viability and behaviour of the enteric bacterium Escherichia coli in estuarine waters. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. (218). 30 pp. Berrow, M.L. and J. Weber. 1972. Trace elements in sewage sludges. J. Sci. Fd. Agric. 21: 93-100. Bligh, E.G. 1971. Mercury levels in Canadian fish. Proced, Roy. Soc. Can., Internat'1. Symp. on Mercury in Man s Environment. Feb. 15, 16, 1971. Block, F. 1962. Log towing on the lower reaches of the Fraser River. B.S.F. Thesis, Fac. Forestry, Univer sity of British Columbia. Bockheim, J.C; T.M. Ballard; and R.P. Willington. 1974. Soil disturbance associated with timber harvesting in southwestern British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. (in press). Bowering, R. et al. A preliminary survey of industrial wastes in the lower Fraser valley. 474. Biblio. - pollution

British Columbia Department of Lands, Forests and Water Resources, Pollution Control Branch. 1967. Discussion and recommendations from "Pollution and the Fraser." Rept. (1). Victoria.

British Columbia Research. 1973(a). Environmental studies at Iona Island. Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drain age District Rept. 100 pp. . 1973(b). Annual report, water quality studies in the lower Fraser River re: Lulu Island sewage treatment plant effluent. Prepared for Greater Vancouver Sewer age and Drainage District.

Bunnel, F.R. and D.L. MacKay. 1973. Greater Vancouver Re gional District tech. summary report on refuse disposal study, 1972. Greater Vancouver Regional District Publ. 157 pp., and appendices and figures. Burrows, E.M. 1971. Assessment of pollution effects by the use of algae. Proc. Roy. Soc. , London. (B) 177: 295-306.

Canada Department of the Environment. 1971. The Burrard Inlet - Howe Sound area. Preliminary description of existing environmental conditions. 69 pp. and appendices, (draft).

. 1972. Brief presented to the British Columbia Pollu tion Control Board. Inquiry into the food precessing, agriculturally-oriented, and other miscellaneous indust ries. Environ. Prot. Serv., Can. Dept. Environ.

Clarke, M.F. 1973. Agriculture and the environment. Report to the Pacific Region Task Force on the Lower Fraser River and Strait of Georgia. 16 pp. (preliminary report, 7 pp.)

Corporation of Delta. View to the future. Interim report on sewage treatment in Delta.

Curtis, E.J. and I.P. Toms. 1972. Techniques for counting carbon-14 and phosphorus-32 labelled samples of polluted natural waters. Liquid Scintillation Counting 2_: 167- 180.

Davis, J.C. 1973. Sublethal effects of bleached Kraft pulp mill effluent on respiration and circulation in sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka), J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 30: 369-377. 475. Biblio. - pollution

Department of the Environment. 1971. The environmental consequence of the proposed oil transport between Valdez and Cherry Point refinery. Water Management Serv. Bull. (13).

Department of Fisheries and Forestry. Report to the Task Force on the Environmental Problems of the Lower Fraser and Strait of Georgia. Engineering Division, Water Plan, and Operat. Br., Dept. of Fish, and For. 6 pp.

Department of Public Works. 1971. Report on activities of the Department of Public Works in relation to the environment in British Columbia. 5 pp.

Devlin, D.C 1968. Wastewater treament plant design ex perience at Vancouver, B.C. J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 40(3): 468-477. Dobrocky Seatech Ltd. 1973. Marine monitoring programme at Tsawwassen Bay: pre-discharge environmental and bio logical resource data; Addendum - coliform and pesti cide levels in edible crabs. 9 pp.

Environment Canada. 1973(a). Brief presented to the British Columbia Pollution Control Board inquiry into municipal wastes disposal. Environ. Can., Pac. Reg. Rept. 229 pp. and appendices. . 1973(b). Zinc and boron pollution in coastal waters of British Columbia by effluents from the pulp and paper industry. 13 pp. and appendices.

Environmental Protection Service. 1972(a). Brief presented to the British Columbia Pollution Control Branch in quiry into the chemical and petroleum industries. . 1972(b). Brief presented to the British Columbia Pollution Control Branch inquiry into the food pro cessing, agriculturally-oriented, and other miscell aneous industries. Environ. Can. Rept. . 1974. Pesticide analyses. Environ. Prot. Serv. Unpubl. data

Farrow, M. 1974. Fraser mouth garbage site described as potential killer. Vancouver Sun, March 2, 1974. Finegan, R.P. 1969. Sewage and pesticides in the marine environment. B.C. Fish Wildl. Br., Wildl. Mgmt. Rept (10). 4 pp. 476. Biblio. - pollution

Fisheries Development Council. 1965. Summaries of fish eries research re: the pollution problem. Report of the Dept. of Fisheries and related agencies; Research sub-committee; Fisheries Development Council. 151 pp.

Fisheries Service. Activities of the Fisheries Service with respect to the environment. A submission to the Task Force on the Lower Fraser River and Strait of Georgia. Fish. Serv. Unpubl. data. 8 pp. Fjarlie, R.L.I. 1950. The oceanographic phase of the Vancouver sewage problem. Joint Committee on Oceano graphy, Pac. Oceanog. Grp., Nanaimo, B.C 23 pp. and figures.

Franson, M.A. 1973. Environmental quality in greater Vancouver. Greater Vancouver Regional District, Plan ning Dept. Rept. 39 pp. French, B. 1972. The physical properties and suitability for septic tank drainfields of Fraser valley soil. B.A. Thesis, University of British Columbia. Fyfe,'R. 1968. Organochlorine pesticide residues found in migratory birds wintering on the Fraser River delta. Can. Wildl. Serv. Mimeo.

Gilligan, R.M. 1972(a). Forecasting the effects of pollu ting discharges on estuaries. Part I. Chem, and Indus, pp. 865-874.

. 1972(b). Forecasting the effects of polluting dis charges on estuaries. Part II. Chem. and Indus, pp. 909-916.

. 1972(c). Forecasting the effects of polluting dis charges on estuaries. Part III. Chem. and Indus, pp. 950-958.

Goldie, C.A, 1967. Pollution and the Fraser. Rept. I. Preliminary investigations of waste disposal to the lower Fraser River. B.C. Poll. Control Br. 55 pp. and appendices.

Government of Canada. 1971(a). Report of the Task Force on the Envrionmental Problems of the Lower Fraser and Strait of Georgia. Vol. I. Introduction and objec tives, (draft: confidential). 477. Biblio. - pollution

^oHhfS?rait ^V"onmentalFn,HCanada- 1971Cb)-Problems ReP°rtof theofLowerthe FraserTask ForceInd water and fanT^ -Vo1; V' Setting; Problems in air,

^men^l^h^6150^ ?£ the Task Force on the Environ- gia Vol T?? °Af *he.Lower Fraser and Strait of Geor- ?ha'i„,, c Activities of Government agencies in co'nfldrntial)561 ",d Strait °f Georîa- 10" PP- Cdraft GreLionsVr^TrLions Gate SewageSeweraSetreatmentand plantDrainagedesignDistrict.data. 21965.pp. —5 HUândC??gures?ti0n °f amendments to the Rawn Report. VancouverV,^971' Ge,neralSewerageandandstatisticalDrainage Districtinformation4 ppon GreaterGreai-er ~Fras9er-RêeatLrtra?96n972eWerage ni ^^ Dist"« —ioirisland?JlSS ppP°rt: Envir°nmental studies at Hansen, G. ; G. Carter; W. Towne; and G. O'Neal 1971 t„„ storage and rafting in public waters. 56 pp.' L°g "^vtncouver'H^h1- Rep°rt by Clonal Harbours Board re: InrcoUmbatingrb03rpparea P°UUtl0n pr°blems "— Institute of Environmental Studies, Douglas College 1Q74 technicalLc^f ,lnsummaryresP°nsereport^ Greateron refuseVancouverdisposalûdy.Regional District2! pp? InSpniw<°f Oceanography, Dalhousie University. 1970 s^r^nSr saSfct"-197°- DalhousL u"™»^. Ker Priestman, Keenan and Associates. 1972. M.S A Joint "±*i1S"aeMTrgseewaaeVf?fraCteffluent pumpingf°r SUpplystation,and installationforcemain andof Vallfvvaney RegionalReaio^?eS-RiV"-District. PrePared f°r Central Fraser 478. Biblio. - pollution

Laithwaite, J.L. 1971. The use of the North Arm Fraser River by forest products industry in competition with other users. B.S.F. Thesis, Fac. Forestry, University of British Columbia. Lea, R.S. 1913. The Burrard peninsula joint sewerage scheme. 14 pp. and figures. Leach, B.A. Sewage disposal and wildlife «a"f!^^^^. Burns Bog: further discussion. Douglas College lntorma tion Booklet (15). Leach, J.M. and A.N. Thakore..1973 Identification of the coAstituents of Kraft pulping effluent that are toxic to juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus k-osutch). J. «sn. Res. Bd. Can. 30(4): 479-484. tôî,Leain; tatTransactionsiq^ Practicalof the"thVitishproblems ofColumbiawater pollution.Natural Resources Conference, pp. TF9-183. Lee Doran Associates Ltd. 1974. Log handling, water, and fish. Ecol. Water Newsletter. 1(3). 1 PP- MacLaren J.W. : K.E. Patrick; and F.R. Bunnell. 1969. Sewerage and drainage of the Greater Vancouver area British Columbia. Summary of major PollînwS schemes. Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District Rept. 22 pp, and appendices and figures.

