Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development United Nations Environment Programme

UNEP-UNCTAD Capacity-building Task Force on Trade, Environment and Development

United Nations New York and Geneva, 2008 ii

Note

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The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning WKHGHOLPLWDWLRQRILWVIURQWLHUVRUERXQGDULHV

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Material in this publication may be freely quoted or reprinted, but acknowledgement is requested, WRJHWKHU ZLWK D UHIHUHQFH WR WKH GRFXPHQW QXPEHU$ FRS\ RI WKH SXEOLFDWLRQ FRQWDLQLQJ WKH quotation or reprint should be sent to the UNCTAD secretariat (c/o Administrative Secretary, Division on International Trade in Goods and Services, and Commodities, Palais des Nations, *HQHYD6ZLW]HUODQG

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Foreword

)RRGVHFXULW\LVDQLVVXHRIJUHDWDQGJURZLQJFRQFHUQLQPDQ\FRXQWULHVSDUWLFXODUO\LQ$IULFD Despite global pledges, the recent report of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food highlighted that the number of people suffering from hunger has increased every year VLQFH

Feeding over 6 billion people – and over 9 billion by 2050 – will require a wide range of creative, sustainable agricultural systems which not only provide food, but also factor in the economic value RIQDWXUHEDVHGVHUYLFHVVXFKDVIRUHVWVZHWODQGVDQGVRLORUJDQLVPVWKDWXQGHUSLQDJULFXOWXUH 6LPSO\DSSO\LQJWKH³LQGXVWULDO´DJULFXOWXUDOPRGHOVRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\LQWRWKHWZHQW\¿UVW DVDVLQJOHJOREDOVROXWLRQZLOOQRWVHUYHXVZHOO

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and the United Nations (QYLURQPHQW3URJUDPPH 81(3 WKURXJKWKHLUMRLQW&DSDFLW\%XLOGLQJ7DVN)RUFHRQ7UDGH Environment and Development (CBTF), take food security very seriously and have joined forces WRFRQWULEXWHWRWKHVHDUFKIRUVXVWDLQDEOHVROXWLRQV

This study examines the relationship between organic agriculture and food security in Africa, particularly East Africa, which is where the CBTF has been implementing a project on organic DJULFXOWXUHVLQFH2UJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLVDKROLVWLFSURGXFWLRQV\VWHPEDVHGRQDFWLYHDJUR HFRV\VWHPPDQDJHPHQWUDWKHUWKDQRQH[WHUQDOLQSXWVDQGLWXWLOL]HVERWKWUDGLWLRQDODQGVFLHQWL¿F NQRZOHGJH

The evidence presented in this study supports the argument that organic agriculture can be more conducive to food security in Africa than most conventional production systems, and that it is PRUHOLNHO\WREHVXVWDLQDEOHLQWKHORQJWHUP

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Therefore, we encourage policymakers and development cooperation partners in Africa and DURXQGWKHZRUOGWRWDNHDQHZORRNDWWKLVSURPLVLQJSURGXFWLRQV\VWHPZLWKIUHVKH\HV,WRIIHUV not only improved food security, but also an array of other economic, environmental, health and VRFLDOEHQH¿WV

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Acknowledgements

This study was prepared by Rachel Hine and Jules Pretty, University of Essex and Sophia Twarog 81&7$' 7KHDXWKRUVFDQEHFRQWDFWHGDWWKH&HQWUHIRU(QYLURQPHQWDQG6RFLHW\8QLYHUVLW\ RI(VVH[&ROFKHVWHU(VVH[&2648QLWHG.LQJGRPHPDLOUHKLQH#HVVH[DFXNRUDWWKH Trade and Sustainable Development Section, Division on International Trade, UNCTAD, Palais GHV1DWLRQV*HQHYD6ZLW]HUODQGHPDLOVRSKLDWZDURJ#XQFWDGRUJ

Sophia Twarog (UNCTAD) and Asad Naqvi (UNEP/CBTF) oversaw the publication process under WKHRYHUDOOVXSHUYLVLRQRI8OULFK+RIIPDQQ 81&7$' DQG+XVVHLQ$ED]D 81(3 3UDYHHQ Bhalla (consultant to UNCTAD), Paul Stephenson (UNCTAD), Michael Gibson (UNCTAD) and $QQD*ULJJV IRUPHUO\ZLWK81&7$' SURYLGHGDVVLVWDQFHRQODQJXDJHHGLWLQJLVVXHV.DULP Ouahidi (UNEP), Desirée Leon (UNEP) and Rahila Mughal (UNEP) provided administrative VXSSRUW6RSKLD&RPEHWWH 81&7$' GHVLJQHGWKHFRYHU5DIH'HQW 81&7$' IRUPDWWHGWKH PDQXVFULSW

The authors are grateful to the following for contributing valuable information and insights to the study:

• Peter Murage, Mount Kenya Organic Farm (MOOF), Kenya; • J Ngugi Mutura, Sustainable Agriculture Community Development Programme (SACDEP), Kenya; • Charles Wasonga, Environmental Action Team (EAT), Kenya; • Donati Alex Senzia, Participatory Ecological Land Use Management (PELUM), United Republic of Tanzania; • -RKQ:1MRURJH.HQ\D,QVWLWXWHRI2UJDQLF)DUPLQJ .,2) .HQ\D • Zia R Khan, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Kenya; • Moses Muwanga, National Organic Agricultural Movement of Uganda (NOGAMU), Uganda; • Jordan Gama, Tanzania Organic Agriculture Movement (TOAM), United Republic of Tanzania; • Eustace Kiarii, Kenya Organic Agriculture Network (KOAN), Kenya; • 3HWUD%DNHZHOO6WRQH1RUZHJLDQ8QLYHUVLW\RI/LIH6FLHQFH1RUZD\ • Ulrich Hoffmann, UNCTAD; • Fulai Sheng, UNEP; • Benjamin Simmons, UNEP; • Gunnar Rundgren, Grolink, Sweden; • Hervé Bouagnimbeck, International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM); and • Participants in the CBTF East African Organic Agriculture Initiative who provided feedback on the terms of reference and drafts of this paper when they were presented DW &%7) PHHWLQJV 3DUWLFXODU WKDQNV JR WR PHPEHUV RI WKH &%7) SURMHFW¶V 5HJLRQDO Steering Committee: From Kenya: Naftali Ndugire, National Environment Management $XWKRULW\(XVWDFH.LDULL.2$1DQG&HFLOLD.LPHPLD%ULGJH$IULFD)URPWKH8QLWHG Republic of Tanzania: Geoffrey Kirenga and Adah Mwasha, Ministry of Agriculture, Food 6HFXULW\DQG&RRSHUDWLYHV-RUGDQ*DPD72$0DQG/R\FH/HPD(QYLURFDUH)URP Uganda: Florence Kata, Ben Naturinda and Bosco Okello, Ugandan Export Promotion Board; Moses Muwanga, NOGAMU; and Godber Tumushabe, Advocates Coalition on 'HYHORSPHQWDQGWKH(QYLURQPHQW $&2'(

The CBTF East African Organic Agriculture Initiative activities were made possible through WKHJHQHURXV¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUWRIWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQWKH6ZHGLVK,QWHUQDWLRQDO'HYHORSPHQW &RRSHUDWLRQ$JHQF\ 6LGD DQGWKH*RYHUQPHQWRI1RUZD\ v

Contents

Acknowledgements ...... iv Acronyms ...... vi Executive summary...... vii Section 1. Overview...... 1 ,QWURGXFWLRQ 1 $JULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQDQGIRRGVHFXULW\LQ$IULFD 1 7KHIRRGVHFXULW\FKDOOHQJH 2 &DXVHVRIIRRGLQVHFXULW\ 3 )RRGVHFXULW\FKDOOHQJHVIRUDJULFXOWXUHLQ$IULFD 5 6XVWDLQDELOLW\LQDJULFXOWXUH 6 2UJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH 6 7KHH[WHQWRIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLQ$IULFDSDUWLFXODUO\(DVW$IULFD 8 Section 2. Evidence from Africa...... 11 ,QFUHDVLQJIRRGVHFXULW\ZLWKRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH 11 2.1.1 Improvements inavailability of food...... 11 2.1.2 Improvements to natural capital ...... 12 2.1.3 Improvements to social capital...... 13 2.1.4 Improvements to human capital ...... 13 2.1.5 Improvements to physical capital...... 14 ,PSURYHPHQWVWR¿QDQFLDOFDSLWDO ...... 14 2.1.7 Improvements to external factors ...... 15 2.1.8 Summary...... 15 (YLGHQFHRQRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHDQGIRRGDYDLODELOLW\LQ$IULFD 16 7\SRORJ\RIPHFKDQLVPVE\ZKLFKRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLPSURYHVQDWXUDO VRFLDOKXPDQSK\VLFDODQG¿QDQFLDOFDSLWDO 16 1DUUDWLYHFDVHVWXGLHVIURP(DVW$IULFD 19 2.4.1 The Manor House Agricultural Centre, Kitale, Kenya ...... 19 2.4.2 Organic cotton, GTZ, United Republic of Tanzania...... 19 2.4.3 SACDEP, Thika, Kenya ...... 20 &HUWL¿HGRUJDQLFFRWWRQLQ8JDQGD...... 21 2.4.5 C-MAD programme, Kenya...... 22 2.4.6 Small-scale aquaculture inMalawi...... 22 2.4.7 ICIPE YXWXVXNXPX (push-pull) pest management, Kenya...... 23 2.4.8 Ethiopia: Cheha integratedrural development project ...... 24 2.4.9 MEFE project, Kakamega, Kenya...... 25 2.4.10 LOMADEF, Lipangwe, Malawi...... 25 2.4.11 Organic cashews and vegetables inMkuranga district, United Republic of Tanzania ...... 26 2.4.12 Soil and crop productivity improvements, EAT, Kenya ...... 27 2.4.13 PEEST project, Iganga district, Uganda...... 29 2.4.14 MOOF, Kenya...... 30 2.4.15 PELUM, United Republic of Tanzania...... 31 2.4.16 Discussion of evidence ...... 32 /LPLWDWLRQVDQGFKDOOHQJHVWRWKHVSUHDGRIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLQ$IULFD 34 2.5.1 Knowledge...... 34 2.5.2 Support and infrastructure ...... 35 2.5.3 Winners and losers ...... 36 2.5.4 Gender, employment, health and land tenure issues...... 36 2.5.5 External factors...... 36 2.5.6 Participatory development policies for organic agriculture...... 37 Section 3. Conclusions ...... 39

References...... 41 Annex: Main stakeholders in the organic sector in Kenya, United Republic of Tanzania and Uganda 47 vi

Acronyms

&%7) 81(381&7$' &DSDFLW\ %XLOGLQJ 7DVN )RUFH RQ 7UDGH (QYLURQPHQW DQG Development &0$' &RPPXQLW\0RELOL]DWLRQ$JDLQVW'HVHUWL¿FDWLRQ CSO civil society organization EAOPS East African Organic Products Standard EAT Environmental Action Team EPOPA Export Promotion of Organic Products from Africa FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations +,9$,'6 KXPDQLPPXQRGH¿FLHQF\YLUXVDFTXLUHGLPPXQRGH¿FLHQF\V\QGURPH IAASTD International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development ICIPE International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology ICLARM International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (WorldFish Center) ICS internal control system IPM Integrated Pest Management IFOAM International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements GEF Global Environment Facility *02 JHQHWLFDOO\PRGL¿HGRUJDQLVP GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit KD KHFWDUH VTXDUHPHWHUVRUDFUHV KIOF Kenya Institute of Organic Farming KOAN Kenya Organic Agriculture Network LOMADEF Lipangwe Organic Manure Demonstration Farm MEFE Mumias Education for Empowerment MOOF Mount Kenya Organic Farm NA not applicable 1*2 QRQJRYHUQPHQWDORUJDQL]DWLRQ NOGAMU National Organic Agricultural Movement of Uganda PEEST Poverty Eradication through Environmentally Sustainable Technologies PELUM Participatory Ecological Land Use Management SACDEP Sustainable Agriculture Community Development Programme SFO smallholder farmer organization Sida Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency 7DQ&HUW 7DQ]DQLD2UJDQLF&HUWL¿FDWLRQ$VVRFLDWLRQ TOAM Tanzania Organic Agriculture Movement UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 81(6&2 8QLWHG1DWLRQV(GXFDWLRQDO6FLHQWL¿FDQG&XOWXUDO2UJDQL]DWLRQ UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNDP United Nations Development Programme WHO World Health Organization vii

Executive summary

Introduction

Organic agriculture is a sustainable and environmentally friendly production system that offers African and other developing countries a wide range of economic, environmental, social and FXOWXUDOEHQH¿WV:KHQWKH81(381&7$'&DSDFLW\%XLOGLQJ7DVN)RUFHRQ7UDGH(QYLURQPHQW and Development (CBTF) started its work on organic agriculture in East Africa in 2004, a key question repeatedly raised by public and private sector stakeholders in the region was to what H[WHQW RUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH FDQ HQKDQFH IRRG VHFXULW\ LQ WKH$IULFDQ FRQWH[W 7KLV SDSHU ZDV GHYHORSHGLQUHVSRQVHWRWKDWTXHVWLRQ,WH[DPLQHVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH DQGIRRGVHFXULW\LQ$IULFDDQDO\VLQJRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH¶VLPSDFWRQIRRGDYDLODELOLW\DVZHOO DVQDWXUDOVRFLDOKXPDQSK\VLFDODQG¿QDQFLDOFDSLWDOLQWKHUHJLRQ*LYHQWKHSDSHU¶VRULJLQV special attention has been given to East Africa throughout the paper, including analysis of 15 case VWXGLHV7KHFRQFOXVLRQVDQG¿QGLQJVDUHKRZHYHUUHOHYDQWIRUDOO$IULFDQFRXQWULHVDVZHOODV PDQ\RWKHUGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVDURXQGWKHZRUOG

Food security and agricultural production

Modern agricultural methods have resulted in spectacular increases in productivity: more cereals and DQLPDOVSHUKHFWDUHPRUHPHDWDQGPLONSHUDQLPDOPRUHIRRGRXWSXWSHUSHUVRQHPSOR\HG+RZHYHU the majority of the chronically hungry are small farmers in developing countries who produce much RIZKDWWKH\HDWDUHRIWHQWRRSRRUWRSXUFKDVHLQSXWVDQGDUHPDUJLQDOL]HGIURPSURGXFWPDUNHWV

In the last 10 years, progress in the drive to reduce hunger has been slow and has varied around WKHZRUOGLQVXE6DKDUDQ$IULFDWKHQXPEHURIKXQJU\SHRSOHKDVLQIDFWLQFUHDVHGE\SHU FHQWVLQFH In the period 2000–2002, the proportion of undernourished people in the total population of Kenya was 33 per cent, in Uganda 19 per cent and in the United Republic of 7DQ]DQLDSHUFHQW7KHQXPEHURIXQGHUZHLJKWFKLOGUHQKDVDOVRLQFUHDVHGLQ&HQWUDO:HVWHUQ and Eastern Africa compared to an overall decline in other developing regions such as Asia, South $PHULFDDQG1RUWK$IULFD1

7KHZRUOGWKHUHIRUHVWLOOIDFHVDIXQGDPHQWDOIRRGVHFXULW\FKDOOHQJH'HVSLWHVWHDGLO\IDOOLQJ fertility rates and family sizes, the world population continues to increase, and so, in parallel, will WKHDEVROXWHGHPDQGIRUIRRG)RRGGHPDQGZLOODOVRVKLIWLQWKHFRPLQJGHFDGHVDV L HFRQRPLF JURZWK LQFUHDVHV SHRSOH¶V SXUFKDVLQJ SRZHU LL JURZLQJ XUEDQL]DWLRQ HQFRXUDJHV SHRSOH WR DGRSWQHZGLHWVDQG LLL FOLPDWHFKDQJHWKUHDWHQVERWKODQGDQGZDWHUUHVRXUFHV

The conventional wisdom is that, in order to double food supply, efforts need to be redoubled to PRGHUQL]HDJULFXOWXUH6XFKDVWUDWHJ\KDVEHHQVXFFHVVIXOLQWKHSDVW%XWWKHUHDUHGRXEWVDERXW WKHFDSDFLW\RIVXFKV\VWHPVWRUHGXFHIRRGSRYHUW\7KHJUHDWWHFKQRORJLFDOSURJUHVVLQWKHSDVW KDOIFHQWXU\KDVQRWOHGWRPDMRUUHGXFWLRQVLQKXQJHUDQGSRYHUW\LQGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHV2

Arguably, the most sustainable choice for agricultural development and food security is therefore to increase total farm productivity in situ, in the developing countries that are the most in need of JUHDWHUIRRGVXSSOLHV Attention must focus on the following: L 7KHH[WHQWWRZKLFKIDUPHUVFDQLPSURYHIRRGSURGXFWLRQDQGUDLVHLQFRPHVZLWKORZ FRVWORFDOO\DYDLODEOHWHFKQRORJLHVDQGLQSXWV WKLVLVSDUWLFXODUO\LPSRUWDQWDWWLPHVRI YHU\KLJKIXHODQGDJURFKHPLFDOSULFHV (ii) Whether they can do this without causing further environmental damage; and LLL 7KHH[WHQWRIIDUPHUV¶DELOLW\WRWUDGH

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The food security of any region is not simply a question of producing enough food to meet demand; LWLVDOVRLQÀXHQFHGE\DPXOWLWXGHRIIDFWRUVERWKQDWXUDODQGFDXVHGE\KXPDQV,QFUHDVHGIRRG VXSSO\GRHVQRWDXWRPDWLFDOO\PHDQLQFUHDVHGIRRGVHFXULW\IRUDOO:KDWLVLPSRUWDQWLVZKR produces the food, who has access to the technology and knowledge to produce it, and who has WKHSXUFKDVLQJSRZHUWRDFTXLUHLW)XUWKHUPRUHPDQ\RIWKHFDXVHVRIIRRGLQVHFXULW\DUHDOVR V\PSWRPVWKXVFUHDWLQJDF\FOLFDOHIIHFWWKDWFDQUHVXOWLQIXUWKHUIRRGLQVHFXULW\

Organic agriculture and food security

$JULFXOWXUHE\LWVLQKHUHQWPXOWLIXQFWLRQDOLW\KDVWKHSRWHQWLDOWRERWKLQÀXHQFHDQGDGGUHVV WKHIDFWRUVWKDWFRQWULEXWHWRIRRGLQVHFXULW\2UJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHUHOLHVRQ¿YHFDSLWDODVVHWVIRU VXFFHVV QDWXUDOVRFLDOKXPDQSK\VLFDODQG¿QDQFLDO DQGVRFRQWULEXWHVWRDQGEXLOGVXSVWRFNV of these natural, social and economic resources over time3 thus often reducing many of the factors WKDWOHDGWRIRRGLQVHFXULW\

Increase in food availability

In developing countries, evidence from research and from this study shows that agricultural yields in organic systems do not fall, and at least remain stable when converting from systems that XVHUHODWLYHO\ORZDPRXQWVRIV\QWKHWLFLQSXWV PDQ\RIZKLFKZHUHE\SDVVHGE\WKHHDUOLHU ³JUHHQUHYROXWLRQ´ VXFKDVWKRVHIUHTXHQWO\IRXQGLQ$IULFD2YHUWLPH\LHOGVLQFUHDVHDVFDSLWDO assets in systems improve, thus outperforming those in traditional systems and matching those in PRUHFRQYHQWLRQDOLQSXWLQWHQVLYHV\VWHPV)RRGDYDLODELOLW\LQFUHDVHGLQDOOFDVHVFHQWUHGRQ IRRGSURGXFWLRQZKHUHGDWDZHUHUHSRUWHGH[DPLQHGLQWKLVVWXG\2WKHUVVXFKDV*LEERQDQG Bolwig (2007), have also found that organic conversion in tropical Africa is associated with yield LQFUHDVHVUDWKHUWKDQZLWK\LHOGUHGXFWLRQV

2UJDQLF IDUPLQJ LQFUHDVHV DFFHVV WR IRRG RQ VHYHUDO OHYHOV )LUVW LQFUHDVHG TXDQWLW\ RI IRRG produced per farm leads to household food security which results in all members of the household KDYLQJ DFFHVV WR HQRXJK IRRG 6HFRQG WKH SURGXFWLRQ DQG VHOOLQJ RI IRRG VXUSOXVHV DW ORFDO PDUNHWVPHDQVWKDWIDUPHUVEHQH¿WIURPKLJKHULQFRPHVZKLFKLQFUHDVHVWKHLUSXUFKDVLQJSRZHU 7KLUGIUHVKRUJDQLFSURGXFHEHFRPHVDYDLODEOHWRPRUHSHRSOHLQWKHZLGHUFRPPXQLW\)LQDOO\ organic farming enables new and different groups in a community to get involved in agricultural SURGXFWLRQDQGWUDGHZKHUHSUHYLRXVO\WKH\ZHUHH[FOXGHGIRU¿QDQFLDORUFXOWXUDOUHDVRQV

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The vast majority of the case studies in this research showed improvements to the natural capital EDVH±WKHLUORFDOQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±ZLWKSHUFHQWRIWKHFDVHVWXGLHVUHSRUWLQJEHQH¿WVWRVRLO IHUWLOLW\ZDWHUVXSSO\ÀRRGFRQWURODQGELRGLYHUVLW\2UJDQLFIDUPLQJOHDGVWRPDQ\LPSURYHPHQWV to the natural environment, including increased water retention in soils, improvements in the water table (with more drinking water in the dry season), reduced soil erosion combined with improved RUJDQLFPDWWHULQVRLOVOHDGLQJWREHWWHUFDUERQVHTXHVWUDWLRQDQGLQFUHDVHGDJURELRGLYHUVLW\ As a result soils are healthier, are better able to hold water and are more stable, can sustain plant JURZWKEHWWHUDQGKDYHDKLJKHUQXWULHQWFRQWHQW$OOWKLVHQDEOHVIDUPHUVWRJURZFURSVIRUORQJHU SHULRGVZLWKKLJKHU\LHOGVDQGLQPDUJLQDOFRQGLWLRQV7KLVRIFRXUVHFDQPDNHDPDMRULPSDFW RQUHGXFLQJWKHIRRGLQVHFXULW\RIDUHJLRQ

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Organic agriculture leads to improvements in social capital, including more and stronger social organizations at local level, new rules and norms for managing collective natural resources and EHWWHUFRQQHFWHGQHVVWRH[WHUQDOSROLF\LQVWLWXWLRQV5HVXOWVIURPWKHFDVHVLQWKLVVWXG\UHYHDOHG WKDWSHUFHQWRIWKRVHLQYROYHGFLWHGLPSURYHPHQWVWRVRFLDOFDSLWDODVLQWHJUDOWRWKHLUVXFFHVV

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7KHIRUPDWLRQRIIDUPHUV¶JURXSVDQGFRRSHUDWLYHVDQGOHVVIRUPDOFRPPXQLW\FROODERUDWLRQKDV lowered the costs of working, led to increased knowledge transfer amongst farmers, reduced the FRVWVRIRUJDQLFFHUWL¿FDWLRQDQGFRQWULEXWHGWRJUHDWHUIRRGVHFXULW\

6WURQJ QHWZRUNV DQG OLQNV ZLWK SDUWQHUV IURP JRYHUQPHQW QRQJRYHUQPHQWDO RUJDQL]DWLRQV (NGOs) and organic support organizations such as the Kenya Organic Agriculture Network (KOAN), the National Organic Agricultural Movement of Uganda (NOGAMU), the Tanzania Organic Agriculture Movement (TOAM), and the Export Promotion of Organic Products from $IULFD (323$ SURJUDPPHDUHKHOSLQJIDUPHUVWRRUJDQL]HIRURUJDQLFFHUWL¿FDWLRQDFFHVVH[SRUW and domestic organic markets and gain greater knowledge of sustainable organic techniques, FURSVDQGPDUNHWV

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Organic farming leads to an increase in human capital, evident in all of the case studies detailed in WKLVUHSRUW$OOKDYHVRPHHOHPHQWRIHGXFDWLRQWKDWLQFUHDVHVWKHNQRZOHGJHRIRUJDQLFIDUPLQJ PHWKRGVDQGWKHVNLOOVRIIDUPHUV,QPDQ\FDVHVWKHUHKDYHEHHQGLUHFWLPSURYHPHQWVLQWKH health of individuals and communities as a result of increased knowledge, an increase in food \LHOGVDQGLPSURYHGDFFHVVWRIRRG7KHDELOLW\RIIDUPHUVWRXVHWKHLUEHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKH holistic nature of organic farming to adapt and change their farming systems when faced with new challenges has resulted in these agricultural systems becoming more resilient to environmental DQGH[WHUQDOVWUHVVHV

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Organic farming can also lead to improvements in the infrastructure (communications and WUDQVSRUW WKURXJKWKHQHHGWRDFFHVVPDUNHWV$FFHVVWRPDUNHWVLVDQHVVHQWLDOSDUWRIRUJDQLF farming, (particularly crucial for export) and farmers, NGOs and governments can work together LQRUGHUWRKHOSIDUPHUVWRHDUQSUHPLXPSULFHVIRUWKHLURUJDQLFSURGXFH2IWKHFDVHVWXGLHV H[DPLQHGSHUFHQWUHSRUWHGLPSURYHPHQWVLQWKHSK\VLFDOLQIUDVWUXFWXUHDQGLQPDUNHWDFFHVV Access to markets has increased not only for farmers selling their surplus in domestic markets, but DOVRIRUIDUPHUVVHOOLQJWKHLUFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFSURGXFHLQLQWHUQDWLRQDOPDUNHWV

