INVESTIGATIVE FILES JOE NICKELL

Stigmata: In Imitation of Christ

f reputed miraculous powers, statement may have been sufficient to individuals the idea conceived in the mind was realized in die flesh. perhaps none is more popu- prompt imitation. Olarly equated with saintliness St. (1182-1226) is Thurston believed stigmatization was than stigmata, the wounds of Christ's credited with being the first stigmatic— due to die effects of suggestion, but exper- crucifixion allegedly duplicated spon- or at least the first "true" one, his afflic- imental attempts to duplicate the phenom- taneously upon the body of a Chris- tion occurring just two years after that of enon, for example by using hypnosis, have tian. Indeed one historical survey indi- a man from Oxford who had exhibited been unsuccessful—except for a related cated that about a fifth of all stigmat¬ the five crucifixion wounds in 1222. case which appears to have been a hoax. ics are eventually beatified or canon- That man claimed to be the son of God (The psychiatrist reported that bloody tears ized (Biot 1962, 23). and the redeemer of mankind, but he welled inside the subject's eyelids, but a The year 1999 brought renewed was arrested for imposture, his wounds photograph shows rivulets originating out- interest in the alleged phenomenon. presumed to have been self-inflicted. side the eyes [see Wilson 1988].) Among the offerings were the movie In 1224 St. Francis went with some of As the thirteenth century advanced, Stigmata (which even contained a brief his "disciples" up Mount Alverno in the exhibitions of stigmata began to prolifer- shot of my book, Looking fir a Miracle Apennines. After forty days of fasting and ate, one authority regarding it as "a sort [Radford 1999]); a Fox television prayer he had a vision of Christ on the of explosion" (Biot 1962, 18). Within a pseudodocumentary, Signs from God, cross, whereafter he received the four nail hundred years of St. Francis's death over which featured a major segment on stig- wounds and a pierced side. Francis appears twenty cases had occurred. The trend mata (Willesee 1999); and the Vatican's to have sparked a copycat phenomenon, continued in successive centuries, with of the Italian stigmatic since publication of his reputed miracle no fewer than 321 stigmatics being (CNN & Time 1999). For an was followed by occurrences of stigmata recorded by 1908. Not only were they in-progress television documentary, I "even among people who were much low- invariably Catholic, but more than a took a new look at the subject. er than St. Francis in religious stature, and third had come from Italy and the rest have continued to occur without intermis- mostly from France, Spain, and Evolving Phenomenon sion ever since," according to Catholic Portugal, demonstrating that "the From the death of Jesus, about A.D. 29 scholar Herbert Thurston (1952, Roman Catholic countries, mostly with or 30, nearly twelve centuries would pass 122-123). He continues: a Latin and Mediterranean influence before stigmata began to appear—unless What I infer is that the example of St. have dominated the history of stigmata" one counts a cryptic Biblical reference by Francis created what I have called the (Harrison 1994, 9; Wilson 1988, 10). "crucifixion complex." Once it had St. Paul. In Galatians 6:17 he wrote, "I The twentieth-century record of stig- been brought home to contemplatives bear in my body the marks of the Lord that it was possible to be physically con- mata, however, "shows a change in pat- Jesus." Many scholars believe Paul was formed to the sufferings of Christ by tern." Italy dominated somewhat less, speaking figuratively, but in any case die bearing His w o u n d - m a r k s i n the hands, and cases were reported from Great feet and side, then the idea of this form Britain, Australia, and the United States of union with their Divine Master took joe Nickell is CSlCOP's Senior Research shape in the minds of many. It became (Harrison 1994, 9). The latter included Fellow and author of numerous investiga- in feet a pious obsession; so much so (in 1972) a ten-year-old African- tive books. that in a few exceptionally sensitive American girl named Cloretta Robinson,

