ANCESTRAL PHARMACOPOEIAS: A PALEOETHNOBOTANICAL ASSESSMENT OF PLANT USE IN THE WESTERN FREE STATE, SOUTH AFRICA by Senna R. Thornton-Barnett, B.A. A thesis submitted to the Graduate Council of Texas State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts with a Major in Anthropology December 2013 Committee Members: C. Britt Bousman, Chair C. Garth Sampson Phillip Dering COPYRIGHT by Senna R. Thornton-Barnett 2013 FAIR USE AND AUTHOR’S PERMISSION STATEMENT Fair Use This work is protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States (Public Law 94-553, section 107). Consistent with fair use as defined in the Copyright Laws, brief quotations from this material are allowed with proper acknowledgment. Use of this material for financial gain without the author’s express written permission is not allowed. Duplication Permission As the copyright holder of this work I, Senna Thornton-Barnett, authorize duplication of this work, in whole or in part, for educational or scholarly purposes only. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work would not have been possible without the guidance, patience, and generosity of colleagues, family, and friends in the United States and South Africa. My advisor, Dr. C. Britt Bousman, at Texas State University, provided the encouragement, motivation, and seemingly endless patience required to stay the course. Jeff Leach and the LivNaked Scholarship afforded me the financial support that made this project a reality. My committee members, Dr. Garth Sampson and Phil Dering offered insightful comments and challenging questions throughout the research process. Sincere thanks are in order for Dr. James Brink and the staff at the Florisbad Quaternary Research Department for providing a nurturing research environment. Gary Trower, Thibeletsa, and Isaac Thapo served as instrumental liaisons and interpreters. My gracious informants gave freely of their hospitality, time, and knowledge. Individuals at several institutions must also be recognized: Drs. Louis Scott, A.M. Venter, and Lize Joubert at the University of the Free State; Drs. P.C. Zietsman and Rick Nutall, Ms. Jeanine Visser, and the staff at the National Museum in Bloemfontein; Dr. Tom Huffman, Ewa M. Wojtasik, and Stephen Cousins at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg; Dr. Tom Ashofa at the University of the Free State, QwaQwa campus. I am happily indebted to several gracious individuals for their unending support: Dr. Rodney Moffett, Lisa and Tom Weiskopf, Ann and Ben Thornton, Jane Dubovy, Charlize Tomaselli, and Matthew Mefford. Not least of all, I thank my parents, Kevin Barnett and Annette Thornton-Barnett, for a lifetime filled with midnight exhortations and “hare-brained” adventures. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. iv LIST OF TABLES ...........................................................................................................viii LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... ix ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................x CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................1 II. BACKGROUND ..............................................................................................8 Defining the Study Environment ................................................................9 Biomes and the Modern Environment ........................................................9 Reconstructing the Paleoclimate ............................................................... 17 Culture Chronology ...................................................................... 20 Inland Proxy Paleoclimate Studies ............................................... 23 MIS3. ................................................................................ 24 MIS2 ................................................................................. 27 MIS2/MIS1 Transition. ..................................................... 29 MIS1 ................................................................................. 30 Paleoenvironmental Chronology of the Free State Localities ...... 33 III. CULTURAL HISTORY OF PLANT USE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA ......... 38 The Ethnobotany of Hunter-Gatherers ...................................................... 39 Psychoactive Plants for Trance and Ritual ................................... 40 Hunting Poisons and Adhesives.................................................... 44 Wooden Hunting Tools ................................................................. 44 The Ethnobotany of Herders ..................................................................... 45 The Ethnobotany of Bantu Healers ........................................................... 51 Southern Bantu Muthi ................................................................... 52 Discussion ................................................................................................. 55 v IV. ETHNOBOTANICAL RESEARCH METHODS .......................................... 57 2011 Sangoma Interviews and Field Work ............................................... 59 Ndomba Consultations .................................................................. 62 Florisbad Botanical Hike .............................................................. 62 Bloemfontein Muthi Shops ........................................................... 64 Erfkroon Botanical Hike ............................................................... 66 Eastern Free State Field Work ...................................................... 67 Basotho Cultural Village............................................................... 68 Discussion ................................................................................................. 68 V. ETHNOBOTANICAL RESULTS.................................................................. 69 The Ndomba .............................................................................................. 70 Florisbad ................................................................................................... 73 Phutaditjaba Muthi .................................................................................... 75 Drakensberg Herbal Trail ......................................................................... 79 Erfkroon .................................................................................................... 82 VI. ARCHAEOBOTANICAL REMAINS FROMSITES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA .......................................................................................................... 83 Macrobotanical Remains .......................................................................... 84 Seed Studies .............................................................................................. 84 Archaeological Charcoal ........................................................................... 85 Botanical Residues .................................................................................... 89 Phytolith Analysis ..................................................................................... 91 Middle Stone Age Macrobotanical Remains ............................................ 93 Florisbad ....................................................................................... 93 Sibudu Cave .................................................................................. 93 Blombos Cave ............................................................................... 99 Strathalan Cave B. .......................................................................100 Middle Stone Age Charcoal Analysis ......................................................102 Boomplaas Cave ..........................................................................102 Sibudu Cave .................................................................................104 Diepkloof .....................................................................................107 Middle Stone Age Seeds ..........................................................................109 Sibudu ..........................................................................................109 Bushman Rock Shelter .................................................................113 Middle Stone Age Phytolith Analysis .....................................................114 Sibudu Cave .................................................................................114 vi Middle Stone Age Residue Analysis .......................................................116 Sibudu Cave .................................................................................116 Diepkloof ...................................................................................120 Later Stone Age Macrobotanical Evidence .............................................122 Border Cave .................................................................................122 Melkhoutboom .............................................................................124 Cango Caves ................................................................................127 Boomplaas....................................................................................127 Strathalan Cave A ........................................................................132 Sehonghong Shelter. ....................................................................132