The Sociology of Gender Key Themes in Sociology This series introduces students to a particular topic in sociology in a concise format to provide a core text for a course, easily supplemented with addi- tional readings. Depending on the course content, these books cover major theoretical perspectives and key concepts, and contain illustrative material reflecting contemporary society. The authors have written with a sense of originality and to pose arguments, while maintaining an accessible and engaging writing style. They also include pedagogical features such as glossaries, further suggested reading, discussion questions and case studies. The series volumes do not oversimplify the material, yet contain the basic knowledge students need to work through primary readings and class discussion. Published: The Sociology of Gender: An Introduction to Theory and Research Amy S. Wharton Forthcoming: Citizenship Peter Kivisto and Thomas Faist Science and Technology in Society Daniel Kleinman The Sociology of Gender An Introduction to Theory and Research Amy S. Wharton © 2005 by Amy S. Wharton BLACKWELL PUBLISHING 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK 550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia The right of Amy S. Wharton to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. First published 2005 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wharton, Amy S. The sociology of gender : an introduction to theory and research / Amy S. Wharton. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1–4051–0124–5 (hardback : alk. paper) – ISBN 1–4051–0125–3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Gender identity. 2. Sex differences. 3. Sex role. 4. Equality. I. Title. HQ1075.W48 2004 305.3–dc22 2003024688 A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library. Set in 10 on 12 pt Sabon by SNP Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Hong Kong Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards. For further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website: http://www.blackwellpublishing.com Contents Figures and Tables viii Preface ix Acknowledgments xi 1 Introduction to the Sociology of Gender 1 Chapter Objectives 1 Introduction 1 Sociological Vantage Points 2 A Brief History of the Sociological Study of Gender 4 What is Gender? 6 Three Frameworks for Understanding Gender 7 Gender Matters 9 Who’s to Blame? Understanding Gender Inequality 10 Chapter Summary 11 Further Reading 11 A Closer Look: 11 “What’s in a Name?” by Harbour Fraser Hodder 11 Part I Conceptual Approaches 2 The Gendered Person 17 Chapter Objectives 17 Sex and Gender 18 The Gendered Person 23 Gender as Traits, Abilities, or Behavioral Dispositions 24 Becoming Gendered 28 Chapter Summary 39 vi CONTENTS Further Reading 40 A Closer Look: 40 “Evolution, Males, and Violence,” by David P. Barash 40 “Ambiguous Genitalia and the Construction of Gender,” by Suzanne J. Kessler 47 “The Science and Politics of Comparing Men and Women,” by A. H. Eagly 49 3 Gender in Interactions and Institutions 53 Chapter Objectives 53 Interactionist Views of Gender 54 Gendered Organizations/Gendered Institutions 64 Toward a Multilayered Conception of Gender 69 Chapter Summary 70 Further Reading 70 A Closer Look: 71 “‘If you let me play’: Nike Ads and Gender,” by Robert Goldman and Stephen Papson 71 “Resources for Doing Gender,” by Candace West and Don Zimmerman 74 Part II Gender in Context 4Work and Family as Gendered Institutions 81 Chapter Objectives 81 The Division of Labor 82 Gender, Work, and Family in Historical Perspective 83 The Post-industrial Era: Married Women’s Rising Labor-force Participation 88 Portraits of Family and Work 93 A Broader View: Gender and Social Organization 105 Work and Family Revisited 109 Chapter Summary 111 Further Reading 112 A Closer Look: 113 “Constructing Jobs as Women’s Work in World War II,” by Ruth Milkman 113 “Work–Family Arrangements in Four Countries,” by Laura Den Dulk 115 5 Gender, Childhood, and Family Life 122 Chapter Objectives 122 CONTENTS vii “Is it a boy or a girl?” Gender Construction in Children 123 The Household Division of Labor and the Family 133 Marriage, Families, and Their Consequences for Women and Men 143 Chapter Summary 150 Further Reading 151 A Closer Look: 151 “Raising Gender-Aschematic Children,” by Sandra Lipsitz Bem 151 “The Meaning of Motherhood in Black Culture,” by Patricia Hill Collins 157 “The Wage Penalty for Motherhood,” by Michelle J. Budig and Paula England 162 6 Gendered Jobs and Gendered Workers 166 Chapter