Malysheff,Fraser valleyA. 1951.of BritishLead poisoningColumbia;^/îîûdr"a chemical study., M.A. Thesis, Dept. of Zoology, University of British Columbia. 93 pp. Martens, D.W.; R.W. Gordon; and J.A. Servizi. 1971. Toxic ity and treatment of de-inking wastes containing deter gents. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (25). 24 pp. McKee, J.E. and H.W. Wolfe (editors].1963. Water quality criteria, 2nd edition. Res. Agency Calif., State YJatex Res. Control Bd. Public. (3a). 548 pp. Oloffs, P.C; L.J. Albright; and S.Y. Szeto. 1972. Fate and behaviour of 5 chlorinated hydrocarbons in three natural waters. Can. J. Microbiol. 18(9): 1393-1398. 480. Biblio. - pollution

Peterson, G.R.; H.V. Warren; R.E. Delavault; and K. Fletcher, 1970. Heavy metal content of some freshwater fishes in British Columbia. Fish. Tech. Circ. (2). 34 pp. Quayle, D.B. 1969. Paralytic shellfish poisoning in British Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bull. (168). 68 pp.

, and F. Bernard. 1966. Shellfish toxicity records, 1942-1965. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (860). 210 pp.

Raudsepp, V. and W.N. Venables. 1973. Alternate methods for treatment and disposal of community wastewaters. B.C. Water Res. Serv., Dept. Lands, For., Wat. Res. 99 pp. Rawn, A.M.; G.G. Hyde; and J. Oliver. 1953. Sewerage and's^ drainage of the greater Vancouver area, British Columbia. Report to chairman and members of Vancouver and Districts Joint Sewerage and Drainage Board. 278 pp. )

Rusch, W.C. 1972. A computer simulation of fecal coliforms in the Fraser estuary. M. App. Sc. Thesis, Dept. Civil Eng., University of British Columbia.

Sansom, J.D. and E.C.W. Adams. 1973. View to the future. An interim report on sewage treatment in Delta. Sub mitted to Corporation of Delta by Committee for Environ mental Protection. 24 pp.

Scott, G. and B. Hyde. 1973. Effects of noise on humans and wildlife: existing noise levels at Boundary Bay and impacts of reopening Boundary Bay airport on recreation al use of Boundary Bay. University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry, Forestry 492 paper. 42 pp. and appendices and maps.

Scott, P.F. 1974. Vancouver International Airport report on storm drainage and sanitary sewerage systems. Envir. Can., Environ. Prot. Serv., Fed. Activ. Abatement Grp. (Pac. Reg.). 16 pp. and appendices (draft: confidential).

Servizi, J.A.; E.T. Stone; and R.W. Gordon. 1966. Toxic ity and treatment of Kraft pulp bleach plant waste. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (13). 34 pp.

Oloffs, P.C; L.J. Albright; S.Y. Szeto; and J. Lau. 1973. Factors affecting the behaviour of 5 chlorinated hydro carbons in two natural waters and their sediments. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 30: 1619-1623. O'Sullivan, A.J. 1971. Ecological effects of sewage dis charge in the marine environment. Proc. Roy. Soc, London. B. 172: 331-351.

Pacific Northwest Pollution Control Council. 1971. Task Force Report on Log Storage and Rafting in public Waters. 56 pp. / Paish, H. and Associates Ltd. 1972(a). The west coast oil threat in perspective: an assessment of the natural re sources, social and economic impacts of marine oil transport in southwest B.C coastal waters. Vol.1. Summary. . 1972(b). The west coast oil threat in perspective: an assessment of the natural resources, social and economic impacts of marine oil transport in southwest B.C. coastal waters. Vol. II: Main Report. 303 pp. . 1972(c). The west coast oil threat in perspective: an assessment of the natural resources, social and economic impacts of marine oil transport in southwest B.C. coastal waters. Vol. III. Maps. Parsons, T.R. 1972. Pollution problems in the Strait of Georgia. In: M. Ruivo (editor). Marine Pollution and Sea Life; F.A.O. Tech. Conf. on Marine Pollution and Its Effects on Living Resources and Fishing; Rome, Italy, 9-18 Dec, 1970. Fishing News (Books) Ltd., London, England. 624 pp. , and H. Seki. 1970. Importance and general implications of organic matter in aquatic environments. In: Organic Matter in Natural Waters. (D.W. Hood, editor). Inst. Mar. Sci., Univ. Alaska Publ. (1). 27 pp.

Parsons, T.R. and W.A. Heath. 1973. Preliminary survey of mercury and other metals contained in animals from the Fraser River mudflats. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 30(7): 1014-1016.

Pearson, R.J. 1969. Lead poisoning in the Anatinae of the lower mainland of British Columbia. Can. Wildl. Serv. Unpubl. Rept. 481. Biblio. - pollution

Servizi, J.A.; D.W. Martens; and R.W. Gordon. 1970. Effects of decaying bark on incubating salmon eggs. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (24). 28 pp.

.1971. Toxicity and oxygen demand of decaying bark. J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 4_3: 278-292.

Servizi, J.A.; R.W. Gordon; and D.W. Martens. 1971. Heavy metal criteria for sockeye and pink salmon. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. MS. Rept. 23 pp.

Servizi, J.A. and R.W. Gordon. 1972. Detoxification of Kraft pulp mill effluent by an aerated lagoon. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (26). 24 pp.

Servizi, J.A. and D.W. Martens. 1974. Preliminary survey of toxicity of chlorinated sewage to sockeye and pink salmon. Internat. Pac. Salm. Fish. Comm. Prog. Rept. (30). 42 pp.

Sherk, J.A.; J.M. O'Connor; and D.A. Neumann. 1972. Effects of suspended and deposited sediments on estuarine organ isms. Phase II. Report of Department of Environmental Research, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Natural Re sources Institute, University of Maryland. 107 pp.

Sinha, E. 1970. Coastal/estuarine pollution - an annotated bibliography. Ocean. Engin. Info. Ser. (3). 87 pp.

Snodgrass, J.M. 1972. A possible means of monitoring pol lutants in the marine environment. Scripps Inst, of Oceanog. Rept. 4 pp.

Sopper, W.E. and L.T. Kardos (editors). 1973. Recycling treated municipal wastewater and sludge through forest and cropland. (Symp. Proc). Pennsilvania State Univer sity Press. 479 pp.

Sprague, J.B. 1963. Resistence of four freshwater crusta ceans to lethal temperatures and low oxygen. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 20(2): 387-415.

Tagatz, M.E. 1961. Reduced oxygen tolerance and toxicity of petroleum products to juvenile American shad. Chesa peake Sci. 2: 65-71. 482. Biblio. - pollution

Tanner, G.; G. Transolini; and L. Nemeth, 1973. A study on wastewater characteristics of greater Vancouver sewage treatment plants and major sewers. Environ. Prot. Serv. Surveillance Rept. (EPS 5-PR-73-11). 223 pp. Thomas, J.F.J. 1954. Industrial water sources of Canada. Fraser River drainage basin, 1950-51. Can. Dept. Mines and Tech. Surv., Mines Br., Indus. Min. Div., Water Surv. Rept. (6). Thompson, J.A.J. 1972. Fluoride. In: Annual Report, Pac. Environ. Inst., Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Dept. Environ, pp. 20. . 1972. Mercury. In: Annual Report, Pac. Environ. Inst., Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Dept. Environ, pp. 19-20. Tully, J.P. 1960. On structure, entrainment, and transport in estuarine embayments. In: Waste disposal in the marine environment. (E.A. Pearson, editor). Proc. 1st Internat. Conf. on Waste Disposal in the Marine Environ ment. Pergammon Press, New York. pp. 526-539. Turner, M. 1972. Land, air, water pollution in the greater Vancouver regional district. Grt. Vane Reg. Dist. Unpubl Paper (3204). Ulrich, V.A. 1971. Re: Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development: environmental problems of the lower Fraser River and Strait of Georgia, British Colum bia. Submitted to W.K. Sharpe, Planning and Operations Br., Dept. Fish, and For. 7 pp, United States Department of Interior. 1973. Estuarine pollution - a bibliography. Sci. Info. Center, Off. Water Resources Res. 477 pp. United States Department of Transportation, Coast Guard. 1971. Pollution of water by oil in the Puget Sound estuary (Jan. 1, 1970 - Jan. 1, 1971).

United States Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. 1969. National estuarine pollution study.

United States Senate. 1970. United States national estuarine pollution study. Publ. U.S. Senate through U.S. Dept. Interior. 633 pp.

Villamerr. , J. 1973. The characteristics of wastewater from British Columbia fish processing plants. Pollu tion Abatement Section, Pac. Reg., Environ. Prot. Serv., Environ. Can. Unpubl. Rept. 21 pp. 483. Biblio. - pollution

Walden, CC; J.E. Howard; and G.C. Froud. 1970. A quanti tative assay of Kraft mill effluents which effect fish respiration. Water Res. 4: 61-68.

Waldichuk, M. 1954. Pollution study in Nanaimo harbour. Trans. 7th British Columbia Nat. Res. Conf. pp. 300- 303.

. 1961. Sedimentation of radioactive wastes in the sea. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Biol. Stn., Nanaimo, B.C. Circ. (59). 37 pp.

. 1962(a). Pollution in coastal waters of B.C. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Prog. Rept. (114): 13-18.

. 1962(b). Some water pollution problems connected with the disposal of pulp mill wastes. Can. Fish. Cult. (31): 3-34.

. 1966. Currents from aerial photography in coastal pol lution studies. 3rd Internat'l. Conf. on Water Poll. Res. Sect. (3), Paper IT3). 22 pp.

. 1968. Waste disposal in relation to the physical ev- vironment-oceanographic aspects. Syesis 1^ 4-27.

. .1969. Effects of pollutants on marine organisms: im proving methodology of evaluation - a review of the literature. J. Water Poll. Cont. Fed. pp. 1586-1601.

. 1970. Industrial pollution. I. Effects of non-meta llic contaminants. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (1115) 52 pp.

