Considering*Civil*Rights* Rabbi*Chaim*David*Regensberg,*z.tz.l.! ! Mishmeret)Chaim,!section!39!! (Chicago:!Hebrew!Theological!Press,!5726!/!1965?1966),!pp.!149?156! ! Translated!and!annotated!by!Rabbi!Moshe!Adler! * In!order!to!determine!the!Torah’s!view!relative!to!the!question!of!civil!rights,!which! currently!stands!at!the!crossroads!in!the!United!States,!we!shall!attempt!to!judge!the! matter!under!all!the!relevant!categories!of![Jewish]!law:! ! a. Torah!law! b. The!Noahide!laws! c. The!law!of!the!kingdom! d. The!law!of!the!resident!alien! ! Doing*more*than*the*law*requires:*the*individual*and*society! Concerning!the!right!of!pre?emption![dina)d’var)metzra,)lit.,!“the!law!of!contiguous! borders”]!–!a![rabbinically!enacted]!law!based!on!the!Torah’s!commandment,!“Do! what!is!right!and!good!in!the!sight!of!the!LORD”!(Deuteronomy!6:18)!1*–*the!Maggid) Mishneh!commentary!on!’!Mishneh!Torah!(Laws!of!Neighbors,!ch.!14,!sec.!5)! wrote:!“The!matter!of!the!right!of!pre?emption![dina)d’var)metzra]*stems!from!our! flawless!Torah’s!having!issued!rules!for!a!person’s!character!traits!and!behaviors!in! the!world![when!it!commanded]!‘You!shall!be!holy’!(Leviticus!19:2).!Its!aim!was,!as!our! Sages!have!said,!‘Sanctify!yourself!in!what!is!permitted!to!you’!(Y’vamot!20a,!inter!alia),! which!means!that!one!should!not!be!swept!away!by!one’s!desires.!!Similarly,!when! the!Torah!commanded,!‘Do!what!is!right!and!good!in!the!sight!of!the!Lord,’!its! intention!was!that!a!person!should!behave!toward!other!people!in!a!good!and! upright!manner.!In!these!matters,!it!would!not!have!been!appropriate!to!command! specific!details,!since!the!Torah’s!commandments!apply!to!all!times!and!situations.!It! had!to!be!done!this!way![i.e.,!by!general!rule]!because!people’s!character!traits!and! behaviors!change!in!accordance!with!the!times!and!the!people.!Under!these!general! rules,!our!Sages,!of!blessed!memory,!wrote!effectuating!specifics,!some!as!mandates! and!some!as!options!of!piety,!but!all!as!rabbinic![as!distinct!from!Torah?mandated]! enactments.!That!is!why!it!is!said![of!such!enactments],![‘Your!beloved!ones! (dodekha)!are!better!than!wine’!(Song!of!Songs!I:2),!which!means:]!The!words!of!the! beloved!ones![i.e.,!the!Sages]!are!better!than!the!wine!of!the!Torah”!(B’midbar!Rabbah! 14:4)!!2! ! [Of]!two!fundamental!principles!of!life,![the!first!is]!in!relation!to!a!person’s!inner! world,!the!purity!of!one’s!soul,!the!refinement!of!one’s!spirit,!the!control!of!one’s! desires!and!inclinations,!the!governing!of!one’s!will,!one’s!self?control.!!That!is!the! essence!of![the!commandment]!“You!shall!be!holy.”!!The!second,!which!is!in!relation! to!a!person!and!his!fellow!human!being,!is![the!essence!of!the!commandment]!“Do!

! 1! what!is!right!and!good.”!!The!Torah!mentions!these!two!rules!only!in!general!terms,! and!does!not!write!the!effectuating!specifics!that!come!under!them.!!This!is!because! the!Torah!did!not!want!those!specifics!to!be!fixed!and!immutable,!with!no!possibility! of!change,!since!people’s!character!traits!and!behaviors!change!with!the!times!and! the!people.!Even!the!traits!and!behaviors!that!lead!to!holiness!and!to!the!doing!of! what!is!right!and!good!change.!There!are!things!that,!in!generations!past,! represented!no!perversion!of!law!or!hijacking!of!justice,!yet!are!now!regarded!as! criminal!offenses.!!Slavery!was!once!a!legal!institution,!but!is!now![considered]!a! grave!wrong!and!a!weighty!social!crime.! Actually,!Nahmanides!in!his!commentary!to!the!Torah!(parashat)K’doshim)!wrote!in! the!same!vein!as!the!Maggid!Mishneh![see!above].!!Differing!with!Rashi,!3! [Nahmanides]!wrote,!! In)my)opinion,)the)separation)spoken)of)here)is)not)the)kind,)mentioned)throughout)the) Talmud,)whose)practioners)are)called)“p’rushim”)[separate!ones,!ascetics].))The) matter)is)[as)follows]:)The)Torah)forbade)illicit)sexual)relations)and)[the)eating)of]) forbidden)foods,)and)permitted)intercourse)with)one’s)wife)and)the)consumption)of) meat)and)wine.))A)lustFdriven)man)could)therefore)find)room)to)be)swept)away)by)sex) with)his)wife)or)his)many)wives,)to)be)of)those)‘who)guzzle)wine)and)glut)themselves)on) meat’)(Proverbs)23:20),)and)who)speak)at)will)about)all)manner)of)obscenity,)on)the) grounds)that)the)Torah)contains)no)express)prohibition)against)this.)He)would)then)be) a)scoundrel)with)license)from)the)Torah)[naval!bi?r’shut!ha?torah].)That)is)why,)after) setting)forth)those)prohibitions)that)are)absolute,)Scripture)commanded)in)a)general) manner)that)we)should)exercise)restraint)even)in)what)is)permissible)–)that)one)should) sanctify)oneself)until)one)achieves)much)selfFcontrol.))Such)is)the)Torah’s)way)in)these) matters:)to)specify)and)to)generalize.))Thus,)after)detailing)the)acts)that)are)forbidden) in)interpersonal)relations)–)‘Do)not)steal,’)‘Do)not)rob,’)‘Do)not)oppress’)and)the)like)–) [the)Torah])generalizes:)‘Do)what)is)right)and)good’)by)bringing)within)the)scope)of) this)commandment)fairness,)equality,)and)the)doing)of)more)than)the)law)requires,)to) the)advantage)of)one’s)fellow)human)beings”)(Nahmanides’)commentary)on)Leviticus)19:20).)

The!Holy!Shalah,4*in!his!“Ten!Essays”![Asarah)Ma’amarot],!elaborated!on!these! words!of!Nahmanides.!He!wrote:!! All)acts)of)excess)are)definitely)forbidden,)even)when)those)acts)are)in)themselves) permissible)–)for)example,)excess)intercourse,)excess)eating,)excess)talking)and)the)like.)) The)Torah)did)not)forbid)these)acts)in)detail,)as)it)did)with)other)acts,)because)it)would) have)been)impossible)to)do)so:)people)differ)in)their)ways,)and)even)a)single)person) may)change)at)various)times)and)occasions.))For)example,)for)one)person,)eating)a)litre) of)meat)is)excessive,)while)another)person,)by)nature,)has)not)eaten)to)excess)until)he) has)consumed)more)than)a)litre.))Even)a)specific)person)may)change)with)the)time)or) the)occasion.))Were)all)people)and)all)societies)alike)in)nature,)the)Torah)would)have) written,)‘This)much)you)may)eat,)and)not)more.’)But)because)there)is)variation,)the) Torah)had)to)proclaim)in)general)terms,)‘I)command)you)to)be)holy)and)practice) restraint:)whenever)you)come)to)understand)that)something)is)excessive,)regardless)of) time)or)occasion,)abstain)from)it.’))It)is)concerning)this)that)our)Sages,)of)blessed) memory,)said,)‘Sanctify)yourself)in)what)is)permitted)to)you’)(Y’vamot!20a,!inter!alia))–)

