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A Preliminary Study of the Failure Modes and Process of Landslide Dams Due to Upstream Flow

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A Preliminary Study of the Failure Modes and Process of Landslide Dams Due to Upstream Flow water Article A Preliminary Study of the Failure Modes and Process of Landslide Dams Due to Upstream Flow Xinghua Zhu 1 , Jianbing Peng 1,*, Cheng Jiang 2 and Weilong Guo 3 1 College of Geological Engineering and Surveying of Chang’an University/Key Laboratory of Western China, Mineral Resources and Geological Engineering, Xi’an 710054, China; [email protected] 2 School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710054, China; [email protected] 3 Shaanxi Institute of Engineering Prospecting Co. Ltd., Xi’an 710068, China; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-158 9139 1126 Received: 5 May 2019; Accepted: 24 May 2019; Published: 28 May 2019 Abstract: In the process of mineral development, large-scale flash floods (or debris flows) can be induced by the failure of landslide dams formed by the disorganized stacking of mine waste. In this study, the modes and processes of mine waste dam failures were explored using 13 experimental tests based on the field investigation of landslide dams in the Xiaoqinling gold mining area in China. Our 13 mine waste dam experiments exhibited three failure modes: (i) Piping, overtopping, and erosion; (ii) overtopping and soil collapse; and (iii) overtopping and erosion. In addition, the failure processes of the landslide dams included impoundment, seepage, overtopping, and soil erosion. Different experimental conditions would inevitably lead to different failure processes and modes, with the failure modes being primarily determined by the seepage characteristics. Overtopping was the triggering condition for dam failure. The landslide dam failure process was determined based on the particle size of the mine waste and the shape of the dam. These findings will provide a scientific reference for the prevention and mitigation of natural hazards in mining areas. Keywords: mine waste; landslide dam; failure modes; soil erosion; debris flow 1. Introduction The formation and failure of landslide dams include a series of complex processes that occur at the interface between hill slopes and alluvial plain or valley-floor systems. Floods and debris flows caused by the failure of landslide dams constitute a widespread hazard to people and property, in part because of the suddenness and unpredictability of all types of dam failures [1]. Unlike artificial gravity or concrete dams with engineered barriers and filter materials, a landslide dam usually consists of a non-cohesive clast material, which has a broad grain size distribution [2,3] and is in a naturally unstable state [4,5]. Based on historical events, dam failures can generate destructive flash floods and debris flows that cause catastrophic losses [5–8]. The debris flows in the Xiaoqinling gold mining area in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province (Figure1) are examples of large-scale debris flows that occurred in gullies due to the failure of mine waste landslide dams [9–11]. The unreasonable stacking of mine waste severely blocked the gullies and formed numerous landslide dams with beaded distribution [10]. When these landslide dams failed, large-scale floods (or debris flows) occurred, such as the catastrophic disaster on 11 July 1994, which occurred when heavy rains in the upper reaches of the basin resulted in a large amount of mine waste being delivered by the flood and finally forming a debris flow with a peak flow rate of 260 m3/s. The debris flow resulted in 51 deaths, more than 2000 missing, and economic losses of more than three million dollars [9,12]. We conducted three field investigations in the basin from 2016 to 2018. Water 2019, 11, 1115; doi:10.3390/w11061115 www.mdpi.com/journal/water Water 2019, 11, 1115 2 of 17 Water 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18 Our investigations show that the mine waste is still being randomly stacked and blocking the channel, 2018. Our investigations show that the mine waste is still being randomly stacked and blocking the forming many landslide dams that are more than 20 m high. Eight landslide dams with a beaded channel, forming many landslide dams that are more than 20 m high. Eight landslide dams with a distribution were identified in Daxicha Gully—shown in the left panel of Figure1—which indicated beaded distribution were identified in Daxicha Gully—shown in the left panel of Figure 1—which that the gold miners did not learn from past disasters. The average gradient of the gully is greater than indicated that the gold miners did not learn from past disasters. The average gradient of the gully is 32.5%. Moreover, the average annual precipitation of the basin is 587.4 mm, and the maximum annual greater than 32.5%. Moreover, the average annual precipitation of the basin is 587.4 mm, and the precipitation is 958.6 mm. The maximum daily rainfall was 113.4 mm (23 July 2010), and 76.19% of the maximum annual precipitation is 958.6 mm. The maximum daily rainfall was 113.4 mm (23 July annual rainfall