Watkins, J. and G. Tanner. 1973. Wastewater characteristics of greater Vancouver regional district treatment plants and major sewers. Environmental Protection Service Rept. Werner, A.E. and W.F. Hyslop. 1968. Data record: gases from sediments in polluted coastal waters of British Columbia, 1964-1966. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (958). 81 pp.

Werner, A.E. and A.H.F. Choo. 1972. Data record: water quality impairment through decaying wood. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (1224). 109 pp. 484. Biblio. - pollution

Werner, A.E. and R. Angotti. 1973. Data record: natural decay of immersed wood particles. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. MS. Rept. (1278). 168 pp.

White, W.H. and K.E. Northcote. 1962. Distribution of metals in a modern marine environment. Econ. Geol. 57: 405-409.

Williams, P.M. and K.S. Chan. 1966. Distribution and speciation of iron in natural waters: transition from river water to a marine environment, British Columbia, Canada. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 23_(4) : 575-593.

Wilson, A.H.; F.R. Bunnell; D.L. MacKay; and S.W. Carlisle. 1970. Consolidation of amendments to the Rawn Report on sewerage and drainage of the greater Vancouver area, B.C Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District Rept. 15 pp.

IX. MAPS

Anonymous. Composite picture of Fraser delta from aerial photographs. . 1928. Vancouver. Geological Survey of Canada, Map (196A).(out of print). Scale: 1 inch = 8 miles. . 1959. Victoria-Vancouver. Geological Survey of Canada. Map (1960A). Scale: 1 inch = 8 miles. . 1962. British Columbia. Geological Survey of Canada. Map (932A). Scale: 1 inch = 20 miles.

Armstrong, J.E. 1950. Preliminary map Vancouver North (east half). B.C. Geological Survey of Canada paper (50-26). (out of print). Scale: 1 inch = h mile. . 1954. Preliminary map Vancouver North, B.C. Geolo gical Survey of Canada Paper (53-28). 7 pp.(out of print). Scale: 1 inch = 1 mile. British Columbia Department of Lands and Forests. 1959. Vancouver, B.C. Sheet 92G/SW (1st edition, Dec. 1, 1959). Scale: 1 inch = 2 miles. 485. Biblio - maps

British Columbia Department of Lands, Forests and Water Resources. 1967. Langley, B.C. (New Westminster Land District). Sheet 92G/SE (2nd edition, Jan. 6, 1967). Scale: 1 inch = 2 miles. British Columbia Department of Mines and Petroleum Resources Southwest and Vancouver Island, B.C. Titles map (7). Scale: 1 inch = 10 miles. . Titles map 92G-3. (map shows the location of all per mits, drilling reservations, natural gas licenses, leases and all wells.) Order by N.T.S. Scale: 1 inch = 1 mile.

British Columbia Lands Service. 1965. The lower coast bul letin area (3). B.C. Lands Serv., Dept, Lands, For., Water Res., Victoria. 60 pp.

Canada Department of Energy, Mines and Resources. 1974. Geological Survey of Canada. Compilation of marine and geological data and selected related studies of the Pacific coast of Canada. Descriptive map of Scale: 1 = 1,000,000 with Strait of Georgia map insert of Scale: 1 = 250,000 accompanies bibliography.

Canada Department of Environment, Lands Directorate. 1973. Strait of Georgia-Puget Sound basin, generalized land use map. Ottawa. Scale: 1 = 500,000. • 1973. Strait of Georgia - Puget Sound basin, water use map. Scale: 1 = 500,000. Canada Department of the Environment. 1972. Boundary Bay, lostera marine survey map. Shows herring spawning areas and vegetative zones. Vancouver, B.C. Canadian Hydrographic Service. Strait of Georgia to Active Pass. Scale: 1 inch = 30,000 inches. • Active Pass to Burrard Inlet. Scale :1 inch = 30,000 inches.

• 1962. Fraser River - entrance to North Arm. Field sheet 274S. Scale: 6 inches = 1 mile.

• 1971(a). Approaches to Vancouver Harbour. Scale: 1 inch = 20,000 feet.

\ 486. Biblio. - maps

Canadian Hydrographic Service. 1971(b). Roberts Bank L.W. examination to fit sheet 2273L. Scale: 1 inch = 30,000 inches.

• 1972. Fraser River - North Arm. Scale: 1 inch = 18,000 feet.

. 1973. East Point to Sand Heads. Scale: 1 inch = 80,000 feet.-

Department of Public Works. 1972(a). Fraser River soundings Sand Heads to Steveston. Master (C74), Sheet 1. Scale: 1 inch = 1,000 feet. . 1972(b). Fraser River soundings - Steveston to Deas Island. Master (C74), Sheet 2. Scale: 1 inch = 1,000 feet . 1972(c). Fraser River soundings - Deas Island to An- nacis Island. Master (C74), Sheet 3. Scale: 1 inch = 1,000 feet. Energy Development Sector. 1971. Electric power in Canada - regional maps: British Columbia - main electric trans mission system and principal power generating develop ments. Dec, 1971. Scale: 3 cm =20 miles. Geological Survey of Canada. 1970. British Columbia. Index Sheet 92, June 1, 1970. Scale: 1 inch = 1,000,000 feet. . 1971(a). British Columbia-Alberta. Index Sheet 82; July 31, 1971. Scale: 1 inch = 1,000,000 feet. . 1971(b). Alberta-British Columbia. Index Sheet 83; July 31, 1971. Scale: 1 inch=l,000,000 feet. . 1971(c). British Columbia. Index Sheet 103; July 31, 1971. Scale: 1 inch = 1,000,000 feet. . 1971(d). British Columbia-Alberta. Index Sheet 82; July 31, 1971. Scale: 1 inch = 1,000,000 feet. . 1971(e). Alberta-British Columbia. Index Sheet 83; July 31, 1971. Scale: 1 inch = 1,000,000 feet. . 1971(f). British Columbia. Index Sheet 103; July 31, "1971. Scale: 1 inch = 1,000,000 feet. 487. Biblio. - maps

Geological Survey of Canada. 1972(a). British Columbia. Index Sheet 93; April 30, 1972. Scale: 1 inch = 1,000,000 feet. . 1972(b). British Columbia. Index Sheets 104 and 114E; April 30, 1972. Scale: 1 inch = 1,000,000 feet.

. 1973. British Columbia. Index Sheet 94; January 31, 1973. Scale: 1 inch = 1,000,000 feet.

Greater Vancouver Regional District. Map showing local and regional government units in the lower mainland planning area. 1 pp.

. Map of Greater Vancouver Regional District. No other information provided. Greater Vancouver Regional District, Planning Department. Greater Vancouver drawing (WF-1322), Sheet 1. Scale: 1 inch = 2 miles.

. 1970. Existing development, 1970. Scale: 1 inch = 3 miles. LeRoy, O.E. 1908. Nanaimo and New Westminster (929 SW ^). 9nni?gical Survey of Canada Separate Report(996), Map (997). scale 1 inch = 4 miles. Lockwood Survey Corporation Ltd. 1967. Project 67-100 Sturgeon Banks-Roberts Bank. Lines 1-5: 1 inch = 2 000 feet. Lines 6-32: 1 inch = 1,000 feet. McElhamey Surveying and Engineering Ltd. 1973. Vancouver Air Services, Dept. of Transport Ref.iT/^nl^Tl#06002-0, AiJVort'drawings V1-G797-1 to V1-G797-15 Scale: 1 inch = 200 feet. Ric1!?^'

Roddick, J.A. and J.E. Armstrong. 1956. Pitt Lake (Vancouver east half) Map. New Westminster District, British Columbia. Canada Dept. Mines and Tech. Surveys, Paper (8-1956) .

Swan Wooster Engineering Co. Ltd. 1967(a). Roberts Bank and Sturgeon Bank harbour study - topographic maps (Scale 1 inch = 1,500 feet. 2-ft. contour interval); prepared by Lockwood Survey Corporation, April, 1967. National Harbours Board. . 1967(b). Roberts Bank harbour study - topographic map. Submitted to National Harbour Board. Scale: 1 inch = 1,500 feet. . 1967(c). Sturgeon Bank harbour study - topographic map. Submitted to National Harbours Board. Scale: 1 inch = 1,500 feet. . 196 7(d). I. Roberts Bank harbour study. Scale: 1 inch = 15,000 feet; 2-foot contour intervals; based on Lockwood aerial surveys. . 1967(e). II. Sturgeon Bank harbour study. Scale: 1 inch = 15,000 feet; 2-foot contour intervals; based on Lockwood aerial surveys. . 1968. Roberts Bank, Stage I: dredging and reclamation National Harbours Board drawings U-1835-02-101 to U-1835-02-109. (general arrangement; wind information; soil information; soundings before dredging; terminal area and sections; causeway sections). 1973(a). B.C. Ferries - Route II. Proposed ferry terminal key plan. Prepared for Department of Highways. Scale: 1 inch = 10 nautical miles. 1973(b). B.C. Ferries - Route II. Proposed ferry terminal alternate sites. Scale:l inch = 10,000 feet. Prepared for Department of Highways. 4m,

AUTHOR INDEX 490. Author index

Author Index Table of Content s

A v Page 491 B "•••••• • , 492 C '. ' •• 494 D 497 E ••'••• • - 498 F • .. 498 G ... 500

H • . 501

I ...... 503

J 503

K 504

L• , 505

M 506

N 508

0 ...... 509

P 509

Q 510

R 511

S .. .. 511

T 514

U ... 515

V 516

W 516

Z 518 491. Author index

Author Index

Adams, E.C.W. pp. 472, 480. Adams, J.R. pp. 102, 106, 409. Ages, A.B. pp.61, 379, 381, 382. Ahmad, N. pp. 355. Ahti, T. pp. 435. Albright, L.J. pp. 126, 430, 478, 479. Alderdice, D.F. pp. 407. Aldrich, J.W. pp. 438. Alexander, G.J. pp. 407. Alkier. pp. 454. Allan, J. pp. 355. Alonso, W. pp. 455. American Fisheries Society. pp. 407. American Geological Institute. pp. 344. American Ornithologists' Union. pp. 438. Anderson, A.D. pp. 407. Anderson, W.J. pp. 441. Andrew, F.J. pp. 108, 407. Angotti, R. pp. 484. Anonymous. pp. 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 190, 198, 344, 355, 372, 391, 407, 408, 409, 430, 438, 455, 472, 473, 484. Armstrong, J.E. pp. 10, 12, 15, 17, 355, 356, 484, 4 o o . Armstrong, J.M. pp. 344. Aro, K.U. pp. 105, 106, 107, 409. Aron, W. pp. 438. Arvantidis, N.V. pp. 455. Associated Engineering Services Ltd. pp. 206, 470, Atherton, L. pp. 344. Atkinson, C.E. pp. 409. Atkinson, W. pp. 385. Atmospheric Environment Service. dd 35 36 3Q 369, 370. PP* ''' Austin, W.C. pp. 395.