! 2! [that)is,])even)though)it)is)permitted)to)you,)when)you)sense)that)it)is)excessive,)sanctify) yourself.))Someone)hearing)this)may)think)that)one)who)acts)in)this)manner)is)a!parush! [separate!one,!ascetic],!who)does)more)than)he)is)obligated)to)do.)The)truth,!however,! is)that)[such)restraint])is)obligatory,)but)that)the)Torah)did)not)write)it)as)an)outright) obligation)[only])because)people)are)not)all)alike)in)temperament,)as)we)have) explained.! Thus,)wherever)our)Sages)ruled)that)[the)case)of])a)distinguished)man)is)different)[and) therefore) exempt) from) certain) commandments,) 5) it) means) that) he) is) [halachically]) obligated)[to)forgo)the)exemption)and)carry)out)the)commandment].)Were)all)people) alike)in)temperament,)the)Torah’s)commandment)[to)take)up)and)return)a)lost)animal) or)object])would)apply)to)everyone)equally.)We)find)that)all)such)instances)[in)which) one) is) exempt) from) carrying) out) a) commandment,) but) carries) it) out) anyway]) are) instances)of)doing)more)than)the)law)requires,)a)practice)that)becomes)obligatory)for) the)person)in)question:)for)him,)doing)more)than)the)law)requires)is)now)itself)the)law.)) Since)the)Torah)commanded)that)we)do)more)than)the)law)requires,)doing)so)becomes) the)law,)though)only)in)cases)like)these.) From! the! words! of! the! Holy! Shalah,! it! would! seem! that,! in! his! view,! the! doing! of! more! than! the! law! requires! is! not! an! add?on! requirement;! rather,! one! who! is! obligated!to!do!more!than!the!law!requies,!but!fails!to!do!so,!has!transgressed!not! only!the!requirement!to!do!more!than!the!law!requires,!but!the!very!law!itself.!!For! example,! in! a! case! of! loss,! if! an! [exempted]! person! fails! to! take! up! a! lost! item! in! accordance! with! his! obligation! to! do! more! than! the! law! requires,! he! transgresses! [the! Torah’s! commandment,]! “You! must! not! remain! indifferent”! (Deuteronomy!22:3).! Likewise,! in! a! case! of! helping! someone! load! or! unload! his! animal,! he! would! be! transgressing! [the! Torah’s! commandments! that]! “you! must! help! him! raise! [the! animal]”! (Deuteronomy! 22:4)! and! “you! must! nevertheless! raise! it! with! him”! (Exodus! 23:5).!! Concerning! an! instance! of! R.! Ishmael! son! of! R.! Yose’s! having! carried! out! a! commandment!instead!of!exempting!himself!as!an!elder!(Bava!M’tzia!30b)!–!where!the! G’mara! asks,! “But! wasn’t! R.! Ishmael! son! of! R.! Yose! an! elder,! for! whom! it! was! undignified![to!help!someone!take!up!a!load]?”!and!answers,!“He!did!more!than!the! law!requires”!6!–!the!Shalah!explicitly!wrote,!“It!is!certain!that,!were!instances!like! that!of!R.!Ishmael!son!of!R.!Yose!to!occur!continually!in!real!life,!such!that!for!a!mere! zuz! anyone,! especially! a! wealthy! man! like! him,! could! fulfill! the! Torah’s! commandments,! the! Torah! would! not! have! written! ‘and! ignore! it,’! meaning! that! there!are!times!when!you!may!ignore!it!and!times!when!you!may!not,!as!in!the!case! of! ! an! elder,! for! whom! doing! the! deed! would! be! undignified.! ! Rather,! the! Torah’s! statement! that! [in! some! instances! “you! my! ignore! it”]! concerns! another! matter,! whereas! concerning! this! matter! it! says! that! one! must! do! more! than! the! law! requires.”!!! From!the!Shalah’s!words!we!learn!that!doing!more!than!the!law!requires!is!not!an! exception!to!the!rule!but!an!obligation!to!do!or!not!to!do![as!the!commandment!in! question!directs].!!Even!in!an!instance!of![dealing!with]!a!non?Jew,!this!obligation!is,! in! certain! matters,! as! portrayed! in! the! Talmud! Y’rushalmi! (Bava! M’tzia! 8a)! in! a!

! 3! narrative! about! Shim’on! ben! Shetah,7:! one! who! does! not! do! more! than! the! law! requires! is! a! barbarian,! outside! civilization.! In! that! narrative! it! is! related! that! the! students! of! Shim’on! ben! Shetah! bought! him! a! donkey! from! a! non?Jew! so! that! he! would! not! have! to! work! hard! and! his! livelihood! would! not! have! to! come! about! through!great!difficulty.!They!found!a!jewel!fastened!to!the!donkey,!and!by!right!it! would!be!permissible!to!keep!it,!since!it!was!tantamount!to!an!idolater’s!loss,!which! is!permissible.!Rabbi!Shim’on!ben!Shetah,!however,!commanded!them!to!return!the! jewel!to!its!owner.!!To!his!students’!arguments!and!pleadings!that!he!keep!it!because! it!was!legally!permissible,!he!responded,!“What!do!you!think!I!am!–!a!barbarian?!”! Before!our!very!eyes,!a!revolution!is!developing!in!the!United!States!–!a!revolution! over!human!rights.!!Both!legislative!houses!of!this!country!have!now!decided!that!it! is!forbidden!to!create!segregation!and!restriction!among!people;!to!prevent!anyone,! regardless!of!religion!or!race,!from!buying!a!house!or!residing!anywhere!the!person! may! wish;! and! to! refuse! to! hire! any! qualified! person! because! of! skin! color! or! religion.!!! Actually,!we!have!already!found!in!the!Torah!a!prohibition!against!all!such!forms!of! restriction!as!applied!to!the!stranger!and!the!non?Israelite.!!It!is!written!in!the!Torah! (Deuteronomy! 23:16?17),! “You! shall! not! turn! over! to! his! master! a! slave! who! seeks! refuge!with!you!from!his!master.!He!shall!live!with!you!in!any!place!he!may!choose! among! the! settlements! in! your! midst,! wherever! he! pleases;! you! must! not! ill?treat! him.”! ! Sifre! (ad!loc.)! comments,! “‘In! any! place! he! may! choose’! means! ‘in! any! place! where!his!livelihood!is!available’;!‘wherever!he!pleases’!means!‘[moving]!from!ugly! to!beautiful!pasturage.’”!!This!commandment!applies!not!only!to!a!slave!who!flees! his!master!and!seeks!refuge!and!rescue;!as!we!shall!see!below,!this!commandment! applies,!as!well,!to!any!non?Jew!who!observes!the!Noahide!laws!and!comes!to!dwell! with!us.!! ! The*Noahide*Laws** Thus! far,! we! have! been! speaking! of! our! attitude! toward! civil! rights! from! the! viewpoint!of!the!Torah’s!laws.!!Now!we!shall!see!what!the!law!is!from!the!viewpoint! of!the!Noahide!laws.!! One!of!the!seven!commandments!given!to!the!children!of!Noah![i.e.,!the!human!race,! but! referring! generally! to! non?]! is! that! societies! must! enact! laws.! ! The! meaning!of!this!commandment!is!the!subject!of!a!debate!between!Maimonides!and! Nahmanides.!According!to!Maimonides,!the!intent!of!this!commandment![to!enact! laws!for!society]!is!to!appoint!judges,!for!he!has!written!in!chapter!9,!section!5!of! Laws!of!Kings:!“In!what!way!are!people!commanded!to!enact!laws!for!society?!They! are! obligated! to! seat! judges! and! magistrates! in! each! and! every! district! for! the! purpose!of!adjudicating!the!other!six![Noahide]!commandments!and!of!forewarning! the!people![against!transgressing!them].!A!Nohaide!who!violates!any!of!these!seven! commandments!is!to!be!put!to!death!by!the!sword.!For!this!reason!all!the!! !

! 4! householders!of![the!town!of]!Shechem!incurred!the!death!penalty!(see!Genesis!34:25? 26):![Prince]!Shechem!raped![Dinah]!and!they!saw!it!and!knew!of!it!but!did!not!bring! him!to!judgment.”!!! Nahmanides![however]!wrote!in!his!commentary!to!the!Torah!(Genesis!34:13),!“In!my! opinion,!the!meaning!of!‘Laws’![dinim]!which!the!Rabbis!have!counted!among!the! seven! Noahide! commandments! is! not! just! that! they! are! to! appoint! judges! in! each! and! every! district;! it! [also]! commanded! them! concerning! the! laws! of! theft,! price! gouging,!wronging,!and![withholding]!a!hired!worker’s!wages;!the!laws!of!bailment;! forceful! violation! of! a! woman;! seducing! [an! underage! or! betrothed! woman];! principles! of! [property]! damages! and! personal! injuries;! laws! of! creditors! and! debtors;!and!laws!of!buying!and!selling,!and!their!like!–!similar!in!scope!to!the!laws! with! which! Israel! was! charged,! and! involving! the! death! penalty! for! stealing,! wronging!or!violating!or!seducing!the!daughter!of!a!fellow!human,!or!setting!fire!to! his!threshing!floor!or!wounding!him,!or!their!like.!!This!commandment!also!requires! that!they!appoint!judges!for!each!and!every!city,!just!as!Israel!was!commanded!to! do,!though!if!they!failed!to!do!so,!they!are!free!of!the!death!penalty!since!this!is!a! positive! precept! [i.e.,! a! “thou! shalt”]! devolving! on! them! 8! [and! failing! to! fulfill! a! positive!precept!does!not!incur!the!death!penalty].!![The!Sages]!said!only!that!“their! forewarning!constitutes!their!death!sentence,”!and!a!forewarning!is!so!termed!only! if!it!prohibits![rather!than!mandates]!an!action![i.e.,!a!“thou!shalt!not”].!Such,!too,!is! the!purport!of!the!G’mara!in!the!tractate!Sanhedrin!(57a).!In!the!Jerusalem!Talmud! (source!not!found)!they!said,!‘With!respect!to!the!Noahide!laws,!a!judge!who!perverts! justice!is!to!be!slain.!If!he!took!a!bribe,!he!is!to!be!slain.…..’!!!Why!does!the!Rabbi! [Maimonides]!seek!to!establish!the!guilt!of!the!Shechemites![in!the!Dinah!narrative! (Genesis! 34)]?! Weren’t! they! and! all! the! seven! nations! [in! ]! idolaters,! practitioners!of!sexual!immorality!and!all![other]!things!abhorrent!to!God?!!Does!not! Scripture! in! several! places! cry! out! against! the! idol! worship! that! they! practice! ‘on! lofty! mountains! and! on! hills! or! under! any! luxuriant! tree’! (Deuteronomy! 12:2)! and! against!‘the!abhorrent!practices!of!those!nations’!(Deuteronomy!18:9)?”! Actually,! there! is! no! difference! in! practice! between! [the! opinions! of]! Maimonides! and! Nahmanides.! Maimonides! would! surely! agree! that! a! Noahide! is! obligated! to! carry!out!the!laws!enumerated!by!Nahmanides.!!Maimonides,!however,!subsumes! them!all!under!the!category!of!robbery,!as!he!wrote!explicitly!in!chapter!9,!section!9,! of!Laws!of!Kings.!9!!Nahmanides,!on!the!other!hand,!subsumes!these!offenses!under! the!category!of!dinim![laws!enacted!by!judges].!It!would!be!reasonable![to!regard! Nahmanides’!opinion]!as!in!sync!with!that!of!Maimonides,!for!why!count!robbery!as! a! category! in! its! own! right! and! subsume! all! the! other! laws! under! a! single! forewarning?! ! Why! not! include! robbery! [itself]! among! all! the! other! laws?! [Nahmanides’! opinion]! actually! accords! wth! that! of! Maimonides! because! robbery! and!all!its!accompanying!illegal!acts!–!i.e.,!all!the!other!laws!–!are!covered!by!a!single! forewarning,!since![the!term]!“dinim”!means!appointing!judges.!! The!debate!between!Maimonides!and!Nahmanides!over!the!meaning!of!the!laws!that! Noahides!were!commanded!may!well!be!identical!to!the!debate!between!R.!Yohanan! and!R.!Yitzhak!in!Sanhedrin!56a?b,!where!it!is!stated:!