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Poverty is a major contributory factor to food insecurity, and organic farming has a positive LPSDFWRQSRYHUW\LQDYDULHW\RIZD\V)DUPHUVEHQH¿WIURP L FDVKVDYLQJVDVRUJDQLFIDUPLQJ precludes the need to purchase synthetic pesticides and fertilizers; (ii) extra incomes gained by VHOOLQJWKHVXUSOXVSURGXFH UHVXOWLQJIURPWKHFKDQJHWRRUJDQLF LLL SUHPLXPSULFHVIRUFHUWL¿HG organic produce, obtained primarily in Africa for export but also for domestic markets; and (iv) DGGHGYDOXHWRRUJDQLFSURGXFWVWKURXJKSURFHVVLQJDFWLYLWLHV7KHVH¿QGLQJVDUHEDFNHGXSE\ studies from Asia and Latin America that concluded that organic farming can reduce poverty in DQHQYLURQPHQWDOO\IULHQGO\ZD\4

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• Organic agriculture can increase agricultural productivity and can raise incomes with ORZFRVWORFDOO\DYDLODEOHDQGDSSURSULDWHWHFKQRORJLHVZLWKRXWFDXVLQJHQYLURQPHQWDO GDPDJH )XUWKHUPRUH HYLGHQFH VKRZV WKDW RUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH FDQ EXLOG XS QDWXUDO resources, strengthen communities and improve human capacity, thus improving food VHFXULW\E\DGGUHVVLQJPDQ\GLIIHUHQWFDXVDOIDFWRUVVLPXOWDQHRXVO\

• All case studies which focused on food production in this research where data have been reported have shown increases in per hectare productivity of food crops, which challenges WKH SRSXODU P\WK WKDW RUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH FDQQRW LQFUHDVH DJULFXOWXUDO SURGXFWLYLW\ Organic production allows access to markets and food for farmers, enabling them to obtain premium prices for their produce (export and domestic) and to use the additional LQFRPHV HDUQHG WR EX\ H[WUD IRRGVWXIIV HGXFDWLRQ DQGRU KHDOWK FDUH$ WUDQVLWLRQ WR LQWHJUDWHGRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHGHOLYHULQJJUHDWHUEHQH¿WVDWWKHVFDOHRFFXUULQJLQWKHVH projects, has been shown to increase access to food in a variety of ways: by increasing \LHOGVLQFUHDVLQJWRWDORQIDUPSURGXFWLYLW\HQDEOLQJIDUPHUVWRXVHWKHLUKLJKHUHDUQLQJV IURPH[SRUWWREX\IRRGDQGDVDUHVXOWRIKLJKHURQIDUP\LHOGVHQDEOLQJWKHZLGHU FRPPXQLW\WREX\RUJDQLFIRRGDWORFDOPDUNHWV

2UJDQLFDQGQHDURUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUDOPHWKRGVDQGWHFKQRORJLHVDUHLGHDOO\VXLWHGIRU many poor, marginalized smallholder farmers in Africa, as they require minimal or no H[WHUQDO LQSXWV XVH ORFDOO\ DQG QDWXUDOO\ DYDLODEOH PDWHULDOV WR SURGXFH KLJKTXDOLW\ products, and encourage a whole systemic approach to farming that is more diverse and UHVLVWDQWWRVWUHVV

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&HUWL¿HGRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQIRUWKHH[SRUWPDUNHWZLWKLWVSUHPLXPSULFHVFDQXQGRXEWHGO\ UHGXFHSRYHUW\DPRQJIDUPHUVZKLFKLVDPDMRUFRQWULEXWRUWRIRRGLQVHFXULW\+RZHYHU monocropping farming systems for the export market, whether conventional or organic, VWLOOOHDYHIDUPHUVYXOQHUDEOHWRH[SRUWSULFHÀXFWXDWLRQVDQGFURSIDLOXUH:KHUHRUJDQLF farming principles are adopted as a holistic approach for the whole of an integrated agricultural system, “organic” can be synonymous with “sustainable”, and increased food security in a region is more likely to occur, while also building up natural, human and VRFLDOUHVRXUFHV

2UJDQLFDJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPVDUHPDNLQJDVLJQL¿FDQWFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKHUHGXFWLRQRI IRRGLQVHFXULW\DQGSRYHUW\LQDUHDVRI$IULFDDQGWRDQLPSURYHPHQWLQUXUDOOLYHOLKRRGV There is the potential to do more in this area with enabling policy and institutional VXSSRUW

2UJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLVQRWGLUHFWO\DQGVSHFL¿FDOO\VXSSRUWHGE\DJULFXOWXUDOSROLF\LQPRVW African countries; indeed, it is sometimes actively hindered by policies advocating the XVHRIKLJKLQSXWIDUPLQJPDQDJHPHQWSUDFWLFHV,IRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHDQGLWVDVVRFLDWHG SRVLWLYHVLGHHIIHFWVDUHWREHVFDOHGXSDQHQDEOLQJSROLF\HQYLURQPHQWLVFULWLFDO

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0XFKPRUHLVQRZNQRZQDERXWLQWHQVLYHKLJKLQSXWIDUPLQJV\VWHPVWKDQLVNQRZQDERXW VXVWDLQDEOHRUJDQLFV\VWHPV7KXVPRUHLQIRUPDWLRQRQDJURHFRORJLFDOWHFKQRORJLHVLV QHHGHG+RZHYHUWKLVFDOOVIRUDVKLIWRIHPSKDVLVLQUHVHDUFKDQGVFLHQFHEXGJHWVDQG for the creation of better linkages between scientists, agricultural training and extension SURYLGHUVDQGIDUPHUV

• Partnerships between farmers, farmer groups, NGOs and civil society organizations (CSOs), organic movement organizations, governments and certifying bodies at all OHYHOVIRVWHUVXFFHVVIXORUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH,QRUGHUWRIDFLOLWDWHWKHVSUHDGRIRUJDQLF agriculture there is a need to work at all levels: local, national and international, as well DVWRHQFRXUDJHPRUHOLQNVEHWZHHQJRYHUQPHQWV1*2VDQGWKHSULYDWHVHFWRU

• Improving agricultural sustainability through adoption of organic agriculture in Africa may not be a solution to all the food problems, but considerable progress has been made LQUHFHQW\HDUV:KHWKHURUJDQLFIDUPLQJZLOOUHVXOWLQHQRXJKIRRGWRPHHWFXUUHQWDQG future needs in response to continued population growth and development in African FRXQWULHVFDQQHYHUEHWRWDOO\FHUWDLQEXWLVFHUWDLQO\DVWHSLQWKHULJKWGLUHFWLRQ7KH present situation of widespread food insecurity means that conventional farming systems DUHFOHDUO\XQDEOHWRIXO¿OWKHFXUUHQWIRRGQHHGVLQ$IULFD7KHUHVXOWVREVHUYHGLQWKH WUDQVLWLRQWRRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHDUHKLJKO\SURPLVLQJIRUIRRGVHFXULW\LQ$IULFD(YLGHQFH LQGLFDWHVWKDWSURGXFWLYLW\LQRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHFDQJURZRYHUWLPH6 :LWKIXUWKHUVSHFL¿F VXSSRUW WKHEHQH¿WVWR IRRG VHFXULW\DQG UHODWHGLPSURYHPHQWVWRQDWXUDOVRFLDODQG human capital, could spread to much larger numbers of farmers and rural people in the FRPLQJGHFDGHV

7KHVHFRQFOXVLRQVDUHFRQ¿UPHGE\WKH¿QGLQJVDQGUHFRPPHQGDWLRQVRIWKHUHFHQWO\ released report of the International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD) panel, an intergovernmental process, supported E\RYHUH[SHUWVXQGHUWKHFRVSRQVRUVKLSRIWKH)$2*()81'381(381(6&2 the World Bank and WHO (issued on 14 April 2008) stated strongly that “the way the world grows its food will have to change radically to better serve the poor and hungry if the world is to cope with growing population and climate change while avoiding social EUHDNGRZQDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOFROODSVH´7KHDXWKRUVIRXQGWKDW L SURJUHVVLQDJULFXOWXUH KDVUHDSHGYHU\XQHTXDOEHQH¿WVDQGKDVFRPHDWDKLJKVRFLDODQGHQYLURQPHQWDOFRVW and (ii) food producers should try using “natural processes” like crop rotation and use of RUJDQLFIHUWLOL]HUV7KHDXWKRUVFDOOIRUPRUHDWWHQWLRQWRVPDOOVFDOHIDUPHUVDQGXWLOL]LQJ VXVWDLQDEOHDJULFXOWXUDOSUDFWLFHVDQGVSHFL¿FDOO\PHQWLRQRUJDQLFIDUPLQJDVDQRSWLRQ VHYHUDOWLPHV7

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Overview 1

SECTION 1. OVERVIEW

1.1 Introduction

Organic agriculture is a sustainable and environmentally friendly production system that offers African and other developing countries a wide range of economic, environmental, social DQG FXOWXUDO EHQH¿WV1 :KHQ WKH 81(381&7$' &DSDFLW\ %XLOGLQJ 7DVN )RUFH RQ 7UDGH Environment and Development (CBTF)2 started its work on organic agriculture in East Africa in 2004, a key question repeatedly raised by public and private sector stakeholders in the region ZDVWRZKDWH[WHQWRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHFDQHQKDQFHIRRGVHFXULW\LQWKH$IULFDQFRQWH[W7KLV SDSHUZDVGHYHORSHGLQUHVSRQVHWRWKDWTXHVWLRQ,WH[DPLQHVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQRUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUHDQGIRRGVHFXULW\LQ$IULFDDQDO\VLQJRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH¶VLPSDFWRQIRRGDYDLODELOLW\ DVZHOODVQDWXUDOVRFLDOKXPDQSK\VLFDODQG¿QDQFLDOFDSLWDOLQWKHUHJLRQ*LYHQWKHSDSHU¶V origins, special attention has been given to East Africa throughout the paper, including analysis of FDVHVWXGLHV7KHFRQFOXVLRQVDQG¿QGLQJVDUHKRZHYHUUHOHYDQWIRUDOO$IULFDQFRXQWULHVDV ZHOODVPDQ\RWKHUGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVDURXQGWKHZRUOG

1.2 Agricultural production and food security in Africa

Over the past 40 years, there has been remarkable growth in agricultural production with per capita world food production growing by 17 per cent and aggregate world food production growing by SHUFHQW%HWZHHQWKHHDUO\VDQGPLGVDYHUDJHFHUHDO\LHOGVJUHZIURPWRQV SHUKHFWDUH WKD WRWKDLQGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVZKLOHWRWDOFHUHDOSURGXFWLRQJUHZIURP WRPLOOLRQWRQQHVSHU\HDU3

Over the same period, world population grew from three to six billion, but globally per capita agricultural production overtook population growth, and each person today has 25 per cent more IRRGFRPSDUHGZLWK+RZHYHUWKLVLVQRWWKHFDVHIRUHYHU\RQH±LWYDULHVUHJLRQDOO\LQ $IULFDIRUH[DPSOHIRRGSURGXFWLRQSHUSHUVRQLVSHUFHQWORZHUWRGD\WKDQLQ

Modern agricultural methods have brought spectacular increases in productivity: more cereals and DQLPDOVSHUKHFWDUHPRUHPHDWDQGPLONSHUDQLPDODQGPRUHIRRGRXWSXWSHUSHUVRQHPSOR\HG $Q\ IDUPHU RU DJULFXOWXUDO V\VWHP ZLWK DFFHVV WR VXI¿FLHQW LQSXWV NQRZOHGJH DQG VNLOOV FDQ SURGXFHODUJHDPRXQWVRIIRRG+RZHYHUWKHPDMRULW\RIWKHFKURQLFDOO\KXQJU\DUHVPDOOIDUPHUV in developing countries who produce much of what they eat and are often poor and lack access to LQSXWVDQGSURGXFWPDUNHWV

The recent advances in aggregate productivity have therefore not brought reductions in the LQFLGHQFHRIKXQJHUIRUDOO,QWKHHDUO\WZHQW\¿UVWFHQWXU\WKHUHDUHVWLOOPRUHWKDQPLOOLRQ SHRSOHKXQJU\DQGODFNLQJDGHTXDWHDFFHVVWRIRRG$WKLUGRIWKHVHDUHLQ(DVWDQG6RXWK(DVW $VLDDQRWKHUWKLUGLQ6RXWK$VLDDTXDUWHUDUHLQVXE6DKDUDQ$IULFDDQGSHUFHQWHDFKDUHLQ /DWLQ$PHULFDDQGWKH&DULEEHDQDQGLQ1RUWK$IULFDDQG:HVW$VLD

)RRGVHFXULW\FDQEHGH¿QHGDVDFRQGLWLRQZKHUH³DOOSHRSOHDWDOOWLPHVKDYHSK\VLFDODQG HFRQRPLF DFFHVV WR VXI¿FLHQW VDIH DQG QXWULWLRXV IRRG WR PHHW WKHLU GLHWDU\ QHHGV DQG IRRG SUHIHUHQFHVIRUDQDFWLYHDQGKHDOWK\OLIH´4 Indicators of food insecurity in a given region can include numbers of “hungry” or malnourished people, of underweight children and of people VXIIHULQJIURPPLFURQXWULHQWGH¿FLHQF\5

Although average per capita food consumption in 2003 was 2,780 kcal/day, consumption in 33

1 UNCTAD, 2006 2 ,QIRUPDWLRQRQ&%7)DFWLYLWLHVLVDYDLODEOHRQWKH&%7)ZHEVLWHKWSZZZXQHSXQFWDGRUJFEWI 3 )$2&RQZD\DQG3UHWW\+HIIHUQDQ6PLO3UHWW\DQG+LQH 4 *LOOHVSLHDQG+DGGDG)$2 5 )$2 2 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

FRXQWULHVLVVWLOOOHVVWKDQWKHUHFRPPHQGHGNFDOGD\,QDGGLWLRQWRPLOOLRQSHRSOHWKDW go hungry, globally there are 126 billion underweight children and over 2 billion people suffering IURP VRPH IRUP RI PLFURQXWULHQW GH¿FLHQF\$OPRVW SHU FHQW RI SUHJQDQW ZRPHQ LQ VXE 6DKDUDQ$IULFDDUHDIIHFWHGE\LURQGH¿FLHQF\DQDHPLD6

In the last 10 years, progress in the drive to reduce hunger has been slow and has varied around WKHZRUOGLQVXE6DKDUDQ$IULFDWKHQXPEHURIKXQJU\SHRSOHKDVLQIDFWLQFUHDVHGE\SHU FHQWVLQFH,QWKHSHULRG±WKHSURSRUWLRQRIXQGHUQRXULVKHGSHRSOHLQWKHWRWDO population of Kenya was 33 per cent, in Uganda 19 per cent and in the United Republic of 7DQ]DQLDSHUFHQW7KHQXPEHURIXQGHUZHLJKWFKLOGUHQKDVDOVRLQFUHDVHGLQ&HQWUDO:HVW and East Africa compared to an overall decrease in other developing regions such as Asia, South $PHULFDDQG1RUWK$IULFD7

The world therefore still faces a fundamental food security challenge: despite steadily falling fertility rates and family sizes, the world population continues to increase and so in parallel will WKHDEVROXWHGHPDQGIRUIRRG)RRGGHPDQGZLOODOVRVKLIWLQWKHFRPLQJGHFDGHVDVHFRQRPLF JURZWKLQFUHDVHVSHRSOH¶VSXUFKDVLQJSRZHUJURZLQJXUEDQL]DWLRQHQFRXUDJHVSHRSOHWRDGRSW QHZGLHWVDQGFOLPDWHFKDQJHWKUHDWHQVERWKODQGDQGZDWHUUHVRXUFHV

World population is widely expected to reach 9 billion by the next generation, by when 84 per cent RIWKHWRWDOSRSXODWLRQZLOOOLYHLQWKRVHFRXQWULHVFXUUHQWO\FRPSULVLQJWKH³GHYHORSLQJ´ZRUOG$W the same time, land and water degradation is increasingly posing a threat to food security and the OLYHOLKRRGVRIUXUDOSHRSOHZKRRIWHQOLYHRQGHJUDGDWLRQSURQHODQGV$OWKRXJKDFRPELQDWLRQRI increased production and more imports will mean per capita consumption will increase by 2015, a person living in a developing country will still only consume half of the cereals and a third of the meat consumed by a person in an industrialized country, which implies that food insecurity DQGPDOQXWULWLRQZLOOSHUVLVW8

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What makes agriculture unique as an economic sector is that it directly affects many of the natural, VRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFUHVRXUFHVRQZKLFKLWUHOLHVIRUVXFFHVV$JULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPVDWDOOOHYHOVUHO\ RQWKHYDOXHRIVHUYLFHVÀRZLQJIURPWKHWRWDOVWRFNRIDVVHWVWKDWWKH\LQÀXHQFHDQGFRQWURO)LYH W\SHVRI³FDSLWDO´DVVHWVQDWXUDOVRFLDOKXPDQSK\VLFDODQG¿QDQFLDOFDSLWDOZKLFKDUHQRZ recognized as being important,9 are described below:

1. Natural capital SURGXFHV HQYLURQPHQWDO JRRGV DQG VHUYLFHV ,W LV WKH VRXUFH RI IRRG IDUPHG DQG KDUYHVWHG RU FDXJKW IURP WKH ZLOG ZRRG DQG ¿EUH ZDWHU VXSSO\ DQG regulation; treatment, assimilation and decomposition of wastes; nutrient cycling and ¿[DWLRQVRLOIRUPDWLRQELRORJLFDOFRQWURORISHVWVFOLPDWHUHJXODWLRQZLOGOLIHKDELWDWV VWRUPSURWHFWLRQDQGÀRRGFRQWUROFDUERQVHTXHVWUDWLRQSROOLQDWLRQDQGODQGVFDSH10

2. Social capital SURGXFHV D PXWXDOO\ EHQH¿FLDO FROOHFWLYH DFWLRQ FRQWULEXWLQJ WR WKH FRKHVLYHQHVVRISHRSOHLQWKHLUVRFLHWLHV7KHDVVHWVFRPSULVLQJVRFLDOFDSLWDOLQFOXGH norms, values and attitudes that prompt people to cooperate; relations of trust, reciprocity and obligations; and common rules and sanctions that are mutually agreed or handed GRZQ7KHVHDUHFRQQHFWHGDQGVWUXFWXUHGLQQHWZRUNVDQGJURXSV11

6 FAO, 2005; von Braun, 2005; FAO, 2005; UN/SCN, 2004; Micronutrient Initiative and UNICEF, 2005; IFPRI, 7 )$2YRQ%UDXQ816&1 8 YRQ%UDXQ8SKRII3LQVWUXS$QGHUVHQHWDO3UHWW\DQG+LQH 9 &ROHPDQDQG3XWQDPDQG&RVWDQ]DHWDODQG&DUQH\)ORUD Ostrom, 1998; Pretty, 1998; Scoones, 1998; Uphoff, 1998; Pretty and Ward, 2001; Pretty and Hine, 2001; Pretty, 10 &RVWDQ]DHWDO0$ 11 )ORUDDQG)ORUD3UHWW\&UDPEDQG&XODVHQR Overview 3

3. Human capital is the total capability of individuals, based on their stock of knowledge VNLOOVKHDOWKDQGQXWULWLRQ,WLVHQKDQFHGE\DFFHVVWRVHUYLFHVWKDWSURYLGHWKHVHVXFK DV VFKRROV PHGLFDO VHUYLFHV DQG DGXOW WUDLQLQJ 3HRSOH¶V SURGXFWLYLW\ LV LQFUHDVHG E\ WKHLUFDSDFLW\WRLQWHUDFWZLWKSURGXFWLYHWHFKQRORJLHVDQGZLWKRWKHUSHRSOH/HDGHUVKLS and organizational skills are particularly important in making other resources more YDOXDEOH12

4. Physical capital is the store of material resources made by humans, and comprises buildings, such as housing and factories, market infrastructure, irrigation works, roads and bridges, tools and tractors, communications, and energy and transportation systems, WKDWPDNHODERXUPRUHSURGXFWLYH

5. Financial capital is more of an accounting concept, as it provides a facilitating role rather WKDQ EHLQJ D VRXUFH RI SURGXFWLYLW\ LQ DQG RI LWVHOI ,W UHSUHVHQWV DFFXPXODWHG FODLPV RQJRRGVDQGVHUYLFHVEXLOWXSWKURXJK¿QDQFLDOV\VWHPVWKDWJDWKHUVDYLQJVDQGLVVXH FUHGLWVXFKDVSHQVLRQVUHPLWWDQFHVZHOIDUHSD\PHQWVJUDQWVDQGVXEVLGLHV

As agricultural systems shape these very assets on which they rely for inputs, a vital feedback ORRSRFFXUVIURPRXWFRPHVWRLQSXWV13 The basic premise is that more sustainable agricultural V\VWHPVDFFXPXODWHVWRFNVRIWKHVH¿YHDVVHWVWKHUHE\LQFUHDVLQJDOOWKHIRUPVRIFDSLWDORYHU WLPH6XVWDLQDEOHDJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPVWHQGWRKDYHDSDUWLFXODUO\SRVLWLYHHIIHFWRQQDWXUDOVRFLDO and human capital, while unsustainable systems deplete these assets, leaving less for future JHQHUDWLRQV

For example: (i) an agricultural system that erodes soil while producing food results in costs that others must bear;14 (ii) another system that sequesters carbon in soils through organic matter accumulation helps to mitigate climate change; (iii) a diverse agricultural system that enhances RQIDUPZLOGOLIHIRUSHVWFRQWUROFRQWULEXWHVWRJUHDWHUVWRFNVRIELRGLYHUVLW\ZKLOHDVLPSOL¿HG PRGHUQL]HGV\VWHPWKDWHOLPLQDWHVZLOGOLIHGRHVQRWFRQWULEXWHWRELRGLYHUVLW\DQG¿QDOO\ Y DJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPVWKDWRIIHUODERXUDEVRUSWLRQRSSRUWXQLWLHVWKURXJKUHVRXUFHLPSURYHPHQWV RUYDOXHDGGHGDFWLYLWLHVFDQERRVWORFDOHFRQRPLHVDQGKHOSWRUHYHUVHUXUDOWRXUEDQPLJUDWLRQ SDWWHUQV15 Agriculture is therefore fundamentally multifunctional, as it involves many unique IRRGDQGQRQIRRGIXQFWLRQVWKDWFDQQRWEHSURGXFHGE\RWKHUHFRQRPLFVHFWRUVDVHI¿FLHQWO\

7KHUHFHQWIRRGSULFHKLNHDQGWKHFRQWULEXWLRQULVLQJIXHOSULFHVKDYHPDGHWRLWKLJKOLJKWWKH LPSRUWDQFHRIPDNLQJDJULFXOWXUHOHVVHQHUJ\DQGH[WHUQDOLQSXWGHSHQGHQW(QKDQFHGWUDQVLWLRQ to sustainable forms of agriculture in general, and organic agriculture in particular, needs to be SDUWRIDQHIIHFWLYHUHVSRQVHVWUDWHJ\WRHVFDODWLQJIRRGSULFHV

1.4 Causes of food insecurity

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Box 1 shows the factors contributing to food insecurity in Africa, both natural and those caused E\KXPDQV

12 2UU%\HUOHH/LHEOLQHWDO/HHXZLV 13 :RUVWHU3UHWW\DQG+LQH 14 2IWHQUHIHUUHGWRDVH[WHUQDOLWLHV 15 &DUQH\'DVJXSWD(OOLV3UHWW\HWDO 4 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

Box 1. Factors contributing to food insecurity in Africa

1. Availability of food Lack of consistent • Enough food may be produced in a region overall, but food insecurity may access to food persist for those who do not have the resources to buy or produce it. • Farmers may be able to produce or buy enough food for their families after harvest but may be food insecure at other times of the year.a 2. Natural capital Degraded natural • A degraded natural environment, such as poor soil quality, eroded landscapes resources or inadequate water resources, will compromise food production in an area. Practice of mono- • Monocropped systems are less likely to promote food security than diverse cropping agricultural systems, which are more resilient to stresses. 3. Social capital Community and group • Where there are poor links within and between communities, with limited issues networks, partnerships, trust and collective action, credit and responsibility, communities are less likely to cope with and to be able to help each other in WLPHVRIKDUGVKLSVXFKDVGURXJKWVIRRGVKRUWDJHVDQGFRQÀLFW)RRGLQVHFXULW\ and ill-health is likely to be greater in areas with lower social capital. 4. Human capital Lack of education and • Lack of education and agricultural/nutritional knowledge can affect farmers’ knowledge capacity to adapt to change or to cope with food production stresses. Ill-health and diseases • Malnourished people are not able to produce food as effectively as those who are well fed. • The prevalence of diseases such as HIV/AIDS has had serious impacts on food security and nutrition. When family members become ill or die from the virus, households are less able to produce or buy food.b In sub-Saharan Africa, 11 million children are orphaned by HIV/AIDS.c Mortality and morbidity in HIV/ AIDS-affected households has led to decreased farm sizes, loss of income at household level, a higher dependency ratio and a general increase in food insecurity.d Gender issues • In many regions women are the major agricultural labour force. However, as they are not always recognized for this, they may not control household budgets and often have poor education. • In areas where men are in control over the household income, less money is spent on food when compared to those where women have control over incomes. 5. Physical capital Poor infrastructure • Poor infrastructure (roads, communications and markets for example) affects food security.