\ 492. Author index -B

Babcock, L.P. pp. 409. Backler, B.E. pp. 356. B.A.CM. Industries. pp. 455. Baillie, K.D. pp. 81, 395. Baines, W.D. pp. 381. Ball, E.A.R. pp. 409. Ballard, T.M. pp. 473. Bandoni, R.J. pp. 430. Bangham, R.V. pp. 102, 106, 409. Barlow, J.P. pp. 395. Barlow, J.W. pp. 381. Barnes, R.D. pp. 395. Barnes, R.S.K. pp. 344. Barr, S.M. pp. 356. Barraclough, W.E. pp. 79, 95, 103, 114, 381, 387, 394, 395, 402, 403, 409, 410, 420, 424. Barron and Strachan Associates. pp. 473. Bart, A. L. pp. 356. Barter, J. pp. 376. Bartholomew, H. and Associates. pp. 455. Bary, B.M. pp. 391. % Bates, CC. pp. 345. Battelle Memorial Institute. pp. 345. Baudat, C pp. 370. Bauer, W. pp. 345. BawdeA, CA. pp. 82, 90, 92, 148, 345, 396, 430. Bayley, R.W. pp. 473. B.C. Research. pp. 47, 247, 248, 249, 372. Beaton, J.D. pp. 356, Beaulieu, A.C pp. 456. Becker, CD. pp. 396. Becker, R.E. pp. 171, 345, 438. Beedle, B. pp. 452. Behrens, S. pp. 396. Beightler, C.S. pp. 374. Bell, F.H. pp. 410, 427. Bell, M.A.M. pp. 430. ^ jion Bennedict, A.H. pp. 54, 55, 56, 57, 126, 376, 429. Bennett, M.G. pp. 118, 410. Benson, W.A. • pp. 171, 318, 345, 438, 439, 456. Bent, A.C. pp. 163, 318, 439. Berkeley, A.A. pp. 396. Berkeley, C pp. 396, 397. Berkeley, E. pp. 396, 397. Bernard, F.R. pp. 28, 92, 93, 230, 357, 391, 397, 398, 405, 473, 480. 493. Author index - B

Berrow, M.L. pp. 47 3. Berry, E.W. pp. 357. Beverage, J.P. pp. 345 Bigg, M.A. pp. 439. Bilton, H.T. pp. 410. Birch, L. pp. 456. Bishop, S.O. pp. 381. Bismanis, J.K. pp. 357 Bistwell and Leach. pp 376 Blench, T. pp. 60, 380 Bligh, E.G. pp. 473. Block, F. pp. 473. Blunden, R.H. pp. 10, 15, 17, 357 Bockheim, J.C pp. 473. Bolton, L.L. pp. 107, 410 Booth, T. pp. 148, 431. Borden, CE. pp. 118, 410 Bourgeois, W.S. pp. 357. Bourne, N.B. pp. 397, 398, 405. Bourne, R. pp. 357. Bourne, W.S. pp. 392. Bousfield, E. L. pp. 392. Bowering, R. pp. 473. Boyce, S.V.L. pp. 345. Boyle, H.C. pp. 357, 389. Boyle, J.W. pp. 389. Bradley, E.H. pp. 344. Bradley, O.E. pp. 357. Bradley, W.H. pp. 225, 392, 398. Brahtze, J.F.P. pp. 34 5. Brannon, E.L. pp. 108, 410. Brett, C P. pp 352. Brett, J R. pp 345, 407. Brieve, D. pp. 456. British Columbia Department of Agriculture. pp. 456. British Columbia Department of Highways, pp. 357. British Columbia Department of Industrial Development, Trade, and Commerce. PP 456. British Columbia Department of Lands and Forests. pp. 484. British Columbia Department of Lands Forests, and Water Resources. pp. 474, 485 British Columbia Department of Lands Forests, and Water Resources Pollution Control Branch. pp. 474. British Columbia Department of Mines and Petroleum Resources. pp. 485. 494. Author index -BC

British Columbia Department of Recreation and Conservation. pp. 392, 456. British Columbia Energy Board. pp. 410. British Columbia Environmental Council. ' pp. 345. British Columbia Fish and Wildlife Branch. pp. 410, r X X j ^ O VJ # British Columbia Forest Service. pp. 456. British Columbia Government. pp. 456. British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority. pp. 456. British Columbia Land Inventory. pp. 457. British Columbia Lands Service. pp.'345 ,*485. British Columbia Natural History Society.' pp! 439. British Columbia Parks Branch. pp. 354, 457. British Columbia Remote Sensing Centre. pp. 372. British Columbia Research Council. pp. 54, 55, 372, 377, 381, 457, 474. British Columbia Waterfowl Society, Vancouver. pp. 440 British Trust for Conservation Volunteers Ltd. pp. 440 Brooks, A. pp. 440. Brown, W.L. pp. 356. Bruce, J.P. pp. 370. Bull, C.J. pp. 411. Bunnell, F.R. pp. 205, 215, 216, 217, 474, 478, 484. Burgess, T.E. pp. 153, 157, 318, 440. Burkhalter, R.A. pp. 3, 82, 126, 378, 405, 430. Burns, J.E. pp. 411. Burns, R.E. pp. 379. Burrell, D. pp. 377. Burrows, E.M. pp. 147, 431, 474. Burwash, E.M.J. pp. 358. Butler, T.H. pp. 99, 398, 399, 405. Butters, J. pp. 385.

Cairns, A. pp. 82, 90, 142, 144, 146, 346, 399, 431 Calaprice, J.R. pp. 345. Calgrove, G.S. pp. 411. Cameron, A.T. pp. 383, 392, 431. Cameron, J.N. pp. 440. Cameron, W.M. pp. 346. Campbell, M.H. pp. 399. 495. Author index -C

Campbell, R.W. PP 167, 169, 170, 318, 326, 440, 441. Camsell, C. pp. 369. Canada Centre for Remote Sensing. PP 354. Canada Department of Energy, Mines and Resources pp. 485. Canada Department of Environment, Lands Directorate, pp. 485. Canada Department of the Environment. pp. 474, 485 Canadian Department of Agriculture. pp. 358 Canadian Department of Fisheries, Pacific Area PP 104, 411. Canadian Geological Survey. pp. 358. Canadian Hydrographic Service. pp. 381 485, 486 Canadian Hydrographic Survey. pp. 358. Canadian National Railway. pp 457. Canadian Wildlife Service. pp 346 441 457 Carl, G.C pp. 101, 102, 111, 112, 114. 169, 324 326, 392, 411, 441, 442. Carlisle, S.W. pp. 484. Carreiro, J.F. pp. 453. Carswell, H.T. pp. 358. Carter, G pp. 477. Carter, L J. pp. 346. Carter, N.M. pp 415. Cartwright, J.W. pp. 411. Caverhill, P. pp. 442. C.B.A. Engineering Ltd. pp 457. Centre for Research in Water Resources, University of Texas. pp. 382. Chadbreck, R. pp. 442. Chan, K.S. PP 377, 379 484. Chao, C.T. PP 358. Chapin, F. PP 457. Chapman, C.K. pp. 358. Chapman, V.J. pp. 431. Chatwin, B.M. pp. 114, 412 Chinitz, B. pp. 457. Chitty, D.H. pp. 392. Choo, A.H.F. pp. 483. Chow, T.J. pp. 382. Christian, C. pp. 457. Christiani and Nielson of Canada Ltd. pp. 372 Christie, R.L. pp. 358. Church, I.R. pp. 318, 346 Church, M. pp 358. Clarke, J. pp 412. 496. Author index - C

Clark, K.B. pp. 458. Clark, M.J.R. pp, 377. Clarke, J. pp. 392, Clarke, M.F. pp. 210, 211, 458, 474. Clawson, M. pp. 458. Clay, C.H. pp. 412. Cleas, R. pp. 349. Clemens, W.A. pp. 101, 102, 107, 111, 112, 113, 114 123, 163, 318, 411, 412, 418, 419, 431, 449. Clutter, R.I. pp. 108, 412. Coastal Research Corporation. pp. 458. Cockbain, A.E. pp. 80, 358, 399. Coleman, J.M. pp. 346, 391. Colgrove, D.J. pp. 102, 412, 429, 430. Colls, D.C. pp. 442. Coltam, C. pp. 392. Cook, P. pp. 398. Cook, P.M. pp. 358. Cook, Pickering, and Doyle Ltd. pp. 359. Cooke, P. pp. 225, 392. Cooper, A.C. pp. 108, 413. Cooper, P.F. pp. 473. Cope, F.G. pp. 411. Copeland, B.J. pp. 346. Cordonier, J. pp. 359. Cornwall, I.E. pp. 399. Corporation of Delta. pp. 474. Cottam, C pp. 442. Cottle, W.H. pp. 442. Coustalin, J.B. pp. 92, 96, 231, 393, 402. Cowan, I.Met. pp. 171, 172, 319, 442, 449. Craig, R.D. pp. 438. Crandell, D.R. pp. 356. Crean, P.B. pp. 61, 379, 382. Crichton, C. pp. 344. Crickmay, C.H. pp. 359. Crippen, CE. and Associates Ltd. pp. 372. Crippen, R.W. pp. 225, 392, 399. Cronin, E.L. pp. 352. Cronin, I.E. pp. 392. Cronquist, A. pp. 433. Crowe, R.B. pp. 370. Cumming, R.A. pp* 442. Curtis, E.J. pp. 474. 497. Author index -D