2 4 July/August 2000 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER a Baptist and thus one of a very few non- reappeared on the left hand of Jeanne In any event, if it is true that the hand Catholic Christians to have exhibited the des Anges (1602-1665) (Wilson 1988, location is anatomically untenable— stigmata (including at least three 64, 131-148; Harrison 1994, 2, 52). notwithstanding the gospels (John Anglicans; Harrison 1994, 9, 87). Another trend in the evolving phe- 20:25-27 and Luke 24:40)—the argu- Other evidence that stigmata repre- nomenon—represented for example by ment could be made that all stigmata in sent an evolving phenomenon comes Virginia priest James Bruse—is die loca- the hands are therefore false, a judgment from the form of the wounds. tion of nail wounds in the wrists. Others that would exclude most reported in- Interestingly, those of St. Francis (except have tended to have them in the palms stances. Certainly the shift of location to for the wound in his side) "were not of the hands, so Bruse's wrist marks the wrists (in keeping with a modern wounds which bled but impressions of seem instructive. As Harrison observes view) is not surprising. Stigmatics in the the heads of the nails, round and black (1994, 40), stigmata in the wrists have Middle Ages likewise "produced wounds and standing clear from the flesh" appeared only since photography in themselves which corresponded to the (Harrison 1994, 25). Since then, "revealed the wounds so positioned in pictures of Christ suffering around although bleeding wounds have been the Turin Shroud." Actually, while the them" (Harrison 1994, 128). Similarly, typical they have been exceedingly var- hands of the figure on the shroud are the 1974 crucifixion vision of Ethel ied, showing "no consistency even folded so that a single, exit wound Chapman, during which her stigmata remotely suggesting them as replications shows, it seems to indicate the palm, allegedly appeared, was "based on the of one single, original pattern" (Wilson although the flow of "blood" does images in an illustrated Bible which she'd 1988, 63). For example, some been given" (Harrison 1994, wounds have been tiny, 128; Wilson 1988, 147). Such straight slits, others simple strong connections between crosses, multiple slash marks, popular images and the nature or indentations—even, in the of the stigmata are powerful case of Theresa Neumann, evidence that the phenome- shifting from round to rectan- non is imitative. gular over time, presumably as she learned the true shape of Stigmatic Profile Roman nails. In some A look at stigmata as an evolv- instances there were no appar- ing phenomenon also sheds ent lesions beneath the seep- light on the people involved. ages (or possibly fake applica- The previously mentioned tions!) of blood (Wilson 1988, census of 321 stigmatics Figure I Cross-shaped wound on back of Katya Rivas's left hand. 64; Harrison 1994, 70; reveals "an interesting seven- Nickell 1999). extend to the wrist, thus giving the to-one proportion of women to men." Similarly, the wound in the side appearance of the wound being located Not only were almost all Roman Catho- (representing the Roman soldier's lance there (Nickell 1983). Those who believe lics, but "a very high proportion were [John 19:34]) has appeared at different the shroud authentic (despite definitive cloistered priests or nuns"—as was, of locations in the right or left side, or has scientific proof to the contrary [Nickell course, the first stigmatic St. Francis, been variously shaped—as a lateral slit, 1998]) have an interest in promoting and such thirteenth-century stigmatics crescent, cross, etc.—or has not the wrist site. They point to experiments as the Blessed Helen of Veszprim (1237); appeared at all. Some stigmatics have witJi cadavers that supposedly show St. Christina of Stommeln (1268); and exhibited wounds on the forehead (as if nailed hands could not support the others (Harrison 1994, 10, 27-28; Wil- caused by a crown of thorns [John weight of a body and would therefore son 1988, 131-133). Indeed, of the 321 19:2]), markings on the back (repre- tear away (Barbet 1950). (Skeletal stigmatics, 109 came from the Domini- senting scourging [John 19:1]), or abra- remains have been discovered of only a can Order and 102 from the sions on the shoulder (as from carrying single first-century crucifixion victim, a —an overall percentage of 66 a cross), and so on, while others have man known as Jehohanan. A scratch on percent from religious orders versus 34 not