Lack of access • Lack of appropriate agricultural knowledge, technologies, methods or inputs to appropriate can affect food security. technologies 6. Financial capital Poverty • Poverty remains the root cause of hunger and malnutrition in the world.e Lack of access to • Lack of access to markets means that farmers and communities can neither sell markets their surplus nor purchase food in times of shortage. This leads to inconsistent food availability thus contributing to food insecurity. 7. Other external factors Land-tenure issues • Land-tenure issues can contribute to food insecurity in a number of ways which vary depending on the context. For example, in some areas if a husband dies, the wife cannot continue to farm the land and the land goes to other members of the family. In East Africa, all of the male children of a man inherit his land between them on his death, which means that each person owns increasingly smaller farm plots, making it hard to sustain enough food for the household. Political issues 3ROLWLFDOSUREOHPVLQFOXGLQJFRUUXSWLRQFROOXVLRQDQGQHSRWLVPFDQVLJQL¿FDQWO\ inhibit attempts to tackle food insecurity.f Overview 5

Climate and natural • In areas prone to drought or unreliable rainfall, food security can be particularly disasters challenging. • Plagues of natural pests such as locusts can decimate crops. • Natural disasters may destroy lives, crops, homes and landscapes. • In the last 20 years, the average number of deaths from natural disasters has been more than the average for the preceding decade.g $UPHGFRQÀLFWVDQG 3ROLWLFDO XQUHVW DUPHG FRQÀLFWV DQG ZDUV FRQWULEXWH WR IRRG LQVHFXULW\ DQG wars prevent food from being produced or accessed. 3ROLWLFDOFRQÀLFWVDUHRIWHQDVVRFLDWHGZLWKIRRGLQVHFXULW\DVERWKDFDXVHDQG an effect.h

a Benson, 2004. b Rosegrant et al., 2005. c FAO, 2002. d Rugalema, 1999; Sanchez and Swaminathan, 2005; and Wagah, 2005. e IFPRI, 2005. f Rosegrant et al., 2005. g EM-DAT, 2005. h Messer and Cohen, 2004

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There are two emerging food security challenges:

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This will not be easy, as past agricultural development has tended to ignore both the PXOWLIXQFWLRQDOLW\RIDJULFXOWXUHDQGWKHFRQVLGHUDEOHH[WHUQDOFRVWV16

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These questions are controversial, with widely varying positions about strategies which are likely to be effective, including: (i) expanding the area of agriculture;17 (ii) increasing per hectare production in agricultural exporting countries;18 or (iii) increasing total farm productivity in GHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVWKDWDUHWKHPRVWOLNHO\WRQHHGWKHIRRG

The conventional wisdom is that, in order to double food supply, efforts need to be redoubled to PRGHUQL]HDJULFXOWXUHDVWKLVDSSURDFKKDVEHHQVXFFHVVIXOLQWKHSDVW%XWWKHUHDUHGRXEWVDERXW WKHFDSDFLW\RIVXFKV\VWHPVWRUHGXFHIRRGSRYHUW\7KHJUHDWWHFKQRORJLFDOSURJUHVVLQWKHSDVW KDOIFHQWXU\KDVQRWUHVXOWHGLQPDMRUUHGXFWLRQVLQKXQJHUDQGSRYHUW\LQGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHV19

Arguably then, the most sustainable choice for agricultural development and food security is to increase total farm productivity in situ, in the developing countries that are the most likely to need WKHIRRG7KHFHQWUDOTXHVWLRQVWKHUHIRUHPXVWIRFXVRQWKHIROORZLQJ L 7KHH[WHQWWRZKLFKIDUPHUVFDQLPSURYHIRRGSURGXFWLRQDQGUDLVHLQFRPHVZLWKORZ cost, locally available technologies and inputs (this is particularly important at times of YHU\KLJKIXHODQGDJURFKHPLFDOSULFHV (ii) Whether they can do this without causing further environmental damage; and LLL 7KHH[WHQWWRZKLFKIDUPHUVKDYHWKHDELOLW\WRWUDGH

16 6HHIRUH[DPSOH3UHWW\HWDODQG 17 By converting new lands to agriculture, but with the result that services from forests, grasslands and other areas of LPSRUWDQWELRGLYHUVLW\DUHORVW 18 0RVWO\LQLQGXVWULDOL]HGFRXQWULHVVRWKDWIRRGFDQEHWUDQVIHUUHGRUVROGWRWKRVHZKRQHHGLW 19 7UHZH\DV6PLO7LOPDQHWDO0F1HHO\DQG6FKHUU 6 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

1.6 Sustainability in agriculture

Many different expressions have come to be used to imply greater sustainability in some DJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPVRYHUSUHYDLOLQJRQHV ERWKSUHLQGXVWULDODQGLQGXVWULDOL]HG 7KHVHLQFOXGH ELRG\QDPLFFRPPXQLW\EDVHGHFRDJULFXOWXUHHFRORJLFDOHQYLURQPHQWDOO\VHQVLWLYHH[WHQVLYH IDUPIUHVK IUHHUDQJH ORZLQSXW RUJDQLF SHUPDFXOWXUH VXVWDLQDEOH DQG ZLVH XVH7KHUH LV D continuing and intense debate about whether agricultural systems using some of these practices FDQTXDOLI\DVVXVWDLQDEOH20

However highly sustainable agricultural systems can be taken to mean those that aim to make the EHVWXVHRIHQYLURQPHQWDOJRRGVDQGVHUYLFHVZKLOHQRWGDPDJLQJWKH¿YHDVVHWV±SDUWLFXODUO\ QDWXUDOVRFLDODQGKXPDQFDSLWDO21 The key principles for sustainability are to:

L ,QWHJUDWHELRORJLFDODQGHFRORJLFDOSURFHVVHVVXFKDVQXWULHQWF\FOLQJQLWURJHQ¿[DWLRQ soil regeneration, allelopathy, competition, predation and parasitism into food production processes; LL 0LQLPL]HWKHXVHRIWKRVHQRQUHQHZDEOHLQSXWVWKDWFDXVHHQYLURQPHQWDOGDPDJHRUWKDW harm the health of farmers and consumers; LLL 0DNHJRRGXVHRIWKHNQRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOVRIIDUPHUVVRLPSURYLQJWKHLUVHOIUHOLDQFHDQG substituting human capital for costly external inputs; LY 0DNHSURGXFWLYHXVHRISHRSOH¶VFROOHFWLYHFDSDFLWLHVWRZRUNWRJHWKHUWRVROYHFRPPRQ agricultural and natural resource problems, such as pests, watershed, irrigation, forest and FUHGLWPDQDJHPHQW

Sustainability in agricultural systems incorporates concepts of both resilience (the capacity of systems to resist shocks and stresses) and persistence (the capacity of systems to continue over long SHULRGV DQGDGGUHVVHVPDQ\ZLGHUHFRQRPLFVRFLDODQGHQYLURQPHQWDORXWFRPHV$JULFXOWXUDO systems with high levels of social and human assets are more able to adapt to change and innovate LQ WKH IDFH RI XQFHUWDLQW\ 7KLV VXJJHVWV WKDW WKHUH DUH OLNHO\ WR EH PDQ\ SDWKZD\V WRZDUGV agricultural sustainability; no single system of technologies, inputs or ecological management is PRUHOLNHO\WREHZLGHO\DSSOLFDEOHWKDQDQRWKHU$JULFXOWXUDOVXVWDLQDELOLW\WKHQLPSOLHVWKHQHHG WR¿WWKHVHIDFWRUVWRWKHVSHFL¿FFLUFXPVWDQFHVRIGLIIHUHQWORFDODJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPV22

1.7 Organic agriculture

If sustainable agricultural systems are those that aim to make the best use of environmental goods DQGVHUYLFHVZKLOHQRWGDPDJLQJWKH¿YHDVVHWV±SDUWLFXODUO\QDWXUDOVRFLDODQGKXPDQFDSLWDO WKHQDQLQWHJUDWHGRUJDQLFIDUPLQJV\VWHPFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGLQKHUHQWO\VXVWDLQDEOH

Unlike the conventional intensive agricultural systems, organic farming represents a deliberate DWWHPSWWRPDNHWKHEHVWXVHRIORFDOQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHV7KHDLPRIRUJDQLFIDUPLQJLVWRFUHDWH integrated, humane, environmentally and economically viable agricultural systems that rely to the JUHDWHVWH[WHQWRQ L ORFDORURQIDUPUHQHZDEOHUHVRXUFHVDQG LL WKHPDQDJHPHQWRIHFRORJLFDO DQGELRORJLFDOSURFHVVHV8VHRIH[WHUQDOLQSXWVZKHWKHULQRUJDQLFRURUJDQLFLVUHGXFHGDVIDU DVSRVVLEOH

³2UJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH´LVDGH¿QHGV\VWHPRIDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQWKDWVHHNVWRSURPRWHDQG HQKDQFHDQHFRV\VWHP¶VKHDOWKZKLOHPLQLPL]LQJDGYHUVHHIIHFWVRQQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHV,WLVVHHQ QRWMXVWDVDPRGL¿FDWLRQRIH[LVWLQJFRQYHQWLRQDOSUDFWLFHVEXWDOVRDVDUHVWUXFWXULQJRIZKROH

20 3UHWW\&RQZD\15&0F1HHO\DQG6FKHUU&OHPHQWVDQG6KUHVWKD&R[HWDO *OLHVVPDQ%DOIRXU/DPSNLQDQG3DGHO$OWLHUL7UHZHYDV 21 $OWLHUL3UHWW\DQG&RQZD\+LQFKOLIIHHWDO15&/L:HQKXD -DFNVRQDQG-DFNVRQ7LOPDQHWDO8SKRII0F1HHO\DQG6FKHUU6ZLIWHWDO 7RPLFKHWDO*OLHVVPDQ0$ 22 &KDPEHUVHWDO8SKRII%XQFKDQG/RSH]2OVVRQDQG)RONH3UHWW\DQG:DUG Overview 7

IDUP V\VWHPV 7KH )$2:+2 &RGH[ $OLPHQWDULXV JXLGHOLQHV UHFRJQL]HG E\ 81&7$' LQ its Trade and Environment Review 2006GH¿QHVRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHDV“a holistic production management [whose] primary goal is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil, life, plants animals and people”6LPLODUO\WKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO)HGHUDWLRQRI Organic Agricultural Movements (IFOAM), which has over 750 member organizations in 108 FRXQWULHVGH¿QHVLWDV“a whole system approach based upon sustainable ecosystems, safe food, good nutrition, animal welfare and social justice. Organic production therefore is more than a system of production that includes or excludes certain inputs.”23 Principles of organic agriculture DFFRUGLQJWR,)2$0DUHOLVWHGLQER[

&HUWL¿HGRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLVDVXEVHWRIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH7KHSURGXFWLRQRIFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLF products has been objectively assessed as conforming with precise organic production standards, XVXDOO\E\DWKLUGSDUW\FHUWL¿FDWLRQERG\

Box 2. IFOAM’s Principles of Organic Agriculture

• Principle of Health: Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one and indivisible. • Principle of Ecology: Organic agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them. • Principle of Fairness: Organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities. • Principle of Care: Organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment.

Source: IFOAM, 2006b.

Many traditional farming systems found in developing countries practice organic techniques ZLWKRXWVHHNLQJRUUHFHLYLQJWKHSUHPLXPSULFHJLYHQWRRUJDQLFIRRGLQVRPHGRPHVWLFPDUNHWV Traditional agriculture includes management practices that have evolved through centuries to FUHDWHDJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPVDGDSWHGWRORFDOHQYLURQPHQWDODQGFXOWXUDOFRQGLWLRQV2ZLQJWRWKHLU nature, traditional systems do not use synthetic agricultural inputs but apply ecological approaches WRHQKDQFHDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQ0DQ\RIWKHVHWUDGLWLRQDOV\VWHPVPD\QRWIXOO\PHHWWKH SURGXFWLRQVWDQGDUGVIRURUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHEXWFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGQHDURUJDQLF

Rather than clear divisions between the sustainable, traditional and organic agriculture farming FDWHJRULHVGHVFULEHGWKHUHLVRIWHQVRPHRYHUODSLQSUDFWLFH24 Figure 1 shows some of the overlaps EHWZHHQDJULFXOWXUDOSUDFWLFHV

23 /DPSNLQDQG3DGHO)L%/6FLDODEEDDQG+DWWDP&DSRUDOLHWDO5HJDQROG)$2 :+2,)2$0D,)2$0 24 7ZDURJLQ81&7$' 8 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

Figure 1. Categories of agricultural practices in developing countries

All agriculture Sustainable agriculture Organic agriculture Certified organic agriculture

Traditional agriculture

Source: Taken from Twarog, 2006, in UNCTAD Trade and Environment Review 2006: 144.

There has been a huge growth in both the international and domestic markets for organic produce ZRUOGZLGHDQGWKHUHDUHSUR¿WDEOHUHWXUQVIRUFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFSURGXFWV,Q$IULFDQFRXQWULHV where an established and widespread domestic market for organic produce is not present, the PDMRULW\RIFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQLVIRUH[SRUW:KHUHDVWKLUGSDUW\FHUWL¿FDWLRQLVHVVHQWLDO for export of organic produce to Europe and the United States, for local markets in Africa it LVQRWDOZD\VUHTXLUHG2UJDQLFFHUWL¿FDWLRQIRUGRPHVWLFPDUNHWVRIIHUVD³TXDOLW\DVVXUDQFH´ that gives the consumer the security of knowing that food has been produced according to strict RUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQVWDQGDUGV,Q(DVW$IULFDDORQJZLWKRWKHUGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVORZFRVW accessible solutions to guarantee the integrity of organic produce for local domestic markets are EHLQJGHYHORSHGLQFOXGLQJGLUHFWVDOHVEDVHGRQWUXVWORFDOFHUWL¿FDWLRQERGLHVDQGSDUWLFLSDWRU\ JXDUDQWHHV\VWHPV

+RZHYHU WKH FRVWV RI EHFRPLQJ D FHUWL¿HG RUJDQLF SURGXFHU DUH RIWHQ SURKLELWLYH IRU VPDOO VFDOHIDUPHUVLQGHYHORSHGDQGGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVDOLNH7KHSUDFWLFDOLWLHVDQGWKHVWUHVVRI EHFRPLQJFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFDUHDOVRVHHQDVDEDUULHUWRFHUWL¿FDWLRQ7KHUHIRUHZKHQWKHUHLVD limited domestic market for organic produce, it is not necessarily critical, possible or attractive IRUVPDOOVFDOHIDUPHUVWREHFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLF7KHFRVWV LIQRWWKHVWUHVV RIFHUWL¿FDWLRQIRU VPDOOVFDOHIDUPHUVLQPDQ\$IULFDQFRXQWULHVKDYHKRZHYHUEHHQUHGXFHGHLWKHUE\ L WKH H[SRUWLQJFRPSDQ\SD\LQJWKHFHUWL¿FDWLRQFRVWVRU LL IDUPHUVMRLQLQJWRJHWKHUWRIRUPJURXSV DQGFRRSHUDWLYHVDQGWKXVUHGXFLQJWKHFRVWVWRWKHLQGLYLGXDO

In this study, “organic agriculture” refers to agriculture that meets organic production standards and ³FHUWL¿HGRUJDQLF´UHIHUVWRDJULFXOWXUHWKDWLVDVVHVVHGVXEMHFWWRRUJDQLFLQVSHFWLRQFHUWL¿FDWLRQ DQGODEHOOLQJ³1HDURUJDQLF´DJULFXOWXUHUHIHUVWRsustainable WUDGLWLRQDOIDUPLQJV\VWHPV

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7KHODFNRIDUHFRJQL]HGV\VWHPRIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHGDWDFROOHFWLRQJOREDOO\PDNHVLWLVGLI¿FXOW WR REWDLQ UHOLDEOH LQIRUPDWLRQ RQ WKH H[WHQW RI RUJDQLF IDUPLQJ +RZHYHU RUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH FOHDUO\FRQWLQXHVWRJURZZRUOGZLGH$FFRUGLQJWRVWXGLHVE\,)2$0DQGWKH)RXQGDWLRQIRU (FRORJ\ DQG$JULFXOWXUH 62/ LQ *HUPDQ\ WKH JOREDO DUHD RI ODQG XQGHU FHUWL¿HG RUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUHPRUHWKDQTXDGUXSOHGRYHUWKHSDVWGHFDGHUHDFKLQJRYHUPLOOLRQKHFWDUHVLQ ,QDGGLWLRQVRPHPLOOLRQKHFWDUHVRIODQGZHUHFHUWL¿HGIRURUJDQLFZLOGFROOHFWLRQ*OREDOO\ WKHPDUNHWIRUFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFSURGXFWVKDVEHHQHVWLPDWHGDWELOOLRQ(XURVLQ:KLOH Overview 9

VDOHVRIFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFSURGXFWVDUHKLJKO\FRQFHQWUDWHGLQ(XURSHDQG1RUWK$PHULFD RYHU 95 per cent), production is spread across the globe with developing countries having a large and HYHULQFUHDVLQJVKDUHRISURGXFWLRQDQGWUDGH25

5HOLDEOHGDWDRQRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLQ$IULFDLVSDUWLFXODUO\GLI¿FXOWWR¿QG2QO\WKH*RYHUQPHQW RI7XQLVLDV\VWHPDWLFDOO\FROOHFWVGDWDRQRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQ7KHUHLVDJUHDWQHHGIRULPSURYHG data collection on the continent, as there is no information available for nearly half of all African FRXQWULHV,WVHHPVUHDVRQDEOHWRHVWLPDWHWKDW$IULFDDFFRXQWVIRU±SHUFHQWRIJOREDOODQG XQGHUFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFPDQDJHPHQWEXWDPXFKKLJKHUSHUFHQWDJH LQWKHUDQJHRI±SHU FHQW RIFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFIDUPV267KLVUHÀHFWVWKHSUHGRPLQDQFHRIVPDOOKROGHUIDUPVLQRUJDQLF SURGXFWLRQLQ$IULFD,QDGGLWLRQWKHUHDUHDWOHDVWPLOOLRQKHFWDUHVRIODQGFHUWL¿HGIRURUJDQLF ZLOGFROOHFWLRQLQFOXGLQJEHHSDVWXUHVURXJKO\DTXDUWHURIWKHJOREDOHVWLPDWHG¿JXUH

Farmers in Africa produce a diversity of organic crops including coffee, cocoa, tea, fruits, medicinal and aromatic plants, olives, cotton, sesame, cereals, oils, nuts, spices, honey, vegetables and VXJDU27$VLQPRVWGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVWKHEXONRIWKHFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFSURGXFWVDUHH[SRUWHG )RU$IULFDWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQLVWKHPDLQH[SRUWPDUNHW0RGHVWGRPHVWLFPDUNHWVIRURUJDQLF products are most developed in South Africa and Egypt, and have also been growing rapidly in UHFHQW\HDUVLQ(DVW$IULFD28

2UJDQLFIDUPLQJLVVLJQL¿FDQWO\PRUHGHYHORSHGLQ1RUWK6RXWKDQG(DVWHUQ$IULFDWKDQRWKHU UHJLRQVRI$IULFD,QVRPHFRXQWULHVWKHFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFVHFWRUFRPSULVHVDIHZODUJHH[SRUW RULHQWHGIDUPVWKDWKDYHFRQYHUWHGWRRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQ HJ6RXWK$IULFD=DPELDDQG0DODZL ,QRWKHUFRXQWULHVWKHVHFWRU¶VJURZWKVWHPVIURPVLJQL¿FDQWDWWHPSWVWRHQJDJHVPDOOKROGHUVLQ H[SRUWFRPPRGLW\SURGXFWLRQ HJ8JDQGDDQG7DQ]DQLD 29

,Q(DVW$IULFDLWLVHVWLPDWHGWKDWLQ8JDQGDKDGDQHVWLPDWHGKDXQGHUFHUWL¿HG organic production, Kenya 181,500 ha and the United Republic of Tanzania30KD31 These ¿JXUHVPD\LQFOXGHODQGFHUWL¿HGIRURUJDQLFZLOGFROOHFWLRQ5DSLGO\JURZLQJH[SRUWVDUHPRVWO\ carried out by exporting companies that subcontract (mainly smallholder) outgrowers, although VRPHFRRSHUDWLYHVDQGSODQWDWLRQVH[SRUWGLUHFWO\,Q8JDQGDIRUH[DPSOHRYHUWKHSDVWWKUHH \HDUVRUJDQLFH[SRUWVKDYHEHHQJURZLQJDWDQDYHUDJHDQQXDOUDWHRISHUFHQW7KHQXPEHURI IDUPHUVFHUWL¿HGDQGOLQNHGWRH[SRUWPDUNHWVLQFUHDVHGIURPLQWRRYHULQ RIZKLFKSHUFHQWDUHVPDOOKROGHUVZLWKOHVVWKDQWKUHHKHFWDUHVRIODQG32 Key information DERXWRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLQWKHVHWKUHHFRXQWULHVFDQEHIRXQGLQ%R[

,QDGGLWLRQWRHVWLPDWHVIRUFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLQ$IULFDWKHUHDUHDOVRODUJHQXPEHUV RIIDUPHUVWKDWSUDFWLFHVXVWDLQDEOHWUDGLWLRQDORUQHDURUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH7KHVHQHDURUJDQLF V\VWHPV GR QRW UHO\ RQ SXUFKDVHG LQSXWV RIWHQ EHFDXVH WKH\ ZHUH E\SDVVHG E\ WKH *UHHQ 5HYROXWLRQRUIDUPHUVGRQRWKDYHDFFHVVWRRUFDQQRWDIIRUGDUWL¿FLDOLQSXWV,WLVHVWLPDWHGWKDW LQGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVWKHUHDUHSUREDEO\DQRWKHUPLOOLRQKHFWDUHVRIWKLVQRQFHUWL¿HG QHDURUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH33 In Africa, at least 730 000 households farming about 700 000 hectares KDG DGRSWHG QHDURUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH SUDFWLFHV LQ LQFOXGLQJ LQWHJUDWHG DQG ORZH[WHUQDO LQSXWV\VWHPV5HFHQWHYLGHQFHVKRZVWKDWWKLVKDVLQFUHDVHGWRDWOHDVWPLOOLRQIDUPHUVRQ QHDUO\PLOOLRQKHFWDUHV34

25 farms of less WKDQKHFWDUHV7KHVHVPDOOIDUPHUVJURZPRVWRIWKHLUEDVLFIRRGFURSVZLWKYLUWXDOO\QRRU PLQLPDOXVHRIV\QWKHWLFIHUWLOL]HUV)RUH[DPSOHSHUFHQWRIPLOOHWDSSUR[LPDWHO\KDOIWKH DPRXQWRIIRRGOHJXPHVDQGQHDUO\DOO\DPVDQGFRFR\DPVDUHSURGXFHGLQWKLVZD\,Q8JDQGD and Tanzania the average use of chemical fertilizers is less than one kg per hectare per year, which LPSOLHVWKDWPRVWODQGLVQHYHUIHUWLOL]HGZLWKV\QWKHWLFIHUWLOL]HUV35

Box 3. Key information about organic agriculture in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania Kenya Uganda Tanzania x Organic agriculture from 1980s. x &HUWL¿HGRUJDQLFIDUPLQJPDLQO\ x &HUWL¿HGRUJDQLFIDUPLQJIRUH[SRUW x Large private companies and smallholder farmers organized mainly by smallholders organized civil society organizations into private companies, into co-operatives. (CSOs) have led the way with supported by commercial x Organic cashews, pineapple, coffee, FHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFVIRUH[SRUW exporters. tea, honey, herbs and spices, cotton x Also smallholder farmers x Strong local organic movement. for export. organized into groups – some x Export market since 1994 x History of low-input traditional are registered organic. – the main driving factor for farming, so much agricultural x National representative the development of organic production for domestic markets organization of stakeholders DJULFXOWXUHFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLF is organic or near organic, but not (both large companies and exporters in 2005 expected 22 in FHUWL¿HG smallholder farmer groups) in 2006. x (VWLPDWHVRIKDFHUWL¿HG organic agriculture - Kenya x (VWLPDWHVRIKDFHUWL¿HG organic with 55,000 farmers (2007). Organic Agriculture Network organic with 60,000 farmers x National representative organization (KOAN). (2007). of stakeholders in organic agriculture x Mainly fruit and vegetables for x Small but expanding domestic - Tanzania Organic Agriculture export market on large scale market. Movement (TOAM) - formed in 2005. farms but also more recently x National representative x 1RVSHFL¿FSROLF\SURPRWLQJRUJDQLF essential oils and dried herbs organization of stakeholders in agriculture although existing National and spices. organic agriculture - National Agricultural Policy has clauses on x Small but expanding domestic Organic Movement of Uganda organic agriculture and chapter on market. (NOGAMU). organic included in current draft x (VWLPDWHVRIKDFHUWL¿HG x Much agricultural production is revision. organic with 35,000 farmers RUJDQLFEXWQRWFHUWL¿HG (2007). x 1RVSHFL¿FSROLF\SURPRWLQJ x Much agricultural production is organic agriculture. The organic RUJDQLFEXWQRWFHUWL¿HG Policy Development Committee x Government recently starting was created in 2003 but to recognize role of organic progress has been slow due to DJULFXOWXUH1RVSHFL¿FSROLF\ lack of funding. promoting organic agriculture. x Uganda Export Promotion x Sections on organic agriculture Board is interested in organic included in draft revisions of soil agriculture. and food policies.