Objectives 166 Explaining the Sex Segregation of Jobs and Occupations 167 Gender-typing of Jobs, Occupations, and Hierarchies 182 The Wages of Gender 189 Chapter Summary 199 Further Reading 200 A Closer Look: 200 “Women as Emotion Managers,” by Arlie Russell Hochschild 200 “Hegemonic Masculinity in Female Occupations,” by Christine L. Williams 205 Part III Epilogue 7 Deconstructing Gender Differences and Inequalities 217 Chapter Objectives 217 Gender Distinctions and Gender Inequalities 219 The Reproduction of Gender Inequality 219 Challenging Gender Inequality 225 Making Gender Matter Less 228 Chapter Summary 229 Further Reading 229 A Closer Look: 230 “Privilege as Paradox,” by Allan G. Johnson 230 “Gender Vertigo,” by Barbara J. Risman 233 Bibliography 235 Index 253 Figures and Tables FIGURES 4.1 Hourly wage and compensation growth for production/non-supervisory workers, 1959–99 90 4.2 Labor-force participation rates of persons aged 25 to 54 94 4.3 Occupations of employed persons, 1997 95 4.4 Indexes of occupational sex and race segregation, 1900–2000 99 4.5 Households by type, 1960–98 103 4.6 Family composition by race, 1970, 1980, and 1990 (percent) 104 4.7 Employed mothers’ and fathers’ emotion across the day 111 5.1 Husbands’ percentage of household tasks, for those reporting at least one hour 135 5.2 Average hours of housework for men and women 135 6.1 Median earnings of full-time, year-round workers as a percentage of non-Hispanic white men’s earnings, by sex, race, and Hispanicity, 1955–2000 190 TABLES 4.1 Top occupations for blacks, Hispanics, and whites, by sex, 2000 96 6.1 Percentage of female and median earnings ratios for selected occupations, year-round/full-time workers, 1990 191 6.2 Inequality between men and women in the labor market by country 194 Preface I have been a student of gender for almost 30 years, starting with my days as an undergraduate sociology student at the University of Oregon. Since that time I have had the opportunity to introduce the sociological study of gender to many undergraduate and graduate students. Most have been as eager as I to explore the role of gender in their lives and the larger world. This eagerness may partly reflect intellectual curiosity. I believe it also speaks to the simple fact that gender is a pervasive, yet somewhat mysterious, feature of social life that we all – at some level – seek to understand. Sociologists and other social scientists have had a lot to say about gender over the past three decades. My main objective in this book is to provide a relatively concise, theoretically sophisticated introduction to this body of work. Unlike some sociology of gender textbooks, my approach is not ency- clopedic: I do not try to cover every area of social life or every issue where gender is at play. Instead, I aim to provide students with some ways to think about gender – how it operates and how sociologists have tried to conceive of its expression and effects. Like any other group of social scientists, gender scholars bring diverse conceptual, theoretical, and methodological perspectives to their work. Often, these differences give rise to provocative debates. This book does not shy away from these controversies. Engaging with these debates leaves us better equipped to articulate and defend our own views. Early on in the book, I introduce the idea of gender as operating at the individual, interactional, and institutional levels, and I rely on this frame- work throughout the text. Ultimately, I want my readers to understand that gender is a multilevel system that cannot be understood by looking solely at individuals. In addition, through its impact on identities, social relations, and institutions, gender is intricately connected to many social processes. x PREFACE The most important of these, as I show, is social inequality. By exploring the contours of the gender system, this book thus also provides tools for understanding gender inequality. A.S.W. Acknowledgments There are many people who, directly or indirectly, contributed to this book. First, I want to thank my students and my teachers. At different times and in different ways, they have profoundly shaped my thinking about gender and sociology. My biggest debt, by far, is to Joan Acker, from whom I took my first class in the sociology of gender as an under- graduate and from whom I have continued to learn for my entire career. I would also like to acknowledge the colleagues who have had a hand in this book, including Julia McQuillan, Jean Potuchek, and especially Serina Beauparlant.