exhibited these. There are even sym- the lower end of the right radius sug- percent layfolk (Biot 1962, 20). bolic markings, such as "a vivid cross" gests a nail had penetrated between the Many stigmatics seem—also like St. that twice appeared on the forehead of radius and ulna. Interestingly, a nail had Francis—to have had an early life that stigmatist Heather Woods (a phenome- been driven through the heel bones might be characterized as notably non previously experienced by seven- from the side, indicating that Jehohanan "worldly," before coming to believe they teenth-century stigmatic Jeanne des had been forced into "a sort of sidesad- had been called to serve God. As a youth, Anges). And stigmata-like skin dle position," quite unlike the familiar Francis, the son of a wealthy merchant, lettering—including the names of depiction of Jesus in Christian art was "gay, adventurous, generous, and Joseph, Mary, and Jesus—appeared and [Wilson 1979, 50, illus. fol. p . 128].) popular" (Coulson 1958) and spent his

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2000 25 leisure time in "hedonistic extravagance" "emotionally disturbed." A few stigmatics and later described a vision of Christ (Jones 1994), even being crowned by his were allegedly attended by "poltergeist bruised and bleeding. Other vision- friends "king of the revelers" ("Francis" phenomena" (disturbances attributed to delivered stigmata were claimed by 1960). He later claimed he heard Christ's "noisy spirits" but often found to be the Johann Jetzer, Theresa Neumann voice asking him to rebuild a church, pranks of adolescents); among diem were (1898-1962), and James Bruse. whereupon he plunged into religious ser- Johann Jetzer (c. 1483-c. 1515) and A great number of stigmatics were vice, adopting the life of a hermit and Teresa Helena Higginson (1844-1905) blessed, allegedly, with other super- later forming the order of named (Wilson 1988, 131-148). natural phenomena, including the pow- for him (the Franciscans; ers of prophecy and healing, Coulson 1958). levitation, bilocation (suppos- Others who were trans- edly being in two places simul- formed from worldly to taneously), and inedia (the austere included the Blessed alleged ability to forgo nour- Angela of (1250- ishment). As an example of the 1309) who had married and latter, Angela of Foligno bore several children but lost (1250-1309) reportedly went them all after her husband's without food for twelve years. death. After selling all her After death, the bodies of a possessions, she gave the pro- few stigmatics were discovered ceeds to the poor and joined to be "incorruptible" (i.e., to the Third Order of St. withstand decay). Also vials of Francis (Wilson 1988, 132). blood preserved from the stig¬ Another example is St. Figure 2. Post-stigmata marks on top of one of Rivas's feet, most or all of which matic wounds of Passitea are scars from previous "stigmata." Crogi purportedly reliquefy on (1447-1510) who married at sixteen, Illness is another frequent characteris- occasion (Wilson 1988, 131-148). spent "ten years of a pleasure-seeking tic. Rend Biot, in his The Enigma of the Needless to say, perhaps, such claims are existence," then, with her husband, Stigmata (1962, 57), exclaims with won- unproved, and may be attributed to folk- devoted her life to tending to the sick der at "how many stigmatics have been lore, misperceptions and misunderstand- in a local hospital (Wilson 1988, 133). bedridden!" He notes that St. Lidwina ings born of superstition, and pious A more recent example is that of (d. 1433) had so many alleged illnesses fraud (Nickell 1993). Father James Bruse (the Virginia priest that she was "a son of pathological mu- with die wrist wounds mentioned ear- seum," indeed a "museum of horrors." Proven Frauds lier). Bruse's pre-ordination life included Similarly, Theresa Neumann experienced That many stigmatics were fakes is well finding his way into the Guinness Book of alternate bouts of convulsions, blind- established. For example, Magdalena World Records in 1978 for riding a roller ness, deafness, mutism, paralysis, and so de la Cruz, having become ill in 1543 coaster for five straight days. He became on—effects that appear to have been due and fearful of dying a sinner, confessed a Roman Catholic priest the following to hysterical hypochondria or, more like- that her