Source:DODJDDQG7D\ORUHWDO*UROLQN5XQGJUHQ%ROZLJHWDO:LOOHUDQG

35 $OWLHUL27$:\QHQDQG9LQFHWWL Evidence from Africa 11

SECTION 2. EVIDENCE FROM AFRICA

,QFUHDVLQJIRRGVHFXULW\ZLWKRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH

The food security of any region is not simply a question of producing enough food to meet GHPDQGLWLVDOVRLQÀXHQFHGE\DPXOWLWXGHRIIDFWRUVERWKQDWXUDODQGFDXVHGE\KXPDQV VHH ER[ ,QFUHDVHGIRRGVXSSO\GRHVQRWDXWRPDWLFDOO\PHDQLQFUHDVHGIRRGVHFXULW\IRUDOO:KDWLV important is who produces the food, who has access to the technology and knowledge to produce LWDQGZKRKDVWKHSXUFKDVLQJSRZHUWRDFTXLUHLW

$JULFXOWXUHE\LWVLQKHUHQWPXOWLIXQFWLRQDOLW\KDVWKHSRWHQWLDOWRERWKLQÀXHQFHDQGDGGUHVVWKH IDFWRUVWKDWFRQWULEXWHWRIRRGLQVHFXULW\ RXWOLQHGLQER[LQWKHSUHYLRXVVHFWLRQ $VGLVFXVVHG below, organic agriculture can improve the availability of food, particularly for those who are WKH PRVW IRRG LQVHFXUH 2UJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH UHOLHV RQ ¿YH FDSLWDO DVVHWV IRU VXFFHVV QDWXUDO VRFLDO KXPDQ SK\VLFDO DQG ¿QDQFLDO FDSLWDO ,W FRQWULEXWHV WR DQG EXLOGV XS VWRFNV RI WKHVH natural, social and economic resources over time36WKXVLPSURYLQJIRRGVHFXULW\LQDORQJWHUP VXVWDLQDEOHPDQQHU 2.1.1 Improvements in availability of food

In the more intensive, industrialized agricultural systems the productivity of organic agriculture WHQGVWRYDU\WKURXJKWKHGLIIHUHQWVWDJHVRIWUDQVLWLRQ L LQFRQYHUVLRQIURPWUDGLWLRQDOWRRUJDQLF management; (ii) organic management based on input substitution, and (iii) complete shift to a V\VWHPVDSSURDFK37

Particularly in these more industrialized farming systems, after switching from synthetic inputs to RUJDQLFV\VWHPVIDUPHUVXVXDOO\H[SHULHQFHDQLQLWLDOGHFOLQHLQ\LHOGV$IWHUWKHDJURHFRV\VWHP LVUHVWRUHGDQGRUJDQLFPDQDJHPHQWV\VWHPVDUHIXOO\LPSOHPHQWHG\LHOGVLQFUHDVHVLJQL¿FDQWO\ 7KHLVVXHRIDVVHWDFFXPXODWLRQRYHUWLPHLVDOVRLPSRUWDQW,IDJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPVDUHORZLQ natural, social and human assets – either intrinsically low, or have become damaged by degradation – then a sudden switch to organic practices that rely on these very assets will not be immediately VXFFHVVIXODQGPD\WDNHWLPHWRUHDFKLWVIXOOSRWHQWLDO+RZHYHUWKHVHSHULRGVRIORZHU\LHOGV VHHPWREHPRUHDSSDUHQWGXULQJFRQYHUVLRQVRILQGXVWULDOL]HGDJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPV38

Organic farming can lead to increased food production – in many cases a doubling of yields has been seen – which makes an important contribution to increasing the food security in a UHJLRQ7KHFDVHVVWXGLHVRXWOLQHGLQWKLVUHSRUWVXSSRUWWKHJURZLQJERG\RIHYLGHQFHWKDW\LHOG increases are possible and indeed likely, with a switch to organic farming in a variety of different FRQWH[WVSDUWLFXODUO\LQPDUJLQDOL]HGDUHDVRUZKHUHWUDGLWLRQDOIDUPLQJPHWKRGVDUHXVHG)RRG DYDLODELOLW\LQFUHDVHGLQRXWRIFDVHVFHQWUHGRQIRRGSURGXFWLRQH[DPLQHGLQWKLVVWXG\ Others, such as Gibbon and Bolwig (2007), have also found that organic conversion in tropical $IULFDLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWK\LHOGLQFUHDVHV

Increased household food security is frequently reported after a switch to organic production, since the majority of smallholder farmers in Africa grow the bulk of their crops for domestic

36 2VWURP3UHWW\ 37 $OWLHUL 38 $OWLHUL3UHWW\ 12 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

FRQVXPSWLRQ ZLWK RQO\ D VPDOO SURSRUWLRQ IRU VDOH 2UJDQLF IDUPLQJ WHFKQLTXHV DUH WKHUHIRUH widely recognized as increasing food security in this context, particularly in rain fed agricultural V\VWHPV39

With the increased number and variety of crops grown and livestock reared in organic production, WKHIDUPLQJV\VWHPLVLQWHJUDWHGDQGPRUHUHVLOLHQWWRVWUHVV)DUPHUVLQ(DVW$IULFDDUHDZDUHRI WKHULVNVRIPRQRFURSSLQJDQGVRWKHVHFXULW\RIIHUHGE\LQWHJUDWHGRUJDQLFIDUPLQJLVZHOFRPHG Farming families have more available food leading to household food security for more months RI WKH \HDU 0RUHRYHU VXUSOXV SURGXFH FDQ EH VROG WR FUHDWH DGGLWLRQDO LQFRPH IRU IDPLOLHV Maintaining a wide variety of crops and livestock not only provides food security throughout the year but also leads to increased nutritionalVHFXULW\IRUIDUPHUKRXVHKROGV

2.1.2 Improvements to natural capital

Organic farming leads to many improvements to the natural environment, including increased water retention in soils, improvements in the water table (with more drinking water in the dry season), reduced soil erosion combined with improved organic matter in soils, leading to better FDUERQVHTXHVWUDWLRQDQGLQFUHDVHGDJURELRGLYHUVLW\ LQFOXGLQJLQVLWXSUHVHUYDWLRQRIWUDGLWLRQDO ODQGUDFHVZKLFKDUHFXUUHQWO\EHLQJORVWDWDODUPLQJUDWHV 2WKHUHQYLURQPHQWDOEHQH¿WVRIRUJDQLF IDUPLQJLQFOXGHOHVVSROOXWLRQQRJHQHWLFFRQWDPLQDWLRQDQGUHGXFHGHQHUJ\FRQVXPSWLRQ40

Water conservation technologies associated with an integrated organic farming system can make DKXJHGLIIHUHQFHLQDUHDVZKHUHZDWHUUHVRXUFHVDUHVFDUFH,QFUHDVLQJWKHZDWHUKROGLQJFDSDFLW\ RIWKHVRLOHQDEOHVIRRGWREHJURZQIXUWKHULQWRWKHGU\VHDVRQWKXVLQFUHDVLQJIRRGVHFXULW\ Related improvements in the water table also result in more available water for consumption and IRUZDWHULQJOLYHVWRFN

2UJDQLFIDUPLQJLPSURYHVDQGQXUWXUHVWKHODQG¶VWRSVRLOZKLFKLVZLGHO\UHFRJQL]HGDVEHLQJ RQHRIWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWUHVRXUFHVIRUWKHIDUPHU2UJDQLFIDUPHUVLQFUHDVHWKHRUJDQLFPDWWHU and nutrient capacity of the soil by growing leguminous crops and adding compost, animal dung RUJUHHQPDQXUHV$GGLQJHOHPHQWVRIDJURIRUHVWU\FKHFNGDPVDQGWHUUDFLQJ DPRQJVWRWKHU PHWKRGV DOVRVWDELOL]HVWKHVRLODQGWKXVUHGXFHVVRLOHURVLRQ$VDUHVXOWVRLOVDUHKHDOWKLHUDUH better able to hold water and are more stable, can sustain plant growth better and have a higher QXWULHQWFRQWHQW$OOWKLVHQDEOHVIDUPHUVWRJURZFURSVIRUORQJHUSHULRGVZLWKKLJKHU\LHOGVDQG LQPDUJLQDOFRQGLWLRQV7KLVRIFRXUVHFDQPDNHDPDMRULPSDFWRQUHGXFLQJWKHIRRGLQVHFXULW\ RIDUHJLRQ

In terms of the conservation of existing natural capital, including sites rich in biodiversity and VRFDOOHG³SULPH´HFRV\VWHPVRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHDFWLYHO\SURPRWHVDSURWHFWLYHDSSURDFK,Q the East African Organic Products Standard (EAOPS) 2007,41SRLQWSODLQO\SURKLELWVWKH FOHDULQJRISULPDU\HFRV\VWHPV IRUHVWVDQGZHWODQGVIRUH[DPSOH IRURUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQ

,Q WHUPV RI DJURELRGLYHUVLW\ ZKHUH FRQYHQWLRQDO SURGXFWLRQV V\VWHPV KDYH HQFRXUDJHG monocropping (for cashews in Tanzania or tea in Kenya for example) then the organic systems FRXOG DOVR VRPHWLPHV UHVHPEOH PRQRFURSV 6LPSO\ VXEVWLWXWLQJ WKH V\QWKHWLF SHVWLFLGHV DQG

39 :DODJD 40 7ZDURJ 41 ($& Evidence from Africa 13

IHUWLOL]HUVIRUSXUFKDVHGELRSHVWLFLGHVDQGRUJDQLFIHUWLOL]HUVDOORZHGXQGHURUJDQLFFHUWL¿FDWLRQ FDQVWLOOOHDYHWKHDJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPODUJHO\XQFKDQJHG0RQRFURSSLQJIDUPLQJV\VWHPVIRUWKH export market, whether conventional or organic, still leave farmers vulnerable to export price ÀXFWXDWLRQV DQG FURS IDLOXUH +RZHYHU DFURVV WKH PDMRULW\ RI WKH H[SRUW PDUNHW IRU RUJDQLF SURGXFHLQ$IULFDWKHUHLVLQUHDOLW\OLWWOHPRQRFURSSLQJ422UJDQLFIDUPVDUHJHQHUDOO\PRUHDJUR ELRGLYHUVHWKDQWKHLUFRQYHQWLRQDOFRXQWHUSDUWV7KH($236LQFOXGHVSURYLVLRQVWRHQFRXUDJH WKLV:KHUHRUJDQLFIDUPLQJSULQFLSOHVDUHDGRSWHGDVDKROLVWLFDSSURDFKIRUWKHZKROHRIDQ integrated agricultural system, increased food security in a region is more likely to occur, at the VDPHWLPHDVQDWXUDOKXPDQDQGVRFLDOUHVRXUFHVDUHEXLOWXS

2.1.3 Improvements to social capital

Organic agriculture leads to improvements to social capital, including more and stronger social organizations at local level, new rules and norms for managing collective natural resources, and EHWWHUFRQQHFWHGQHVVWRH[WHUQDOSROLF\LQVWLWXWLRQV

0DQ\RUJDQLFDQGQHDURUJDQLFSUDFWLFHVLQKHUHQWO\IRFXVRQVRFLDODQGSDUWLFLSDWRU\SURFHVVHV WKDW OHDG WR LQFUHDVHG VRFLDO FDSLWDO 3HRSOH¶V FDSDFLW\ WR ZRUN WRJHWKHU RQ FRPPRQ UHVRXUFH PDQDJHPHQWSUREOHPVLVLPSURYHG7KH\PD\IRUH[DPSOHIRUPJURXSVIRUMRLQWPDQDJHPHQW RISHVWVLUULJDWLRQZDWHUVKHGIRUHVWDQGFUHGLW)RUPDWLRQRIZRUNLQJJURXSVEHQH¿WVIDUPLQJ households where labour shortages occur, for example when people are ill, suffering from HIV/ $,'6RULQWLPHVRIKDUGVKLS7KHFUHDWLRQRIFRRSHUDWLYHVDQGPDUNHWLQJJURXSVDOVRKHOSV IDUPHUV L VKDUHNQRZOHGJHDQGJRRGSUDFWLFHV LL VKDUHWKHFRVWVRIRUJDQLFFHUWL¿FDWLRQDQG (iii) meet the demands for large quantities of organic produce required at one time by some export FRPSDQLHV

Strong networks and links with partners from government, NGOs and organic support organizations such as KOAN, TOAM, NOGAMU and EPOPA are helping farmers to organize IRURUJDQLFFHUWL¿FDWLRQDFFHVVH[SRUWDQGGRPHVWLFRUJDQLFPDUNHWVDQGJDLQJUHDWHUNQRZOHGJH RIVXVWDLQDEOHRUJDQLFWHFKQLTXHVFURSVDQGPDUNHWV

2.1.4 Improvements to human capital

2UJDQLFIDUPLQJOHDGVWRLPSURYHPHQWVWRKXPDQFDSLWDO7KLVLQFOXGHVLQFUHDVHGNQRZOHGJHDQG skills; improved capacity of farmers to experiment and solve their own problems; improvements LQKHDOWKVXFKDVUHGXFHGLQFLGHQFHRIPDODULDLQULFH¿VK]RQHVLQFUHDVHGVHOIHVWHHPLQIRUPHUO\ marginalized groups; increased status of women; better child health and nutrition, especially in GU\VHDVRQVDQGUHYHUVHGPLJUDWLRQDQGPRUHORFDOHPSOR\PHQW

2UJDQLFIDUPLQJFDQUHVXOWLQLQFUHDVHVLQHGXFDWLRQDQGNQRZOHGJHRQVHYHUDOOHYHOV2UJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH JLYHV LQFHQWLYHV WR SUHVHUYH DQG EXLOG XSRQ IDUPHUV¶ WUDGLWLRQDO DQG LQGLJHQRXV NQRZOHGJHRIDJULFXOWXUHDQGORFDOHFRV\VWHPV8VLQJRUJDQLFWHFKQLTXHVDQGSULQFLSOHVIXUWKHU increases the knowledge and skills of farmers, including their analytical skills and capacities to LQQRYDWHDQGFRQWUROWKHLURZQIDUPV\VWHPV7KHDELOLW\WRPDQDJHPRUHFRPSOH[V\VWHPV IRU H[DPSOHWRIDUPIRUEHQH¿FLDOLQVHFWV UHTXLUHVDKLJKHUOHYHORIKXPDQNQRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOVWKDQ LVQHHGHGWRVSUD\DSHVWLFLGH7KLVLQFUHDVHGNQRZOHGJHRIQDWXUDOSHVWDQGSUHGDWRUUHODWLRQVKLSV LQFUHDVHVIDUPHUV¶UHVLOLHQFHDQGFDSDFLW\WRLPSOHPHQWFKDQJHVLQWLPHVRISHVWLQIHVWDWLRQ ,QDGGLWLRQRUJDQLFIDUPLQJKDVDQRWKHUNQRFNRQHIIHFWIRULPSDFWLQJRQHGXFDWLRQ7KHFDSDFLW\ for organic systems to increase the amount of food produced per household means that families can VHOOVXUSOXVHVZKHQWKH\DUHIRRGVHFXUHRIWHQDWSUHPLXPSULFHV7KHDGGLWLRQDOLQFRPHJHQHUDWHG LVDYDLODEOHIRUSD\LQJVFKRROIHHVWKXVLQFUHDVLQJWKHHGXFDWLRQRIWKHZLGHUFRPPXQLW\

$WUDQVLWLRQWRRUJDQLFIDUPLQJFDQJUHDWO\EHQH¿WWKHKHDOWKRIIDUPHUKRXVHKROGVDQGWKHZLGHU FRPPXQLW\$QLQWHJUDWHGRUJDQLFIDUPLQJV\VWHPOHDGVWRLQFUHDVHVLQSURGXFWLRQDQGWKHYDULHW\

42 5XQGJUHQ 14 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

of crops grown or animals kept which positively increase the health and nutritional status of IDUPHUKRXVHKROGV7KHDYDLODELOLW\RIVXUSOXVHVDOVRFUHDWHVEHWWHUDFFHVVWRIRRGIRUQRQIDUPLQJ KRXVHKROGVDQGVRSRVLWLYHO\DIIHFWVWKHKHDOWKRIWKHFRPPXQLW\6HOOLQJH[FHVVIRRGDQGJDLQLQJ the premium prices for organic produce means that additional income is also available for medical H[SHQVHVOHDGLQJWREHWWHUKHDOWKSDUWLFXODUO\IRUFKLOGUHQ

Farmer and farm family health is also improved with organic farming through the cessation of VSUD\LQJZLWKV\QWKHWLFSHVWLFLGHV5LVNVRILOOQHVVDQGGHDWKDVVRFLDWHGZLWKLQDSSURSULDWHXVH RYHUXVHRUPLVXVHRISHVWLFLGHVDUHFRPSOHWHO\UHPRYHGZLWKDVZLWFKWRRUJDQLFIDUPLQJ

Undernourished people infected with HIV/AIDS develop the full symptoms of the disease more TXLFNO\WKDQSHRSOHZKRDUHZHOOIHG43 The increased nutritional value from the greater variety of produce grown, together with the higher quality of organic produce leads to improvements in the KHDOWKRIWKRVHVXIIHULQJIURP+,9$,'6,QVXE6DKDUDQ$IULFDPLOOLRQFKLOGUHQKDYHEHHQ orphaned by HIV/AIDS so extending the life of a farming parent by several years could mean the GLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQOLIHDQGGHDWKIRUWKHFKLOGUHQOHIWEHKLQG44

2.1.5. Improvements to physical capital

Organic farming can also lead to improvements in the infrastructure (communications and WUDQVSRUW WKURXJKWKHQHHGWRDFFHVVPDUNHWV$FFHVVWRPDUNHWVLVDQHVVHQWLDOSDUWRIRUJDQLF farming, (particularly crucial for export) and farmers, NGOs and governments can work together LQRUGHUWRKHOSIDUPHUVWRHDUQSUHPLXPSULFHVIRUWKHLURUJDQLFSURGXFH*RYHUQPHQWSROLF\ VXFKDVWKH3ODQIRU0RGHUQLVDWLRQRI$JULFXOWXUH 30$ LQ8JDQGDKDVUHFRJQL]HGWKDWSUR¿WDEOH PDUNHWHQJDJHPHQWLVOLNHO\WROHDGWRLQFUHDVHGIRRGVHFXULW\45 New partnerships have formed which in turn may lead to increased communication networks and potentially to increased transport OLQNV2UJDQLFIDUPLQJLQ$IULFDKDVXQGRXEWHGO\LQFUHDVHGWKHDFFHVVWRRUJDQLFPDUNHWVERWKLQ WHUPVRIQXPEHUVRIIDUPHUVDQGW\SHVRIIDUPHUV VPDOOVFDOHSURGXFHUVRUJDQL]HGLQJURXSV

,PSURYHPHQWVWR¿QDQFLDOFDSLWDO

$UHFHQWVWXG\FRQFOXGHGWKDWFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFIDUPVLQ(DVW$IULFDLQYROYHGLQSURGXFWLRQIRU H[SRUWZHUHVLJQL¿FDQWO\PRUHSUR¿WDEOHWKDQWKRVHLQYROYHGLQFRQYHQWLRQDOSURGXFWLRQ LQWHUPV RIQHWIDUPLQFRPHHDUQLQJV 7KHUHDUHDOVRVXEVWDQWLDOGLIIHUHQFHVLQSUR¿WDELOLW\EHWZHHQGLIIHUHQW FDVKFURSVIRURUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQ81&7$' VWDWHVWKDWLQWURSLFDO$IULFD “At over $2,000 a year, the average income of organic pineapple growers was three times higher than for organic FRFRDYDQLOODIDUPHUVDQGPRUHWKDQ¿YHWLPHVKLJKHUWKDQIRURUJDQLFFRIIHHIDUPHUV´

2UJDQLFIDUPLQJE\LWVLQKHUHQWKROLVWLFDQGLQWHJUDWHGQDWXUHLQYROYHVWKHXVHRIORFDOO\DYDLODEOH DQGDSSURSULDWHQDWXUDOLQSXWVUDWKHUWKDQSXUFKDVHGV\QWKHWLFIHUWLOL]HUVDQGSHVWLFLGHV,QPDQ\ FDVHVZKHUHIDUPHUVKDYHEHHQIRUFHGWRWDNHRXWKLJKLQWHUHVWORDQVLQRUGHUWRSXUFKDVHVXFK V\QWKHWLFDJULFXOWXUDOLQSXWVWKLVKDVSXWDFRQVLGHUDEOHVWUDLQRQKRXVHKROGEXGJHWV%HFDXVH RUJDQLF IDUPHUV DUH QR ORQJHU SXUFKDVLQJ LQSXWV RU WDNLQJ RXW WKHVH ORDQV WKH SUR¿W PDUJLQV WKHUHIRUHLQFUHDVHRQWKHIDUPDQGIDUPHUVDUHEHWWHURII¿QDQFLDOO\

43 6DQFKH]DQG6ZDPLQDWKDQ)DZ]LHWDO3LZR]DQG3UHEOH 44 )$2 45 *LEERQDQG%ROZLJ81&7$' Evidence from Africa 15

7KHSUHPLXPSULFHVUHFHLYHGIRURUJDQLFSURGXFHLVDNH\EHQH¿WIRUIDUPHUV,QYROYHPHQWZLWK the rapidly expanding organic export market has been the driving force behind the move towards RUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLQ(DVW$IULFD,QFUHDVLQJO\WKHJURZWKRIRUJDQLFGRPHVWLFPDUNHWVPHDQVWKDW IDUPHUVKDYHEHWWHUDFFHVVWRPDUNHWVDQGIXUWKHULQFUHDVHGLQFRPHV7KLVLPSURYHGSXUFKDVLQJ SRZHUEULQJVPDQ\DVVRFLDWHGEHQH¿WVWRWKHIDUPHUVIDUPHUIDPLOLHVDQGORFDOFRPPXQLWLHV DOLNH

Organic agriculture has also been shown to enable new and different groups in society to get LQYROYHGLQDJULFXOWXUDOWUDGH:RPHQLQ(DVW$IULFDDUHYHU\RIWHQQRWDEOHWRDFFHVVV\QWKHWLF DJURLQSXWVRUWKHFUHGLWWREX\WKHP7KLVKDVKLVWRULFDOO\SXWWKHPDWDGLVDGYDQWDJHLQDJULFXOWXUH 2UJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHKRZHYHUQHJDWHVWKHQHHGWRSXUFKDVHDJURLQSXWVDQGVRZRPHQFDQIDUPRQ DQHTXDOOHYHOWKXVHPSRZHULQJWKHP6HOOLQJVXUSOXVHVRISURGXFHDWORFDOPDUNHWVDOVRLQFUHDVHV ZRPHQ¶VLQFRPHZKLFKDJDLQOHDGVWRLPSURYHGKHDOWKSDUWLFXODUO\IRUZRPHQDQGFKLOGUHQ

7KHUHDUHRIWHQLQFUHDVHGHPSOR\PHQWRSSRUWXQLWLHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQ7KHVH could include jobs related to organic production, selling surpluses, accessing export markets, SURGXFLQJELRLQSXWVDQGDGGLQJYDOXHWRRUJDQLFSURGXFWVWKURXJKSURFHVVLQJDQGPDUNHWLQJ DFWLYLWLHV

2.1.7 Improvements to external factors

$VLPSOHWUDQVLWLRQWRRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLVQRWOLNHO\WREHDEOHWRSUHYHQWDUPHGFRQÀLFWVDQG ZDUVDOWHUWKHFOLPDWHRUUHGXFHSROLWLFDOSUREOHPVVXFKDVFRUUXSWLRQFROOXVLRQDQGQHSRWLVP However, the increased human and social capital associated with organic farming improves IDUPHUV¶DELOLW\WRUHVSRQGPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\WRWKHVHFKDOOHQJHV)RUH[DPSOHKRZIDUPHUVUHDFW WRQDWXUDOGLVDVWHUVDQGFRSHZLWKHQYLURQPHQWDOSUREOHPVVXFKDVGURXJKWVDQGÀDVKÀRRGLQJFDQ EHSRVLWLYHO\DIIHFWHGE\DGRSWLQJRUJDQLFWHFKQRORJLHV,QFUHDVHGNQRZOHGJHRIQDWXUDOSHVWDQG SUHGDWRUUHODWLRQVKLSVLQFUHDVHVIDUPHUV¶UHVLOLHQFHDQGFDSDFLW\WRLPSOHPHQWFKDQJHVLQWKHLU IDUPVGXULQJWLPHVRISHVWLQIHVWDWLRQ

+RZWKHODQGUHVSRQGVWRDQGUHFRYHUVIURPVWUHVVHVVXFKDVÀRRGLQJDQGHURVLRQFDQDOVREH SRVLWLYHO\DIIHFWHGE\RUJDQLFSUDFWLFHV7KHZDWHUFRQVHUYDWLRQWHFKQRORJLHVDQGWKHLQFUHDVHG water holding capacity of soils means that farming systems are more resilient to stresses of GURXJKWV,PSURYHGVRLOVWUXFWXUHDQGDJURELRGLYHUVLW\RIWHQPDNHVVRLOVPRUHVWDEOHDQGOHVV SURQHWRHURVLRQLQWLPHVRIKHDY\UDLQIDOORUÀRRGLQJ

2.1.8 Summary

There is ample evidence (see later in this section) that production of organic food and beverages IRU ERWK H[SRUW DQG GRPHVWLF PDUNHWV FDQ UHVXOW LQ LQFUHDVHG IDUPHU LQFRPHV 7KLV UHGXFHV poverty and improves food security of farming households as well as their access to education DQGKHDOWKFDUH$VLPSURYHGHGXFDWLRQDQGKHDOWKFDUHSRVLWLYHO\LPSDFWIXWXUHLQFRPHVWUHDPV WKHEHQH¿WVRIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQDUHORQJODVWLQJ

Where organic farming principles are adopted as a holistic approach for the whole of an integrated agricultural system, increased food security in a region is more likely to occur, at the same time DVQDWXUDOKXPDQDQGVRFLDOUHVRXUFHVDUHEXLOWXS2UJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLVWKHUHIRUHLPSRUWDQW for meeting local food requirements while providing protection and sustainable use of natural UHVRXUFHV2UJDQLFIDUPLQJPDNHVLWSRVVLEOHWRVDYHRQSURGXFWLRQFRVWV QRH[SHQGLWXUHRQ V\QWKHWLFLQSXWV SURPRWHHFRQRPLFYLDELOLW\DQGHQFRXUDJHIRRGVHOIUHOLDQFH,QDUHDVZKHUH farmers have no access to modern inputs and technologies or in regions where natural resources are poor, organic agriculture can increase the productivity of traditional systems by making better XVHRIORFDOO\DYDLODEOHQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVDQGLVWKHUHIRUHSDUWLFXODUO\DSSURSULDWHIRUWKHUXUDO FRPPXQLWLHVWKDWDUHFXUUHQWO\PRVWH[SRVHGWRIRRGVKRUWDJHV46

46 +LQHDQG3UHWW\$OWLHUL3UHWW\HWDO,)2$0F 16 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

(YLGHQFHRQRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHDQGIRRGDYDLODELOLW\LQ$IULFD

6RPHRIWKHPRVWVLJQL¿FDQWSURJUHVVLQWKHODVWWZRGHFDGHVWRZDUGVVXVWDLQDELOLW\LQDJULFXOWXUH DQGLWVDVVRFLDWHGSRWHQWLDOWRUHGXFHIRRGLQVHFXULW\KDVRFFXUUHGLQGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHV47 The largest study examining sustainable agriculture initiatives in developing countries comprised the DQDO\VLVRISURMHFWVFRYHULQJPLOOLRQKHFWDUHVLQFRXQWULHV48 The study found that when sustainable agricultural practices covering a variety of systems and crops were adopted, average FURS\LHOGVLQFUHDVHGE\SHUFHQW

For this current study, the database on agricultural sustainability was reanalyzed to produce a VXPPDU\ RI WKH LPSDFWV RI RUJDQLF DQG QHDURUJDQLF SURMHFWV RQ DJULFXOWXUDO SURGXFWLYLW\ LQ $IULFD49 As can be seen in box 4, the average crop yield increase was even higher for these projects: 116 per cent increase for all African projects and 128 per cent increase for the projects LQ(DVW$IULFD

Box 4. Agricultural productivity performance of organic and near organic agriculture in Africa Region Number of Number of Number of Number of Average countries projects farmers in hectares change in represented analysed projects under organic crop yields (million) and near- compared organic with agriculture beginning of (million ha) projects (per cent) Africa (all countries 24 114 1,900,000 2.0 +116 with data) East Africa 7 (Kenya, 71 1,600,000 1.4 +128 Malawi, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Uganda, Zambia) East Africa (countries 3 (Kenya, 44 1,300,000 1.2 +120 focused upon within Tanzania and this study) Uganda) Kenya 1 18 1,000,000 0.5 +179

Tanzania 1 9 27,000 0.06 +67

Uganda 1 17 241,000 0.68 +54

Note: Variations in the increases in yields do not necessarily mean that organic agriculture is more or less inherently successful by country. Rather yield increases vary depending on the type of project and the crops/livestock produced.