Dailey, M.D. pp. 447. Davidoff, E.B. pp. 107, 108, 427. Davis, J.C. pp. 108, 201, 413, 474. Davis, N.F.G. pp. 359. Davis, W. pp. Ill, 413. Dawson, A.F. pp. 355. Dawson, CM. pp. 359. Dawson, W. pp. 383. deBoer, L.J. pp. 359. DeLacy, A.C. pp. 413. deLange Boom, B. pp. 385. Delavault, R.E. pp. 480. Deleuw Cather of Canada. pp. 186, 458. Delta Action Group. pp. 458. Delta Planning Department. pp. 458. Department of Environment. pp. 346, 383, 458, 475. Department of Fisheries and Forestry. pp. 346, 458 475. Department of Fisheries and Forestry of Canada. pp 413. Department of Fisheries of Canada. pp. 413. Department of Indian Affairs. pp. 458. Department of Public Works. pp. 19, 359, 458, 475, 486. Department of Regional Economic Expansion. pp. 458 Derics, I.A. pp. 359. Devlin, D.C pp. 388, 475. deVries, J. pp. 459. Dill, L.M. pp. 413, 414. Ditsworth, G.R. pp. 346. Dobrocky Seatech Ltd. pp. 475. Dobson, D. pp. 346. Dobson, F.W. pp. 382. Dobson, H.H. pp. 382. Dodd, C pp. 347. Dodimead, A.J. pp. 78, 149, 383, 389, 438. Dominion Bureau of Statistics. pp. 459. Dominion Public Works Department. pp. 459. Douglas, P.A. pp. 392. Doyle, B. pp. 459. Draeseke, CL. pp. 459. Drent, R.H. pp. 167, 441, 442, 443. Dryfoos, R.L. pp. 414. Dubokovic, G.V. pp. 99, 399. Duncan, T.O. pp. 409. Dunlop, H.A. pp. 410, 414. 498. Author index - D, E, F

Dunn, S. pp. 392. Dutfield, D.O. pp. 459 Dymond, J.R. pp. 414.

Eagleson, P.S. pp. 372. Easterbrook, D.J. pp. 356, 359. Eastham, J.W. pp. 431. Eidsvik, H.K. pp. 190, 470. Einarsen, A.S. pp. 443. Eis, S. pp. 431. Eisbacher, G.H. pp. 359. Ellis, D.V. pp. 84, 400. Elsey, C.R. pp. 415. Eltringham, S.K. pp. 225, 392. Emery, K.O. pp. 229, 347, 392. Employer's Council of British Columbia. pp. 459. Emslie, J.H. pp. 370, 372. Endowment Lands Regional Park Committee. pp. 459. Energy Development Sector. pp. 486. Engineering Drillers Ltd. pp. 359. English, W.N. pp. 347. Enns, A.J. pp. 84, 400. Environment Canada. pp. 206, 208, 215, 347, 459, 475. Environmental Management and Pollution Control Com mission, pp. 347. Environmental Protection Service. pp. 211, 213, 347, 475. Epp, P. pp. 456. Esler, J.A. pp. 360. Evans, C pp. 360. Evermann, B.W. pp. 414.

Fairbairn, B. pp. 459 Farina, J. pp. 459. 499. Author index

Farkas, F.D. pp. 360. Farrow, M. pp. 475. Farry, C pp. 106, 126, 414, 430, 460. Farstad, L. pp. 366. Finegan, R.P. pp. 475. Fish and Wildlife Branch. pp. 443. Fisher, H.D. pp. 443. Fisheries Association of British Columbia. pp. 414. Fisheries Development Council. pp. 476. Fisheries Research Board. pp. 414. Fisheries Service. pp. 476. Fjarlie, R.L.I. pp. 70, 383, 389, 476. Flannery, R.D. pp. 365. Fletcher, H.F. pp. 360. Fletcher, K. pp. 360, 480. Foerster, R.E. pp. 107, 108, 119, 412, 414, 415. Foottit, R.C pp. 318, 441. Forbes, R.D. pp. 127, 129, 138, 140, 142, 145, 146, 153, 181, 431, 443, 460. Foreman, R.E. pp. 147, 148, 434. Forest Soil Committee of the Douglas-fir Region. pp 432. Forestry Service. pp. 432. Forrester, C.R. pp. 114, 412, 415, 419. Forrester, E.A.M. pp. 347. Forward, C.N. pp. 4, 193, 197, 460. Foundation of Canada Engineering Corp. Ltd. pp. 372 Franson, M.A. pp. 476. Franson, R.T. pp. 460. Fraser, CM. pp. 383. Fraser, CMcL. pp. 449. Fraser, F.J. pp. 104, 415. Fraser River Board. pp. 373. Fraser River Joint Advisory Board. pp. 373. Fraser River Joint Program Committee. pp. 360. Freeman, N.L. pp. 410. French, B. pp. 476. Friesen, B.F.J. pp. 460. Froud, G.C pp. 483. Fujii, K. pp. 150, 437. Fujinaga, M. pp. 453. Fulton, J.D. pp. 95, 381, 383, 394, 395, 400, 401, 403, 406, 410, 424. Fulton, R.J. pp. 360. Fyfe, R. pp. 476. Fyles, J.C pp. 15, 16, 364. 500. Author index -G

Gage, J. pp. 226, 393, 400. Galtsoff, P.S, pp. 393. Gardner, A.C pp. 460. Gardner, E.H. pp. 14, 363. Gardner, J.W. pp. 432. Gargett, A.E. pp. 347, 383, Garman, E.H. pp. 432. Garrison, R.E. pp. 20, 28, 84, 360, 368, 400. Gates, B.R. pp. 442, 443, 444, 460, 461. Gee, J.H. pp. 102, 415. Geen, CH. pp. 108, 109, 347, 407, 415. Geological Discussion Club. pp. 360. Geological Survey of Canada. pp. 360, 486, 487. George C. Reifel Migratory Bird Sactuary. pp. 443. Ghelardi, R.J. pp. 345, Gibbard, J.E. pp. 347. Gibson, C pp. 370. Gilders, C.J. pp. 361. Gilhousen, P. pp. 103, 107, 111, 416, 424, 429. Gill, C.A. pp. 417. Gilligan, R.M. pp. 476. Gilmour, A.J. pp. 460. Gilson, H.C. pp. 469. Giovando, L.F. pp. 79, 383, 384, 387, 388, 451. Gobin, C.A. pp. 361. Godfrey, H. pp. 106, 409, 416. Godfrey, W.E. pp. 318, 443. Goldberg, E.D. pp. 20, 361. Golder, Brawner, and Associates Ltd, pp. 361. Golder, H.Q. pp. 361. Goldie, C.A. pp. 54, 126, 377, 476. Goldsborough, E.L. pp. 414. Goodlad, R. pp. 416. Goodman, J. pp. 109, 416. Gordon, R.W. pp. 108, 421, 425, 478, 480, 481. Gosselink, J.C pp. 347. Government of Canada. pp. 476, 477. Graham, J.D. pp. 460. Gran, H.H. pp. 432. Grass, A.L. pp. 400. Gray, J. pp. 460. Greater Vancouver Real Estate Board. pp. 460. Greater Vancouver Regional District. pp. 184, 186, 192, 193, 234, 235, 348, 373, 461, 487. Greater Vancouver Regional District Librarian. pp. 355 Greater Vancouver Regional District, Planning Department pp. 487. 501. Author index - G, H

Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District. pp. 92, 147, 202, 207, 401, 432, 477. Green, J. pp. 344, 393. Greenhalgh, W. pp. 361. Greenius, A.W. pp. 432. Greenwood, W.H. pp. 449. Griffin, J.J. pp. 20, 360. Griffith, L.M. pp 401. Grill, E.V. pp. 20, 84, 360, 400. Guiguet, C.J. pp. 169, 170, 171, 172, 318, 319, 442, 443, 444. Gunderson, D.R. pp. 428.