! 5! [Our)Rabbis)taught:)The)children)of)Noah)were)charged)with)seven)commandedments:) to)enact)social)laws;)to)refrain)from)blasphemy,)idolatry,)sexual)imorality,)bloodshed,) robbery,)and)eating)flesh)cut)from)a)living)animal].)…From)where)[in)Scripture])do)we) know)this?))R.)Yohanan)said:)Scripture)says,)"And)the)LORD)God)commanded)the)man,) saying,) 'Of) every) tree) of) the) garden) you) are) free) to) eat'") (Genesis) 2:16)) –) "And) [He]) commanded")refers)to)social)laws,)and)thus)it)is)written,)"For)I)have)singled)him)out,) that)he)may)command)his)children)and)his)household)after)him)to)keep)the)way)of)the) Lord)by)practicing)righteousness)and)justice")(Genesis)18:19).)"The)Lord)[YHVH]")implies) [a) prohibition) against]) blasphemy,! and) thus) it) is) written,) "Whoever) blasphemes) the) name)of)the)Lord)[YHVH])shall)surely)be)put)to)death")(Leviticus)24:16).)"God")implies)[a) prohibition) against]) idolatry,) and) thus) it) is) written,) "You) shall) have) no) other) gods) besides) Me") (Exodus) 20:3).) "The) man") refers) to) bloodshed,) and) thus) it) is) written,) "Whoever)sheds)the)blood)of)man,)by)man)shall)his)blood)be)shed";)(Genesis)9:6))"Saying") refers)to)sexual)immorality,)and)thus)it)is)written,)"[The)word)of)the)LORD)came)to)me]) saying:)If)a)man)divorces)his)wife,)and)she)leaves)him)and)marries)another)man,)can)he) ever)go)back)to)her?)[Would)not)such)a)land)be)defiled?]")(Jeremiah)3:1).))"Of)every)tree) of)the)garden")but)not)of)robbery.)"You)are)free)to)eat,")but)not)flesh)cut)from)a)living) animal.) When) R.) Yitzhak) came,) he) taught) a) reversed) interpretation:) “And) [He]) commanded”)refers)to)idolatry;)“God”)[elohim])refers)to)social)laws,)…as)it)is)written,) “The)owner)of)the)house)shall)depose)before)ha?elo*im”)(Exodus)22:7).))10)) Accordingly,! we! may! say! that! [both]! R.! Yohanan! –! who! maintains! that! “And! [He]! commanded”! refers! to! social! laws,! as! [intimated! by! God’s! words! to]! Abraham! 11! concerning!“righteousness!and!justice”!and!constituting!the!subject!of!social!laws!– and!R.!Yitzhak,!who!maintains!that![the!name]!“God”!refers!to!social!laws!–!agree! with! Maimonides,! for! whom! the! enacting! of! social! laws! implies! the! appoining! of! judges,!one!of!whose!tasks!it!is!to!exhort!the!people!on!the!matter!of!righteousness! and! justice.! ! From! Maimonides’! language,! it! is! evident! that! this! is! what! he! had! in! mind,! for! he! wrote! in! chapter! 9,! section! 14,! of! Laws! of! Kings,! “How! are! [people]! commanded!about!social!laws?!They!are!obligated!to!seat!judges!and!magistrates!in! every!single!district,!to!rule!on!the!other!six!commandments!and!to!forewarn!the! people.”…! In! no.! 60! of! his! responsa,! R’MA! [Rabbi! Moshe! Isserles]! wrote! of! a! debate! over! whether!Noahides!were!commanded!to!enact!laws!of!their!own!or!to!adjudicate!by! the!laws!of!the!Torah:!!! !According)to)[R.)Yohanan,])who)maintains)that)it)is)from)“And)[He])commanded”)that) we) learn) the) obligation) to) enact) social) laws,) we) would) have) to) say) that) [Noahides]) were)commanded)to)enact)laws)for)themselves,)since)in)Abraham’s)time)the)Torah’s) laws)had)not)yet)been)given,)whereas)according)to)[R.)Yitzhak,])who)maintains)that)the) obligation)is)derived)from)“God”)in)Exodus)22:7,)we)would)have)to)say)that)they)were) commanded) to) go) by) the) laws) in) Exodus) 21:1F23:19,) which) are) the) Torah’s) laws.) Maimonides,) however,) wrote) explicitly) that) [Noahides]) are) obligated) to) adjudicate) only)by)their)own)laws.))He)wrote)in)chapter)10,)section)12,)of)Laws)of)Kings,)“If)two) nonFIsraelites)come)before)you)to)adjudicate)by)the)laws)of)the)Israelite)people,)and) both)wish)to)adjudicate)by)the)laws)of)the)Torah,)we)so)adjudicate.)If)one)of)them)so)

! 6! wishes,)and)the)other)does)not,)we)do)not)coerce)them)to)adjudicate)by)any)law)but) their) own.) If) one) of) them) was) an) Israelite) and) the) other) a) nonFIsraelite,) then) if) the) Israelite)would)make)out)better)under)their)law,)we)adjudicate)by)their)law)and)say,) “So) say) your) laws,”) but) if) the) Israelite) would) make) out) better) under) our) law,) we) adjudicate)by)the)Torah’s)laws)and)say,)“So)say)our)laws.”))It)seems)to)me)that)we)do) not)deal)in)this)manner)with)a)ger!toshav)[resident)alien],)12))but)always)adjudicate)for) him)under)their)laws.))

We!must!!say!that!R’MA!wrote!this!in!accordance!with!Nahmanides’!opinion.!13!) Within!the!system!of!Maimonides,!this!is!explained.!He!wrote!in!chapter!9,!section!9,! of!Laws!of!Kings:!“A!Noahide!is!liable!for!robbery,!whether!committed!against!a!non? Israelite!or!an!Israelite.!!It!is!the!same!whether!he!has!committed!robbery,!theft!or! kidnapping,!or!has!withheld!the!wage!of!a!hired!laborer.!Even!if!a!worker!has,!while! not!on!the!job,!eaten!of!the!crop!he!was!tending,!he!is!liable.!!In!all!these!cases,!he!is! considered!a!robber,!which!is!not!true!of!an!Israelite.”!!At!first!blush,!Maimonides’! phrase,! “which! is! not! true! of! an! Israelite,”! is! puzzling:! even! an! Israelite! who! does! these! things! is! laible! for! robbery,! for! [Talmud]! Bava! M’tzia! 61a?b! groups! the! prohibition! against! robbery! (gezel)! with! the! prohibition! against! fraud! (oshek).! 14!! Maimonides,!moreover,!wrote!in!chapter!11,!section!2!of!Laws!of!Hiring,!that!one! who!withholds!the!wage!of!a!laborer!transgresses!both!“you!shall!not!defraud”!and! “you!shall!not!commit!robbery.”!!It!is!obvious!that,!in!writing!“which!is!not!true!of!an! Israelite,”! Maimonides! meant! that! a! Noahide! [who! defrauds]! is! liable! only! under! “you! shall! not! commit! robbery,”! whereas! an! Israrelite! is! additionally! liable! under! “you! shall! not! defraud”! or! [when! applicable,]! “you! must! not! put! a! sickle! to! your! neighbor's!grain”!(Deuteronomy!23:26).!When![Talmud]!Bava!M’tzia!61a?b!establishes! that! the! prohibition! against! committing! robbery! refers! to! the! withholding! of! a! laborer’s!wage,!it!is!not!stripping![the!prohibition!against!robbery]!of!its!plain?sense! meaning;!rather,!it!is!saying!that,!while!the!prohibition!literally!means!“robbery,”!it! also!subsumes!the!withholding!of!a!laborer’s!wage.!!So!I!have!found!in!Hakham!Tz’vi,! responsum!26.!!Accordingly,!we!must!say!that!only!in!relation!to!an!Israelite!did!the! Torah!add!the!withholding!of!a!laborer’s!wage!to!the!prohibition!against!robbery,! whereas! in! relation! to! Noahides,! all! [such! prohibitions]! are! included! in! the! prohibition!against!robbery![gezel],!with!no!additional!prohibition!of!“you!shall!not! defraud.”!!! By!way!of!further!clarification,!we!may!say!that!the!prohibition!against!robbery!in! the! case! of! an! Israelite! results! from! the! related! prohibitions.! ! That! is,! since! the! Torah’s! injunction! to! an! Israelite! against! fraud! [oshek]! stems! from! “you! shall! not! defraud![lo)ta’ashok]”!(Leviticus!19:13),!and!its!injunction!against!a!worker!eating!from! his!employer’s!crop!while!not!on!the!job!stems!from!“you!must!not!put!a!sickle!to! your!neighbor’s!grain”! (ibid.),!it!follows!that!the!prohibition!“you!shall!not!commit! robbery”! (ibid.)! devolves! on! them! as! well.! ! In! the! case! of! a! non?Israelite,! however,! where!we!derive!all!the![related]!prohibitions!!from!“’Of!every!tree!of!the!garden’! [but!not!from!robbery]”(Genesis!2:16),!there!is!no![explicit]!mention!of![a!prohibition! against]!robbery!or!of!its!related!prohiitions,!which!is!why!we!conclude!that!they!are! all!grouped!together!under!one!rule.!…!