7\SRORJ\RIPHFKDQLVPVE\ZKLFKRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLPSURYHVQDWXUDOVRFLDO KXPDQSK\VLFDODQG¿QDQFLDOFDSLWDO

$VKDVEHHQGHPRQVWUDWHGLQVHFWLRQVDQGRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHKDVFOHDUO\SURGXFHGLQFUHDVHV LQIRRGSURGXFWLRQ0RUHRYHUDVZLWFKWRRUJDQLFIDUPLQJKDVOHGWRRWKHULPSURYHPHQWVLQFOXGLQJ environmental improvements, strengthened communities, improvements in the education and KHDOWKRILQGLYLGXDOVDQGDUHGXFWLRQLQSRYHUW\

47 8SKRII0F1HHO\DQG6FKHUU3UHWW\HWDO 48 3UHWW\HWDO 49 7KHVHSURMHFWVDUHWKRVHLQ$IULFDWKDWPHHWRUYHU\QHDUO\PHHWRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQVWDQGDUGV7KHSURMHFWVQHHGQRW EHFHUWL¿HGDVRUJDQLFE\DWKLUGSDUW\ Evidence from Africa 17

Drawing on such empirical evidence, a typology of mechanisms for improvement has been developed to demonstrate where alterations in the farming system and a switch to organic farming PHWKRGVFDQUHVXOWLQLPSURYHPHQWVWRQDWXUDOVRFLDOKXPDQSK\VLFDODQG¿QDQFLDOFDSLWDO50 7KH¿UVWIRXUPHFKDQLVPVIRULPSURYHPHQWSRVLWLYHO\DIIHFWWKHHQYLURQPHQW QDWXUDOFDSLWDO LQGLIIHUHQWZD\VWKHQH[WWZRLPSURYHVRFLDODQGKXPDQFDSLWDO PHFKDQLVPV¿YHDQGVL[ the next one refers to physical infrastructure and access to markets (mechanism seven) and the ODVWWKUHHLQYROYHLPSURYLQJ¿QDQFLDOUHWXUQVWRIDUPHUVDQGRUWKHLUDFFHVVWR¿QDQFHDQGFUHGLW PHFKDQLVPVHLJKWWRWHQ 6HHER[

Box 5. Improvement typology for organic agriculture Improvement Mechanism Details Natural capital – 1. Better use of A wide variety of technologies and practices are available the environment locally-available which farmers and communities can use to make better natural resources and more productive use of available natural resources. Options include water harvesting, soil and water conservation e.g. contour cropping, terraces, minimum tillage, grass strips; composting, livestock manures; irrigation scheduling and management; restoration of degraded or abandoned land; rotational grazing; habitat management for pest-predators; drainage systems and sub-soiling; raised beds; bio-pesticides and bio-fungicides. 2. Intensify A further improvement to farm systems involves the microenvironments LQWHQVL¿FDWLRQRIDVLQJOHVXEFRPSRQHQWRIWKHIDUP in farm system while leaving the rest alone. Examples include double- (gardens, orchards, dug beds, adding vegetables to rice bunds, kitchen ponds) JDUGHQVVLOWWUDSVJXOO\FURSSLQJDQGGLJJLQJD¿VKSRQG 7KHVHWHFKQRORJLHVFDQVLJQL¿FDQWO\LQFUHDVHWRWDOIRRG production – particularly protein and vegetables – for rural OLYHOLKRRGV7KHEHQH¿FLDULHVDUHRIWHQFKLOGUHQGXULQJ `hungry’ seasons. 3. Diversify by adding The third type of improvement to natural capital involves new regenerative WKH GLYHUVL¿FDWLRQ RI WKH ZKROH DJURHFRV\VWHP WKURXJK components addition of new regenerative components, such as legumes in cereal rotations (cover crops, green manures), ¿VKLQULFHQDWXUDOHQHP\UHOHDVHVIRUSHVWFRQWURODJUR forestry and integrated livestock. These technologies can result in synergistic interactions – where one component of the system positively contributes to the success of other components. 4. Removal or Where external and non-renewable inputs are being better use of non- used, then the system can be made more sustainable renewable inputs and by ensuring precise applications of inputs with little or no external technologies wastage or damage to natural or human capital. Such approaches are similarly combined with introduction of regenerative alternatives. Options include new seeds, patch spraying of botanicals, low dose and non-toxic sprays, veterinary services, pheromones, sterile males, resistant crop varieties and livestock breeds, and machinery (e.g. hand tools, ploughs).

50 3UHWW\DQG+LQH 18 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

Social capital 5. Social and These improvements focus on social and participatory –people and participatory processes that lead to social capital increases where groups processes leading to people’s capacity to work together to solve common group action problems is strengthened. This includes forming groups for pest, irrigation, watershed, joint forest or credit management. It also includes horizontal partnerships between external agencies (e.g. government and NGOs; private and public). Human capital 6. Human capital These improvements focus on building the knowledge - individuals building through and skills of farmers to improve their analytical skills and continuous learning capacities to innovate and control their farm systems. A programmes major constraint in the transition toward more sustainable systems has been the lack of knowledge and skills needed for management of more complex systems. It is much easier, for example, to spray a pesticide than it is to farm IRUEHQH¿FLDOLQVHFWV7KHVHLPSURYHPHQWVLQFOXGHIDUPHU ¿HOGVFKRROVIRULPSURYLQJDJURHFRORJLFDONQRZOHGJH leadership training; adult literacy classes; computer-based knowledge development; farmer-to-farmer extension and experimentation programmes. Physical capital 7. Access to markets Improving access to domestic markets both to sell and infrastructure surpluses and purchase food in times of food insecurity. Improving the infrastructure (transport links and communications networks) is crucial for farmers wanting to access both domestic and international export markets.

Financial capital 8. Access to ,PSURYLQJDFFHVVWR¿QDQFHLVDYLWDOZD\WRKHOS DIIRUGDEOH¿QDQFH farm families develop more sustainable systems of (credit, grants, management. This may be in the form of affordable and subsidies) DFFHVVLEOHFUHGLW HJWKURXJKPLFUR¿QDQFHLQVWLWXWLRQV and social organizations, particularly of women), or through families accessing new sources of external ¿QDQFH JUDQWVDQGVXEVLGLHVRUIURPWRXULVWVDQG visitors). 9. Adding value by A variety of options are available to increase the returns reducing losses or to families from their production, either by reducing losses processing due to pests (through better storage and treatment) and LQHI¿FLHQWSURFHVVHV HJWKURXJKIXHOVDYLQJVWRYHV RU by adding value before sale or use (conversion of primary products through processing). 10. Adding value Farm families can also add value to their production through direct or through better marketing. This may involve improvements organized marketing to physical infrastructure (e.g. roads, transport) and to consumers direct marketing and sales to consumers (thus cutting out wholesalers and `middlemen’). The latter includes rural farmers’ markets, box schemes, farm shops and direct mailing and community supported agriculture; producer groups for collective marketing; ethical trading schemes; green tourism schemes.

Source: Adapted from Pretty cited in Sciallaba and Hattam 2002

Each type of improvement, by itself, can make a positive contribution to raising production in an DJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHP%XWDVWKHFDVHVWXGLHVVKRZXVLQJDFRPELQDWLRQRIGLIIHUHQWLPSURYHPHQW W\SHVJHQHUDWHVV\QHUJLHV ZKHUHWKHZKROHLVJUHDWHUWKDQWKHVXPRIWKHSDUWV )RUH[DPSOHVRLO and water conservation that emphasizes terracing and other physical measures to prevent soil loss is much more effective when combined with biological methods that increase the productivity of WKHV\VWHPVXFKDVJUHHQPDQXUHVDQGFRYHUFURSVRUZLWK¿QDQFHIRUFUHGLWJURXSVWKDWUHGXFHV LQGHEWHGQHVVRIKRXVHKROGV Evidence from Africa 19

1DUUDWLYHFDVHVWXGLHVIURP(DVW$IULFD

To illustrate these improvements in food production and in other areas, 15 case studies of examples RIRUJDQLFDQGQHDURUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPVIURP(DVW$IULFDDUHSUHVHQWHGEHORZ

2.4.1 The Manor House Agricultural Centre, Kitale, Kenya51

7KH0DQRU+RXVH$JULFXOWXUDO&HQWUHZDVIRXQGHGLQLQUHVSRQVHWRDWKUHH\HDUGURXJKW The &HQWUH¶VWUDLQLQJDQGUHVHDUFKFRPSOH[LQFOXGHVGHPRQVWUDWLRQJDUGHQVDQGOLYHVWRFNIDFLOLWLHVWKDW SURYLGHDZRUNLQJPRGHORIELRLQWHQVLYHDJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPVIRUWUDLQHHVYLVLWRUVDQGPHPEHUV RIORFDOFRPPXQLWLHV The Centre provides practical training to young people, farmers and staff RIJRYHUQPHQWDJHQFLHVDQG1*2V,WDOVRFRQGXFWVDGDSWLYHUHVHDUFK,QWKH&HQWUHKDG trained some 6,000 farmers in 185 community groups, of whom 3,000 are known to have adopted ELRLQWHQVLYHDJULFXOWXUH %,$ ,Q(PDXQHO2PRQGLUHSRUWVWKDWRYHU.HQ\DQVKDYH EHHQWDXJKW%,$HLWKHUGLUHFWO\RULQGLUHFWO\E\WKH&HQWUH The main impact has been on vegetable SURGXFWLRQ Many have doubled their yields by adopting double digging and composting, using local QDWXUDOPHWKRGVRISHVWDQGGLVHDVHFRQWURO VXFKDVSODQWLQJVXQÀRZHUVWRDWWUDFWSUHGDWRUVXVLQJ ORFDOSODQWVH[WUDFWVWRFRQWUROPDL]HVWDONERUHUDQGLQWHUFURSSLQJWRUHGXFHWRPDWREOLJKW There KDYHEHHQELJVDYLQJVRQSHVWLFLGHVDVIDUPHUVKDYHFXWRXWWKHLUXVH Farmers found phosphorus to be limiting over periods of six years of composting, and so bone meal is being brought in to add to FRPSRVW 7KH&HQWUHHQFRXUDJHVWKHVHIDUPHUJURXSVWRWUDLQQHLJKERXULQJIDUPHUV

$IRUPHUSXSLODW0DQRU+RXVH6XVDQ:HNHVDWHOOVKRZOHDUQLQJWRXVHELRLQWHQVLYHIDUPLQJ methods impacted her life: ”The lessons I had from Manor House and those that I continue to receive from Eric Kisiangani and his colleagues at Rural Technology Centre have moved my household from misery to normal rich life comparatively. My small “shamba” is producing surplus which I sell for income. Last season, April to June, I earned Kshs. 15,000 ($ 268) from sales of Sukuma Wiki (similar to tree collards). My 0.3 acres of land is producing plenty of healthy vegetables that bring money to knock at my door in the wee hours of the day. I mean, people come knocking at the door of my house before 6:00 a.m. wanting to buy vegetables. Apart from food and money for my family, I am able to fertilize my soil from material that it produces and supports. BIA has recreated hope in me and my household. I can now face the future proudly”.

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced ¥ x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHUIHUWLOLW\ etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUVKRXVHKROGV and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets ¥ Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥

2.4.2. Organic cotton, GTZ, United Republic of Tanzania52

Cotton is the second most important export for Tanzania and is generally produced by smallholders

51 Source: University of Essex SAFE Research Database, 2001; Ecology Action, 2000 and 2005; KWWSZZZ JURZELRLQWHQVLYHRUJELRLQWHQVLYH.HQ\DKWPl and KWWSZZZJURZELRLQWHQVLYHRUJQHZVOHWWHUPD\ ELRLQWHQVLYHDSSOLFKWPl 52 6RXUFH*5DWWHULQ³2UJDQLF&RWWRQ´E\'0\HUVDQG66WROWRQ ,73XEOLFDWLRQV 8QLYHUVLW\RI(VVH[6$)( Research Database 2001 20 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

using few agricultural inputs, in two main areas – the “Western Cotton Growing Area” (WCGA) DQGWKH³(DVWHUQ&RWWRQ*URZLQJ$UHD´ (&*$ ,QWKH7DQ]DQLDQ*RYHUQPHQWOLEHUDOL]HG the cotton market to allow private companies to buy seed cotton from farmers and to run JLQQHULHV 2QH VXFK FRPSDQ\ &,& /LPLWHG D 7DQ]DQLDQ WH[WLOH FRPSDQ\ DSSURDFKHG WKH 'HXWVFKH*HVHOOVFKDIWIU7HFKQLVFKH=XVDPPHQDUEHLW *7= 3URWUDGHSURJUDPPHLQRUGHUWR XQGHUWDNHDQRUJDQLFFRWWRQIHDVLELOLW\VWXG\$YLOODJHLQWKH0HDWX'LVWULFW6KLQ\DQJD5HJLRQ Northwest of the country in the WCGA, was chosen as the project area and 45 contracted farmers SURGXFHGRUJDQLFFRWWRQLQWKHVHDVRQ7KLVDUHDZDVSDUWLFXODUO\VXLWDEOHIRUWKHSURMHFW IRUVHYHUDOUHDVRQV&RWWRQLVSURGXFHGKHUHDWORZ\LHOGOHYHOVVRWKHULVNVRIIDOOLQJ\LHOGV during conversion were less and therefore farmers were keen to participate; most farms have areas of fallow lands to act as refuges for natural enemies of insect pests; and farmers have large QXPEHUV RI FDWWOH WKDW FDQ SURYLGH DQLPDO PDQXUH IHUWLOL]HUV IRU WKHLU FRWWRQ FURS7KH *7= Integrated Pest Management (IPM) project offered support in training of extension staff and UHVHDUFKDQGWZRSULYDWHJLQQHULHVZHUHXQGHUFRQVWUXFWLRQLQWKHDUHD3URMHFWIDUPHUVDJUHHGWR organic cultivation and to practice crop rotation and the cultivation of trap crops for insect pest FRQWUROLQUHWXUQIRULQSXWVDQGJXDUDQWHHGPDUNHWVIRUWKHLUFRWWRQ%\WKHODWHVWKHSURMHFW FRQVLVWHGRIIDUPHUVSURGXFLQJDQDYHUDJHRINJKDRIFRWWRQZLWKWKHFRWWRQRI¿FLDOO\ FHUWL¿HGDVRUJDQLF$OWKRXJKLQFUHDVHGIRRGVHFXULW\ZDVQRWDGLUHFWREMHFWLYHRI*7=¶VRUJDQLF cotton farms, the increased knowledge of farmers towards a holistic approach to farming coupled with the other improvements, are likely to have a knock on effect for food security by tackling SRYHUW\ZLWKLQWKHUHJLRQ

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced NA x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥

2.4.3 SACDEP, Thika, Kenya53

Sustainable Agriculture Community Development Programme (SACDEP) Kenya is an indigenous 1*2WKDWKDVZRUNHGIRUWKH\HDUVZLWKRYHUVPDOOKROGHUIDUPHUV%DVHGLQ7KLNDLQ Central Kenya, SACDEP facilitates training programmes for farmers in sustainable agriculture DQG FRPPXQLW\ GHYHORSPHQW ZLWK D IRFXV RQ SURGXFWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ DJURPDUNHWLQJ DQG VDYLQJVDQGFUHGLWVFKHPHV,WLVFXUUHQWO\ZRUNLQJZLWKVPDOOKROGHUIDUPHUVLQ(DVWHUQDQG &HQWUDOSURYLQFHVRI.HQ\D6$&'(3PDLQO\ZRUNVRQDZHHNO\EDVLVZLWKIDUPHUVLQRUJDQL]HG FRPPXQLW\JURXSVRIDERXWIDPLOLHV6$&'(3RSHUDWHVXQGHUWKHIRXUSULQFLSOHVRIVXVWDLQDEOH agriculture (i) ecological feasibility, (ii) environmentally friendly, (iii) social justness and (iv) FXOWXUDODFFHSWDELOLW\7RSLFVFRYHUHGLQWKH6$&'(3WUDLQLQJSURJUDPPHLQFOXGHQDWXUDOVRLO IHUWLOLW\PDQDJHPHQWLQWHJUDWHGHQYLURQPHQWDOO\IULHQGO\ZHHGSHVWDQGGLVHDVHSURWHFWLRQRQ IDUPVRLODQGZDWHUFRQVHUYDWLRQWHFKQLTXHVDQGIDUPOHYHOVHHGFRQVHUYDWLRQ)DUPHUJURXSV are trained by SACDEP for three to four years during which productivity has been reported to LQFUHDVHE\SHUFHQWJLYLQJWKHIDUPHUVIRRGVHFXULW\DQGVXUSOXVSURGXFHWRVHOO6$&'(3DOVR facilitates the development of Smallholder Farmers Organizations (SFOs) that address common LVVXHVVXFKDVDGGLQJYDOXHPDUNHWLQJVDYLQJVDQGFUHGLW6)2VLQWKLVGHYHORSPHQWVWDJHDOVR

53 6RXUFH6$&'(3SHUVRQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQ Evidence from Africa 21

DJUHHRQVXVWDLQDEOHDQGRUJDQLFQRUPVIRUDOOWKHSURGXFHUVLQWKHJURXSWRXVH,QFRPHVKDYH increased by 40 per cent, enabling farmers to meet basic needs such as paying school fees and PHGLFDOH[SHQVHV

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced ¥ x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets ¥ Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥

&HUWL¿HGRUJDQLFFRWWRQLQ8JDQGD54

Cotton production was introduced in Uganda in the 1940s, but the production virtually stopped EHWZHHQDQGGXHWRSRRUSULFHVDQGDQXQIDYRXUDEOHSROLF\HQYLURQPHQW6LQFH there has been a revival in agriculture and a renewal of the cash crop sector, which has opened the ZD\IRURUJDQLFFRWWRQSURGXFWLRQLQFHUWDLQGLVWULFWVRI8JDQGDLQFOXGLQJLQWKHORZSRWHQWLDO HDVWDQGQRUWKHDVWRIWKHFRXQWU\,QRUJDQLFFRWWRQSURGXFWLRQRQO\LQYROYHGIDUPHUV %\WKH\HDUVRPHKDGEHFRPHRUJDQLF

7KHPDMRULW\RIFRWWRQSURGXFHUVDUHVPDOOVFDOHUHVRXUFHSRRUIDUPHUV6RLOIHUWLOLW\DQGSHVW management is maintained through traditional cultural practices such as fallowing, crop rotations DQGQDWXUDOSHVWFRQWURO$OWKRXJKDJULFXOWXUDOSROLF\JHQHUDOO\SURPRWHVWKHXVHRISHVWLFLGHV some areas of Uganda are now exempt from pesticide promotion campaigns and some districts DUHQRZSURPRWLQJRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced NA x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets ¥ Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥

Organic cotton production achieves yields of 1,000–1,250 kg/hectare of seed cotton giving DSSUR[LPDWHO\±NJRIFRWWRQOLQW5HFHQWVWXGLHVKDYHUHSRUWHGWKDWRUJDQLFIDUPHUVKDYH VWDUWHGWRREWDLQKLJKFRWWRQ\LHOGVFRPSDUHGWRFRQYHQWLRQDOIDUPLQJV\VWHPV,QDGGLWLRQRUJDQLF cotton receives premium prices, on average a 20 per cent organic premium on export, which

54 Source: Walaga, 1997; van Elzakker and Tulip, 2000; Rundgren 2007 22 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

WUDQVODWHVWRD±SHUFHQWSUHPLXPRQIDUPJDWHSULFHV2UJDQLFFRWWRQIDUPLQJLVWKHUHIRUH HFRQRPLFDOO\YLDEOHDQGWKLVKDVWHPSWHGPDQ\IDUPHUVLQWRRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQ

2UJDQLFFRWWRQSURGXFWLRQLVPDLQO\DSULYDWHVHFWRUPDUNHWGULYHQEXVLQHVVDFWLYLW\RUJDQL]HG E\ H[SRUWHUV ZKLOH WKH FRQYHQWLRQDO V\VWHP LV XQGHU JRYHUQPHQW SURPRWLRQ 2UJDQLF FRWWRQ SURGXFWLRQLVZHOOVWUXFWXUHGDQGUHFHLYHGH[WHQVLYHVXSSRUWIURPWKH([SRUW3URPRWLRQRI2UJDQLF 3URGXFWVIURP$IULFD (323$ ¿QDQFHGE\WKH6ZHGLVK,QWHUQDWLRQDO'HYHORSPHQW&RRSHUDWLRQ $JHQF\ 6LGD XQWLO+RZHYHUWKHRUJDQLFFRWWRQEXVLQHVVKDVFRQWLQXHGWRGHYHORSVLQFH WKLVWLPHZLWKRXWWKLVH[WHQVLYHVXSSRUW(323$ZRUNVZLWKODUJHJURXSVRIVPDOOKROGHUIDUPHUV HJFRRSHUDWLYHXQLRQV JLYLQJWHFKQLFDODGYLFHRQSURGXFWLRQDQGPDUNHWLQJ

2.4.5 C-MAD programme, Kenya55

7KH&RPPXQLW\0RELOL]DWLRQ$JDLQVW'HVHUWL¿FDWLRQ &0$' SURJUDPPHZRUNVLQDCORZ SRWHQWLDO¶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

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced ¥ x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥

2.4.6 Small-scale aquaculture in Malawi56

The International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM) works to integrate SRQG¿VKFXOWXUHLQWRORZLQSXWIDUPV\VWHPVLQ0DODZL7KHSURJUDPPHXVHVDSDUWLFLSDWRU\ SURFHVVIRUIDUPHUVDQGVFLHQWLVWVWRMRLQWO\PDSUHVRXUFHÀRZVRQIDUPVDQGWKHQWRLGHQWLI\ WKHSRWHQWLDOIRUDGMXVWPHQWVWKDWZRXOGEULQJV\QHUJLVWLFHIIHFWV,WKDVZRUNHGZLWKVRPH LQGLYLGXDOIDUPHUVRQERWKYHJHWDEOHLPSURYHPHQWVLQKRPHJDUGHQVDQG¿VKSRQGDTXDFXOWXUH 7KLVLQWHJUDWHGDJULFXOWXUHDTXDFXOWXUHFRPSRQHQWRIIDUPHUVRIWHQFRPSULVHVRQO\P2 within DQDYHUDJHIDUPVL]HRIKHFWDUHV

55 6RXUFH3HWHU2PRQGL&0$'DQG4XHVWLRQQDLUHIRU8QLYHUVLW\RI(VVH[6$)(5HVHDUFK'DWDEDVH 56 Source: Randall Brummet, Daniel Jama; Brummet, 2000; Questionnaire for University of Essex SAFE Research 'DWDEDVH Evidence from Africa 23

IRUKRXVHKROGV7KHVHLQWHJUDWHGIDUPVDOVRSURGXFHVL[WLPHVPRUHFDVKWKDQFRQYHQWLRQDOIDUPV ²ZLWKWKHYHJHWDEOH¿VKHOHPHQWFRQWULEXWLQJXSWRSHUFHQWRIDQQXDOFDVKLQFRPH,&/$50 has documented the steady improvement of productivity in these systems amongst collaborating IDUPHUV²ZLWKSRQGSURGXFWLYLW\LQFUHDVLQJVWHDGLO\IURPWRNJKD$PRQJVWWKRVH farmers trained only through the conventional Training and Visit system in southern Malawi, \LHOGVE\FRQWUDVWKDYHIDOOHQVWHDGLO\DVWKHRYHUGHVLJQHGV\VWHPVXQUDYHOOHGDVIDUPHUVORVW FRQWURO$QDVVHWEXLOGLQJDSSURDFKEXLOGLQJERWKRQQDWXUDOFDSLWDORQWKHIDUPDQGIDUPHUVRZQ KXPDQFDSLWDO VNLOOVDQGNQRZOHGJH DOORZVIRUFRQWLQXRXVUHDGMXVWPHQWVRYHUWLPH

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced ¥ x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥

2.4.7 ICIPE YXWXVXNXPX (push-pull) pest management in smallholder systems, Kenya57

The work of the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) is explicitly focused RQGHVLJQLQJORZFRVWLQWHJUDWHGSHVWPDQDJHPHQWWHFKQRORJ\,WZRUNVFORVHO\ZLWKIDUPHUVWR WHVWDQGDGDSWWHFKQRORJLHV,WLVSURGXFLQJXQH[SHFWHGV\QHUJLVWLFHIIHFWVWKURXJKPDQLSXODWLRQ RIDJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPVDQGWKHSDUDGLJPVWKDWGH¿QHWKHP2QHDFWLYLW\LVLQYHVWLJDWLQJQRYHO habitat management approaches to suppress cereal stem borer and Striga populations in maize DQGVRUJKXP7KLVSURMHFWLVGHYHORSLQJQRYHOµSXVKSXOO¶VWUDWHJLHVWRUHSHOVWHPERUHUVIURPWKH FHUHDOFURSDQGDWWUDFWWKHPWRLQWHUFURSRUEDUULHUIRUDJHJUDVVHV,WKDVIRXQGH[WUDRUGLQDU\PXOWL IXQFWLRQDOLW\LQDUDQJHRIIRGGHUJUDVVHVDQGOHJXPHVLQFHUHDOV\VWHPV7KHVWUDWHJ\LQYROYHV trapping pests on highly susceptible trap plants (pull) and driving them away from the crop using DUHSHOOHQWLQWHUFURS SXVK 58

57 6RXUFHV+DQV+HUUHQ-RKQ3LFNHWW,&,3(DQQXDOUHSRUWV3LFNHWW.KDQHWDO,&,3( 58 • The forage grasses, Pennisetum purpureum (napier grass) and Sorghum vulgare sudanense (Sudan grass), attract JUHDWHURYLSRVLWLRQE\VWHPERUHUVWKDQFXOWLYDWHGPDL]H 1RQKRVW IRUDJH SODQWV 0HOLQLV PLQXWLÀRUD PRODVVHV JUDVV DQG 'HVPRGLXP XQFLQDWXP VLOYHU OHDI UHSHO IHPDOHVWDONERUHUV &KLORVSS ,QWHUFURSSLQJZLWKPRODVVHVJUDVV 0HOLQLVPLQXWLÀRUD LQFUHDVHVSDUDVLWLVPSDUWLFXODUO\E\WKHODUYDOSDUDVLWRLG &RWHVLDVHVDPLDHDQGWKHSXSDOSDUDVLWRLG'HQWLFKDVPLVEXVVHRODH0HOLQLVFRQWDLQVVHYHUDOSK\VLRORJLFDOO\ DFWLYHFRPSRXQGV7ZRRIWKHVHLQKLELWRYLSRVLWLRQ HJJOD\LQJ LQ&KLORHYHQDWORZFRQFHQWUDWLRQV 0RODVVHVJUDVVDOVRHPLWVDFKHPLFDO ( GLPHWK\OQRQDWULHQHZKLFKVXPPRQVWKHERUHUV¶QDWXUDO HQHPLHV • Napier grass also has its own defence mechanism against crop borers: when the larvae enter the stem, the plant SURGXFHVDJXPOLNHVXEVWDQFHNLOOVWKHSHVW 6XGDQJUDVVDOVRLQFUHDVHVWKHHI¿FLHQF\RIWKHQDWXUDOHQHPLHV WKHSDUDVLWLVPUDWHRQODUYDHRIWKHVSRWWHG VWHPERUHU&KLORSDUWHOOXVPRUHWKDQWULSOHG±IURPSHUFHQWWRSHUFHQW±ZKHQWKHJUDVVZDVSODQWHG DURXQGPDL]HLQD¿HOGDQGLQFUHDVHGIURPSHUFHQWWRSHUFHQWRQ%XVVHRODIXVFDDQRWKHULPSRUWDQW SHVW ,&,3(KDVIRXQGWKDWLQWHUFURSSLQJPDL]HZLWKWKHIRGGHUOHJXPHV'HVPRGLXPXQFLQDWXP VLOYHUOHDI DQG' intortum (green leaf) reduced infestation of parasitic weed, Striga hermonthica by a factor of 40 compared to PDL]HPRQRFURS5HGXFWLRQLQ6WULJDLQIHVWDWLRQE\LQWHUFURSSLQJPDL]HZLWKWKHWZRVSHFLHVRI'HVPRGLXP ZDVVLJQL¿FDQWO\PRUHWKDQLQWHUFURSSLQJPDL]HZLWKVR\EHDQVXQKHPSDQGFRZSHD 24 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

5HVHDUFKHUV IURP ,&,3( DQG ,$&55RWKDPVWHG KDYH IRXQG WKDW VXFK µSXVKSXOO¶ XVLQJ WKH attractive plants as trap crops and repellent plants as intercrops, reduces stem borer attack and LQFUHDVHVOHYHOVRISDUDVLWLVPRIERUHUVRQSURWHFWHGPDL]HUHVXOWLQJLQDVLJQL¿FDQWLQFUHDVH LQ\LHOG)DUPHUSDUWLFLSDWRU\WULDOVLQDQGKDYHVKRZQVLJQL¿FDQW\LHOGLQFUHDVHVLQ PDL]H7KHDLPLVQRZWRGHYHORSDPDL]HEDVHGFURSSLQJV\VWHPWKDWZLOOUHGXFH\LHOGORVVHV due to both stem borer and Striga DQGDWWKHVDPHWLPHLPSURYHVRLOIHUWLOLW\GXHWRQLWURJHQ¿[LQJ action of Desmodium. Such a redesigned and diverse system has many of the characteristics of CWUDGLWLRQDO¶IDUPVLQ.HQ\D,&,3(KDVWUDLQHGDQHWZRUNRIIDUPHUWHDFKHUVDQGQRZRYHU IDUPHUVKDYHDGRSWHGWKHVHSXVKSXOOWHFKQRORJLHV

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced ¥ x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers

2.4.8 Ethiopia: Cheha integrated rural development project59

7KLVLVDQH[DPSOHRIDQLQWHJUDWHGDQGUHODWLYHO\VPDOOVFDOHSURMHFWPDNLQJDVXEVWDQWLDOLPSDFW RQUHJLRQDOIRRGVHFXULW\7KHSURMHFWKDVEHHQZRUNLQJLQVRXWKZHVW(WKLRSLDVLQFHWKHGURXJKW RI,WKDVLQWURGXFHGQHZYDULHWLHVRIFURSV YHJHWDEOHV DQGWUHHV IUXLWDQGIRUHVW SURPRWHG RUJDQLFPDQXUHVIRUVRLOIHUWLOLW\DQGERWDQLFDOVIRUSHVWFRQWURODQGLQWURGXFHGYHWHULQDU\VHUYLFHV Some 12,500 farm households have adopted sustainable agriculture on about 5,000 ha, resulting in a 70 per cent improvement of overall nutrition levels within the project area, along with a 60 SHUFHQWLQFUHDVHLQFURS\LHOGV6RPHIDUPHUVKDYHEHJXQWRSURGXFHH[FHVVFURSVZKLFKWKH\ VHOOLQORFDOPDUNHWVHDUQLQJPXFKQHHGHGLQFRPHIRUWKHLUIDPLOLHV7KXVDQDUHDRQFHHQWLUHO\ reliant on emergency food aid has now become able to feed itself and has enough left over to FRQWULEXWHWRVXUSOXV7KHUHDOSURPLVHRIWKHSURJUDPPHKRZHYHUOLHVLQWKHIDFWWKDWIDUPHUV themselves are taking the initiative to replicate activities (including farmers outside the project DUHD ZKHUHRQFHWKH\KDGWREHHQFRXUDJHGWRSDUWLFLSDWHWKURXJKIRRGIRUZRUNSD\PHQWV

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced ¥ x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥

59 Source: Food for the Hungry International and Questionnaire for University of Essex SAFE Research Database 2001 Evidence from Africa 25

2.4.9 MEFE project, Kakamega, Kenya60

The Mumias Education For Empowerment (MEFE) project works with some 2,070 households in Kakamega, an area of western Kenya characterized by high rates of rural malnutrition, infant PRUWDOLW\DQGLOOLWHUDF\6HYHUHIRRGLQVHFXULW\DIIHFWHGRQHLQIRXUSHRSOHEHIRUHWKHSURMHFW ZLWKPDQ\KRXVHKROGVRQO\IRRGVHFXUHIRURQHWRWKUHHPRQWKVSHU\HDU7KHSURMHFWXVHVD structured learning process (REFLECT) to encourage all groups to critically analyse their own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¿WVFKLOGKHDOWK

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced ¥ x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers

2.4.10 LOMADEF, Lipangwe, Malawi61

In 1993, the challenges of crop productivity far below subsistence levels, soils with deteriorating fertility and escalating prices of essential farm inputs inspired a group of determined Malawian VPDOOKROGHU IDUPHUV WR SURYLGH WKHPVHOYHV ZLWK KDQGVRQ H[SHULHQFH ZLWK VHOHFWHG RUJDQLF VRLO LPSURYHPHQW SUDFWLFHV $V D UHVXOW WKH\ HVWDEOLVKHG WKH /LSDQJZH 2UJDQLF 0DQXUH Demonstration Farm (LOMADEF), a small farm on a steep undulating landscape, with the REMHFWLYHVWRGHPRQVWUDWHWKHEHQH¿WVRIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHUHGXFHGHSHQGHQFHRIVPDOOKROGHU VXEVLVWHQFHIDUPHUVRQDUWL¿FLDOIHUWLOL]HUVQXUWXUHDVHQVHRIVHOIUHOLDQFHDPRQJIDUPHUVDQGXVH the demonstration farm for smallholder farmers from all over the country to come and learn about organic agriculture techniques and establish further sustainable agriculture demonstration farms IRUVPDOOKROGHUIDUPHUV

7KH ¿UVW VWHS /20$'() WRRN ZDV WR XVH PDQXUH RQ WKH ¿HOGV :KLOH VXUURXQGLQJ IDUPHUV suffered wilted and stunted crops, the LOMADEF farm gave very conspicuous results which HQFRXUDJHGPRUHIDUPHUVRWKHUDJULFXOWXUDO1*2VDQGWKH*RYHUQPHQWWRWDNHDQLQWHUHVW2YHU IDUPHUVKDYHVLQFHEHHQEURXJKWLQWRREVHUYHWKHEHQH¿WVRIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHDQGWR OHDUQVRPHVLPSOHRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHSUDFWLFHV/20$'()KDVQRZJURZQIURPRQHFOXEWR WKLUWHHQDQGPHPEHUVKLSKDVLQFUHDVHGIURPWRZLWKFOXEVVSUHDGDFURVVWKHFRXQWU\ 7KH/20$'()H[SHULHQFHVXJJHVWVWKDWVPDOOKROGHUPDQDJHGGHPRQVWUDWLRQIDUPVWKDWVKRZ DIIRUGDEOHWHFKQRORJLHVDUHYHU\DWWUDFWLYHWRVPDOOKROGHUIDUPHUV

60 Source: Francisca Mate; James Atema; Questionnaire for University of Essex SAFE Research Database 2001 61 6RXUFH.DQMDQJD 26 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced ¥ x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥

2.4.11 Organic cashews and vegetables in Mkuranga District, Tanzania62

Providing children with good, nutritious food, healthcare, clothing and education is at the forefront of the minds of most mothers, including the women farmers of Mkuranga district, 40 km south of 'DUHV6DODDPLQ7DQ]DQLD6LQFHZRPHQIURPWKLVUHJLRQKDYHFRPHWRJHWKHUDQGIRUPHG JURXSVDOODVVRFLDWHGXQGHUWKHXPEUHOODRIµ0XXQJDQR¶63 and have been collaborating on organic vegetable production and processing activities with the aim of producing organic vegetables for LQFUHDVHGIRRGVHFXULW\DQGLQFRPHV

Traditionally, farmers in this area have grown rice and cassava, and have been dependent on LQFRPHIURPWKHVDOHRIFRFRQXWVRUPRUHUHFHQWO\FDVKHZQXWVWRVXVWDLQWKHLUIDPLOLHV:LWK IDFLOLWDWLRQ IURP WKH 6LGDIXQGHG (323$ SURJUDPPH D ODUJH 'DU HV 6DODDPEDVHG FRPSDQ\ 3UHPLHU &DVKHZV ,QGXVWU\ /WG 3&, KDV FRQYHUWHG SDUW RI LWV V\VWHP WR EH DEOH WR SURFHVV FHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFFDVKHZQXWVSURYLGLQJWKHRSSRUWXQLW\RIRUJDQLFFDVKHZSURGXFWLRQIRUH[SRUW IRUIDUPHUVLQ0NXUXQJD3&,ZRUNVZLWKIDUPHUVLQWKUHHYLOODJHVLQWKHGLVWULFWWRJURZDQG VXSSO\WKHRUJDQLFFDVKHZQXWV

However, farming households still remain highly vulnerable to changes in world market prices IRUFDVKHZV IRUERWKWKHQRQRUJDQLFDQGRUJDQLFVHFWRUDOLNH DQGZKHQFRPELQHGZLWKWKH substantial pressures put on their limited household resources by the unreliable climate and UHSHDWHGGURXJKWVRIUHFHQW\HDUVIRRGVHFXULW\ZDVQRWDOZD\VDFKLHYHGLQWKHUHJLRQ

The women grow fruits, such as bananas and papaya, and vegetables including amaranths, VZHHWSRWDWRHVRNUDFDVVDYDFROODUGDQGWRPDWRHV)DUPLQJLVFDUULHGRXWWKURXJKDPL[WXUHRI WUDGLWLRQDODQGQRYHOSUDFWLFHVVXFKDVPXOFKLQJDQGWKHXVHRIERWDQLFDOSHVWLFLGHV$QLQWLPDWH ORFDONQRZOHGJHRIWKHDUHD¶VHFRORJLFDOFRQGLWLRQVKDVEHHQFRPELQHGZLWKQHZWHFKQRORJLHV VXFKDVVXQNHQEHGVDQGFRQWRXUSODQWLQJIRUVRLODQGZDWHUFRQVHUYDWLRQ

7KHUHOLDQFHRQORFDOO\DYDLODEOHQDWXUDODQGVRFLDOUHVRXUFHVDQGWKHLQWHUQDOL]DWLRQRIRUJDQLF SULQFLSOHV RI SURGXFWLRQ LQWR WKH IDUPLQJ V\VWHP KDYH LPSURYHG RYHUDOO DJURHFRV\VWHP VXVWDLQDELOLW\ LQ 0NXUDQJD 2UJDQLF YHJHWDEOH SURGXFWLRQ LQWHJUDWHG LQWR WKH RUJDQLF V\VWHP has helped to diversify sources of food and income which is particularly important in an area ZKHUHKLVWRULFDOO\UHODWLYHO\JRRGSULFHVIRUQRQRUJDQLFFDVKHZVKDYHUHVXOWHGLQQHJOHFWRIIRRG FURSV

7KHVRFLDOFDSLWDORIWKHUHJLRQ¶VZRPHQKDVLPSURYHG+HOSLQJRQHDQRWKHU¿QDQFLDOO\GXULQJ GLI¿FXOWSHULRGVVXFKDVZLWKVFKRROIHHVDQGPHGLFDOH[SHQVHVE\RSHQLQJVDYLQJVDFFRXQWV ZDVRQHRIWKHPDLQPRWLYDWLRQVIRUWKHSURMHFW&RRSHUDWLRQDPRQJZRPHQDURXQGDFRPPRQ JRDOKDVFUHDWHGSRZHUIXOPRPHQWXPLQWKHGULYHIRUFRPPXQLW\GHYHORSPHQW,QDGGLWLRQWR

62 6RXUFH3HWUD%DNHZHOO6WRQH 63 0XXQJDQRPHDQV³XQLRQ´LQ.LVZDKLOL Evidence from Africa 27

vegetables, the local groups are engaged in many other activities such as producing red palm oil, KDQGLFUDIWV VXFKDVJUDVVPDWPDNLQJDQGEDVNHWU\ ORFDOFKLFNHQUHDULQJDQGFDVVDYDPLOOLQJ WRPDNHÀRXUIRUEDNLQJFDNHVDQGGRXJKQXWV$OWKRXJKWKHVHDFWLYLWLHVXVHGWREHFDUULHGRXW individually, the formation of groups has meant that production is more organized, which has also LQFUHDVHGDFFHVVWRPDUNHWV

6R IDU WKH ZRPHQ¶V JURXSV KDYH EHHQ VHOOLQJ DW ORFDO PDUNHWV DQG GLUHFWO\ WR ORFDO VFKRROV )RUPDOFHUWL¿FDWLRQRIRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQLVJHQHUDOO\RIORZSULRULW\ZKHUHSURGXFWLRQOHYHOV DUHORZDQGPRVWRIWKHSURGXFHLVPDUNHWHGORFDOO\+RZHYHUDIWHUDYLVLWE\WKHPDQDJHURI WKHQDWLRQDOFHUWL¿FDWLRQERG\7DQ&HUWWKHJURXSVKDYHGHFLGHGWRFHUWLI\WKHLUSURGXFWLRQDV RUJDQLF 6SHFLDOLVW DQG JHQHUDO VWRUHV LQ 'DU HV 6DODDP DUH LQFUHDVLQJO\ GHPRQVWUDWLQJ WKHLU willingness to market fresh and processed organic produce, and large hotels are also emerging as a SRWHQWLDOPDUNHW7KHUHODWLYHSUR[LPLW\WRWKHPDLQQDWLRQDOPDUNHWOHQGVLWVHOIZHOOWRH[SDQVLRQ RIWUDGLQJDFWLYLWLHVLQWKLVDUHD

:KLOHFHUWL¿FDWLRQFRXOGKDYHPDQ\DGYDQWDJHVLWPD\QRWVROYHDOOIDUPHUV¶SUREOHPV:KLOH there are many opportunities for improving the sustainability of smallholder livelihoods through RUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH WKHVH GHSHQG XSRQ DGHTXDWH KXPDQ DQG VRFLDO FDSLWDO 7KH LQWURGXFWLRQ of technologies and establishment of market linkages is most effective when combined with a JRRGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQDQGWUDGHDQGQHZZD\VRIZRUNLQJWRJHWKHU2UJDQLF agriculture that integrates both a production and a community focus gives an opportunity to secure VXVWDLQDEOHOLYHOLKRRGVIRUVPDOOKROGHUVLQ$IULFD7KLVFDQHQDEOHWKHPWRPDNHPRUHHI¿FLHQWXVH of available resources within the current institutional context and to build upon existing livelihood VWUDWHJLHV,IFRPPXQLW\RUJDQL]DWLRQVFRPPHUFLDOHQWHUSULVHVDQGRWKHUVWDNHKROGHUVZHUHWR FROODERUDWHRQFHUWL¿FDWLRQSURFHGXUHVWKLVZRXOGEULQJDGGLWLRQDOEHQH¿WVE\FRPELQLQJIDUPHU HPSRZHUPHQWZLWKSURGXFWLRQRIKLJKTXDOLW\SURGXFWVIRUFRQVXPHUV

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced ¥ x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets ¥ Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥

2.4.12 Soil and crop productivity improvements, EAT, Kenya64

The Environmental Action Team (EAT) soil and crop productivity enhancement project covers VPDOOKROGHUIDUPLQJ FRPPXQLWLHV RI7UDQV 1]RLD:HVW3RNRW /XJDUL DQG %XQJRPD GLVWULFWV LQ1RUWK5LIWDQGZHVWHUQUHJLRQVRI.HQ\D+HUHUDLQIDOOUHOLDELOLW\LVJHQHUDOO\KLJKH[FHSW LQ:HVW3RNRW'LVWULFWZKHUHWKHFOLPDWHLVPDUJLQDO+RZHYHUPRVWRIWKHGLVWULFWVDUHFRYHUHG by soils that are inherently low in fertility; it is an area with traditionally low crop productivity OHVVWKDQWZRWRQVKDIRUPDL]HDQGOHVVWKDQWRQVKDIRUEHDQV WKHUHLVORZGLYHUVLW\LQ the crops that are grown (about 95 per cent of cultivated land covered by the dominant crops of PDL]HDQGEHDQV DQGWKHUHLVUDPSDQWKRXVHKROGIRRGLQVHFXULW\ ZLWKDQDYHUDJHPRQWKV RIKXQJHUH[SHULHQFHGHYHU\\HDU The aim of this EAT project is to enhance household food security within the target farming communities through increased crop yields by encouraging soil DQGFURSSURGXFWLYLW\LPSURYHPHQWV($7FDUULHVRXWWUDLQLQJXVLQJSDUWLFLSDWRU\PHWKRGRORJLHV

64 6RXUFH&KDUOHV:DVRQJD($7.HQ\D 28 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

VXFKDV¿HOGGD\VGHPRQVWUDWLRQVIDUPHUYHUL¿FDWLRQWULDOVIDUPHUIROORZXSVIDUPHUWRIDUPHU YLVLWV,WHQFRXUDJHVWKHIRUPDWLRQRIFROODERUDWLYHSDUWQHUVKLSVDQGSDUWLFLSDWRU\OHDUQLQJDQG LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ($7LQVWUXFWVRQVRLOIHUWLOLW\PDQDJHPHQWFURSGLYHUVL¿FDWLRQLPSURYHGFURS PDQDJHPHQWDQGLPSURYHGIDUPSODQQLQJ

More than 1,000 farmers drawn from different farming communities have been directly trained WKURXJKWKHSURMHFWDQGWKH\DUHLQWHJUDWLQJFRPSRQHQWVLQWRWKHLUIDUPV8QWUDLQHGIDUPHUVDUH learning from trained farmers causing a multiplier effect so the number of farmers who have EHQH¿WHGIURPWKHSURMHFWLVPXFKKLJKHU,QWHJUDWLRQRIFRPSRQHQWVKDVUHVXOWHGLQLQFUHDVHG maize yields to 3,414 kg/ha (71 per cent increase in productivity), while bean yields have increased WRNJKD SHUFHQWLQFUHDVHLQSURGXFWLYLW\ DVFRPSDUHGWRWUDGLWLRQDODJULFXOWXUH7KHUH KDV DOVR EHHQ DQ LQFUHDVHG GLYHUVLW\ RI FURSV JURZQ 7KHVH UHVXOWV KDYH KDG EURDG UHDFKLQJ impacts on food and nutrition security, the natural environment, communities, education and the HFRQRP\ VHH%R[

Box 6. Impacts of the soil and crop productivity enhancement project of EAT Kenya

• Increased diversity in food crops available on farms has resulted in more varied diets and thus improved health. • Surplus produce is sold and income used to access health facilities and medicines. • There are reduced health risks for farmers because of reduced pesticide use. • Surplus produce is sold and the resulting income used to pay school fees for farmers’ children. Thus education has improved. • Soil loss from farms has been reduced following implementation of soil conservation techniques. • Soil health has improved through soil organic matter accumulation following application of organic manures. • Cohesion within farming communities has been enhanced through forums organized for farmers for VKDULQJLGHDVDQG¿QGLQJVRQSURGXFWLYLW\LPSURYHPHQWDQGPDUNHWLQJRIIDUPSURGXFH • Groups formed during the project’s interactions with farmers have evolved into channels for entry into other development interventions within the communities, such as group marketing of farm produce. • Farmers who have adopted new practices have become teachers for other community members on techniques for improving productivity, and in the process they themselves have gained more respect and social standing within communities and households, which has increased their self esteem. • 0RUHSHRSOHKDYHJDLQHGVHOIHPSOR\PHQWLQIDUPLQJDQGEXVLQHVVHVHVWDEOLVKHGWKURXJK¿QDQFHV obtained from sale of surplus farm produce. • Capacity of individual farmers to evaluate emerging production techniques has increased. • Households have EHHQ¿QDQFLDOO\HPSRZHUHGDQGKDYHEHHQDEOHWRDGRSWWHFKQRORJLFDO advancements such as mobile telephones, which have increased communications and enhanced HI¿FLHQF\LQH[SORLWDWLRQRIPDUNHWRSSRUWXQLWLHV • Unemployment levels within farming communities have fallen leading to an overall reduction in poverty within households.

Source: Charles Wasonga, EAT Kenya, pers. com., 2005.