Haegele, C pp. 422. Haggen, E.A. pp. 369. Haig-Brown, R. pp. 416. Hall, K.J. pp. 54, 55, 56, 57, 126, 376, 429. Halladay, D.R. pp. 128, 157, 161, 163, 164, 166, 168, 170, 171, 233, 237, 318, 348, 432, 444, 461. Hallam, R. pp. 84, 401. Haller, A.M. pp. 385. Halliday, W.E.D. pp. 432. Hansen, C pp. 477. Hansen, H.A. pp. 449. Hanson, D.V. pp. 348. Hardwick, W.G. pp. 461. Hardy, A.C pp. 401. Hardy, G.A. pp. 437. Ilarger, R.J.E. pp. 401. Harling, W.R. pp. 382, 385. Harris, J.W.E. pp. 355. Harris, R.D. pp. 2, 163, 233, 237, 348, 432, 444, 445, 461. Harris, R.C pp. 384. Harry, K.F. pp. 370. Hart, J.L. pp. 109, 110, 416, 422. Hartman, G.F. pp. 114, 416, 417. Harvey, H.H. pp. 108, 417. Harvey, N. pp. 445. Harvey, R.A.L. pp. 104, 428. 502. Author index -H

Hay, D. pp. 380, 384. Hayes, CW. pp. 361. Haylock, M.P. pp. 395. Heath, W.A. pp 82, 90, 92, 148, 345, 396, 401, 403, 430, 479. Hedlin, Menzies and Associates Ltd. pp. 1/^, J-" 179, 445. Henry, J.K. pp. 432. Henry, K.A. pp. 107, 108, 417. Herlinveaux, R.H. pp. 384, 385. Herrington, W.C. pp. 427. Hersey, L.R. pp. 407. Hickman, A. pp. 378. Hills, C pp. 461. Hitchcock, C.L. pp. 433. Hoar, W.S. pp. 415, 417. Hodge, C pp. 462. Hodge, R.A.L. pp. 24, 361. Hodgins, D.O. pp. 61, 62, 380. Hodson, K. pp. 167, 168, 445. Holbek, N.E. pp. 361. Holland, G.A. pp. 417. Holland, R.E. pp. 477. Holland, S.S. pp. 361. Holland, W.D. pp. 128, 366, 436. Hollister, H.J. pp. 382, 385. Hood, D.W. pp. 377. Hoos, L.M. pp. 226, 229, 231, 393, 401. Hosie, R.C. pp. 433. Hourston, A.S. pp. 417. Hourston, W.R. pp. 412. Houston Geological Society. pp. 348. Howard, G.V. pp. 107, 420. Howard, J.E. pp. 483. Howard, Leach, and Walden. pp. 377. Howay, F.W. pp. 118, 119, 348, 418. Howell-Jones, C pp. 348. Hubbard, W.A. pp. 433. Hughes, B.A. pp. 383. Hughes, CC. pp. 148, 433. Hughes, W.M. pp. 445. Hulsemann, J. pp. 229, 347, 392. Hunter, T. pp. 445. HiirlevHutchiAson,D.A. A.HPPDD. 103.pp/78,418.148, 149, 384, 385, 433, 434. 503. Author index - H, I, J

Hutchlison, B. pp., 348, 4624 Hyde, B. PP . 480. Hyde, C ,G. pp. 202, 203, 204, 480 Hyslc»Pt W. F. pp. 483.

Idler, D.R. pp. 107, 418. Inglis, Sir CC pp. 462. Inland Waters Directorate. pp. 50, 373, 377. Institute of Environmental Studies, Douglas College. pp. 217, 218, 348, 445, 462, 477. Institute of Oceanography. pp. 384. Institute of Oceanography, Dalhousie University pp. 477. International Geological Congress. pp. 361. International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission. pp. 108, 109, 413, 418. International Power and Engineering Consultants, Ltd pp. 462. Isfeld, E.O. pp. 380

Jackson, J.N. pp. 462. Jackson, R.I. pp. 418. Jameson, E. pp. 462. Jansson, B. pp. 227, 393. Jeffery, R.C pp. 445. Johnson, M.W, pp. 389. Johnson, P.C. pp. 407. Johnston, W.A. pp. 14, 15, 52, 357 362, 373 Joint Committee on Oceanography. PP 385 Jorden, M. pp. 462. Joy, C.S. pp. 62, 241, 380. Judd, B.I. pp. 450. Justice, C. pp . 106, 126, 414, 430, 460 504. Author index -K

Kabata, Z. pp. 401. Kanwisher, JA'i. pp. 437. Kardos, L.T. pp. 481. Karlsen, E. pp. 462. Katz, M. pp. 396. Keane, J.C.B. pp. 373. Keefe, CW. pp. 393, 433. Kelez, CB. pp. 424. Kellerhals, P. pp. 5, 10, 14, 24, 26, 87, 88, 128, 146, 348, 362, 401, 433. Kelley, CC pp. 362, 366. Kellock, J.N. pp. 462. Kendell, M.D. pp. 362. Kendrew, W.G. pp. 370. Kennedy, O.D. pp. 95, 103, 150, 381, 383,394, 402, 403, 406, 420, 436. Kennedy, W.A. pp, 345. Kenyon, K.W. pp. 445. Ker, Priestman, Keenan and Associates. pp. 477. Kerr, D. pp. 370. Kerr, W. pp. 462. Kestner, T.J.F. pp. 362, 462. Ketchen, K.S. pp. 415, 418, 419. Ketchum, B.H. pp. 349. Kidd, G.J.A. pp. 373, 375. Kidd, T. pp. 349. Kilgour. pp. 445. Killick, S.R. pp. 107, 108, 109, 111, 419, 420,424, Kimmins, J.P. pp. 433. Kirsch, M. pp. 378. Klinka, K. pp. 433. Knetsch, J. pp. 458. Knowles, I.L. pp. 377. Knox, W.R.A. pp. 362. Koch, F.A. pp. 54, 55, 56,57, 126, 376, 429. Koon, Z.J.K. pp. 463. Kopisch-Obuch, F.W. pp. 363. Kowalenko, S. pp. 463. Krajina, V.J. pp. 370, 434. Kresja, R.J. pp. 102, 419. 505. Author index

Lacate, D. pp. 353, Ladner, P. pp. 463. Laird, D.C pp. 366. Laithwaite, J.L. pp. 478. Lands Directorate. pp. 463. Lane, D. pp. 344. Lane, R.K. pp. 385. Lang, M. pp. 463. Larkin, P.A. pp. 107, 113, 119, 121, 124, 419, 420, 425, 428. Lau, J. pp. 479. Lauff, G.H. pp. 349. Laukulich, L.M. pp. 363. Lea, N.D. and Associates. pp. 463. Lea, R.S. pp. 202, 478. Leach, B.A. pp. 5, 151, 158, 162, 318, 349, 445, 446, 463, 478. Leach, J.M. pp. 200, 478. Leach, T.A.J. pp. 478. Learning, S.F. pp. 363. Leatherwood, A. pp. 446. LeBlond, P.H. pp. 385. LeBrasseur, R.J. pp. 52, 79, 84, 95, 103, 111, 150, 374, 387, 394, 401, 402, 403, 406, 419, 420, 426, 436. Leckie, P.C pp. 363. Lee Doran Associates Ltd. pp. 478. Lee, T.N. pp. 349. Lee, W.R. pp. 420. Legare, H.E.J. pp. 94, 99, 149, 399, 402, 434. Leggett, W.C pp. 112, 420. Leitch and Associates, Ltd. pp. 463. LeRoy, O.E. pp. 349, 487. Lesko, G.L. pp. 363. Leverin, H.A. pp. 434. Levesque, E. pp. 463. Levin, E. pp. 106, 126, 414, 430, 460. Levings, CD. pp. 92, 96, 114, 228, 231, 237, 349, 393, 402, 420. Lewis, J.R. pp. 349. Lewis, T. pp. 363, 373. Liebzeit, F. pp. 463. Lindsey, CC pp. 101, 102, 111, 112, 114, 411, 421. Lindstrom, S.C pp. 147, 148, 434. Linduska, J.P. pp. 177, 446. Lister, D.B. pp. 104, 428. 506. Author index - L, M

Livingstone, R. Jr. pp. 349. Lockwood Survey Corporation Ltd. pp. 487. Lord, J.K. pp. 446. Low, C.J. pp. 402. Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board. pp. 183, 184, 185, 187, 189, 190, 191, 234, 235, 463, 464, 465. Lucas, CC. pp. 78, 148, 384, 385, 434. Ludwig, H.F. pp. 226, 378, 394. Lukey, L.J. pp. 465. Lulu Island South Shore Industries. pp. 465. Luscher, R.E. pp. 441. Lusk, B.M. pp. 386. Luternauer, J.L. pp. 12, 14, 21, 26, 28, 360, 363, 374. Luttmerding, H.A. pp. 141, 363, 434. Lyford, J.H.Jr. pp. 393. Lynch, A.J. pp. 372. Lyons, C.P. pp. 119, 420, 434.

MacAskie, I.B. pp. 446, 451. Macdonald, R.D. pp. 20, 84, 360, 400. MacKay, D.C.G. pp. 99, 402, 403, 420. MacKay, D.C pp. 107, 216, 217. MacKay, D.L. pp. 215, 474, 484. MacKay, R.H. pp. 442, 446, 448, 465. MacKinnon, D. pp, 417. MacKintosh, E.E. pp. 14, 363. MacLaren, J.W. pp. 205, 478. MacNab, G.F. pp. 446, 465. Maher, F.P. pp. 420. Mahon, J. pp. 434. Mallard, D. pp. 349. Malysheff, A. pp. 318, 478. Mansueti, A.J. pp. 392. Manzer, J.I. pp. 421. March, G.L. pp. 447. Margolis, L. pp. 447. Markert, J.R. pp. 79, 391. Maries, E.W. pp, 385, 386. 507, Author index -M

Marshall, K.B. pp, 466,. Martens, D.W. pp. 108, 421, 425, 478, 480, 481. Mason, J.C. pp. 421. Mason, J.E. pp. 421. Mathews, W.H. pp. 14, 15, 16, 28, 359, 364. Maxwell, J. pp. 456. Mayers, I.R. pp. 10, 28, 364, 368. McAllister, CD. pp. 349, 466. McAllister, D.E. pp. 421. McCabe, E.B. pp. 350. McCabe, T.T. pp. 350. McCallum, N.M. pp. 466. McCammon, J.W. pp. 364. McDaniel, N. pp. 228, 393, 402, 403. McElhamey Surveying and Engineering Ltd. pp. 487. McErlean, A.J. pp. 421. McGee, I.M. pp. 374. McHugh, J.L. pp. 109, 110, 416. McKee, J.E. pp. 201, 378, 478. McLaren, K.A. pp. 127, 132, 140, 141, 142, 181, 318, 435, 466. McLusky, D.S. pp. 350. McMillan, N.J. pp. 364. McPhail, M. pp. 384. Meehan, J.M. pp. 428. Meeson, J.H. pp. 364. Meigs, R.C. pp. 423. Meikle, J.H. pp. 79, 382, 385, 391. Meyer, P.A. pp. 125, 421. Mihursky, J.A. pp. 421. Miller, D.M. pp. 350. Miller, E.K. pp. 390. Mills, J.D. pp. 466. Milne, D.J. pp. 105, 421. Milne, W.G. pp. 16, 364. Mitchell, G.J. pp. 318, 447. Modeland, R.C. pp. 466. Morgan, J.P. pp. 350. Morley, A. pp. 350. Morris, C pp. 145, 435. Morris, P.W. pp. 229, 394. Morris, W.A. pp. 175, 176, 447, 450, 466. Morrison, D. pp. 466. Morrison, K.P. pp. 441. Morton. pp. 445. Morton, K.W. pp. 466. Mounce, I. pp. 392. 508. Author index - M, N

Municipality of Surrey. pp. 374. Munro, D.A. pp. 447, 448. Munro, J.A. pp. 163, 318, 448, 449. Murphy, A.S. pp. 364. Murray, J.W. pp. 5, 10, 12, 14, 20, 21, 24, 26, 28, 84, 87, 88, 128, 146, 348, 360, 362, 363, 364, 368, 374, 400, 401, 433. Myres, M.T. pp. 449.

