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Spring 2014 Immaterial Traditions: Evolving Values in the Practice & Preservation of Bhutanese Calligraphy Madeline Johnson SIT Study Abroad

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Recommended Citation Johnson, Madeline, "Immaterial Traditions: Evolving Values in the Practice & Preservation of Bhutanese Calligraphy" (2014). Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. 1829. https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/1829

This Unpublished is brought to you for free and open access by the SIT Study Abroad at SIT Digital Collections. It has been accepted for inclusion in Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection by an authorized administrator of SIT Digital Collections. For more information, please contact [email protected]. IMMATERIAL TRADITIONS: EVOLVING VALUES IN THE PRACTICE & PRESERVATION OF BHUTANESE CALLIGRAPHY

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The account of ink making will primarily focus on the making of ordinary black ink, as knowledge of the pigmented inks is rare and difficult to describe without demonstration. The traditional tools and materials are all nearly impossible to come by today, outside of the glass cubes of museums. Therefore, photo documentation of this process is inadequate in this account.

Many surfaces have traditionally been used for writing calligraphy, including parchment (a common material of treasure texts), metal, leaves, wood, slate and cloth1. However, the predominant surface used in and religious texts is the traditional deyshog, or handmade paper. Therefore, the process of papermaking is the decided scope of this material investigation. The account of papermaking will describe only those methods used in the Jungshi Paper Factory of . Few individuals in Bhutan still engage in traditional papermaking, given the difficulty of harvesting the materials and the extensive time frame of production. However, certain villages in Eastern Bhutan still produce paper2, and the methods they use may well differ from the methods described in this account.

The account of pen making will cover only si nyug and chag nyug pens, or those calligraphy pens that are derived from bamboo. While other materials such as peacock and raven feathers and alternative woods have been used3, the traditional bamboo pen is by far the predominant and most versatile tool.

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There is no fire without residue. Red sap of blue pines, , kerosene, blessed medicine, brains of departed masters, trash or that which must burn, caught on granite, on slate, on dulled metal sheets, soot indiscernible from soot, pine boughs indiscernible from brains, gathered in pots of stone, of wood, of copper, pulverized for hours, for days, destroyed matter mixing with residue of , boiled skin, a property of fat being viscosity, eggwhite for shine, strong alcohol, the product of months, residue of time, bitterness, which repels the insects who are the servants of time, of change, of death, blind to colors, blind to ideas, eyeless mouths that cannot produce words, only consume them.

MATERIALS

Black Ink

The foundational instruction for the manufacture of traditional ink in Bhutan is the Tibetan text known as Bzo gnas nyer mkho’i za ma tog, or Craftmanship: A Basket of Necessities, which describes materials and processes of many different crafts.2 The material make-up of traditional Bhutanese inks varies greatly depending on available resources and the intended application of the ink. For black inks, ash is required; what is burned to ash will change the quality and significance of the ink.

Blue pine resin is perhaps the most generally agreed-upon ingredient, as the ash it produces is both fine in texture and dark in color. The resin is readily available throughout Bhutan and burns easily. However, some use the smoke produced by kerosene or mustard oil lamps, others the cinders of butterlamp wicks. Any soot will functionally work, and in fact, is often collected from cooking or trash fires. In rare cases, even the remains of a human body would be converted into ink pigment. When producing ink to pen sacred texts, it is sometimes tradition to use the ash of the burned brains of a deceased enlightened master.

Additionally to soot, burned or wheat grains are sometimes added to further saturate the ink color. The grains are prepared by roasting them dry (without oil or water) and allowing them to burn. In addition to providing a strong black color, the grains are also inherently glutinous, which contributes to the texture of the ink.