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced ¥ x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥ Evidence from Africa 29

2.4.13 PEEST project, Iganga district, Uganda65

The Poverty Eradication through Environmentally Sustainable Technologies (PEEST) project has been implemented in the Iganga District of Eastern Uganda since June 1997 by Africa 1HWZRUN7KH DLP RI WKH SURMHFW LV WR FRPEDW HQYLURQPHQWDO GHJUDGDWLRQ E\ SURPRWLQJ ecologically sustainable development for improved livelihoods among the smallholder farmers LQWKH'LVWULFW6LQFHWKHVWKHQDWXUDODQGDJURHFRV\VWHPVRIWKHDUHDKDYHEHHQVXIIHULQJ GHJUDGDWLRQIROORZLQJUDSLGSRSXODWLRQJURZWKDQGGHWHULRUDWLRQLQWKHHFRQRPLFVLWXDWLRQ$VWKH population grew, natural forest and woodlands were cleared for agricultural use, fuel wood, timber DQGKXPDQVHWWOHPHQWV7KLVPDVVFOHDULQJRIIRUHVWVZRRGODQGVDQGZHWODQGVKDVUHVXOWHGLQDQ increasing scarcity of fuel wood, timber, and drinking water from natural wells and springs which are increasingly drying up at a much faster rate during the dry season

By 1997, many farmers in the Iganga District were faced with a problem of increasing vulnerability characterized by high poverty levels (above the national average of 45 per cent living below WKHSRYHUW\OHYHORIRQHGROODUSHUGD\ DQGIRRGLQVHFXULW\7KHWKUHH\HDU3((67SURMHFWZDV initiated with the aim of improving the livelihoods of the smallholder farmers through increased DJULFXOWXUHSURGXFWLYLW\DQGVXVWDLQDEOHQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHPDQDJHPHQW7KHDLPVRIWKHSURMHFW were to: provide knowledge and skills to enable communities to manage their environment and natural resources in a sustainable manner; help communities in the District to improve their food security and diets and to increase their incomes and fuel wood production; ensure active participation of both men and women as a family unit for improved family welfare; and ensure that successful projects and practices are replicated, where conditions permit, and unsuccessful RQHVDYRLGHG

Partners supporting PEEST include: Cordaid (formally Bilance), International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Programme (TSBF), the Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) of the National Agriculture Research Organization (NARO), Makerere University Soil Science Department and 6LGD¶V5HJLRQDO/DQG0DQDJHPHQW8QLW

7KH¿UVWSKDVHRIWKHSURMHFWXVHGSDUWLFLSDWRU\PHWKRGRORJLHVUDLVHGHQYLURQPHQWDODZDUHQHVV in the community, and equipped farmers with knowledge about their environment and skills WRPDQDJHWKHLUQDWXUDODQGDJULFXOWXUDOUHVRXUFHVPRUHVXVWDLQDEO\7KLVUHVXOWHGLQLPSURYHG SURGXFWLYLW\RIQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHV7KHWHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHVZKLFKZHUHDGDSWHGDQGDGRSWHG reduced soil erosion, conserved soil water, helped prevent soil nutrient loss and improved soil IHUWLOLW\ WKXV UHVXOWLQJ LQ LPSURYHG DJULFXOWXUH SURGXFWLYLW\ %\ LPSURYLQJ VRLO IHUWLOLW\ WKH GHPDQGE\SDUWLFLSDWLQJIDUPHUVIRUPRUHODQGIURPIRUHVWVDQGZHWODQGVZDVHOLPLQDWHG7KH QHZDJURIRUHVWU\WHFKQRORJLHVLQFUHDVHGWKHVXSSO\RIIXHOZRRGDQGIRGGHUDQGFRQWULEXWHGWR increasing the fertility of the soils, while the improved cook stove reduced the demand for fuel ZRRG7KHSURPRWLRQRILQGLJHQRXVFURSYDULHWLHVFRQWULEXWHGWRLPSURYLQJWKHIRRGVHFXULW\ RIWKHFRPPXQLW\DQGWRWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQRIWKHORFDODJURELRGLYHUVLW\2IWKHIDUPHUV UHDFKHGLQWKH¿UVWSKDVHRIWKHSURMHFWSHUFHQWUHSRUWHGLQFUHDVHGIRRGVXSSOLHVDQGPDQ\ UHSRUWHGLQFUHDVHGLQFRPH

However the rapidly growing population of a predominately rural population remains a serious FKDOOHQJH7KHSURMHFWKDVUHFRJQL]HGWKLVSUREOHPDQGLVQRZDGGLQJIDPLO\SODQQLQJDQG+,9 $,'6LQLWVLQWHUYHQWLRQV*HQGHULQHTXLW\UHPDLQVDVHULRXVOLPLWDWLRQWRRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH GHYHORSPHQWLQ8JDQGDDVLWDIIHFWVODERXUGHSOR\PHQWDQGDOORFDWLRQRIUHVRXUFHV7KHSURMHFW has mainstreamed gender and instituted incentives like support to families that show a higher GHJUHHRIJHQGHUHTXLW\WRSURPRWHFKDQJH*HQGHUHTXLW\LVDVRFLDOSKHQRPHQRQDQGWDNHVWLPH WRWDNHHIIHFWLQPDQ\RIWKHIDPLOLHV

The project is now in its second phase of implementation with the aim of reaching a total of KRXVHKROGVLQWKH'LVWULFW:LWKPDQ\IDUPHUVUHSOLFDWLQJRUJDQLFIDUPLQJSUDFWLFHVDQG

65 6RXUFH:DODJDDQG.DNLQGD 30 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

technologies, positive contributions of organic agriculture to the ecosystem of the District are being PXOWLSOLHG7KHDGRSWLRQRIVXVWDLQDEOHDJULFXOWXUHWHFKQLTXHVKDVDOVRLPSURYHGWKHOLYHOLKRRGV RIUXUDOIDUPKRXVHKROGV7KHVHWHFKQLTXHVDUHSDUWLFXODUO\VXLWDEOHWRVPDOODQGUHVRXUFHSRRU IDUPHUVDQGVFDOLQJXSVKRXOGEHIDFLOLWDWHGWREHQH¿WPDQ\PRUHIDUPHUVPRUHTXLFNO\

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced ¥ x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥

2.4.14 MOOF, Kenya66

Mount Kenya Organic Farm (MOOF) was established in 1999 with a remit to facilitate smallholder SURGXFHUJURXSVLQWKHSURGXFWLRQDQGPDUNHWLQJRIKLJKYDOXHFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFSURGXFWV7KH SULPDU\REMHFWLYHLVWRLPSURYHDQGKHOSWRUDLVHWKHOLYLQJVWDQGDUGVRI.HQ\D¶VVPDOOKROGHU farmers by having an assured food security for themselves and their communities, to tackle SRYHUW\DQGWRHPSRZHUWKHORFDOFRPPXQLW\WKURXJKWKHSURGXFWLRQRIVSHFLDOLW\KLJKYDOXH RUJDQLFFURSVIRUORFDODQGH[SRUWPDUNHWV

7KH022)IDUPGHPRQVWUDWLRQJDUGHQFRQVLVWVRIDFUHVDQGLVPDGHXSRIDQXPEHURIUDLVHG EHGVJURZLQJYHJHWDEOHW\SHV'XULQJWKH±GURXJKWYHJHWDEOHVLQWKHGHPRQVWUDWLRQ JDUGHQIDUHGZHOOFRPSDUHGWRRWKHUVLQVXUURXQGLQJJDUGHQV3HVWFRQWUROLQFOXGHGWKHXVHRI QDWXUDO SUHGDWRUV DQG SODQW H[WUDFWV QHHP DQG JDUOLF VSUD\V 022) KDV DOUHDG\ GHYHORSHG DORFDOQHWZRUNRIVHOIKHOSVPDOOKROGHUJURXSVZKLFKLWVHUYLFHVZLWKWUDLQLQJDQGDGYLFHRQ RUJDQLFIDUPLQJWHFKQLTXHV)DUPHUVWUDLQHGE\022)KDYHDGRSWHGRUJDQLFPHWKRGVVXFKDV soil management practices (which help to retain moisture) and have had a greater success with FURSVIDUPHUVYLVLWHG022)RUJDQLFJDUGHQVDQGIDUPHUVDGRSWHGDWOHDVWRQHRUJDQLF technique in food production

MOOF has recently started the organic borage for export project, which is currently supported E\86$,''HYHORSPHQW$JHQF\WKURXJK)LQWUDF¶V.HQ\D+RUWLFXOWXUH'HYHORSPHQW&HQWUHDQG (DUWKRLO7KH3URMHFWWDUJHWVSURGXFWLRQRIFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFERUDJHVHHGVIRUFROGSUHVVLQJLQWR QHXWUDFHXWLFDORLOIRUH[SRUWWR(XURSHDQGWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVRI$PHULFD7KLVKDVFRQWULEXWHG LPPHQVHO\LQEXLOGLQJXSWKHUXUDOHFRQRP\LQWKHSURMHFWDUHD7KLVRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLVODERXU LQWHQVLYHDQGKDVFRQWULEXWHGWRODUJHQXPEHURISHRSOHJHWWLQJHPSOR\HGLQWKHVXEVHFWRU%RUDJH VHHGVIHWFKJRRGIDUPJDWHSULFHDWSHUNLORJUDPZKLFKKDVEHHQQHJRWLDWHGDQGDJUHHG XSRQEHWZHHQWKHEX\HU(DUWKRLO.HQ\D/LPLWHGDQGWKHIDUPHUVVHOIKHOSJURXSV%RUDJH\LHOGV are estimated at 500–750 kg per acre and the cost of production is very minimal compared to FRQYHQWLRQDO DJULFXOWXUDO WHFKQRORJLHV ,QFRPH JHQHUDWHG IURP WKH DFUHV RI ERUDJH RI WKLV SURMHFWLQLVHVWLPDWHGDW.VKV0LOOLRQ FRPLQJLQWRWKH1DQ\XNLFRPPXQLW\ VPDOOKROGHUIDUPHUV RYHUDSHULRGRIVHYHQPRQWKV

It is hoped that income generated from this project will enable people to have access to better health facilities, to afford a family bicycle and to enjoy improved nutritional status from stocking 7LODSLD¿VKIRUFRQVXPSWLRQ,WLVKRSHGWKDWLQFRPHJHQHUDWHGIURPVDOHRIRUJDQLFRLOFURSV

66 6RXUFH3HWHU0XUDJH Evidence from Africa 31

ZLOOSURYLGHPRQH\QHHGHGIRUWKHKRXVHKROGEDVLFQHHGVDQGKHQFHUHGXFHHQFURDFKPHQWWR0W .HQ\DIRUHVWIRUFKDUFRDOEXUQLQJDQGWKHIHOOLQJRILQGLJHQRXVWUHHVIRUWLPEHUDQGIHQFLQJSRVWV As borage attracts bees in large numbers, it is hoped that farmers will engage in production of RUJDQLFKRQH\ZKLFKZKHQPDUNHWLQJLVZHOORUJDQL]HGZLOOIHWFKJRRGSULFHVDQGVXSSOHPHQW WKHLUERUDJHLQFRPH

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced ¥ x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc ¥ Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets ¥ Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥

2.4.15 PELUM, Tanzania67

3DUWLFLSDWRU\(FRORJLFDO/DQG8VH0DQDJHPHQW7DQ]DQLD 3(/807DQ]DQLD LVDQHWZRUNRI civil society organizations working with rural communities in promoting sustainable agriculture LQ7DQ]DQLD3(/807DQ]DQLDLVRQHRIWKHWHQ&RXQWU\:RUNLQJ*URXSV &:*V LQ(DVW&HQWUDO DQG6RXWKHUQ$IULFDWKDWIRUPWKH3(/80$VVRFLDWLRQ7KHDVVRFLDWLRQZDVODXQFKHGLQDQG LWVKHDGTXDUWHUVDUHLQ/XVDND=DPELD3(/80DOVRKDV&:*VLQ.HQ\DDQG8JDQGD&XUUHQWO\ PELUM Tanzania has 33 member organizations that have come together to facilitate learning, QHWZRUNLQJ DQG DGYRFDF\ LQ SDUWLFLSDWRU\ HFRORJLFDO ODQG XVH PDQDJHPHQW$V D QHWZRUN RI CSOs, PELUM Tanzania does not work directly with smallholder farmers, but works through its PHPEHUVWKDWZRUNZLWKUXUDOFRPPXQLWLHVLQ7DQ]DQLD

The objectives of PELUM Tanzania are to develop capacity of member organizations through training workshops; facilitate networking through farmer organizations; be a tool for documentation and communication; facilitate advocacy work in food and seed security and sustainable land use management; advocate issues of marketing and trade; and develop PELUM Tanzania membership IXQFWLRQLQJDVVHVVPHQWDQGYLVLELOLW\3(/807DQ]DQLDZRUNVZLWKDQGIRUVPDOOKROGHUIDUPHUVWR tackle food security issues by advocating participatory policy formulation; access to markets; seed security, improved rural infrastructure (roads, storage facilities, physical markets, communication, HWF DQGDOORFDWLRQRISHUFHQWRIWKHQDWLRQDOEXGJHWWRDJULFXOWXUHDQGIRRGVHFXULW\E\ PELUM Tanzania also organizes farmer exchange visits and networking days so that farmers can OHDUQDQGH[FKDQJHEHVWSUDFWLFHV'XULQJQHWZRUNLQJGD\VIDUPHUV¶JURXSVDQGQHWZRUNVFRPH together to exhibit their products and to share experiences and skills in production, processing, VWRUDJHDQGPDUNHWLQJRIDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWV

,QIRXU¿HOGVWDIIIURP3(/807DQ]DQLDSDUWLFLSDWHGLQDWZRZHHNVZRUNVKRSRQRUJDQLF farming and marketing organized by the PELUM Association to introduce member organizations WRWKHSRWHQWLDORIRUJDQLFIDUPLQJLQ7DQ]DQLD$IWHUWKLVZRUNVKRSVRPHPHPEHUVKDYHVWDUWHG VWUDWHJLHVIRULQWURGXFLQJRUJDQLFIDUPLQJLQWKHLUDUHDV3(/807DQ]DQLDDOVRPDGHLWSRVVLEOHIRU its member organizations and farmers to meet with and learn from organic farming institutions in Tanzania, such as EPOPA (Export Promotion of Organic Products from Africa), TOAM (Tanzania 2UJDQLF$JULFXOWXUH0RYHPHQW DQG7DQ&HUW 7DQ]DQLD2UJDQLF&HUWL¿FDWLRQ$VVRFLDWLRQ

67 6RXUFH'RQDWL$OH[6HQ]LD3(/807DQ]DQLD 32 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

.H\EHQH¿WVRIFDVHVWXG\ Improvement to: Mechanism: Amount of available food x Increase in food produced not x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock reported Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±VRLOVZDWHU fertility etc Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups ¥ x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of farmers ¥ x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWRIDUPHUV households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and markets ¥ Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers ¥

2.4.16 Discussion of evidence

Evidence from both the secondary sources and the case studies summarized in this report UHLQIRUFHVWKHYLHZWKDWIRRGVHFXULW\LVLQÀXHQFHGE\PDQ\GLIIHUHQWIDFWRUVWKDWYDU\IURPUHJLRQ to region and although an increase in yields is a fundamental factor, this alone cannot guarantee a UHGXFWLRQLQIRRGLQVHFXULW\2WKHUIDFWRUVVXFKDVLPSURYHPHQWVWRWKHQDWXUDOVRFLDODQGKXPDQ capital assets base that organic agriculture provide together with increased farmer incomes are DOVRVLJQL¿FDQWDQGFDQRIWHQEHVHHQDVPHDVXUHVRIVXFFHVVLQUHGXFLQJIRRGLQVHFXULW\

To illustrate this more clearly the key improvements resulting from each of the case studies GHWDLOHGLQWKLVUHVHDUFKKDYHEHHQDQDO\VHG7KHVHDUHVXPPDUL]HGLQER[

Box 7. Key improvements shown by case studies Number of case studies which showed Improvement to: Mechanism: Per cent improvement (out of a possible 15) Amount of available x Increase in food produced 12 a food x Increase in yields of food crops/ livestock Natural capital x %HQH¿WVWRQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW 14 – soils, water, fertility etc Social capital x Builds partnerships between groups 14 x Increased community cohesion and cooperation Human capital x Increase in knowledge and skills of 15 farmers x +HDOWKDQGHGXFDWLRQEHQH¿WVWR farmers, households and community Physical capital x Improvements to infrastructure and 6 markets Financial capital x Increased incomes to farmers 13 a For two of the case studies examined (organic cotton in Uganda and Tanzania) increasing food production was not part of the remit, as such, in project objectives. If only those 13 case studies which were centred on food production were considered, the percentage would be 92 per cent. One case study did not provide data on food availability.

• Increase in food availability

Food availability increased in all the case studies focused on food production where data were reported, either in terms of increased yields of crops and livestock productivity or an increase in Evidence from Africa 33

WRWDOIRRGSURGXFHG68 For example, the 500 farmers on some 1,000 hectares participating in the &RPPXQLW\0RELOL]DWLRQ$JDLQVW'HVHUWL¿FDWLRQ &0$' SURJUDPPHLQ.HQ\DKDYHVHHQD GRXEOLQJRIPDL]H\LHOGV±LQFUHDVLQJIURPDERXWWRWKD

Evidence from this study and others shows that agricultural yields in organic systems tend to be VWDEOHZKHQFRQYHUWLQJIURPORZLQSXWV\VWHPV WKRVHWKDWPD\KDYHEHHQE\SDVVHGE\WKH³JUHHQ UHYROXWLRQ´ 2YHUWLPH\LHOGVLQFUHDVHDVFDSLWDODVVHWVLQV\VWHPVLPSURYHWKXVRXWSHUIRUPLQJ WKRVHLQWUDGLWLRQDOV\VWHPVDQGPDWFKLQJWKRVHLQPRUHFRQYHQWLRQDOLQSXWLQWHQVLYHV\VWHPV

v %HQH¿WVWRWKHQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW

The vast majority of the case studies in this research showed improvements to the natural capital EDVH±WKHLUORFDOQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW±ZLWKSHUFHQWRIWKHFDVHVWXGLHVUHSRUWLQJEHQH¿WVWR VRLOIHUWLOLW\ZDWHUVXSSO\ÀRRGFRQWURODQGELRGLYHUVLW\)RUH[DPSOHWKH3((67SURJUDPPH LQ8JDQGDUHVXOWHGLQLPSURYHGSURGXFWLYLW\RIQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHV7KHRUJDQLFWHFKQRORJLHVDQG practices, which were adapted and adopted, reduced soil erosion, conserved soil water, helped prevent soil nutrient loss, and improved soil fertility, thus resulting in improved agriculture SURGXFWLYLW\%\LPSURYLQJVRLOIHUWLOLW\WKHGHPDQGE\SDUWLFLSDWLQJIDUPHUVIRUPRUHODQGIURP IRUHVWVDQGZHWODQGVZDVHOLPLQDWHG

v %HQH¿WVWRFRPPXQLW\FRRSHUDWLRQDQGSDUWQHUVKLSV

Again, 14 out of the 15 case studies (93 per cent) cited improvements to social capital as integral WRWKHLUVXFFHVV7KHIRUPDWLRQRIIDUPHUV¶JURXSVDQGFRRSHUDWLYHVDQGOHVVIRUPDOFRPPXQLW\ collaboration has lowered the costs of working, led to increased knowledge transfer amongst IDUPHUV UHGXFHG WKH FRVWV RI RUJDQLF FHUWL¿FDWLRQ DQG FRQWULEXWHG WR JUHDWHU IRRG VHFXULW\ Women from the Mkuranga District of Tanzania, for example, have been collaborating on organic vegetable production and processing activities with the aim of producing organic vegetables for LQFUHDVHGIRRGVHFXULW\DQGLQFRPHV7KH\KDYHFRPHWRJHWKHUDQGIRUPHGJURXSVDVVRFLDWHG XQGHUWKHXPEUHOODRIµ0XXQJDQR¶+HOSLQJRQHDQRWKHU¿QDQFLDOO\GXULQJGLI¿FXOWSHULRGVZDV RQHRIWKHPDLQPRWLYDWLRQVIRUWKHSURMHFW&RRSHUDWLRQDPRQJZRPHQDURXQGDFRPPRQJRDO KDVFUHDWHGSRZHUIXOPRPHQWXPLQWKHGULYHIRUFRPPXQLW\GHYHORSPHQW

The 1,000 farmers trained under the EAT project in Kenya have in turn become teachers for other FRPPXQLW\PHPEHUVRQWHFKQLTXHVIRULPSURYLQJSURGXFWLYLW\WKXVPXOWLSO\LQJWKHSURMHFW¶V LPSDFW &RKHVLRQ ZLWKLQ IDUPLQJ FRPPXQLWLHV KDV EHHQ HQKDQFHG WKURXJK IRUXPV RUJDQL]HG IRUIDUPHUVIRUVKDULQJLGHDVDQG¿QGLQJV*URXSVIRUPHGGXULQJWKHSURMHFW¶VLQWHUDFWLRQVZLWK farmers have evolved into channels for entry into other development interventions within the FRPPXQLWLHVVXFKDVJURXSPDUNHWLQJRIIDUPSURGXFH

v ,QFUHDVHLQHGXFDWLRQVNLOOVDQGKHDOWK

$OORIWKHFDVHVWXGLHVGHWDLOHGLQWKLVUHSRUWKDYHUHSRUWHGRQLPSURYHPHQWVLQKXPDQFDSLWDO$OO have some element of education that increases the knowledge of organic farming methods and the VNLOOVRIIDUPHUV,QPDQ\FDVHVWKHUHKDYHEHHQGLUHFWLPSURYHPHQWVLQWKHKHDOWKRILQGLYLGXDOV and communities as a result of increased knowledge, an increase in food yields and improved DFFHVVWRIRRG7KHDELOLW\RIIDUPHUVWRXVHWKHLUEHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHKROLVWLFQDWXUHRI organic farming to adapt and change their farming systems when faced with new challenges has resulted in these agricultural systems becoming more resilient to environmental and external VWUHVVHV

7KHFDVHVWXGLHVGHPRQVWUDWHGPXOWLIDFHWHGKHDOWKEHQH¿WVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDVZLWFKWRRUJDQLF IDUPLQJ)RUH[DPSOHWKH($7SURMHFWLQ.HQ\DUHSRUWHGLPSURYHPHQWVLQIDUPHUV¶KHDOWKEHFDXVH WKHKHDOWKULVNVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKV\QWKHWLFDJURFKHPLFDOVZHUHUHGXFHGRUHOLPLQDWHGZLWKWKH

68 6HHIRRWQRWHLQER[ 34 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

switch to organic farming; the increased diversity in food crops resulted in more varied diets and LQFUHDVHGQXWULWLRQDOVHFXULW\WKHLQFUHDVHGLQFRPHHQKDQFHGDELOLW\WRDFFHVVKHDOWKFDUH7KH& 0$'SURMHFWLQ.HQ\DUHSRUWHGUHGXFHGFKLOGPRUWDOLW\LQWKHSURMHFWDUHD

v ,PSURYHPHQWVWRLQIUDVWUXFWXUHDQGPDUNHWV

Of the case studies examined, 40 per cent reported improvements in the physical infrastructure DQGLQPDUNHWDFFHVV$FFHVVWRPDUNHWVKDVLQFUHDVHGQRWRQO\IRUIDUPHUVVHOOLQJWKHLUVXUSOXV LQGRPHVWLFPDUNHWVEXWDOVRIRUIDUPHUVVHOOLQJWKHLUFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFSURGXFHLQLQWHUQDWLRQDO PDUNHWV

v ,QFUHDVHLQIDUPHUDQGKRXVHKROGLQFRPHV

Of the case studies, 87 per cent showed increases in farmer and household incomes as a result of becoming organic, which contributed to reducing poverty levels and to increasing regional food VHFXULW\)RUH[DPSOHDIWHUDGRSWLQJRUJDQLFQRUPVDQGSUDFWLFHVWKHLQFRPHVRIIDUPHUVIURP 6$&'(3LQ7KLND.HQ\DLQFUHDVHGSHUFHQW7KLVHQDEOHGWKHPWRPHHWEDVLFQHHGVVXFK DVSD\LQJVFKRROIHHVDQGPHGLFDOH[SHQVHV$GGLWLRQDOVDYLQJVIRURUJDQLFIDUPHUVDFFUXHDVD UHVXOWRIQRORQJHUQHHGLQJWRSXUFKDVHV\QWKHWLFIHUWLOL]HUVDQGSHVWLFLGHV

v Summary

A study in 2002 comparing organic initiatives to other sustainable but not organic projects69 drew DQXPEHURIFRQFOXVLRQVWKDWDUHDOVRUHÀHFWHGLQWKHFDVHVWXGLHVRIWKLVUHVHDUFK,QDGGLWLRQWR WKHLQFUHDVHVLQDYDLODEOHIRRGRUJDQLFV\VWHPVDUHEHQH¿FLDOEHFDXVHWKH\DUHPRUHLQWHJUDWHG than average farms; they tend to use a larger number of the improvement mechanisms and focus on intensifying microenvironments on farms and diversifying by adding new regenerative FRPSRQHQWVWRWKHV\VWHP$ODUJHSURSRUWLRQRIRUJDQLFDQGQHDURUJDQLFV\VWHPVIRFXVRQVRFLDO capital building through groups and 97 per cent of cases in the 2002 study and 100 per cent in this VWXG\KDYHDKXPDQFDSLWDOGHYHORSPHQWHOHPHQW$GGLQJYDOXHWKURXJKGLUHFWOLQNVWRPDUNHWV and consumers has also been shown to be an important development in the success of organic V\VWHPV

/LPLWDWLRQVDQGFKDOOHQJHVWRWKHVSUHDGRIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLQ$IULFD

2.5.1 Knowledge

$OWKRXJKPDQ\UHVRXUFHFRQVHUYLQJWHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHVDUHFXUUHQWO\EHLQJXVHGLQ$IULFD WKHWRWDOQXPEHURIIDUPHUVXVLQJWKHPLVVWLOOUHODWLYHO\VPDOO/DFNRINQRZOHGJHRIRUJDQLFDQG VXVWDLQDEOHDJULFXOWXUDOWHFKQLTXHVLVRIWHQDOLPLWLQJIDFWRULQWKHVSUHDGRIRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQ

Farming systems become more productive when human capital increases, particularly in the IRUPRIWKHFDSDFLW\RIIDUPHUVWRLQQRYDWHDQGDGDSWWKHLUIDUPV\VWHPV6XVWDLQDEOHRUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUHLVQRWDGH¿QHGVHWRISDUWLFXODUWHFKQRORJLHV/DFNRILQIRUPDWLRQRQDJURHFRORJ\ and the necessary skills to manage diverse farming systems can be a major barrier to the adoption RIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH70

Adoption of new technologies is also not a costless process for some farmers as often they cannot simply cut their existing use of fertilizer or pesticides and hope to maintain outputs immediately, thus PDNLQJRSHUDWLRQVPRUHSUR¿WDEOH+RZHYHUWKLVPD\EHRIIVHWWRDFHUWDLQH[WHQWE\WKHVDYLQJV LQFXUUHGDVDUHVXOWRIQRORQJHUKDYLQJWREX\H[SHQVLYHV\QWKHWLFSHVWLFLGHVDQGIHUWLOL]HUV

2QHRIWKHUHDVRQVWKDWWKHVHWUDQVLWLRQFRVWVDULVHLVWKDWIDUPHUVPXVW¿UVWLQYHVWLQOHDUQLQJ$V

69 3UHWW\ 70 3UHWW\DQG:DUG5|OLQJDQG:DJHPDNHUV3UHWW\ Evidence from Africa 35

UHFHQWDQGFXUUHQWDJULFXOWXUDOSROLFLHVKDYHWHQGHGWRSURPRWHVSHFLDOL]HGQRQDGDSWLYHV\VWHPV with a lower innovation capacity, farmers then have to spend time learning about a greater diversity RISUDFWLFHVDQGPHDVXUHV/DFNRILQIRUPDWLRQDQGV\VWHPPDQDJHPHQWVNLOOVFDQWKHUHIRUHEH DPDMRUEDUULHUWRWKHDGRSWLRQRIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH'XULQJWKHWUDQVLWLRQSHULRGIDUPHUVPXVW experiment more, and so incur the costs of making mistakes as well as those of acquiring new NQRZOHGJHDQGLQIRUPDWLRQ71

In addition, lack of knowledge and information about organic agriculture among government RI¿FLDOV DQG RWKHU LQÀXHQWLDO DFWRUV LQ HGXFDWLRQDO DQG UHVHDUFK LQVWLWXWLRQV UHVXOWV LQ OLPLWHG DSSUHFLDWLRQRIWKHSRWHQWLDOWKDWRUJDQLFDQGQHDURUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHRIIHUVIRUWDFNOLQJSRYHUW\ HUDGLFDWLRQDQGIRRGVHFXULW\LVVXHV

2.5.2 Support and infrastructure

7KHGLI¿FXOWLHVLQGLVVHPLQDWLQJLQIRUPDWLRQLQUHPRWHDQGPDUJLQDOUXUDODUHDVLQ$IULFDFDQ DOVREHDOLPLWLQJIDFWRUWRWKHVSUHDGRIRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQ2QHRIWKHJUHDWHVWFRQVWUDLQWVIDFHG E\IDUPHUVFKDQJLQJWRRUJDQLFDQGQHDURUJDQLFV\VWHPVLVWKHODFNRINQRZOHGJHLQIRUPDWLRQ VRXUFHV DQG WHFKQLFDO VXSSRUW *UHDWHU JRYHUQPHQW LQYHVWPHQW LQ DSSURSULDWH UHVHDUFK DQG H[WHQVLRQVHUYLFHVZRXOGKHOSRYHUFRPHWKHVHFRQVWUDLQWV72

$IULFDLVVWDUWLQJWREHQH¿WIURPRUJDQLFPDUNHWRSSRUWXQLWLHVEXWDWWKHPRPHQWODUJHFHUWL¿HG SURGXFHUVDQGRSHUDWRUVPD\¿QGLWHDVLHUWRDFFHVVLQWHUQDWLRQDOPDUNHWVWKDQWKHVPDOOHUVFDOH IDUPHQWHUSULVH:KHUHVPDOOHUIDUPHUVDUH L RUJDQL]HGLQWR farmer groups and are being supported by organizations including KOAN, NOGAMU and TOAM or (ii) where the commercial exporters PHHWFHUWL¿FDWLRQFRVWVWKH\DUHDEOHWRDFFHVVPDUNHWVPRUHHDVLO\EXWIRUVRPHWKHFRVWVRI FHUWL¿FDWLRQV\VWHPVDQGFRPSO\LQJZLWKLQWHUQDWLRQDOVWDQGDUGVPD\DOVREHSURKLELWLYH73

Another factor affecting farmers wanting to take advantage of the organic export market is the OLPLWHGLQIUDVWUXFWXUHLQ$IULFD0DQ\FRPSDQLHVZKRVSHFLDOL]HLQRUJDQLFSURGXFHIRUWKHRYHUVHDV H[SRUWPDUNHWRIWHQH[SHFWODUJHTXDQWLWLHVRIRUJDQLFSURGXFHDWRQFH:KHQFRQVLGHULQJWKDW PXFKRIWKHFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFSURGXFHLQ$IULFDQFRXQWULHVPD\EHJURZQE\DFRRSHUDWLYHJURXS of small farmers, the logistics required to ensure that produce leaves from many different farms yet reaches the destination on time (with transport infrastructure often very limited or inconsistent) and in perfect condition (with limited and inconsistent refrigeration facilities available) are YHU\FKDOOHQJLQJ,QRUGHUIRUIDUPHUVIURP$IULFDWRFRPSHWHLQLQWHUQDWLRQDORUJDQLFPDUNHWV VLJQL¿FDQWLQYHVWPHQWLQWRVXSSRUWLQJLQIUDVWUXFWXUHLVHVVHQWLDO

The general lack of large domestic organic markets in Africa may seem to make commercial RUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH D KLJK ULVN YHQWXUH DV LW UHOLHV VROHO\ RQ WKH H[SRUW PDUNHW74 The more a SURGXFWLRQ V\VWHP ± RUJDQLF RU QRQRUJDQLF ± UHVHPEOHV PRQRFURSSLQJ WKH JUHDWHU LV LWV YXOQHUDELOLW\5HFHQWO\KRZHYHUGRPHVWLFRUJDQLFPDUNHWVDUHVWDUWLQJWRÀRXULVKLQVRPH$IULFDQ FRXQWULHVSDUWLFXODUO\LQ(DVW$IULFD6RXWK$IULFDDQG1RUWK$IULFD0RUHRYHUPRQRFURSSLQJRQ RUJDQLFIDUPVLVQRWFRPPRQLQ$IULFD6PDOOKROGHURUJDQLFIDUPHUVLQ$IULFDRIWHQH[SRUWRQH FHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFFDVKFURSEXWDOVRSURGXFHDYDULHW\RIRWKHUVIRUWKHLURZQFRQVXPSWLRQDQG ORFDOVDOHV

/DFN RI ¿QDQFLDO UHVRXUFHV PD\ DOVR OLPLW WKH VSUHDG RI RUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH LQ$IULFD 0DQ\ IDUPHUVDUHVPDOOVFDOHSRRUDQGODFNWKH¿QDQFLDOUHVRXUFHVWRHQDEOHWKHPWRVWDUWWKHWUDQVLWLRQ WRRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH&RQYHUVHO\PDQ\IDUPHUVPDNHWKHWUDQVLWLRQWRRUJDQLFSUHFLVHO\EHFDXVH RIWKHLUODFNRI¿QDQFHVWRSXUFKDVHV\QWKHWLFIHUWLOL]HUVDQGSHVWLFLGHV

71 2UU5|OLQJDQG:DJHUPDNHUV%HQWOH\HWDO/LHEOLQHWDO%DZGHQ&KDPEHUV *DOODJKHUHWDO 72 $OWLHUL 73 :\QHQDQG9DQ]HWWL5XQGJUHQ 74 :DODJD 36 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

Development agents and NGOs involved in implementation of organic support programs within the IDUPLQJFRPPXQLWLHVDOVRPD\ODFNWKH¿QDQFLDOUHVRXUFHVWRIDFLOLWDWHRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQDQGWR YHQWXUHWRZDUGVWKHH[SRUWPDUNHWDVWKHUHLVDOVRWKHSUREOHPRIOLPLWHGDQGXQFHUWDLQIXQGLQJ

2.5.3 Winners and losers

,QVRPHFRQWH[WVZKHUHRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLVEHLQJDGRSWHGWKHUHZLOODOVREHFULWLFDOWUDGHRIIV WKDWPD\OLPLWWKHVSUHDGDQGSRWHQWLDOWRVFDOHXS7KHXVHRIRQHDVVHWIRULPSURYHPHQWVFDQ UHVXOWLQWKHGHSOHWLRQRIDQRWKHU HJEXLOGLQJDURDGWRLPSURYHPDUNHWLQJQHDUDIRUHVWFDQDLG LOOHJDOWLPEHUH[WUDFWLRQ ,QVRPHFDVHVSURJUHVVLQRQHFRPSRQHQWRIDIDUPV\VWHPPD\FDXVH secondary problems, such as increased yields leading to increased offtake of nutrients, which may QHHGWREHVXSSOLHGIURPH[WHUQDOVRXUFHV75

7KHUHZLOODOVREHQHZZLQQHUVDQGORVHUVZLWKWKHZLGHUDGRSWLRQRIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPV 7KLVPRGHOIRUIDUPLQJV\VWHPVLPSOLHVDYHU\OLPLWHGUROHIRUFXUUHQWDJURFKHPLFDOSURGXFWV WKHSURGXFHUVRIZKLFKDUHXQOLNHO\WRDFFHSWPDUNHWORVVHVOLJKWO\

2.5.4 Gender, health, employment and land tenure issues

In some cases organic farming systems may increase the household workload and the burden may particularly fall on women if the cropping intensity of the farm increases or new lands are WDNHQLQWRFXOWLYDWLRQ+RZHYHUZLWKWKHH[FHSWLRQRIYHJHWDEOHVDGGLWLRQDOLQFRPHVDULVLQJIURP sales of produce, particularly coffee and cotton for export, may go directly to the men, who are OHVVOLNHO\WKDQZRPHQWRLQYHVWLQWKHFKLOGUHQDQGWKHKRXVHKROGDVDZKROH)DUPHUVDUHDOVR sometimes hesitant to adopt more labour intensive farming methods sometimes associated with RUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHSDUWLFXODUO\LIWKH\DUHWREHXVHGZLWKFURSVWKH\FRQVLGHUDVORZYDOXH

Sustainable livelihoods based on organic agricultural production may appear to be keeping people LQUXUDODUHDVDZD\IURPFHQWUHVRISRZHUDQGµPRGHUQ¶VRFLHW\ZKHQWKHDVSLUDWLRQVRI some UXUDOSHRSOHPD\SUHFLVHO\EHWRJDLQVXI¿FLHQWUHVRXUFHVWROHDYHUXUDODUHDV7KHSRRUKHDOWKRI the farming workforce in some areas due to disease, HIV /AIDS and malnutrition will also affect DQGUHGXFHWKHSURGXFWLYLW\RIODERXULQVRPHDUHDVRI$IULFD

Whilst a whole systems organic farming approach advocates an integrated system featuring both crops and livestock, some of the communities in Africa are traditionally pastoral and sometimes FURSOLYHVWRFNFRQÀLFWVFDQRFFXU

Organic agriculture that increases the assets base and so the value and potential of the land may also increase the incentives for more powerful interests to take over, such as landlords taking EDFNIRUPHUO\GHJUDGHGODQGIURPWHQDQWVZKRKDGDGRSWHGVRLOLPSURYLQJPHWKRGV&RQYHUVHO\ tenant farmers may also be reluctant to spend any initial outlay on improvements to someone HOVH¶VODQG

2.5.5 External factors

([WHUQDOIDFWRUVWKDWOLPLWWKHVSUHDGRIRUJDQLFDQGQRQRUJDQLFIDUPLQJDOLNHLQ$IULFDDUHODUJHO\ the same as those external factors that contribute to and exacerbate food insecurity (see section 0LVSHUFHSWLRQVPD\DOVRSOD\DOLPLWLQJUROHLQFOXGLQJIRUH[DPSOHWKHPLVSHUFHSWLRQWKDW organic agricultural practices would not be able to address the high incidence of pest and diseases LQFLGHQFHVRQVRPHVSHFLHVDQGLQVRPHDUHDV6RPH$IULFDQ*RYHUQPHQWVPD\¿QGWKHPVHOYHV XQGHUSROLWLFDORUHFRQRPLFSUHVVXUHWRSURPRWHLQGXVWULDODJURFKHPLFDOEDVHGDJULFXOWXUHDQG the introduction of genetically modifed organisms (GMOs) instead of sustainable agriculture EDVHGRQORFDOO\DYDLODEOHUHVRXUFHV

75 6PDOLQJHWDO Evidence from Africa 37

2.5.6 Participatory development policies for organic agriculture

0XFKOHVVLVNQRZQDERXWRUJDQLFUHVRXUFHFRQVHUYLQJWHFKQRORJLHVWKDQLVNQRZQDERXWWKHXVH RIH[WHUQDOLQSXWVLQPRGHUQL]HGDJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPV,WLVFOHDUWKDWWKHSURFHVVE\ZKLFKIDUPHUV OHDUQDERXWDOWHUQDWLYHZD\VRIIDUPLQJLVFUXFLDO,IDOWHUQDWLYHVDUHHQIRUFHGRUFRHUFHGWKHQ IDUPHUVPD\RQO\DGRSWWKHPIRUDOLPLWHGSHULRG%XWLIWKHSURFHVVLVSDUWLFLSDWRU\DQGHQKDQFHV IDUPHUV¶FDSDFLW\WROHDUQDERXWWKHLUIDUPDQGLWVUHVRXUFHVWKHQWKHIRXQGDWLRQIRUFKDQJHDQG FRQWLQXRXVLQQRYDWLRQLVODLG76

7KH ¿QGLQJV IURP WKLV UHSRUW VXJJHVW WKDW WKH WHFKQLFDO LPSURYHPHQWV OHDGLQJ WR QDWXUDO FDSLWDO DFFXPXODWLRQ DUH EHLQJ ZLGHO\ DSSOLHG ZLWK RUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH GHYHORSPHQW$ IRFXV on social capital and institutional development is needed to continue to build resilience and innovation capacity within communities and to facilitate the spread of good practice in organic DJULFXOWXUH77

As indicated earlier in this paper, agricultural sustainability can contribute to increased food SURGXFWLRQ DV ZHOO DV PDNH D SRVLWLYH LPSDFW RQ WKH HQYLURQPHQW VRFLHW\ DQG LQGLYLGXDOV Clearly much can and is being done with existing resources, but a wider transition towards organic DJULFXOWXUHZLOOQRWRFFXUZLWKRXWVRPHH[WHUQDOVXSSRUWDQGPRQH\$VWKHHYLGHQFHVKRZVLW costs time and money to rebuild depleted natural and social capital and also there are costs in GHYHORSLQJQHZRUDGDSWLQJROGWHFKQRORJLHV

Most agricultural sustainability improvements worldwide occurring in the 1990s and early 2000s appear to have arisen despite existing national and institutional policies, rather than because of WKHP7KHODFNRIHQDEOLQJSROLFLHVSDUWLFXODUO\WKRVHDLPHGDWIRVWHULQJJURZWKRIWKHRUJDQLF sector in areas of research and development and markets, has been a major obstacle to the spread RIRUJDQLFIDUPLQJ7KHWHQGHQF\RI*RYHUQPHQWVKDVEHHQWRFUHDWHSURJUDPPHVGHVLJQHGWR GUDZVPDOOIDUPDJULFXOWXUHLQWR KLJKLQSXW WHFKQRORJ\DQGKLJKHUYDOXHFURSVHVSHFLDOO\IRU H[SRUWPDUNHWVRQWKHDVVXPSWLRQWKDWWKH\ZLOOEHFRPHPRUHSURGXFWLYHDQGFRPSHWLWLYH7KLV KDVEHHQWKHFDVHLQ(DVW$IULFD3ROLFLHVGHVLJQHGWRGHOLYHULQFUHDVHGIRRGSURGXFWLRQZLOOKDYH to be changed and be developed with full stakeholder consultation if they are to help deliver HQYLURQPHQWDODQGVRFLDOEHQH¿WVWRR5XUDOGHYHORSPHQWSROLFLHVZKLFKIRFXVRQCH[RJHQRXV¶ VROXWLRQVWRWKHHFRQRPLFDQGVRFLDOSUREOHPVRIUXUDOQHLJKERXUKRRGVDUHLOOVXLWHGWRWKHQHHGV RIWKHFRPPXQLW\DQGWRSDUWLFLSDWRU\GHYHORSPHQW78

7KHVHFRQFOXVLRQVDUHFRQ¿UPHGE\WKH¿QGLQJVDQGUHFRPPHQGDWLRQVRIWKHUHFHQWO\UHOHDVHG report of the International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD) panel, an intergovernmental process, supported by over 400 experts XQGHUWKHFRVSRQVRUVKLSRIWKH)$2*()81'381(381(6&2WKH:RUOG%DQNDQG:+2 LVVXHG RQ $SULO ,W VWDWHG VWURQJO\ WKDW ³WKH ZD\ WKH ZRUOG JURZV LWV IRRG ZLOO KDYH to change radically to better serve the poor and hungry if the world is to cope with growing SRSXODWLRQDQGFOLPDWHFKDQJHZKLOHDYRLGLQJVRFLDOEUHDNGRZQDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOFROODSVH´ 7KHDXWKRUVIRXQGWKDW L SURJUHVVLQDJULFXOWXUHKDVUHDSHGYHU\XQHTXDOEHQH¿WVDQGKDVFRPHDW a high social and environmental cost; and (ii) food producers should try using “natural processes” OLNHFURSURWDWLRQDQGXVHRIRUJDQLFIHUWLOL]HUV7KHDXWKRUVFDOOIRUPRUHDWWHQWLRQWRVPDOOVFDOH IDUPHUVDQGXWLOL]LQJVXVWDLQDEOHDJULFXOWXUDOSUDFWLFHVDQGVSHFL¿FDOO\PHQWLRQRUJDQLFIDUPLQJ DVDQRSWLRQVHYHUDOWLPHV79

Although the Government of almost every country would now say it supports the idea of agricultural VXVWDLQDELOLW\ WKH HYLGHQFH SRLQWV WRZDUGV RQO\ OLPLWHG DOEHLW LQFUHDVLQJ UHIRUPV *RYHUQPHQW policies and budgetary resources devoted to supporting sustainable agriculture, including organic DJULFXOWXUHDUHVWLOOGZDUIHGE\WKHUHVRXUFHVGHYRWHGWRVXSSRUWLQJDJURLQGXVWULDOFRQYHQWLRQDO

76 %XQFKDQG/zSH] 77 3UHWW\ 78 'DVJXSWD$OWLHUL 79 ,$$67' 38 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

DJULFXOWXUH +DUGO\ DQ\$IULFDQ FRXQWU\ KDV LQFOXGHG RUJDQLF IDUPLQJ LQ LWV PDLQ DJULFXOWXUDO SROLFLHVDQGPDQ\SROLFLHVVWLOOVXSSRUWLQSXWEDVHGQRQRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH+RZHYHU7XQLVLD KDVDQRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHSROLF\LQSODFHDQG.HQ\D¶VFDWFKPHQWDSSURDFKWRVRLOFRQVHUYDWLRQLV evidence of reform of parts of its agricultural policy80 and in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda DQG6RXWK$IULFDWKHUHLVUHSRUWHGO\QHZLQWHUHVWIURPSROLF\PDNHUVWRGHYHORSSROLFLHVVXSSRUWLYH RIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUH81

0RUH LPSRUWDQWO\ DQ H[SRUWOHG DSSURDFK WR RUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH FDQ LJQRUH WKH LQFRXQWU\ RSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUDJULFXOWXUDOGHYHORSPHQWIRFXVHGRQORFDODQGUHJLRQDOPDUNHWV$JULFXOWXUDO SROLFLHV ZLWK WKH WKUHHIROG DLPV RI IRRG VHFXULW\ VXVWDLQDELOLW\ DQG SRYHUW\UHGXFWLRQ VKRXOG therefore contain strands that emphasize both small farmer development linked to local markets, DQG DJULEXVLQHVV HQKDQFHPHQW WKDW GHYHORSV ERWK VPDOO DQG ODUJH EXVLQHVVHV DQG IRFXVHV RQ H[SRUWOHGDJURSURFHVVLQJDQGYDOXHDGGHGDFWLYLWLHV

The recently released CBTF publication on best practices for organic policy (what developing coutries can do to promote the organic agriculture sector) contains valuable analysis and guidance LQWKLVUHJDUG82

80 )XQHVHWDO3UHWW\+HU]RJHWDO 81 81&7$'81(3,)2$0HWDO 82 81&7$'81(3 Conclusions 39

SECTION 3. CONCLUSIONS

2UJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLVQRWGLUHFWO\DQGVSHFL¿FDOO\VXSSRUWHGE\DJULFXOWXUDOSROLF\LQ most African coutries; indeed, it is sometimes actively hindered by policies advocating the XVHRIKLJKLQSXWIDUPLQJPDQDJHPHQWSUDFWLFHV,IRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHDQGLWVDVVRFLDWHG SRVLWLYHVLGHHIIHFWVDUHWREHVFDOHGXSDQHQDEOLQJSROLF\HQYLURQPHQWLVFULWLFDO

,QWHJUDWHGRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHZKHWKHUFHUWL¿HGRUQRQFHUWL¿HGLVPRUHPDQDJHPHQW 40 Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa

DQG NQRZOHGJHLQWHQVLYH DQG VR QHFHVVLWDWHV EXLOGLQJ WKH OHDUQLQJ DQG FRRSHUDWLYH FDSDFLW\ RI LQGLYLGXDOV DQG JURXSV7KLV UHTXLUHV LQYHVWPHQW LQ GHYHORSLQJ WKH VRFLDO FDSLWDODWWKHORFDOOHYHOLIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHLVWRVSUHDG

• Partnerships between farmers, farmer groups, NGOs and CSOs, organic movement organizations, governments and certifying bodies at all levels foster successful organic DJULFXOWXUH,QRUGHUWRIDFLOLWDWHWKHVSUHDGRIRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHWKHUHLVDQHHGWRZRUN at all levels: local national and international, as well as to encourage more links between JRYHUQPHQWV1*2VDQGWKHSULYDWHVHFWRU

• Improving agricultural sustainability through adoption of organic agriculture in Africa may not be a solution to all the food problems, but considerable progress has been made LQUHFHQW\HDUV:KHWKHURUJDQLFIDUPLQJZLOOUHVXOWLQHQRXJKIRRGWRPHHWFXUUHQWDQG future needs in response to continued population growth and development in African FRXQWULHVFDQQHYHUEHWRWDOO\FHUWDLQEXWLVFHUWDLQO\DVWHSLQWKHULJKWGLUHFWLRQ7KH present situation of widespread food insecurity means that conventional farming systems DUHFOHDUO\XQDEOHWRIXO¿OWKHFXUUHQWIRRGQHHGVLQ$IULFD7KHUHVXOWVREVHUYHGLQWKH WUDQVLWLRQWRRUJDQLFDJULFXOWXUHDUHKLJKO\SURPLVLQJIRUIRRGVHFXULW\LQ$IULFD(YLGHQFH LQGLFDWHV WKDW SURGXFWLYLW\ LQ RUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUH FDQ JURZ RYHU WLPH83 With further VSHFL¿FVXSSRUWWKHEHQH¿WVWRIRRGVHFXULW\DQGUHODWHGLPSURYHPHQWVWRQDWXUDOVRFLDO and human capital, could spread to much larger numbers of farmers and rural people in WKHFRPLQJGHFDGHV

83 %RUODXJDDQGE$YHU\ 41

References

$OWLHUL0$Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture.:HVWYLHZ3UHVV $OWLHUL0$1RQFHUWL¿HGDJULFXOWXUHLQGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVLQ6FLDOODED1(O+DQG+DWWDP& Organic Agriculture, Environment and Food Security.)$25RPH $YHU\'Saving the Planet with Pesticides and Plastic. The Hudson Institute, Indianapolis $WHPD-3HUVRQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQ %DNHZHOO6WRQH 3 2UJDQLVLQJ2UJDQLVLQJ IRUIRU RUJDQLFRUJDQLF DJULFXOWXUHDJULFXOWXUH LQLQ 7DQ]DQ7DQ]DQLDLD LEISA Magazine -XQHJune %DOIRXU(%The Living Soil)DEHUDQG)DEHU/RQGRQ %DZGHQ 5 7KH +DZNHVEXU\ H[SHULHQFH WDOHV IURP D URDG OHVV WUDYHOOHG ,Q 3UHWW\ - HG The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Agriculture(DUWKVFDQ %HQVRQ7$IULFD¶VIRRGDQGQXWULWLRQVHFXULW\VLWXDWLRQ:KHUHDUHZHDQGKRZGLGZHJHWKHUH" 'LVFXVVLRQ3DSHU1R,)35,:DVKLQJWRQ'& %HQWOH\-:%RD(YDQ0HOH3$OPDQ]D-9DVTXH]'DQG(JXLQR6*RLQJSXEOLFDQHZH[WHQVLRQ PHWKRGInt J Agric Sustainability %ROZLJ62GHNH0DQG*LEERQ3+RXVHKROGIRRGVHFXULW\HIIHFWVRIFHUWL¿HGRUJDQLFSURGXFWLRQLQ tropical Africa: a gendered analysis.(323$ %RUODXJ 1 D$JULFXOWXUDO UHVHDUFK IRU VXVWDLQDEOH GHYHORSPHQW 7HVWLPRQ\ EHIRUH 86 +RXVH RI 5HSUHVHQWDWLYHV&RPPLWWHHRQ$JULFXOWXUH0DUFK %RUODXJ1E&KHPLFDOIHUWLOL]HUCHVVHQWLDO¶/HWWHUWRInternational Agricultural Development 1RY 'HF S %RXDJQLPEHFN+2UJDQLFIDUPLQJLQ$IULFD,Q:LOOHU+Pollution.(DUWKVFDQ/RQGRQ &RQZD\*5The Doubly Green Revolution3HQJXLQ/RQGRQ 42

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Kenya Uganda Tanzania • ABLH – Association for Better • Bufumbo Organic Agriculture • COOPlBO–Tanzania Land Husbandry Producers Association • EPOPA TZ – Export Promotion of • Baraka Agricultural College • CIOF – Ceres Institute of Organic Organic Products from Africa • Bungoma Family Development Farming • INADES – Formation Programme • COOPIBO–Uganda • KCU – Kagera Cooperative • ICIPE – International Centre of • Environmental Alert Union Insect Physiology and Ecology • EPOPA – Export Promotion of • KIHATA – Chama Cha Kilimo Hai • ICRAF – International Centre for Organic Products from Africa Tanzania Research in Agroforestry • International Centre for Tropical • KNCU – Kilimanjaro Native • ITDG Kenya – Intermediate Agriculture, Cooperative Union Technology Development Group • Kayunga organic Agriculture • Laela Agricultural Centre • KARI – Kenya Agricultural producers Association • PELUM Tanzania Research Institute • KOFT – Organic Farm and • TOAM – Tanzania Organic • KARI – Kenya Agricultural Training Centre Agriculture Movement Research Institute • LOFP – Lango Organic Farming • TOFO – Tanzania Organic • KIOF – Kenya Institute of Production Foundation Organic Farming • Masaka Organic Producers • TOPP – Tanzania Organization of • KOAN – Kenyan Organic • NOGAMO – National Organic Permaculture Promoters Agriculture Network Movement of Uganda • Manor House Agriculture Centre • Nombe Organic producers • OFOP – Organic Farming Association Outreach Programme • PELUM Uganda • PELUM Kenya • RUCID – Rural Community in • SACDEP – Sustainable Development Agriculture Community • SANU – Sustainable Agriculture Development Programme Net of Uganda • SACRED–Africa – Sustainable • Uganda Centre for Sustainable Agriculture Centre for Research Agriculture and Development in Africa