Nagel, J.E. pp. 449. Nash, F.W. pp. 417. Nasmith, H.W. pp. 15, 16, 364, 365. Nath, J.N. pp. 350. Nathan, C. pp. 466. Natural History Society of British Columbia. pp. 449. Natural Resources Bureau. pp. 120, 421. Naumann, D.K. pp. 467. Neave, F. pp. 103, 104, 403, 413, 416, 421, 422. Neill, J.W. pp. 435. Nelson, B.N. pp. 350. Nelson, R.W. pp. 451. Nelson, U.C pp. 449. Nemeth, L. pp. 208, 482. Neu, H.J.A. pp. 60, 380. Neufeld, J.H. pp. 365. Neumann, D.A. pp. 352, 481. New Westminster Harbour Commission. pp. 467. Newcombe, CF. pp. 449. Newsom, J.D. pp. 350. Nikleva, S.N. pp. 371. Nilsson, W.A. pp. 422. Noble, J.B. pp. 356. Noble, M.D. pp. 160, 447, 449, 450. Norris, D. pp. 467. North Fraser Harbour Commissioners. pp. 467. North, M.E.A. pp. 347. Northcote, K.E. pp. 365, 484. Northcote, T.G. pp. 82, 101, 102, 113, 118, 146, 151, 163, 393, 403, 413, 414, 415, 422, 435, 450. Northey, J.L. pp. 462. Norton, A.B. pp. 82, 90, 92, 148, 345, 396, 430. 509. Author index - 0, P

O'Brien, J.J. pp. 454, 467. O'Connor, J.M. pp. 352, 481. Odum, E.P. pp. 347, 393. Odum, W.E. pp. 350. Oliver, J. pp. 202, 203, 204, 480. Oloffs, P.C. pp. 126, 430, 478, 479. O'Malley, H. pp. 107, 422. O'Neal, G. pp. 477. Oregon State University. pp. 350. Orloci, L. pp. 435. Oseychuk, J. pp. 450. O'Sullivan, A.J. pp. 228, 394, 479. Otto, G.F. pp. 435. Otway, B. pp. 353. Outram, D.N. pp. 395, 410, 417, 422, 435 Ownbey, M. pp. 433. Ozere, S.V. pp. 422.

Pacific Northwest Pollution Control Council. pp 211, 213, 479. Pacific Oceanographic Group. pp. 72, 386, 387. Paget, A.F. pp. 378. Paine, J. McK. pp. 166, 450. Paish, H. pp. 450, 451, 467. Paish, H. and Associates Ltd. pp. 213, 237, 350 450, 467, 479. Palmer, R.N. pp. 104, 105, 121, 423. Palmer, R.S. pp. 450. Parasher, CD. pp. 365. Parker, R.R. pp. 425. Parker, V.J. pp. 351, 468. Parkinson, T.E. pp. 186, 468. Parkinson, W. pp. 380. Parks Canada. pp. 98, 190, 235, 471. Parsons, T.R. pp. 79, 90, 92, 95, 103, 150, 385 387, 394, 402, 403, 420, 435, 436, 437, 479. Partlo, J.M. pp. 423. Patching, D. pp. 85, 86, 99, 403. Paterson, W. pp. 106, 126, 414, 430, 460. Paton, Smith, and Gram Ltd. pp. 184, 468. Patrick, K.E. pp. 205, 478. 510. Author index - P, Q

Patton, D.R. pp. 450. Pautzke, CF. pp. 423. Paynton, L.R. pp. 365. Pearse Bowden Economic Consultants Limited. pp. 423. Pearson, E.A. pp. 226, 378, 394. Pearson, N. pp. 19, 351, 365, 468. Pearson, R.J. pp. 479. Penny, N.E. pp. 371. Peters, N. pp. 365. Peterson, G.R. pp. 423, 480. Pharo, C.H. pp. 10, 27, 365, 374. Phemister, T.C pp, 365. Phifer, L.D. pp. 387, 395, 436. Phinney, H.K. pp. 393. Pickard, G.L. pp. 387. Pike, G.C. pp. 450, 451. Planning Institute of British Columbia. pp. 468. Pletcher, F.T. pp. Ill, 423. Pocock, S.A.J. pp. 359. Pollutech Pollution Advisory Service Ltd. pp. 351, Pond, S. pp. 351. Pope, R.M. pp. 347. Poulson, E.N. pp. 365. Powers, E.B. pp. 378. Prakash, A. pp. 423. Prest, J.E. pp. 415. Pretious, E.S. pp. 18, 19, 49, 54, 60, 365, 374, 380, 381, 423, 468. Pritchard, A.L. pp. 412, 423. Pritchard, D.W. pp. 1, 346, 351, 352, 374. Province of British Columbia, Department of Lands, For ests, and Water Resources. pp. 355. Public Works of Canada (B.C. and Yukon District), pp. 468. Pugh, W.G. pp. 116, 124, 423. Pyper, J. pp. 42 3.

Quayle, D.B. pp. 97, 345, 349, 351, 397, 398, 403, 404, 405, 415, 416, 422, 480. Quick, M.C pp. 61, 62, 380, 381. 511. Author index - R,

Rapatz, W.I. pp. 386. Rattray, M. pp. 348, 384. Raudsepp, V. pp. 480. Rawn, A.M. pp. 202, 203, 204, 480. Rawson, M. and Wiles Ltd. pp. 468. Redfield, A.C. pp. 387. Reid, D.J. pp. 119, 424. Reid, G.K. pp. 351. Reish, D.J. pp. 225, 227, 392, 394, 399. Remington, J.D. pp. 108, 424. Renewable Resources Consulting Services Ltd. pp. 451. Rhoads, D.C. pp. 229, 230, 394. Rich, W.H. pp. 107, 422. Richards, CH. pp. 487. Richmond, G. pp. 469. Ricker, K.E. pp. 351, 365, 366. Ricker, W.E. pp. 108, 109, 118, 405, 419, 424. Ripley, Klohn, and Leonoff International Ltd. pp. 366 Robinson, D.C pp. 424. Robinson, D.J. pp. 451. Robinson, I.M. pp. 462. Roddick, J.A. pp. 487, 488. Rodgers, J. pp. 167, 318, 451. Roe, J.S. pp. 436. Rogers, G.C. pp. 16, 364. Roos, J.F. pp. Ill, 424. Rose, J.H. pp. 409. Ross, Hon. Wm.R. pp. 374. Rossow, J. pp. 380. Rounselfell, G.A. pp. 424. Rousseau, R. pp. 351. Rowles, C.A. pp. 366. Royal, L.A. pp. 424. Ruben, D.S. pp. 318, 346. Rusch, W.C. pp. 55, 205, 378, 480. Russel, Sir F. pp. 468. Russell, D. pp. 351. Russell, L. pp. 451, 467. Russell, R.J. pp. 351.

Sadleir, R.M.F.S. pp. 447 512. Author index -S

Safo, E.Y. pp. 366. Salisbury, H.F. pp. 366. Sanders, H.L. pp. 226, 230, 394, 405. Sanderson, A. pp. 371. Sansom, J.D. pp. 480. Satterthwaite, J. pp. 372. Save-the-Beaches Association. pp. 469. Scagel, R.F. pp. 436. Schaefer, P.C pp. 371. Schaeffer, V.B. pp. 451. Schmidt, CH.C pp. 318, 451. Schofield, W.B. pp. 436. Schubel, J.R. pp. 351, 352. Schutz, D.C. pp. 425. Schwartz, M.L. pp. 366. Scott, C pp. 480. Scott, P.F. pp. 480. Scrivener, J.C. pp. 405. Sealy, S.C pp. 451. Seed, A. pp. 451. Seelig, M.Y. pp. 469. Seki, H. pp. 479. Semakula, S.N. pp. 113, 121, 425. Servizi, J.A. pp. 3, 82, 108, 126, 378, 405, 421, 425, 430, 478, 480, 481. Sewell, W.R.D. pp. 374, 469. Shand, J.A. pp. 70, 387. Shepard, F.P. pp. 14, 15, 28, 364, 366, Shepard, M.G. pp. 167, 169, 170, 318, 441. Shepard, M.P. pp. 99, 100, 105, 106, 107, 119, 120, 406, 409, 425. Sherk, J.A. pp. 352, 481. Shirley, M. pp. 366. Shoemaker, C.R. pp. 406. Shoop, CI. pp. 345. Sibert, J. pp. 394, 425. Siemens, A.H. pp. 181, 184, 352, 469. Silver, G.T. pp. 352. Sinclair, W.F. pp. 120, 425. Sinha, E. pp. 481. Skelding, J. pp. 383. Slaney, T.L. pp. 387. Slipp, J.W. pp. 451. Slotta, L.S. pp. 350. Smith, D.S. pp. 436. Smith, H.I. pp. 366. 513. Author index

Smith, I. D. pp. 381. Smith, J. E. pp. 415. Smith, S. B. PP- 426. Smith, T. F, pp. 367. Smith, W. E.T. pp. 16 , 364. Smith, W. C pp. 318, 444, 452, 461 Snodgrass>, J. M. pp. •481.