stigmata, inedia, and other year but subsequently found he had ly, outright fakery since the alleged phenomena were deliberate deceptions. lapsed into a routine. Then came the conditions evaded diagnosis (Rogo Another, Maria de la Visitacion, known "dramatic" events of 1991-1992 in 1982, 65-66; Nickell 1993, 227-228). as the "holy nun of Lisbon," was which he not only experienced the stig- Given such cases one researcher noted accused by a sister nun who saw her mata but discovered statues weeping in the parallels between stigmata and painting a fake wound onto her hand. his presence (Harrison 1994, 80-87). Munchausen's syndrome, an emotional Although initially defended by doctors Also characteristic of many, if not disorder involving feigned or inflicted ill- in 1587, she was brought before the most, stigmatics are a variety of symptoms ness (Schnabel 1993). Inquisition, whereupon her wounds "ranging from what have been described Still other stigmatics—like St. were scrubbed and the coloration as the 'mystical' to the 'hysterical'" (c. 1640-1727), washed off, revealing "unblemished (Harrison 1994, 31). Taking the hysterical Victoire Claire (c. 1808-1883). along flesh" beneath (Wilson 1988, 26). first, Marguerite of the Blessed Sacrament with numerous others—often lapsed Another fake was Palma Maria (Marguerite Parigot, 1619-1648) was into states of ecstasy (i.e., apparent Matarelli who not only exhibited the prey to "devastating apparent diabolic trance arising out of religious fervor). stigmata but also "miraculously" pro- attacks," while Anna Maria Castreca Following St. Francis, who supposedly duced Communion wafers on her (1670-1736) "would hurl herself vio- received his stigmata during a vision of tongue. Pope Pius DC privately branded lently around the room" and revert "to the Jesus's crucifixion, came several emula- her a fraud, stating that he had the proof speech and manner of a child," and in his tors, including Passitea Crogi who, on in his desk drawer and adding, "She has early life Padre Pio (1887-1968) was Palm Sunday 1589, fell into an ecstasy befooled a whole crowd of pious and

2 6 July/August 2000 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER credulous souls" (quoted in Wilson of pieces of cloth daubed with chicken Thurston and others defend Francis 1988, 42). A more public condemnation blood. Some physicians believed his on grounds of his piety and character; awaited Gigliola Giorgini (b. 1933): wounds superficial but the determina- however, his single-minded desire to imi- Discredited by church authorities, in tion was made difficult by their sup- tate Jesus, his "immense capacity for self- 1984 she was convicted of fraud by an posed painfulness and their being cov- sacrifice," and the fact that "he was a son Italian court (Wilson 1988, 42, 147). ered by "thick crusts" of what was of the church to the marrow of his The authenticity of some stigmata may be questioned in light of the mys- Professor Martini conducted a surveillance of Theresa tic's character. For example, Teresa Helena Higginson (1844-1905), an Neumann and observed that blood would flow from English stigmatic, was dismissed as a her wounds only on those occasions when he w a s teacher on accusations of theft, drunken- ness, and unseemly conduct. And Berthe persuaded to leave the room, as if something Mrazek, a Brussels-born circus per- "needed to be hidden from observation." former turned stigmatic, was first regarded seriously but doubts came in 1924 when she was arrested for fraud thought to be blood. A distinguished pa- bones" (Coulson 1958, 188) may have and committed to an insane asylum thologist sent by the Holy See noted that led him to foster a pious deception— (Nickell 1993, 223). Still other stigmaticsbeyond the scab ms uwa s t sb ae lac viewek ofd "an iny siglighn t osomethinf their g that many others have clearly propensity for self-punishment and self- of edema, of penetration, or of redness, been unable to resist. mutilation. These include the thir- even when examined with a good mag- teenth-century masochist Lukardis of nifying glass." Indeed, he concluded that A Recent Case Oberweimar, who, before exhibiting the the side "wound" had not penetrated the The Fox network's "Signs from God" stigmata, "had the habit of driving her skin at all. And while in life Pio perpetu- heralded the Bolivian miracle claimant fingernails into her palms" (Wilson ally kept his "wounds" concealed (wear- Katya Rivas whose repertoire included 1988, 132)! ing fingerless gloves on his hands), at not only stigmata but the production of death there was only unblemished skin an unusual "delta " on an EEG, Circumstances surrounding the (Ruffin 1982. 