! 7! It!is!most!interesting!that,!with!regard!to!a!Noahide,!everything!is!subsumed!under! one!rule,!while!with!regard!to!an!Israelite!there!are!differences.!!The!more!a!person! develops,! the! stronger! is! his! power! of! analysis;! so! it! is! with! all! rational! systems.!! Whereas! an! ordinary! person! sees! one! thing! in! an! area! [of! inquiry],! a! person! grounded!in!systematic!thinking!sees!many!varied!distinctions,!many!varied!levels.!! The! more! developed! the! person,! the! greater! his! ability! to! draw! distinctions.!! “Without!knowledge,!whence!distinctions?”!15!!Actually,!we!find!in!Hullin!(92a)!that! the!Noahides!were!given!thirty!commandments,!which!were!included!in!the!seven! [Noahide]!commandments:!for!Israelites,![the!seven]!were!divided!and!parsed!into! many!more!commandments.!!! ! The*law*of*the*kingdom* We! have! been! speaking! about! laws! concerning! interpersonal! relations,! [namely,]! laws!necessary!for!safeguarding!the!individual’s!person!or!property.!!Besides!these,! however,! there! is! another! type! of! laws:! [those]! concerning! the! state,! [namely,]! decrees! and! enactments! necessary! for! safeguarding! the! state! and! its! wellbeing.!! These! constitute! the! category! of! dina)d’malkhuta,! the! law! of! the! kingdom,! whose! authority!to!enact!such!laws!stems!from!the!people’s!consent,!as!Maimonides!says!in! chapter!5,!section!18,!of!Laws!of!Robbery!and!Lost!Property:!“To!whom!does![dina) d’malkhuta]! apply?! ! [It! applies]! to! a! king! whose! coin! is! current! in! all! the! lands! [under!his!rule],!since!the!people!of!each!land!agree!that!he!is!their!lord!and!they!are! his!subjects.”!!!In!a!similar!vein!Rashba![Rabbi!Shlomoh!ben!Aderet]!wrote!on!Bava! Batra!54b,!s.v.!“V’ha)amar)Shmuel”:!“All!taxes,!agricultural!levies!and!policies!set!by! kings! in! their! kingdoms! are! law! [dina],! since! the! people! of! the! kingdom! willingly! accept! upon! themselves! the! king's! laws! and! rules.”! ! So! it! is! [codified]! in! Shulhan! Arukh,!Hoshen!Mishpat!369:2.! The! laws! that! the! state! enacts! must! be! general! [in! nature],! equally! applied,! and! uniform! for! all! its! people,! as! the! Rosh! [Rabbenu! Asher! ben! Shmuel]! says! in! his! commentary!to!N’darim!28a:!“Only!in!a!matter!that!applies!equally!to!all!the!people! of!the!state!does!the!king!have!authority!to!act,!but!not!in!a!matter!that!is!unequally! applied,!where!less!applies!to!one!group!and!more!applies!to!another.”!!So!also!does! the!Beyt!Yosef![Rabbi!Joseph!Karo]!cite![in!his!commentary!to]!Tur,!Hoshen!Mishpat! 369,!in!the!name!of!Rabbenu!Tam:!“[The!Sages']!statement!that!dina)d'malkhuta)dina! [the!law!of!the!kingdom!is!law]!applies!only!when!the!king!makes!his!decrees!equal! for! the! people! of! his! kingdom,! but! if! he! changes! [his! decree]! for! one! group! in! particular,!it!is!not!law.”!!Maimonides!too,!in!Laws!of!Robbery!and!Lost!Property,!ch.! 5,! section! 14,! says:! “The! general! principle! is:! Any! law! that! a! king! decrees! to! be! universally!applicable,!and!not!merely!applicable!to!one!person,!is!not!considered! robbery.!But!whenever!someone!takes!from!one!person!alone!in!a!manner!that!does! not! conform! to! a! known! law,! but! rather! seizes! the! property! from! the! person! arbitrarily,!it!is!considered!robbery.”!!So!also!writes![Rabbi!M’nahem]!HaMeiri!on! Bava!Batra!55a:!“The!law!that!the!king!legislates,!and!the!usages!that!he!institutes,! [must!apply]!equally!to!all;!he!must!not!single!out!anyone!in!particular!by!way!of! pretext.”!!And!so!also!wrote!the!Beyt!Yosef!in!Avkat!Rokhel,!responsum!66.!!The!law!

! 8! must!be!general!for!all!the!people!of!the!kingdom.!That!is!the!opinion!of!the!majority! of!the!great!poskim![jurists!of!halachah].!!! The! entire! matter! of! absolute! equality,! of! one! law! for! all! citizens! without! discrimination,! applies! only! to! the! state:! the! kingdom! shall! not! lay! a! heavier! tax! burden! on! one! person! than! on! another,! nor! grant! more! rights! to! one! than! to! another,!nor!should!there!be!anything!that!is!forbidden!to!one!person!and!permitted! to!another.!!In!interpersonal!relations,!however,!the!concept!of!inequality!does!not! at!all!apply,!for!when!a!person!accuses!his!fellow!of!having!robbed!or!injured!him!or! [otherwise]! caused! him! harm,! it! is! up! to! the! judge! to! determine! the! justice! of! his! claim.!If!the!claim!is!for!a!specific!sum!and!is!proven!justified,!the!judge!must!order! the!accused!to!return!what!he!has!stolen,!and!the!like.!!In![adjudicating]!these!cases,! however,! there! may! occur! a! distortion! of! justice,! such! as! when! the! judge! pays! insufficient!attention!to!certain!details!and!renders!a!judgment!based!on!falsehood.!! Such! a! case! comes! under! [the! commandment]! “You! shall! not! judge! unfairly! [lit.,! bend! justice]”! (Deuteronomy!16:19),! which! is! what! Noahides! are! commanded,! as! we! said!above!in!the!name!of!the!Talmud!Y’rushalmi.!!! It! is! true! that! in! laws! of! the! state,! too,! there! can! be! distortion! of! justice:! [for! example,]!if!the!state!interprets!the!law!a!certain!way!for!one!person,!and!another! way!for!the!other;![or]!if!for!one!person!the!prosecutor!employs!every!deception,! every!trick,!to!prove!to!the!judges!the!guilt!of!the!accused!and!to!seek!for!him!the! most!stringent!punishment,!while!for!other!persons!he!is!more!calm!and!collected.!!! All!this!has!shown!us!that!a!major!principle!of!the!laws!and!statutes!of!the!state!is! that!there!must!be!absolute!equality!among!all!its!inhabitants!and!citizens:!“There! shall!be!one!law!for!you,!whether!stranger!or!citizen!of!the!country”!(Numbers!9:14).! This!is!one!of!the!principal!qualities!of!all!law!and!justice.!!Any!law!that!negates!this! quality!is!not!a!just!law.! ! The*law*of*the*resident*alien*[ger+toshav]* Until!now!we!have!been!speaking!about!the!principles,!“Do!what!is!right!and!good!in! the! sight! of! the! LORD”! (Deuteronomy! 6:18)! and! dina) d’malkhuta,! the! law! of! the! kingdom.!The!laws!of!the!resident!alien,!it!seems,!further!support!our!thesis.!!Even! though!the!laws!of!the!resident!alien!apply!only!when!the!Jubilee!cycle!is!in!force,!we! perceive!clearly!from!those!laws!the!spirit!and!doctrine!of!the!Torah!in!the!matter!of! civil!rights.!!! The!Torah!gave!the!resident!alien!special!rights!and!various!laws!that!distinguish! him!from!pagans:!! (a)!It!is!a!positive!commandment!to!sustain!him,!as!it!says,!“…a!resident!alien,!let! him! live! by! your! side”! (Leviticus! 25:35),! Talmud! P’sahim! 21b! 16! ;! and! Maimonides’! Mishneh!Torah,!Laws!of!Gifts!to!the!Poor,!ch.!7,!sec.!1!!17.! (b)!It!is!permitted!to!let!him!settle!in!the!cities!of!Israel,!something!that!is!forbidden! to!a!pagan,!as!it!says,!“They!shall!not!abide!in!your!land,!lest!they!cause!you!to!sin! against! Me”! (Exodus!23:33).! ! With! regard! to! the! residen! alien,! it! says,! “He! shall! live!

! 9! with!you!in!any!place!he!may!choose!among!the!settlements!in!your!midst,!wherever! he!pleases”!(Deuteronomy!23:17),!and!in!Sifre!ad!loc.,!“[In!the!verse!‘You!shall!not!turn! over!to!his!master!a!slave!who!seeks!refuge!with!you!from!his!master,’]!the!phrase! ‘who!seeks!refuge!with!you’!brings!the!resident!alien!within!the!scope!of!this!law.”! See!Maimonides’!Mishneh!Torah,!Laws!Concerning!Idolatry,!ch.!10,!sec.!5.!18!!!! (c)! In! the! matter! of! a! ger)toshav! who! is! a! hired! laborer,! the! commandment,! “You! must! pay! him! his! wages! on! the! same! day”! (Deuteronomy! 24:15)! applies.! See! Bava! M’tzia!111a.!19*! (d)! “A! resident! alien! goes! into! banishment! for! [unintentionally]! killing! another! resident!alien”!(Makkot!8b).!20!

(5)!!The!principle,“zealots!strike!him!down,”!21**does!not!apply!to!a!case!in!which!the! offender!had!public!intercourse!with!the!daughter!of!a!resident!alien!22!! In!Mishneh!Torah,!Laws!of!Forbidden!Intercourse,!ch.!14,!sec.!7,!Maimonides!wrote:! “Who!is!a!resident!alien![ger!toshav]?!He!is!an!idolater!who!has!taken!it!upon!himself! to!refrain!from!worshipping!idols,!and!to!follow!the!other!Noahide!commandments! as!well,!but!who!has!not!had!himself!circumcised!and!has!not!immersed!himself.!!He! is!welcomed!and!is,!in!fact,!one!of!the!righteous!of!the!nations!of!the!world.!!Why!is! he!called!‘resident'![toshav]?!Because!it!is![now]!permitted!to!us!to!settle![l'hoshiv)

! 10! that!the!holiness!of!Jerusalem!and!the!Temple![Mount]!have!never!ceased!to!exist.!! That!is!why,!in!his!view,!there!is!no!difference!between!the!time!of!the!Jubilee!cycle! and!our!time!with!respect!to![the!ger)toshav’s]!residing!in!Jerusalem.!In![Mishneh! Torah]! Laws! Concerning! Idolatry,! ch.! 10,! sec.! 6,! RaBaD! critiques! Maimonides’! statement! that! “it! is! forbidden! to! allow! an! idolater! among! us! until! he! takes! upon! himself!the!Noahide!laws…and!if!he!does!take!upon!himself!the!Noahide!laws,!he!is!a! ger)toshav.!!We!accept!a!ger)toshav!only!when!the!Jubilee!cycle!is!in!force,!whereas!in! a!time!when!the!Jubilee!cycle!is!not!in!force,!we!accept!only!a!ger)tzedek![full!convert! to!Judaism].”!RaBaD!writes:!“I!do!not!agree!with!him!in!regard!to![a!ger)toshav’s]! being!permitted!to!settle!in!the!Land![of!Israel].”!The![author!of!the]!Kesef!Mishneh! [commentary!on!Mishneh!Torah]!(ad!loc.)!writes:!“It!seems!to!me!that,! 23!indeed,!if! the! person! accepts! the! Noahide! laws! on! his! own,! we! do! not! prevent! him! from! settling!in!the!Land,!and![Maimonides]!comes!to!say!only!that!the!beyt)din!does!not! accept!him![as!a!true!ger)toshav].”!!The!words!of!Maimonides!imply!that!as!long!as! we!do!not!accept!him,!it!is!forbidden!for!us!to!allow!him!to!settle!among!us!in!the! Land:!Maimonides!is!speaking!here!only!about!settling!in!the!Land,!and!concerning! this! [subject]! he! has! written! that! the! person! must! accept! upon! himself! the! seven! [Noahide]!laws,!which!would!make!him!a!ger)toshav.!!Concerning!that!matter,!he!has! written! that! we! accept! a! ger) toshav! only! when! the! Jubilee! cycle! is! in! force.! ! The! Minhat!Hinukh,!mitzvah!94,!24!comments!to!the!same!effect.!!We!shall!explain!this! further!on,!God!willing.! Regarding! RaBaD’s! statement! that! “this! author's! [i.e.,! Maimonides’]! opinion! is! locked!and!sealed,”!I!humbly!confess!that!I!do!not!understand!RaBaD’s!complaint.!! Seeing!that!Maimonides!has!discretely!detailed!all!the!laws!of!the!ger)toshav,!why! does![RaBaD]!review!them!here?!!Since![Maimonides]!has!written!“we!do!not!accept! him,”! it! follows! that! the! person! is! not! consiedered! a! ger) toshav.! [Maimonides’]! words,!then,!are!open!and!explicit,!not!“locked!and!sealed.”!!! It! seems! to! me! that! Maimonides! and! RaBaD! disagree! about! the! nature! of! the! ger) tosahv’s!change!of!status:!is!this![new]!status!a!lower?level!conversion!that!devolves! upon!him!because!he!has!taken!upon!himself!the!seven![Noahide]!laws,!such!that,! through! the! seven! [Noahide]! laws,! a! change! in)personam! has! occurred,! somewhat! like!that!of!a!ger)tzedek,!except!that!in!the!latter!case!the!person!has![in!the!eyes!of! Halakhah]!become!a!new!creature,!a!newborn!baby!–!or!does!the!difference!between! a!ger)toshav!and!a!non?Jew!lie!in![personal]!principles!but!not!in![legal]!class,!like!the! difference! between! a! Jew! who! observes! the! mitzvot! and! one! who! has! cast! off! the! yoke,! which! in! itself! negates! certain! rights! because! “he! does! not! do! the! deed! alongside! you”25! (Sanhedrin! 85a)?! A! non?Jew! who! does! not! observe! the! commandments! does! not! have! all! the! rights! that! belong! to! one! who! observes! the! seven![Noahide]!commandments!that!the!Torah!has!placed!upon!him.!!! !From! the! words! of! the! RaN! [commentary! of! Rabbi! Nissim]! in! the! first! chapter! of! Avodah! Zarah,! it! seems! that! he! holds! the! latter! of! these! two! opinions,! for! he! has! written!there,!“Why!must![the!ger)toshav’s]!acceptance![of!the!Noahide!laws]!be!in! the!presence!of!three,!seeing!that!Noahides!are![already]!exhorted!against!idolatry?”!! He! replies,! “Because! they! are! not! scrupulous! about! this,! they! require! [formal]!

! 11! acceptance![of!the!Noahide!laws!before!a!beyt)din!of!three].”!!The!RaN’s!words!imply! that! it! is! not! acceptance! that! makes! someone! a! ger) toshav,! and! that! [formal]! acceptance! is! not! an! actual! legal! requirement! but! rather! an! encouragement! and!! inducement!that!he!be!scrupulous!about!all!the!requirements!devolving!on!him!by! the! Noahide! laws.! Acceptance! in! this! case! is! like! accepting! haverut! [fellowship],26! which!must!be!done!in!the!presence!of!three!haverim![fellows].!!Maimonides!states! the! reason! for! this! in! [Mishneh! Torah,]! Laws! of! Tithing,! chapter! 10,! sec.! 1.27,! [showing!that!the!Noahide’s!acceptance!of!the!Laws]!must!be!made!in!public.!

Rashi,! in! [Talmud]! Avodah! Zarah! 64b,! explains! the! reasoning! of! those! “others”28! who!say,!“These![i.e.,!gentiles!who!take!upon!themselves!the!seven!mitzvot!that!the! children!of!Noah!undertook]!do!not!come!within!the!category!of!ger)toshav.!Who,! then,!is!a!ger)toshav?!A!proselyte!who!eats!of!animals!not!ritually!slaughtered,!i.e.,!he! took!upon!himself!to!observe!all!the!mitzvot!mentioned!in!the!Torah!apart!from!the! prohibition!of![eating!the!flesh!of]!animals!not!ritually!slaughtered.”!Rashi![ad)loc.]! comments,! “These! [who! simply! take! it! upon! themselves! to! observe! the! seven! Noahide! commandments]! do! not! come! within! the! category! of! ger) toshav,! whom! Israelites!are!commanded!to!sustain,!since!even!complete!gentiles!were!commanded! concerning!idolatry!and!the!other![Noahide]!mitzvot.”!In!Rashi’s!view,!then,!it!may! be!possible!to!say!that!the!“others”!are!dissenting!both!from!the!Sages!and!from!R.! Meir,! as! cited! in! the! baraita! [non?canonical! Tannaitic! text],! in! that! the! “others”! maintain! that! the! ger) toshav’s! semi?conversion! creates! in! him! a! change! in! class,! which! is! why! he! must! take! upon! himself! things! in! which! he! was! not! heretofore! obligated.!!The!Sages![who!dissent!from!R.!Meir]!maintain!that!the!category!of!ger) toshav! is! solely! about! observing! the! seven! Noahide! commandments,! as! [a! ger) toshav]!is!obligated!to!do.!!According!to!the!“others,”!a!ger)toshav!does!not!become!a! new!person!by!observing!the![Noahide]!mitzvot!alone.!! In!my!humble!opinion,!this!is!also!the!view!of!RaBaD,!who!questions!the!relevance!of! [Maimonides’!ruling]!that!we!accept!a!ger)toshav!only!when!the!Jubilee!cycle!is!in! force.! [Formal]! acceptance! [by! a! beyt)din]! is,! in! RaBaD’s! view,! not! important;! the! decisive! consideration! is! that! the! person! resolve! to! observe! and! keep! the! seven! mitzvot! that! are! incumbent! upon! him.! In! our! time,! the! community! is! under! no! obligation! with! respect! to! him.! [RaBaD! contends! that]! Maimonides! should! have! explained!these!things.!! In! Maimonides’! view,! it! seems,! there! is! a! conversionary! aspect! to! this! matter:! in! being![formally]!accepted!by!three!haverim,!the!person!has!undergone!a!change!in! his!person!and!his!class.!!Since!we!no!longer![formally]!accept!a!ger)toshav,!all!the! obligations!of!a!ger)toshav!no!longer!devolve!on!the!person.!!For!this!reason!it!is!not! necessary! to! enumerate! all! the! laws! specific! to! a! ger) toshav;! they! are! already! enumerated!among!the!various!laws.!!

As!to!the!RaN’s!questioning!the!need!for!acceptance!of!the!Noahide!laws!in!the! presence!of!three,!seeing!that!his!conversion![to!the!status!of!ger)toshav]!adds! nothing!to!the!obligations!that!devolved!upon!him!beforehand,!it!is!possible!to!cite! Maimonides!(Mishneh!Torah,!Laws!of!Kings,!ch.!8,!sec.!11),!who!writes:!“Anyone!

! 12! who!accepts!upon!himself!the!fulfillment!of!these!seven!mitzvot!and!is!scrupulous!in! their!observance!is!considered!one!of!‘the!righteous!among!the!gentiles’!and!will! merit!a!share!in!the!world!to!come.!!This!applies!only!when!he!accepts!them!and! fulfills!them!because!the!Holy!and!Blessed!One!commanded!them!in!the!Torah!and! informed!us!through!Moses,!our!teacher,!that!Noah's!descendants!had!been! commanded!to!fulfill!them!previously.!However,!if!he!fulfills!them!out!of!intellectual! conviction![alone],!he!is!not!a!resident!alien,!nor!of!'the!righteous!among!the! gentiles,'!nor![some!versions!read!‘but!rather’]!of!their!sages.”![Maimonides,!it! seems,!equates!‘one!of!the!righteous!among!the!gentiles’!with!a!ger)toshav.]!! Moreover,!in!his!Commentary!to!the!,!at!the!end!of!the!chapter!on!gid)haF nasheh![the!thigh!muscle!that!is!on!the!socket!of!the!hip!(cf.!Genesis!32:26,!33)],! Maimonides!writes:!“The!reason!we!do!not!eat!a!limb!taken!from!a!live!creature!is! not!that!the!Holy!and!Blessed!One!forbade!it!to!Noah,!but!that!Moses!enjoined!us! from!eating!a!limb!taken!from!a!live!creature!when!he!commanded!at!Sinai!that!the! [existing]!prohibition!of!a!limb!taken!from!a!live!creature!should!be!permanent.”!!

According!to!this,!it!is!possible!to!say!that!the!concept!of!conversion![gerut]!applies! to![those!who!take!it!upon!themselves!to!keep!the!seven!Noahide!laws],!since!until! that!point,!they!were!obligated!to!keep!the!seven!Nohaide!laws!because!those!laws! were!told!to!Noah,!but!at!Mount!Sinai!a!new!factor!was!added:!a!new!breath!was! breathed!into!them!–!the!soul!of!Sinai!–!whereby!the!ger)toshav!takes!upon!himself! the!seven![Noahide]!mitzvot!that!were!told!to!Moses!at!Sinai.!

In!truth,!the!words!of!Maimonides!in!ch.!8,!sec.!10?11!of!Laws!of!Kings!imply!that!a! Noahide!is!obligated!by!the!seven!mitzvot!!because!they!were!told!to!Moses!at!Sinai.! That!being!the!case,!nothing!new!happens!to!a!person!by!virtue!of!his!conversion.29!! Maimonides!writes:!“By!the!same!token,!Moses!was!commanded!by!God!to!compel! all!the!inhabitants!of!the!world!to!accept!the!commandments!given!to!Noah's! descendants.!If!one!does!not!accept!these!commands,!he!should!be!executed.!A! person!who!formally!accepts!these!commands!is!called!a!resident!alien![ger) toshav]….!Anyone!who!accepts!upon!himself!the!fulfillment!of!these!seven!mitzvot! and!is!scrupulous!in!their!observance!is!considered!one!of!'the!righteous!among!the! gentiles'!and!will!merit!a!share!in!the!world!to!come.!This!applies!only!when!he! accepts!them!and!fulfills!them!because!the!Holy!and!Blessed!One!commanded!them! in!the!Torah!and!informed!us!through!Moses,!our!teacher,!that!Noah's!descendants! had!been!commanded!to!fulfill!them!previously.!!If,!however,!he!fulfills!them!out!of! intellectual!conviction![alone],!he!is!not!a!resident!alien,!nor!of!'the!righteous!among! the!gentiles,'!nor![some!versions!have!‘but!rather’]!of!their!wise!men.”!!The!difficulty! thus!remains!in!place:!How!is!this!considered!a!conversion!if!nothing!either! quantitative!or!qualitative!is!added?!

It!seems!appropriate!to!say!that!it!is!not!as!we!had!assumed,!namely,!that!the!new! mitzvot!make!the!person!a!ger)toshav.!!Rather,!this!is!the!law:!the!person’s! expressing!his!will,!and!his!undertaking!the!observance!of!the!seven!mitzvot!–!itself! an!undertaking!of!such!great!importance!–!are!efficacious!enough!to!make!him!a!ger) toshav.!!It!is!as!stated!in![Talmud]!N’darim!8a:!“From!where![in!Scripture]!do!we!

! 13! know!that!an!oath!may!be!taken!to!fulfill!a!mitzvah?!From!the!verse,!‘I!have!firmly! sworn!to!keep!Your!just!rules’!(Psalms!119:106).!But!isn’t!he!already!under!a!perpetual! oath!from!Sinai?!!One!is!permitted!to!spur!oneself!to!action![by!swearing].”!!

From!Maimonides’!system!we!learn!that!a!ger)toshav!is!obligated!to!believe!in!the! thirteen!principles!of!faith.!!The!very!foundation!on!which!acceptance!of!the!seven! [Noahide]!mitzvot!stands!is!the!belief!that!Moses!received!them!at!Sinai;!this!implies,! ipso)facto,!the!Great!Principle,!torah)min)haFshamayim![divinely!given!Torah].!!Since! the!thirteen!principles!are!rooted!in!the!Written!Torah,!as!Maimonides!explains!in! his!Commentary!to!the!Mishnah,!on!the!chapter!entitled!“helek”!(ch.!11!of![Talmud! Sanhedrin),!it!is!reasonable!to!conclude!that![those!principles]!are!also!a!firm! foundation!for!the!law!and!commandments!of!the!ger)toshav.!!Although![the!ger) toshav]!has!only!seven!mitzvot,!he!is!on!a!par!with!a!Jew!with!respect!to!the! principles!of!the!faith.!!!!

This!needs!further!clarification.!!We!have!tried!to!prove!from!several!angles!that!a! quality!shared!by!all!laws!is!that!they!must!apply!equally!to!everyone.!!Yet!we!find! that!the!Torah!contains!laws!that!apply!only!to!Israelites,!such!as!“Your!kinsman’s! ox,!but!not!the!ox!of!an!idolater”30!or!“you!may!deduct!interest!from!loans!to! foreigners”31*and!many!others.!!It!is!plainly!true!that!a!group!within!society!can! separate!itself!from!the!rest!of!society!and!legislate!laws!and!rules!for!itself!without! including!the!rest!of!society,!as!we!have!learned,!“[Israelite]!artisans![must!perform! m’shikhah!in!order!to!acquire!ownership!of!their!payment,!while!for!gentile!artisans! the!acceptance!of!money!suffices]”*32!or!“[the!townspeople]!may!inflict!penalties!for! breach!of!their!regulations.”33!!It!is!understood!that!none!of!the!laws!which!a!group! is!permitted!to!establish!for!itself!may!infringe!on!the!rights!of!other!citizens.!!The! group’s!members!are!entitled!to!obligate!themselves!with!respect!to!additional! requirements!beyond!those!of!society.!Of!the!latter!type!are!those!laws!of!Israel! from!which!gentiles!are!excluded.!Those!laws!were!legislated,!not!with!the!aim!of! excluding!people!–!of!keeping!foreigners!out!–!but!rather!of!placing!added! obligations,!added!mitzvot,!on!Israel.!!They!came,!not!in!order!to!exempt!the!Israelite! [owner!of!an]!ox!that!gored!the!ox!of!a!gentile,!but!rather!to!obligate!the!Israelite! [owner!of]!an!ox!that!gored!the!ox!of!another!Israelite.!!Scripture!came,!not!in!order! to!permit!deducting!interest!on!the!loan!of!a!foreigner,!but!to!forbid!Israelites!from! deducting!interest!on!the!loan!of!another!Israelite.!!And!so!on.!!All!these!laws!are! additions!that!were!ordered![specifically]!for!Israel,!additions!to!all!the!practices! that!were!in!force!before!the!receiving!of!the!Torah.!!It!is!understood!that!a!group!is! permitted!to!accept!such!additions!upon!itself!without!infringing!on!the!concept!of! equal!rights.!!

Even!in!this!matter,!it!seems,!there!is!a!difference!between!Israelites!and!non? Israelites.!!By!law,![the!Israelite!owner!of]!an!ox!that!gored!the!ox!of!a!foreigner!is! exempt,!while![the!foreign!owner!of]!an!ox!that!gored!the!ox!of!an!Israelite,!whether! on!two!or!on!more!occasions,!pays!full!damages.!!The!Sages!(Bava Kama 38a; Avodah Zarah 2b)!based!all!this!on!a!verse!in!Habakkuk!(3:6,!translated!midrashically):!“’He!stood! and!measured!the!earth;!He!beheld,!and!freed!nations’!–!He!beheld!the!seven!

! 14! commandments!that!were!accepted!by!all!the!descendants!of!Noah,!but!since!they! did!not!keep!them,!He!rose!up!and!freed!their!money!for!Israel.” We!find!that!this!is! not!integral!to!the!laws!of!damages,!since!it!was!meant![not!as!a!privilege!for!the! Israelite!nation!but]!as!a!penalty!for!the!failure!of!the!Noahide!nations!to!fulfill!their! mitzvot.!!

*************!

May!the!memory!of!Morenu)HaRav!Chaim)David!Regensberg,!zekher)tzaddik)liF v’rachah,!stand!us!in!good!stead!with!God!and!humanity,!and!may!the!Scion!of!David! come!soon,!in!our!time,!bringing!universal!peace!and!harmony.!!!

! NOTES!