Sopper , W.E. PP . 481 . Sorenson, J.C. pp. 352. South Surrey Planning Committee. pp. 469. Spagnoli, J.J. pp. 352. Spence and Brown Consultant Geologists. pp. 367. Spence, R.A. pp. 361. Spilsbury, R.H. pp. 362. 436. Sporns, U. pp. 371. Sport Fishing Institute. pp. 394. Sprague, J.B. pp. 225, 394, 481. Sprout, P.N. pp. 128, 141, 363, 366, 434, 436. Sprunt, A. pp. 318, 452. Squire, CB. pp. 347. Stager, J.K. pp. 371. Stann, E.J. pp. 226, 378, 394. Stein, J.R. pp. 146, 150, 436. Stenton, CE. pp. 426. Stephens, K. pp. 150, 381, 383, 394, 406, 436, 437. Sterling, R.T. pp. 452. Stevenson, J.C. pp. 99, 100, 119, 120, 406, 425. Stewart, J. pp. 367, 378. Stewart, R.W. pp. 378. Stickland, J.A. pp. 79, 388, 389. Stickling, W. pp. 367. Stommel, H. pp. 352. Stone, E.T. pp. 108, 425, 480. Storrs, P.N. pp. 226, 378, 394. Straaten, J.M. pp. 367. Straight, L. pp. 469. Stroud, R.H. pp. 392. Sullivan, B. pp. 469. Sverre, S.F. pp. 171, 452. Swan Wooster Engineering Co. Ltd. pp. 10, 26, 153, 154, 188, 367, 452, 457, 469, 470, 488. Swann, L.C pp. 4 26. Swanson, H.S. pp. 374. Swarth, H.S. pp. 440. Swecker, M.N. pp. 345. Swinnerton, A.A. pp. 367, 470. 514. Author index - S, T

Swinnerton, CS, pp. 470. Sylvester, R.O. pp. 378. Szczawinski, A.F. pp. 430, 437. Szeto, S.Y. pp. 126, 430, 478, 479.

Tabata, S. pp. 49, 52, 53, 72, 79, 84, 374, 383, 387, 388, 389, 391, 406. Tagatz, M.E, pp. 481. Takahashi, M. pp. 150, 437. Talbot, J.F. pp. 452. Taler, D.R. pp. 426. Tanner, C pp. 208, 482, 483. Task Force Technical Working Group. pp. 470. Tayelor, F.A. pp. 352. Taylor, D.G.B. pp. 190, 470. Taylor, E.W. pp. 2, 97, 127, 134, 139, 145, 146, 157, 174, 235, 348, 406, 437, 452, 453, 461. Taylor, F.H.C pp. 453. Taylor, G.T. pp. Ill, 426. Taylor, R.L. pp. 437. Taylor, T.M.C. pp. 437. Teal, J. pp. 352. Teal, J.M. pp. 437. Teal, M. pp. 352. Tener, J.S. pp. 146, 318, 437, 453. Terzaghi, K. pp. 367. Tester, A.L. pp. 426. Thakore, A.N. pp. 200, 478. Thomas, E.V. pp. 473. Thomas, J.F.J. pp. 53, 375, 482. Thomas, R.C. pp. 423, 426. Thompson, J. pp. 470. Thompson, J.A.J. pp. 482. Thompson, J.W. pp. 433. Thompson, T.C pp. 382, 387, 389, 395, 432, Thompson, W.F. pp. 426, 427, Thomson, R.E. pp. 27, 367, 389. Thurber Consultants. pp, 368. Tiffin, D.L. pp. 5, 28, 352, 368. Todd, I.S. pp. 104, 105, 427. 515, Author index - T, U

Todd, S.P. pp. 389. Toms, I.P, pp. 474, Tjzirum, A. pp. 369. Towne, W. pp. 477. Trasolini, G. pp. 208, 482. Tredcroft, E.H. pp. 375. Trenholm, C.H. pp. 371. Trip, B.W. pp, 349. Tripp, R.B. pp. 382. Tully, J.P. pp. 78, 149, 384, 389, 424, 438, 482 Turner, J.A. pp. 371. Turner, M. pp. 482. Turner, R.D. pp. 470. Tynen, M.J. pp. 405. Tyner, R.B. pp. 371. Tywoniuk, N. pp. 20, 49, 53, 368, 375.

Udvardy, M.D.F. pp. 443, 453. Ulrich, V.A. pp, 482. Underwood, McLellan, and Associates Limited. pp. 470 Unesco. pp. 375. United States Army, Coastal Engineering Centre. pp. 471 United States Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. pp. 353. United States Congress. pp. 353. United States Department of Agriculture. pp. 368. United States Department of the Interior. pp. 482. United States Department of Transportation , Coast Guard. pp. 48 2. United States Federal Water Pollution Control Ad ministration, pp. 482. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. pp. 353. United States National Parks Service. pp . 98, 190, 235, 471. United States Senate. pp. 482. University of British Columbia. pp. 389, 471. University of British Columbia, Centre for Continu- ing Education. pp. 471. University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry. pp. 35 3. 516. Author index - U, V, W

University of British Columbia, School of Community and Regional Planning. pp. 471. Urhahn, H.J.M. pp. 166, 453. Utterback, C.L. pp. 389, 390.

Van, J.W. pp. 367. Van Cleve, R. pp. 427. Van Ryswyk, A.L. pp. 378. Vancouver Natural History Society. pp. ^»> «:>;>, 454. Vancouver Sun. pp. 471. Venables, R. pp. 353. Venables, W.N. pp. 480. Verge, R.W. pp. 371. Verhoeven, L.A. pp. 107, 108, 427. Verner, C pp. 471. Vernon, E.H. pp. 103, 417, 423, 427. Villamere, J. pp. 482, Void, T. pp. 353, 368. Vollmer, E. pp. 381, 468. Vou Roen, C pp, 375.

Wade, L. pp,. 91, 146, 353, 406, 438, 454. Wagner, J.E. pp. 368. Wahlgren, R. pp. 358. Wailes, CH. pp. 406. Wainwright, P.,R. pp. 368. Walden, CC pp. 483. Waldichuk, M. pp. 52, 53, 63, 64, 70, 72, 78, 79, 353, 375,, 381, 390, 391, 428, 483. Waldie, R.J. pp. 391. Walker, CE. pp. 104, 428. Wallace, R. pp. 375. Wallis, J.H. pp. 371. Walsh, R. pp. 226, 378, 394 517. Author index -W

Ward, F.J. pp. 103, 107, 428 Ward, H.B. pp. 428. Ward, J. pp. 443. Warren, H.V. pp. 480. Warren, S. pp. 462. Warrington, P. pp. 355. Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission. pp. 471. Waslenchuk, D.C PP 24, 368. Wass, E.F. pp. 353. Water Quality Branch, Inland Waters Directorate pp. 60, 378, 379. Water Rights Branch, British Columbia Department of Lands and Forests. pp. 375. Water Survey of Canada. pp. 2, 49, 51, 52, 252 253, 254, 353, 375, 376. Watkins, J. pp. 483. Watmough, D. pp. 91, 114, 145, 354, 406, 428, 438 Weber, J. pp. 473. Weber, W.C. pp. 167, 169, 170, 318, 441 Webster, G.R. pp. 472. Weir, W. pp. 391. Wennekens, M.P. pp. 89, 407 Werner, A.E. pp. 483, 484. Wersta, E. pp. 472. West, G.A. pp. 428. Western Canada Hydraulic Labs Limited. pp. 381. Western Development and Power Ltd. pp 376 Westrheim, S.J. pp. 428. Westwater Research Centre pp. 59, 239, 354, 379 Weymouth, F.W. pp. 407. White, W.H. PP . 484. Whitesel, L.E. pp. 108 412 Whitford, H.N. pp. 438 Whitney, R.R. pp. 112, 420. Wick, W.O. pp 454. Wickett, W.P. pp. 407, 428. Widgeon Keys Organizers Ltd. pp. 472 Wiebe, J. pp. 452. Wiens, J.H. pp. 368. Wilby, G.V. pp. 112, 113, 123, 412 Wilcox, D. pp. 472. Wildlife for Tomorrow Conference pp. 454 Wiley, J. and Sons. pp. 354. Wilke, F. pp. 453, 454. Wilkinson, A.T.S. pp. 454. 518, Author index - W, Z

Williams, A.B. pp. 395, 428. Williams, I.V, pp. 107, 108, 109, 111, 379, 429. Williams, P.M. pp. 377, 379, 484. Williamson, H.C. pp, 107, 429. Willington, R.P. pp. 473. Willis, Cunliffe, Tait and Company Ltd. pp. 472, Wilson, A.H. pp. 484. Wilson, B.W. pp. 369. Windom, H. pp. 20, 360. Withler, F.C pp. 124, 429. Withler, I.L. pp. 411, 429. Witt, E.W. pp. 369. Wolfe, H.W. pp. 201, 378, 478. Wong, J. pp. 79. Wood, J.S. pp. 430, 472. Woodall, W.L. PPpp.. 103, 418 Woodland, A, pp. 354. Wright, J.B. pp. 370, 371 Wright, J.C. pp. 369. Wright, L.D.pp. 346, 391 Wyder, J.E. pp. 369.

Zonailo, CW. pp. 472. Zyblut, E.R. pp. Ill, 424, 429.