146-154,305). automatic writing in languages she twentieth century's two best-known stig- Many Catholic scholars have allegedly did not know, and multicol- matics—Theresa Neumann and Padre expressed skepticism about the genuine- ored "glitter" on a print of the Image of Pio (both mentioned previously)—raise ness of stigmata. One was a neuro¬ Guadalupe in her home. (For a review further doubts about the genuineness of psychiatrist who had personally observed see Nickell 1999.) The show was hosted the phenomenon. For example, a thirty stigmatization cases and in none of by Australian journalist Michael Willesee Professor Martini conducted a who, during an airplane acci- surveillance of Theresa dent in 1998, had "re- Neumann and observed that embraced his Roman Catholic blood would flow from her faith in an instant conversion" wounds only on those occa- (Randi 1999). sions when he was persuaded Rivas claimed she received to leave the room, as if a message from Jesus telling something "needed to be hid- her that while she would not den from observation." He produce stigmata as hoped on added: "It was for the same Good Friday (the day reason that 1 disliked her fre- Christians commemorate quent manipulations behind Jesus' crucifixion), patience the raised [bed] coverings" would be rewarded. A later (Similar suspicions also ac- message announced that full ... c i Figure 3. Small cuts on author's hand produce sufficient blood to simulate a stigmata would take place on compared her professed sizeable wound, them "was able to eliminate, absolutely the day following Corpus Christi (a demonstration of inedia; Wilson 1988, 53,114-115). and decisively, every kind of artificial ac- Catholic festival honoring the Eucharist As to Padre Pio, the local Roman tion" (quoted in Biot 1962, 102-103). or Lord's Supper). The night before the Catholic clergy accused his friary of Although attributing most instances to stigmata were to appear, Rivas gave a putting him on display in order to make suggestion rather than hoaxing, Herbert sample of her blood as a control, since money. Certainly a cult grew up around Thurston (1952, 100) found "no satis- there was speculation that the blood him, and village hucksters sold his cred- factory case of stigmatization since St. from her stigmatic wounds might not be ulous disciples alleged relics in the form Francis of Assisi." hers exclusively.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2000 27 Come the appointed time, unsus- slashes atop each foot. The latter are tain medicinal preparations one can ap- pecting viewers were treated to what had curiously in pairs (see figure 2) as if ply to promote healing and, as I found, all the signs of a staged event. Rivas was produced by a two-pronged implement, cosmetic creams that through their hid- abed, in a fashion reminiscent of Theresa like the sharp-cornered, calyx-like ring ing power can seemingly advance the Neumann, and the covers provided Karya Rivas wore during the event. healing or eliminate the wound entirely.1 ample concealment if My examination of the video trickery were involved. showing Katya Rivas's alleged stig¬ No doctor was in atten- matization and the simple experi- dance. Michael Willesee ments I performed persuaded made a cursory examina- me that not only could her stig- tion of Rivas's hands and mata not be authenticated, but, feet, and referred to scars indeed—like other instances of the from previous stigmata. alleged phenomenon throughout These were seen on her history—they cannot be distin- feet but it was unclear guished from a pious hoax. whether there were prior marks on her hands also. Note (This is significant in 1. I also discovered that one could pro- light of developments, as duce ihe opposite effect, renewing the Figure 4. Transfer of blood from wound shown in figure 3 produced fake wound bleeding of a cut that was many hours old, we shall see.) on palm. by applying hydrogen peroxide. This has During real or pre- implications to cases of stigmata in which bleeding was reported over an extended time, tended suffering, Rivas exhibited, first, Supposedly only 24 hours later, the although there are many ways of accomplishing pricklike marks and bleeding on the camera recorded Willesee inspecting such an effect. forehead (as from a crown of thorns)— Rivas's wounds. Apparently those on though apparently not on die sides or the palms and soles had vanished com- References back of the head, suggesting the marks pletely (but were not specifically Barbet, Pierre. 