In the making of precious inks, intended for holy scriptures, other precious materials are often added, such as powdered pills blessed by (“ pills”), medicinal plants, and powdered precious stones. For precious inks, what is excluded in the mixture is equally important: all materials must be well filtered and free of impurity.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! "!#$%&'()!'*!+,-!./-+,0!/1$!/))$.23$(!4+%&!.56&!'7$13/8!*1'.!+,%$17+$4)!4+%&!9:!;'1<+=!;:!;'1<+=!>:! ;'1<+=!?)&$1+,0=!@/,06&5-=!A&$,(58!/,(!B&&'$8&$3:! C!B588$1)!"DED! The above materials provide the black color of the ink; the following materials give the ink form. Commonly agreed upon is the use of animal hide glue as a binding agent. The hide glue is prepared by boiling the skin of an animal (usually cow skin) two or three times, until it becomes a gelatinous, sticky texture. Some calligraphers add water in addition to the hide glue, while others prefer the locally brewed alcohol (tsin chang) for thinning the ink mixture. The tsin chang, derived from maize or wheat, is thought to extend the longevity of the ink. Some add egg white for its viscosity and sheen. A small amount of added sugar is thought to improve the quality and durability of the ink.

Finally, some add the juice of bitter flavored leaves, to deter insects attracted to the daphne bark paper on which texts are usually inked.

Gold and Silver Inks

For gold and silver inks, often the same binding agents are used as in the ordinary black ink; the ash is simply replaced by fine gold or silver powder. These inks are quite labor- intensive to make, as the gold and silver are acquired in solid forms and must be reduced to fine dust. Because these inks are usually intended for precious texts, some of the aforementioned precious materials are often added.

TOOLS

The tools required in the process of making ink vary depending on the chosen materials. One might make a fire on a piece of slate, and catch the rising smoke on another piece of slate. One might catch the smoke on a metal plate. One might use a kerosene lamp, and allow the residue to accumulate on a cloth placed above the flame.

Once collected, the residue must be kept in one container. According to one source, the best vessel for grinding and mixing the ingredients is made of stone; the second best, ceramic; the third best, wooden. According to another source, the preferable containers are cups made of brass or copper. A pestle is required for long hours of grinding, and should match the material of the container.

The completed ink is often stored in small !"#$%&%'(#)*+,-&#(./.*%(0*1'&*'(*$%/1)#2*%(* inkpots made of copper. &,.*3#&%'(#)*4%5"#"2*#($*6"7,%8./9*

METHOD ! Depending on the amount of ink to be made, a corresponding amount of material must be burned, and its residue collected. Regardless of material, the rough set-up of this process involves a burning source, and a surface that collects the smoke residue placed 4-6 cm above the flame. Also dependent on the material is the duration of burning; a kerosene lamp must be burned for an entire day, while blue pine wood may require only 1-2 hours.

Next, the residue must be collected and placed into a container. The ash, even if already smooth and fine in texture, must be ground anywhere from 4-5 hours to 2-3 days. Some sources say to add the animal hide glue and tsin chang at this point; others say to first grind the ash until it becomes shiny and reduced to half its initial volume.

A separate base of roasted wheat or maize should be prepared at this time, should a very dark and saturated ink be desired. The grains are dry roasted until burned black. A little water is added, and the mixture is left to sit for 24 hours in a closed container, to be added to the soot mixture later.

According to some sources, it is after the grinding is completed that one should add the tsin chang (or optionally, water) and the animal hide glue. Other ingredients, such as precious materials or other textural materials, can also be added at this time. Once all the ingredients have been added together, the mixture should be the consistency of mud, and again must be ground for a long time (up to 5 hours) in order to achieve the smooth, watery texture of ink. While the duration of mixing may seem excessive, according to all sources, the quality of the ink is dependent upon this thorough procedure.

There is no recipe or ratio that spells out measurements of the ingredients; the texture of the ink must be continually tested with pen and paper to determine whether or not the ink is ready for use. The ink should distribute evenly onto the paper, and neither soak through nor sit on top of the surface. This is, of course, dependent also on the quality of the pen and paper. Ink made with traditional materials is long lasting, and should resist water damage and fading.

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HANDMADE PAPER

The weight of paper. Trees transferred across invisible borders, south to north. Trees sundered into two dimensions; as commodity, sheaves become reams, and regain mass. The dry frozen air isolates objects in time, and fibers defy the fugitive days. Oblatory vessels weaved of Daphne, empty and awaiting the offering of consciousness. Passage through space requires muscle; passage through time is weightless.

In return for paper: a formless treasure, carried south from in the heart and hand of Denma Tsemang, master of the 64 scripts. Text, borne through time, unborn and endless. Words that have form outside the speech, body and mind are in the world of Objects. Worthy of concealment, and revealing at the proper time: minds connect across eons. Conceive of language as you will - words are spades, systems, grids - tools to an end, the scaffolding of perception.

The Buddha did not write, only uttered. The Dharma is the work of disciple and devotee, bled into paper, wrapped in dyed cloth, left in cold libraries, to be weightlessly acquired by a mind, or just to remain.

MATERIALS

Traditionally, Bhutanese handmade paper, or deyshog, is made from the bark of two indigenous trees: the Daphne Papyri Thymalae-ceae, and the Edgeworthia Papyri (considered another species of Daphne, and known in Japanese papermaking traditions as Misumata). Commonly, the former is referred to as “black daphne” and the latter as “white daphne”.

Either material has its respective benefits and disadvantages. The white daphne tree grows at elevations of 1500-2200 m, while black daphne may only be found above 3000 m. This increases the rarity and expense of the black daphne, as well as the distance traveled between the places of harvest and places of production. The white daphne used in the Jungshi Handmade Paper Factory in Thimphu is harvested primarily at a community plantation in Gedup, a small village on the way to Phuntsoling. Nearly the entire village makes a living off of this harvest. Black daphne must be imported to Thimphu from the far east of Bhutan.

Harvesting the bark of white daphne, if done properly, is a sustainable practice; removing the bark does not harm the tree, and regrowth occurs within a few days. Black daphne harvesting is less “eco-friendly”; the bark will regrow, but takes significantly longer and is sometimes harvested before the regrowth is complete.

However, the longevity of the black daphne paper is considerably longer than that of the white daphne, and therefore it is the preferred material for sacred texts and important manuscripts. While white daphne, in ideal conditions, has a shelf life of 200-300 years, the black daphne endures for 1000 years or more.

Given its stiff, rough texture, the surface preparation of the black daphne paper is also more labor intensive than that of the soft white daphne paper. However, the superior quality of the black daphne merits the difficulty of harvesting, transportation, and preparation.

Another ingredient required in the papermaking process is starch, usually derived from the Hibiscus plant root. This serves as a binding and stiffening agent.

The Jungshi Handmade Paper Factory produces several colored , for which various organic dyes are used. Many of these dyes are imported from , though some are soil pigments from Eastern Bhutan. The bark of the local blue pine is also used, which produces a light pink color. However, the dyed paper is produced for the tourist and export market; traditionally, dyed paper was not used for manuscripts.

Many religious texts are inked with gold onto black daphne paper. This black color comes from Lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone with a deep blue color. While most of the organic dyes are added during the pulping process, the lapis color is applied to finished paper and allowed to dry before writing.

It is common to treat completed paper with wheat-based glue, to reduce the absorbance of the fiber and create a smooth surface for writing. Sometimes the same glue is used to paste sheaves of thin paper together, to create a thicker, sturdier, more durable writing surface.

TOOLS

At the Jungshi Handmade Paper Factory, 1200 sheets of paper are produced every day. Using entirely traditional methods, which operate on a smaller scale, only 20-30 sheets can be produced in a single day. However, the methods used by Jungshi are still considered traditional and “handmade” because of the lack of chemical additives, and the use of traditional screen filters.

There are two types of screen filters, which determine the two main types of paper available in Bhutan. Reysho filters are made of wooden frames with stretched cloth. These require a manual application of pulp, as the pulp will not naturally settle evenly on the cloth surface. The paper produced through this method will have an uneven texture, and the fibers will be very absorbent.

The alternate filter, made of a wooden frame and bamboo screen, is preferred in producing papers intended for manuscripts. Sarsho is considered the best quality paper for calligraphy, as the texture is even and resistant to ink absorption.