is concentrated in July, August, and September [10]. Therefore, large-scale debris flows 2010), and 76.19% of the annual rainfall is concentrated in July, August, and September [10]. could be triggered by heavy rainfall events in the future. Therefore, large-scale debris flows could be triggered by heavy rainfall events in the future. Figure 1. Location of the Xiaoqingling gold mining area. Figure 1. Location of the Xiaoqingling gold mining area. A considerable number of important research achievements concerning landslide dams have been madeA in considerable recent years. number Several of multidisciplinary important research studies achievements have investigated, concerning simulated, landslide and dams predicted have beenthe occurrence, made in recent longevity, years. breakdown, Several multidisciplinary and subsequent studies debris flowshave investigated, of landslide damssimulated, [1,5,13 and,14]. predictedDam breaching the occurrence, is very complicated longevity, duebreakdown, to the influence and subsequent of the physical debris flows environment. of landslide Accurate dams [1,5,13,14].knowledge Dam of the breaching dam breach is very process complicated is essential due to to help the designinfluence an earlyof the warning physical system environment. for the Accurateevacuation knowledge of people of and the property. dam breach Many process scholars is essential have carried to help out design model experimentsan early warning on landslide system fordam the failure evacuation [15–18]. of In people addition and to property. experimental Many research, scholars physically-based have carried out mathematical model experiments models have on landslidebeen established dam failure for practical [15–18]. uses In addition [19–23]. Theto experimental application ofresearch, these models physically-based and methods mathematical are useful in modelsdisaster prevention,have been mitigation,established andfor riskpractical assessment uses of[19–23]. floods The caused application by the failure of these of landslide models dams. and methodsHowever, are because useful of in the disaster limitations prevention, for field mitiga monitoring,tion, and it hasrisk been assessment difficult of to floods reproduce caused the by failure the failureprocess of of landslide damsdams. in However, real time. Inbecause addition, of the the variabilitylimitations of for mine field waste’s monitoring, composition it has results been difficultin an unpredictable to reproduce breach the failure mode process and process of landslide response dams when in areal landslide time. In dam addition, fails. the variability of mineIn waste’s this study, composition we used results 13 experimental in an unpredict testsable to reproduce breach mode the failureand process process response of mine when waste a landslidelandslide dam dams fails. under different conditions. Three failure modes were summarized by analyzing the failureIn processthis study, of landslide we used dams.13 experimental In addition, tests we to compared reproduce the the characteristics failure process of the of dammine system waste landslideduring the dams failure under process different and found conditions. that seepage Three wasfailure the modes mainfactor were determiningsummarized theby analyzing failure modes. the failureThis preliminary process of study landslide provides dams. experimental In addition, evidence we compared that can the be characteristics used for planning, of the natural dam hazardssystem duringprevention, the failure and the process mitigation and of found mine wastethat seepag landslidee was dams. the main factor determining the failure modes. This preliminary study provides experimental evidence that can be used for planning, natural2. Experimental hazards prevention, Methods and the mitigation of mine waste landslide dams. 2.2.1. Experimental Experimental Methods Setup Based on the data obtained from the field investigations, an experimental flume was developed to 2.1. Experimental Setup explore the failure modes and process of the mine waste landslide dams in gullies in the Geological HazardBased Simulation on the data Laboratory obtained atfrom Chang’an the field University investigations, [11,24 an]. experiment Figure2a presentsal flume an was overview developed of to explore the failure modes and process of the mine waste landslide dams in gullies in the Geological Hazard Simulation Laboratory at Chang’an University [11,24]. Figure 2a presents an Water 2019, 11, 1115 3 of 17 Water 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18 theoverview experimental of the experimental setup. The experimental setup. The experi flumemental was composed flume was of composed three sections: of three A storage sections: tank, A astorage flume, tank, and aa tailingsflume, and pond. a tailings The storage pond. tank The was storage 1.3 m tank in length, was 1.3 1.3 m m in in length, width, 1.3 and m 1.8 in mwidth, in height. and Water1.8 m in was height. pumped Water directly was pumped into the directly upper part into of the the upper flume part using of the a water flume pump using installed a water onpump the leftinstalled side ofon the the tank.
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