1***See!Talmud,!Bava!M’tzia!108a.!The!right!of!pre?emption![dina)d'var)metzra]!stipulates! that,!when!a!person!sells!a!field,!the!adjoining!neighbor!of!this!field!has!the!first!option!to! buy!it.!!This!law!implicitly!exhorts!any!other!prospective!purchaser,!"Why!buy!a!field!just! here,!where!it!is!more!useful!to!its!neighbor!than!another!field!not!adjacent!to!his,!when!you! can!as!easily!buy!a!similar!field!elsewhere,!seeing!that!it!makes!no!difference!to!you?"!! ! 2*!!!In!its!context,!the!biblical!phrase!“ki)tovim)doekha)miFyayin”!means!“for!your!love!is! better!than!wine”:!the!word!“dodekha”!can!mean!either!“your!love![lit.,!acts!of!love]”!or! “your!beloved!ones.”!Interpreting!the!verse!midrashically,!the!Sages!chose!the!latter! definition!and!interpreted!the!verse!as!follows:!”Therefore,!write!down!this!song![referring! to!the!Torah]!and!teach!it!to!the!people!of!Israel;!put!it![simah]!in!their!mouths,’! (Deuteronomy!31:19)!–![the!Torah’s!text]!constitutes!headings![simanim,!punning!on! “simah”]!in!their!mouths.’!From!the!Torah’s!text![alone],!one!cannot!determine!specific! rulings,!whereas!from!the!teachings!of!the!Sages![“your!beloved!ones”],!one!can!derive! specific!rulings!because!they!explicate!the!Torah’s!text.!

3***On!Leviticus!19:2,!Rashi!writes:!“"You!shall!be!holy"![means]!"Separate!yourselves!from! illicit!sexual!relations!and!from!sin,"!since!wherever![in!the!Torah]!you!find!a!fencing?off! from!illicit!sexual!relations,!you!find![a!mention!of]!holiness.”!!Nahmanides!finds!this! explanation!too!narrow.!!!!!!

4****An!acronym!for!“Sh’ney)Luhot)HaB’rit”![the!Two!Tablets!of!the!Covenant],!written!by! Rabbi!Isaiah!HaLevi!Horowitz!(1558?1630),!who!is!popularly!referred!to!as!the!Holy!Shalah.!

5****Certain!people!may!exempt!themselves!from!the!commandment!to!take!up!and!return!a! lost!object.!For!example!(Bava!M’tzia!30a):!“’[The!Mishnah!says:]!If!one!finds!a!sack!or!a! basket,!or!any!object!which!it!is!not!dignified!for!him!to!take!up,!he!need!not!take!it!up.’!! [The!G’mara!asks:]!How!do!we!know!this?!—!Our!Rabbis!taught:!‘[You!shall!not!see!your! fellow’s!ox!or!sheep!gone!astray]!and!ignore!it’!(Deuteronomy!22:1)!—!![The!wording!of!the! phrase!‘and!ignore!it’!suggests!that]!sometimes!you!may!ignore!it,!and!sometimes!not.!E.g.,!if! one!was!a!,!and![the!lost!animal]!was!in!a!cemetery;!or!if!!one!was!an!old!man,!and!it! was!inconsistent!with!his!dignity![to!lead!the!animal!home];!or!if!his!own![work]!was!more! valuable!than!his!neighbor's!—!in!regard!to!such!cases!it!is!said,!‘and!ignore!it.’! * 6!!!Bava!M’tzia!30b:!“R.!Ishmael!son!of!R.!Yose!was!walking!on!a!road!when!he!met!a!man! carrying!a!load!of!sticks.!The!man!put!them!down,!rested,!and!then!said!to!him,!‘Help!me!

! 15! pick!them!up.’!‘What!is![the!wood]!worth?’!R.!Ishmael!asked.!The!man!replied,!‘Half!a!zuz.’!So! he!gave!the!man!a!half!zuz![thus!acquiring!ownership!of!the!wood],!and!declared![the!wood]! hefker![ownerless].!The!carrier!re?acquired!it![and!again!asked!R.!Ishmael!to!help!him].![R.! Ishmael]!gave!him!another!half!zuz!and!again!declared![the!wood]!hefker.!Seeing!that![the! carrier]!was!about!to!re?acquire![the!wood]!yet!again,!he!said!to!him,!‘I!have!declared!it! hefker!for!everyone!but!you.’!–!But!is!it!hefker!in!that!case?!Have!we!not!learned:!The!School! of!Shammai!maintains!that!hefker!for!the!poor![alone]!is!valid!hefker,!while!the!School!of! Hillel!maintains!that![hefker]!is!valid!only!if!it!is!declared!for!both!the!poor!and!the!rich?!….! —!R.!Ishmael!son!of!R.!Yose!did!in!fact!render!it!hefker!for!all,!but!by!saying!those!words,!he! stopped!the!other![from!taking!possession!again].!But!wasn’t!R.!Ishmael!son!of!R.!Yose!an! elder,!for!whom!it!was!undignified![to!help!someone!take!up!a!load]?![Why,!then,!pay!him! off?]!—!He!did!more!than!the!law!required.”! ! 7!!“Shim'on!ben!Shetah!dealt!in!flax.!!His!students!said!to!him,!‘Master,!leave!off![doing!this]! and!we!will!purchase!a!donkey!for!you!so!that!you!won't!have!to!work!so!hard.’!!They!went! and!bought!a!donkey!from!a!Saracen!man.!!Hanging!from!it!was!a!jewel.!!They!came!back!to! [Shim'on!ben!Shetah]!and!said!to!him,!‘From!now!on,!you!won't!have!to!work!at!all.’!Why?’! he!asked.!!They!replied,!‘We!have!bought!you!a!donkey!from!a!Saracen!man!and!there's!a! jewel!hanging!from!it.’!!He!said!to!them,!‘Did!the!owner!know![of!it]?’!‘No,’!they!said!to!him.! ‘Go!and!return!it!to!him,’!he!said!to!them.!–!But!didn't!Rav!Huna!Bevai!son!of!Gozlon,!in!the! name! of! Rav! Hativon,! say! before! Rabbi! [Y’hudah! HaNasi],! ‘Even! according! to! those! who! maintain!that!what!is!stolen!from!an!idolater!is!forbidden,!all!authorities!agree!that!what!he! has!lost!is!permitted’!?![Rabbi!Y’hudah!HaNasi!replied,]!‘Do!you!think!Shim'on!ben!Shetah! was! a! barbarian?! Shim'on! ben! Shetah! would! rather! have! heard! [the! idolater! exclaim,]! “Blessed!be!the!God!of!the!Jews!”!than![acquire]!all!the!wealth!of!this!world!’”!!

8!!!One!is!punished!for!transgressing!a!prohibition!but!not!for!failing!to!fulfill!a!mandate.!

9***“A!Noahide!is!liable!for!committing!robbery,!whether!he!stole!from!an!idolater!or!from!an! Israelite.!!It!is!the!same!whether!he!stole!property!or!kidnapped!a!human!being,!or!withheld! the!wages!of!a!hired!worker,!or!the!like;!even!a!field!worker!who,!whlle!not!on!the!job,!ate! [of! the! crop! he! was! hired! to! tend]! –! in! all! these! cases! he! is! liable,! and! is! considered! a! robber…!.”!

10.! The! word! as! used! here! denotes! not! God! but! the! judges,! who! are! charged! with! administering!God’s!laws.!

11**"For!I!have!singled!him!out,!that!he!may!command!his!children!and!his!household!after! him!to!keep!the!way!of!the!Lord!by!doing!righteousness!and!justice"!(Genesis!18:19).! 12!!!!A!non?Jew!who!has!formally!taken!it!upon!himself!to!live!by!the!seven!Noahide!laws.!

13****Nahmanides!says,!“In!my!opinion,!the!meaning!of!‘Laws’!which!the!Rabbis!have!counted! among!the!seven!Noahide!commandments,!is!not!just!that![Noahides]!are!to!appoint!judges! in!each!and!every!district.!They!are![also]!commanded!concerning!the!laws!of!theft,!price! gouging,!wronging,!and![withholding]!a!hired!worker’s!wages;!the!laws!of!bailment;!forceful! violation!of!a!woman;!seducing![an!underage!or!betrothed!woman];!principles!of!damages,! and! wounding! another! person;! laws! of! creditors! and! debtors;! and! laws! of! buying! and! selling,! and! their! like.! These! laws! are! similar! in! scope! to! the! laws! which! Israel! was! commanded,!and!involve!the!death!penalty!for!stealing,!wronging!or!violating!or!seducing! someone’s! daughter,!or!setting!fire!to!his!threshing!floor!or!wounding!him,!or!their!like.!! Also!included!in!this!commandment!is!that!they!must!appoint!judges!for!each!and!every!city,! just!as!Israel!was!commanded!to!do...”!

! 16! 14**Based!on!Leviticus!19:13:!“You!shall!not!defraud![lo)ta’ashok]!your!fellow.!You!shall!not! commit!robbery![lo)tigzol].!The!wages!of!a!laborer!shall!not!remain!with!you!until!morning.”!

15**“Why!did![the!Sages]!ordain!that!havdalah!should!be!placed!in![the!blessing]!honen)haF da'at! [Gracious! Giver! of! Knowledge]?! Without! knowledge,! there! can! be! no! distinctions! (Y'rushalmi!B'rachot!ch.!38,!halachah!2).!!!

I6!!Interpreting!the!verse,!“You!shall!not!eat!anything!that!has!died!a!natural!death;!give!it!to! the!stranger![ger]!in!your!community!to!eat,!or!you!may!sell!it!to!a!foreigner"!(Deuteronomy! 14:21),!R.!Y’hudah!rules!that!“to!a!ger![resident!alien]!it!must!be!given,!and!to!a!heathen!it! must!be!sold.”!

17*“It!is!a!positive!commandment!to!give!charity!to!the!poor!of!Israel,!in!a!manner!fitting!the! recipient!and!in!accordance!with!the!giver's!means,!as!it!is!said,!‘[If!there!is!a!needy!person! among!you,!one!of!your!kinsmen!in!any!of!your!settlements!in!the!land!that!the!LORD!your! God! is! giving! you,! do! not! harden! your! heart! and! shut! your! hand! against! your! needy! kinsman.]!Rather,!you!must!open!your!hand!and!lend!him!sufficient!for!whatever!he!needs’! (Deuteronomy!15:7?8),!and!as!it!says,!‘You!must!hold!him![i.!e.,!a!resident!alien];!let!him!live!! by! your! side’! (Leviticus!25:35),! and! as! it! says,! Let! him! live! by! your! side! as! your! kinsman’! (Leviticus!25:36).”!

18* * “It! is! permitted! to! sell! them! houses! and! fields! outside! the! Land! of! Israel,! since! [the! property!we!sell!them]!is!not!in!our!land.!Even!in!a!place!where!it!is!permitted!to!rent!to![an! idolater],!we!may!not!rent!it!to!him!as!a!dwelling,!because!he!will!bring!idols!into!it,!whereas! it!is!said,!'You!must!not!bring!an!abhorrent!thing!into!your!house'!(Deuteronomy!7:26).!It!is,! however,!permitted!to!rent!them!houses!for!storage.!We!must!not!sell!them!fruits!or!grain! or!the!like!while!the!produce!is!still!attached!to!the!earth,!but!one!may!sell!them!to!him!once! they!have!been!picked,!or!on!condition!that!he!pick!them!and!he!then!picks!them.!!Why!may! we!not!sell![land]!to!them?!Because!it!is!said,!'V'lo)t’honem!'!(Deuteronomy!7:2),!meaning!that! you!must!not!give!them!settling!rights![haniah]!on!the!land;!since!they!own!no!land,!their! !In!its!immediate!context,!??!namely,!the!treatment!of!defeated!״.stay!will!be!a!temporary!one Canaanites!during!the!taking!of!the!Promised!Land!??!the!phrase!“v’lo)t’honem”!means!“give! them!no!quarter”!(from!the!root!h.n.n.,!“show!grace”).!Translating!the!term!as!“give!them!no! settling! rights”! (from! the! root! h.n.h)!is!a!device!of!halachic! midrash! meant! to! anchor! an! orally!transmitted!law!in!the!biblical!text.!

19**“One!is!subject!to![the!positive!commandment],!‘You!must!pay!him!his!wages!on!the! same!day’!(Deuteronomy!24:15)!in!respect!of!a!resident!alien,!though!not!to![the!negative! commandment],!‘The!wages!of!a!laborer!shall!not!remain!with!you!until!morning’”!(Leviticus! 19:13).!!!! !! 20**!According!to!Numbers!35:9?28,!one!who!intentionally!kills!someone!is!a!murderer!and! liable! to! death! inflicted! by! the! victim’s! blood?avenger.! One! who! unintentionally! kills! someone,! however,! is! a! manslayer! and! is! banished! to! the! nearest! of! six! cities! of! refuge,! where!he!is!safe!from!the!blood?avenger.!!He!must!remain!there!until!the!death!of!the!High! Priest!living!at!that!time,!after!which!he!may!return!to!his!own!land!holding.!!

21**This!term!refers!to!the!following!law!(Maimonides’!Mishneh!Torah,!Laws!of!Forbidden!Intercourse,! ch.!12,!sec.!5):!“Anyone!who!has!intercourse!with!a!Cuthean![i.e.,!pagan]!woman,!whether!by! way!of!conjugality!or!by!way!of!whoredom:!if!he!had!intercourse!with!her!in!public!??!that!is,! he!performed!the!act!in!the!presence!of!ten!or!more!Israelites!??!if!zealots!struck!him!down! and!killed!him,!they!are![considered]!praiseworthy!and!zealous.”!

! 17! 22**He!is,!however,!subject!by!rabbinic!law!to!flogging.!!

23**The!printed!text!of!Kesef!Mishneh!reads,!“The!opinion!of!our!Teacher![Maimonides]!is…”!

24**The!Minhat!Hinukh!is!arranged!according!to!negative!and!positive!commandments.!

25* Talmud,! Bava! Batra! 4a,! says! of! a! person! who! is! purportedly! of! the! Jewish! people,! but! does!not!observe!the!commandments,!that!he!“does!not!do!the!deed!alongside!you”!–!i.e.,!he! does!not!act!Jewish.!

26**A!group!of!Torah!scholars!scrupulous!in!the!observance!of!the!laws!pertaining!to!ritual! cleanness!and!the!separation!of!the!priestly!and!Levitical!dues.!A!member!was!called!a!haver! [fellow].!

27* * “When! a! person! makes! a! commitment! to! be! considered! trustworthy! with! regard! to! tithing![so!that]!his!produce!will!not!be!considered!d’mai![produce!of!doubtful!status!with! regard!to!its!having!been!tithed!or!not],!he!must!!the!produce!he!eats,!that!which!he! sells,! and! that! which! he! purchases,! and! he! must! not! accept! the! hospitality! of! a! common! person! [i.e.,! one! who! is! not! a! haver,!since!the!host!may!serve!him! d’mai].! He! must! make! these! commitments! in! public.! When! trustworthy! witnesses! [testify]! that! he! made! these! commitments! in! public! and! that! he! always! observes! these! practices,! he! is! considered! trustworthy![and!his!word!is!accepted!when]!he!says!that!his!produce!has!been!tithed.”!!

28**The!full!text!reads:!“Who!is!a!ger)toshav?!Any![gentile]!who!takes!it!upon!himself!in!the! presence!of!three!haverim! not!to!worship!idols.!Such!is!the!statement!of!R.!Meir;!but!the! Sages!declare:!Any![gentile]!who!takes!upon!himself!the!seven! mitzvot! which!the!sons!of! Noah!undertook;!and!still!others!maintain:!These![i.e.,!gentiles!who!take!upon!themselves! the!seven)mitzvot!which!the!children!of!Noah!undertook]!do!not!come!within!the!category!of! a! ger) toshav.! Who,! then,! is! a! ger) toshav?! A! proselyte! who! eats! of! animals! not! ritually! slaughtered,!i.e.,!he!took!it!upon!himself!to!observe!all!the!mitzvot!mentioned!in!the!Torah! apart! from! the! prohibition! of! [eating! the! flesh! of]! animals! not! ritually! slaughtered.”! The! “others”!referred!to!by!Rabbi!Regensberg!are!those!who!dissent!from!both!R.!Meir!and!the! Sages.!!!

29!!!In!other!words,!the!“new!breath,!the!soul!of!Sinai”!changed!the!obligatory!character!of! the! Noahide! laws! at! Sinai! only,! whereas! since! then! those! laws! are! actually! considered! Mosaic!and!not!Noahide.!!!!

30***The!Talmudic!source!for!this!is!Bava!Kama!38a,!where!the!rule!reads,!“If!the!ox!of!an! Israrelite!gores!the!ox!of!a!Canaanite,![the!Israelite]!is!exempt![from!payment];!if!the!ox!of!a! Canaanite! gores! the! ox! of! an! Israelite,! whether! innocent! or! forewarned,! [the! Canaanite]! pays!full!damages.”!(If!an!ox!gores!twice,!its!owner!pays!only!half!damages!and!is!classified! as!“innocent,”!but!if!it!gores!a!third!time,!its!owner!pays!full!damages!and!is!classified!as! “forewarned.”)!

31****The!Torah!says,!“You!shall!not!deduct!interest!from!loans!to!your!countrymen,!whether! in!money!or!food!or!anything!else!that!can!be!deducted!as!interest;!but!you!may!deduct! interest!from!loans!to!foreigners”!(Deuteronomy!23:21).!

32***The! Talmud! (Bava! M’tzia! 48a)! says:! “If! [the! Temple! treasurer]! gave! a! Temple?owned! p’rutah! [penny]! as! payment! to! a! bath! attendant,! he! is! obligated! to! bring! a! m’ilah! [misappropriation]!offering.!!Rav!said:!This!holds!true!only!of!a!bath!attendant,!since![with! cash!payment]!no!m’shikhah![drawing!the!object!to!oneself,!thus!acquiring!ownership!of!it]! is!lacking.!But!if!he!gave!it!to!a!hairdresser,!he!is!obligated!to!bring!a!m’ilah!offering.!Now!in! the!case!of!a!hairdresser,!must![the!treasurer]!not!draw!the!shears!into!his!possession?!!The!

! 18! reference!here!is!to!a!heathen!barber,!to!whom!the!law!of!m’shikhah)does!not!apply.!!It!has! likewise!been!taught:!If!he!gave!a!Temple?owned!p’rutah!to!a!hairdresser!or!a!ship’s!captain! or!to!any!artisan![ba’al)m’lakhah],!he!is!not!obligated!to!bring!a!m’ilah!offering!until!he!takes! possession.! ! But! aren’t! these! [rulings]! self?contradictory?! Must! this! not! surely! prove! that! one![ruling]!refers!to!a!heathen!and!the!other!to!an!Israelite!hairdresser?!This!proves!it!”!

33***The!Talmud!(Bava!Batra!9a)!narrates:!“There!were!two!butchers!who!made!an!agreement! with!one!another!that!if!either!killed!on!the!other's!day,!the!skin!of!his!beast!should!be!torn! up.!One!of!them!actually!did!kill!on!the!other's!day,!and!the!other!went!and!tore!up!the!skin.! Those! who! did! so! were! summoned! before! Rava,! and! he! condemned! them! to! make! restitution.!R.!Yemar!b.!Shelemiah!thereupon!called!Rava's!attention!to![the!baraita!which! says]!that!the!townspeople!may!inflict!penalties!for!breach!of!their!regulations.”!

! ! ! ! !!!! ! ! !! !! ! !!!!!! ! ! !

! 19!