Variation in paper qualities, thickness and color are possible; sarsho or reysho methods, white or black daphne bark, thick or thin !"!"#!$%"#$%&'(")$&)"*&+,"*",$%'"+#"-'&" applications of pulp, all can be combined in ,*,'("*&"&.'"/012).$"3*145*4'"6*,'(" different ways to different effects. 7*8&+(9:";'.$14<"*"-+(='("*2$&*&')"*" 5$>&0('"+#",0%,<"-*&'("*14")&*(8."&+"=''," &.'"5*&'($*%)"#(+5")'&&%$12:""" METHOD

First, the daphne bark must be soaked in water, for an entire day. The Daphne bark must then be boiled; this is done at Jungshi in a large vat over a wood fire. After boiling, the barks must be washed thoroughly by hand, and the fine fibers sorted from the poor quality fibers.

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The next stage is the crushing of the bark into pulp. At Jungshi, there is a machine that can pulverize the bark thoroughly without manual effort. The pulp is dispensed into a large bin, and from there is transferred to sink basins.

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The pulp is then mixed with water and vegetable starch. Using either the bamboo or cloth filter, the pulp is filtered out and shook into an even layer. This layer is then transferred to a stack of wet paper, by laying it on top and swiftly peeling back the bamboo filter.

The final process is drying the paper. The pile of wet paper must first be compressed to remove excess water. Traditionally, layers would then be placed on a smooth surface and left to dry in the sun. At Jungshi, hot plates are used to dry the sheets faster and more smoothly.

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The paper is complete; however, for writing, the surface requires further preparation. Thick sheets are considered the best for their sturdiness, and are made by attaching six or seven sheets of paper together with wheat paste and pressure. Either wheat paste or animal hide glue is used to prime the paper surface, smoothing and stiffening it, as well as reducing its absorbance. Finally, the surface must be polished. In locations near rivers, the water-worn stones are rubbed on the surface until it is smooth to the touch. In some places, they use the shells of snails.

THE BAMBOO PEN1

A concentric logic governs the aesthetic of a world which knows no recipes, no industry, but abides only in its shifting relations, recognizing at times harmony, at times discordance, no more urgent or unwelcome than the ebb and regrowth of tides. Only one measurement is ever taken: that of the catalyst. The width of the nib determines every length, every angle, every breadth. The last cut of the pen knife forms a point from which an invisible grid emerges; a two-dimensional crystal grows. The black, truncated symmetry of lines drawn left to right, ink pulled top to bottom; edged faces describe the invisible lattice, harmoniously suspended between axes. The space that emerges between two marks becomes the standard size of emptiness. The rules do not guide the hand; the hand must embody them over time. Mistakes are undefined, and evident. The correct form is inexplicable as a human body.

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Of the 46 species of bamboo in Bhutan (and of the 360 species in ), only one is considered the ideal material for calligraphic pens. Known as si, it is rare and difficult to come by, found within Bhutan only in one forested valley just north of . Si is not a widely harvested or commodified material; being only minimally sought after, it is impossible to purchase in the capital city, or indeed anywhere outside of Punakha. One

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While si bamboo is preferred because of its hardness and durability, its rarity forces calligraphers to seek an alternate material. Today most pens are crafted out of the more common bamboo plant, known in as spag shing.

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When harvesting, the round piece of bamboo should be severed just above a sectional joint in the branch, which will become a decorative protrusion on the pen shaft. Once harvested, the bamboo must be allowed to dry for some weeks, until all trace of green coloration is gone. Only then can the shaft be split into pen-sized sticks. In the case of si bamboo, the wood must be saturated in mustard oil, and then heated over a fire until the oil is completely dry. This will harden the wood, preventing the absorption of ink and ensuring a smooth ink flow.2

The only other material required is any sort of strong thread or twine, cotton or otherwise, at least 20 cm in length, to secure the nib after the pen is carved.

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The only tool required after splitting the bamboo into shafts is a pen knife. The blade is made of hard metal, preferably carbon steel. The length of the blade should be 10-15 cm, and sharp. The end of the knife is not curved or angular, but rather square. The length of the knife is used for smoothing and for large cuts, while the square end is used for gauging out material from the ink cavity and shaving the nib to a thin point. The carver must always be mindful of the direction of cuts, working with the grain and directing force away from the body as much as possible for efficiency and safety.

METHOD

Firstly, the outer roughness of the bamboo twig is stripped away and smoothed with the pen knife. The smoothing is achieved with light, quick repetitive strokes along the grain of the wood.

H%'+#'&##$#;*);''# Two cuts on the top with the length of the pen 4.%?#+,.#+2'# knife bring the end of the pen to a neat point. %'+/,.-#/".*("I# A third cut on the back of the pen completes 1$-$;".#'%#+,.# the form, which ornaments the shaft and ($8,+:# represents the sword of Manjushri.

The sectional knot of the bamboo should be anywhere from the middle to two thirds up the length of the shaft. This must be smoothed as much as possible, and will serve as a support when resting the pen on a surface. The knot naturally creates a small notch on the top of the pen (if the pen is made with si bamboo, there will indicatively be two notches).

Next, the pen must be placed upside down (notches facing down, knot protrusion facing up) and the slit of the nib made by slicing through the center of the shaft. The slit can be extended by using the knife as a wedge, encouraging the natural grain of the wood to tease apart. The slit should extend roughly 4 cm.

The short edge of the pen knife is then used to shave material from the middle of 3'4.%#5*"0.%#G*%8/,7F#2.08$%8#+,.#%$;#*4*(+:# the slit, leaving a considerable gap in the middle of the pen. Removing all of the wood material from the gap without snapping one of the nib halves requires some practice and skill. It is necessary that all wood material be removed, as any remaining debris will obstruct the joining of the nib point.

When the gap is complete, the length of the knife is used to make curved cuts on the sides of the nib, creating an elegant taper and determining the ultimate size of the nib. Some sources also describe this nib shape as representative of Manjushri’s sword.3

The square end of the knife is used to shave layers of bamboo off the underside of the nib, until the diameter gracefully diminishes into the tip of the nib, which is shaved as thin as possible.

At this point, the two halves of the nib will be splayed apart. A small length of thread is used to bind the halves together. The thread should loop the pen twice and be tied tightly. This can be slightly tricky to achieve; a third hand or teeth are handy for maintaining tension while fastening. The loose ends should be cut short. Should the nib ever begin to splay during use, the writer need only push the thread further up the pen J')4".+.0#4.%#%$;?#1$.2.0#&(')#+,.#-$0.:# !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5!63#'$!%775! shaft, increasing tension (the thread will become stickier and stronger once imbued with ink).

The pen is now prepared for the final cut, which creates the angle of the nib. The pen must be placed on a flat, very hard surface. The length of the knife is placed on the tip of the nib. The knife should be at a 45˚ angle to the length of the pen. The knife should also be angled roughly 35˚ from the surface of the table; the cut is cannot be perpendicular, as it is intended to create the sharpest point possible.

Should the cut be made left-to-right [ \ ], the pen will be for writing the lentsa script. The mirror image of this cut [ / ] will result in a pen for writing the soyig (uchen) script.

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The completed pen should create sharp, crisp lines. Even when saturated with ink, the flow from the nib will be thin, even and smooth. One should be able to write five or six letters before returning to the inkpot. However, a freshly made pen might not produce these results; the pens improve with use. Other conditions, such as the quality of the ink and paper, may affect the quality of lines. To maintain the nib’s sharpness, the pen should be kept in a container, or wrapped in paper. After each use, the pen should be cleaned with cloth or tissue, and occasionally rinsed.

CALLIGRAPHIC METHOD !

LINING THE PAPER

After a student is taught the preparation of pen and ink, the next lesson is the preparation of paper. The size of lines and letters is not standardized or predetermined by lined paper; rather, the size of the pen’s nib provides the foundational measure, from which rules of proportion determine sizing. For both lentsa and soyig scripts, the lines are drawn according to the same proportion: two widths of a nib, placed perpendicular to the unwritten horizontal line, measure the top section of the line. Three widths of a nib create the bottom section. These measurements should be drawn on either side of the paper, and a line traced between them using a straight-edge. The first stroke of most letters in the lensa begins at the middle line, while most strokes of the soik alphabet begin with the horizontal head, drawn on the top line. If the paper is thin, it should be placed on a stack of papers rather than directly on a hard surface, as the softness of the surface changes the pen pressure and ink flow.

HOLDING THE PEN

The pen is held between the forefinger and thumb, supported by the middle finger. The pen should be grasped about 3 cm from the nib – not too close or too far. The pen shaft should slant back about 40˚ from the writing surface. The nib should be placed on the paper at a 45˚ angle to the horizontal line. In soyig calligraphy, thin lines are achieved by twisting the nib with the fingers. In lentsa, thin lines are achieved by moving the entire hand along the unchanging 45˚ angle of the nib. The other hand must hold the paper steady.

PROPORTIONS

To the novice eye, there are only three horizontal lines on the paper. However, a grid of invisible diagonal and vertical lines regulate the proportions of letters. Lines created by the faces of the letter figure must be imagined extending into space, defining the position of the !"#$%&'()*$%&+(%,-./0&1$(2/3$2&,/4*$)4%$25& next figure.

For example, let’s examine the author’s amateur execution of the lentsa head letter, or “go gen” – the letter that marks the beginning of a formal text. This is the first letter one learns in the lentsa alphabet.

On first look, the letter appears harmonious – lines run vertical, and spaces between marks are somewhat uniform.

Diagonals also appear parallel. Notice how the diagonal from the first head of the first figure runs straight through to the head of the second figure. Such implied lines are ways of standardizing letters in relation to one another.

It is in the last test, that of the vertical lines, that this letter fails to conform. Each empty space marked by a pink line should be of equal measure. Also, the points of the letter should create a perfect, implied vertical line. The fact that the points of the first figure extend beyond the margin, almost touching the middle figure, exposes its incorrect form. When the alphabet is taken in as a whole, the form of letters appear mysterious; the uniformity of master handwriting is almost unbelievable. However, when the forms are broken into steps, one begins to understand a formula which ensures the repeated angles and total harmony of each letter.

As example, the formation of pa:

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

ORAL SOURCES

Formal Interviews

Lopen Dung Dorji, interview by author. Paro, Bhutan. 29 April 2014.

Jigme Dorji, interview by author. Thimphu, Bhutan. 29 April 2014. Principal of the National Institute for Zorig Chusum.

Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi, interview by author. Paro, Bhutan. 29 April 2014. 29 April 2014. Director of the National Museum of Bhutan.

Yonten Dargye, Phd. interview by author. Thimphu, Bhutan. 18 April 2014 Chief Research Officer, National Library and Archives.

Yeshi Lhendup, interview with author. Thimphu, Bhutan. 18 April 2014. Librarian, National Library and Archives.

Sherub Gyeltshen, interview by author. Thimphu, Bhutan. 23 April 2014. Secretary, Dzongkha Development Commission.

Palden Wangchuk, interview by author. Thimphu, Bhutan. 28 April 2014. Dzongkha teacher, National Institute for Zorig Chusum.

Sangay Dorji, interview by author. Thimphu, Bhutan. 16 April 2014. Thangka teacher, National Institute for Zorig Chusum.

Lam Khesang Chhoephel, interview by author. 26 April 2014. Chief Executive Officer, Agency for the Promotion of Indigenous Crafts.

Tshering Sonam, interview by author. 27 April 2014. Manager, Jungshi Handmade Paper Factory.

TEXTUAL SOURCES

Cuppers, Christopher. 1989. On the Manufacture of Ink. Amatya, Shaphalya ed. Ancient Nepal, Journal of the Department of Archaeology. Kathmandu: The Department of Archaeology.

Dorji, Sangay and Wangchuk, Tenzin ed. 2013. Dzongkha-English Pocket Dictionary. Thimphu: Dzongkha Development Commission.

Shaw, Felicity. 2013. Conserving our Heritage: Evolution of the National Library of Bhutan. Thimphu: National Library & Archives of Bhutan.

Tashi, Phuntso. 2003. Development of Bhutanese Cursive Writing. The Spider and the Piglet: Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Bhutan Studies. Thimphu: Center for Bhutan Studies. van Driem, George. 1994. Language Policy in Bhutan. Aris, Michael, and Hutt, Michael ed. Bhutan: Aspects of Culture and Development. Gartmore: Kiscadale Asia Research Series.

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