1950. A Doctoral Calvary, Fr. cd.; Eng. trans. Garden City, N.Y.: Image Books, were only for show. Then there was (pos- shown) and the markings that remained 1963. 103-120. sibly) a pink mark on the left palm, fol- were seemingly in an advanced state of Biot, Rene". 1962. The Enigma of the Stigmata. New lowed by a tiny cross on the back of the healing. Willesee treated this as remark- York: Hawthorn Books. Coulson, John, cd. 1958. The : A Concise hand that was initially without blood. able, although another interpretation is Biographical Dictionary. New York: Hawthorn Later there were bloody "wounds" on that the vanishing of some "wounds" Books, 187-188. both sides of the hands and feet. Willesee indicated they were never there in the "Francis of Assisi, St." 1960. Encyclopedia Britannica. used swabs to obtain samples of the first place and that most or all of the Harrison, Ted. 1994. Stigmata: A Medieval blood for analysis. No side wound or markings were old cuts from previously Phenomenon in a Modern Age. New York: St. other crucifixion markings ever ap- faked stigmata. Martin's Press. Jones, Alison. 1994. The Wordsworth Dictionary of peared. At the end of the experience—or A genuine element of the affair was Saints, ware. England: Wordsworth Editions, demonstration—Rivas displayed parox- the blood itself, which was shown by 116-118. ysms of a death-Iike agony imitative of DNA analysis to be Katya Rivas's. Nickell.Joe. 1993. Looking for a Miracle. Amherst, N.Y.: PrometJieus Books. Jesus's crucifixion. Unfortunately for die miracle-monger¬ . 1998. Inquest on the Shroud of Turin. Rivas's wounds were never seen in the ing journalist Willesee—who made Buffalo. N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 61-63. act of spontaneously issuing but instead much of die possibility diat it might be . 1999. Thumbs down on Fox's "Signs from God." SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 23.6 (November/ were shown in incremental shots after Christ's blood in whole or in part—it December): 61. each appearance—just as they would if proved to be Rivas's alone. Radford, Ben. 1999. Movie review: Stigmata. Corrales self-inflicted during periods of conceal- When I was asked to appear on a tele- Comment (Corrales, N.M.), September 25. Randi. James. 1999. Randi's Archive. James Randi ment. Among other suspicious elements vision documentary on stigmata and to Educational Foundation website, July 30. were the mismatching of "entrance" and discuss the Katya Rivas case, I decided to Rogo. D. Scott. 1982. Miracles. A Pamscientific "exit" wounds, diose on the left foot experiment beforehand by inflicting Inquiry into Wondrous Phenomena. New York: Dial Press. being far out of alignment. Also, diose wounds on myself. I used a sharp blade Ruffin, C. Bernard. 1982. Padre Pio: The True Story. on die palms and soles of the feet were, to cut a cross on the back of my left Huntington. Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor. as far as could be seen, only smears of hand. This shallow, superficial wound Thurston, Herbert. 1952. The Physical Phenomena of . Chicago: H. Regnery Co. blood. yielded enough blood to produce the Schnabel, Jim. 1993. The Munch bunch. Fortean Moreover, such wounds as could be effect of a larger wound (figure 3) and Times 70 (August/September), 23-29. distinguished were not puncturelike but even (by transfer) create a "wound" on Willesee, Michael (exec prod.). 1999. Signs from God, Fox TV, Jury 28. rather consisted of multiple cuts, die palm (figure 4). The next day die Wdson. Ian. 1979. The Shroud of Turin, rev. ed. including the cross on the back of the latter had of course vanished and the Garden City, N.Y.: Image Books. left hand (figure 1) and an array of cross had begun to heal. There are cer- . 1988. The Bleeding Mind London: Weidenfcld and Nicolson.

2 8 July/August 2000 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER