ResearchResearch

American Presidents and Their Attitudes, Beliefs, and Actions Surrounding Education and Multiculturalism

A Series of Research Studies in Educational Policy Fifth Installment: Examining Presidents Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and Lyndon B. Johnson

By H. Prentice Baptiste, Heidi Orvosh-Kamenski, & Christopher J. Kamenski

Introduction Lyndon B. Johnson’s presidencies and how We become academically socialized in their actions and failed actions impacted a monocultural curriculum (Boyer & When looking at social injustice and social issues and influenced social reali- Baptiste, 1996). “Our desire for power the oppression of “others” in our country, ties as they continue to exist today. based on cultural norms slows the process one can look no further than the political Dominant groups set the parameters of learning—of understanding—and seeing leadership of our government to take the for subordinates. “One group holds power knowledge and truth right in front of us” moral and ethical responsibility to eradi- and authority in society relative to the (Thomas, 1998). Too often we base our way cate such injustices. Looking at the politi- other group and determines how that power of thinking and living in a society on only cal leadership, the president is held ac- and authority may be acceptably used” one perspective. We use cultural blinders countable and sets the agenda which will (Tatum, 2000,p. 11). With these two and justifications to help our way of think- promote, hinder, or ignore social justice is- groups, the superior group and the inferior ing that hinders the possibilities or blocks sues. Each President has the power to de- group, one can easily assume the answers out other multiple perspectives. cide what actions and policies will com- to these questions, whose history is taught, We have not learned how to embrace prise his administration and impact the who gets the best jobs, and who can seek diversity through a multicultural lens. We nation. membership to these groups? need to study the actions and policies of This article, the fifth in a series about Members of privileged groups, because our past presidents and analyze the social American Presidents and their attitudes, they have the power to initiate change, realities of African Americans, Asians, beliefs, and actions surrounding education must choose to either ignore or fight for Latinos, Native Americans, women, and and multiculturalism, will examine Tho- issues of oppression and social justice. Too other cultural and ethnic groups through mas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln and often our textbooks lack an analysis of in- their leadership. We need to take off our equality (Loewen, 1995). The result is a blinders so we can internalize multiple H. Prentice Baptiste is a professor society that fails to recognize inequality perspectives and fully participate as citi- of multicultural and science education and learns to embrace conformity. The zens in a democracy. and Heidi Orvosh-Kamenski white, male privilege defines many aspects and Christopher J. Kamenski of American culture, and others must con- Thomas Jefferson are doctoral students in critical pedagogy, form to that point of view (Wildman & Thomas Jefferson was the third Presi- all with the Department of Curriculum Davis, 2000). Consequently, executive and dent of the United States. However, his and Instruction legislative decisions are made in the name most prominent contribution to the nation at New Mexico State University, of liberty, which too often reflect the domi- was the Declaration of Independence. His Las Cruces, New Mexico. nant white, male’s point of view.

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 34 affirmations about life, liberty, and the 2004). The act had a negative impact on the pursuit of happiness are still interpreted American economy, as many jobs were lost. and recited today. His personality has been described as mild and agreeable (Degre- Jefferson’s Attitudes gorio, 1946). Yet others describe him as be- and Actions of Social Justice ing cold, reserved, and a political animal (Dabney, 1991; Degregorio, 1946). He was Another change in policy was that an eloquent writer, but lacked public speak- President Adams had supported Haitian ing skills (Kunhardt, Kunhardt, & leadership and was sympathetic to their Kunhardt, 1999;Wilkins, 2001). quest for freedom (Bender, 2001). The Presidential election campaign of Jefferson was less supportive of Black 1800 was based on domestic issues and slaves claiming universal rights (2001). states’ rights. The election ended in a tie In 1804 Jean Jacques Dessalines, a Black between Aaron Burr and Jefferson. Jeffer- leader, had overthrown the French rule of son, a Democratic Republican, pledged he Haiti. This was the largest slave rebel- would not get rid of Federalists if elected lion in history and they had attained uni- President. However, Jefferson used his ex- versal human rights of freedom (Bender, ecutive influence on the legislative 2001). Jefferson did not grant diplomatic branches of government to promote his own recognition or support. Historians concur agenda, power, and political beliefs. this was due to the fact they were Black Jefferson said that the Federalists were (Bender, 2001; Robinson, Rakove & Willis, part of the rich (Hartman, 2003). After his 2004; O’Brien, 1996). Thomas Jefferson Jefferson was worried that contact election, he removed 16 Federalist judges George Washintgon (Wills, 2003). The constitution was estab- with Haiti might advance a Black rebel- lished to protect judges from being pun- lion in the United States and Black crews ished, but Jefferson used his power to re- Jefferson used his power to terminate with cargoes would receive an unwelcome move and impeach judges who did not the Alien and Sedition Acts (created dur- response from Southern traders (Bender, agree with his views (Wills, 2003). ing John Adam’s administration). The Re- 2001). Jefferson’s refusal to recognize the publicans were negatively impacted by the independence of Haiti set a precedent that Naturalization Act because it postponed Madison and Monroe continued (2001). Social Justice Issues and Use of Power citizenship and denied immigrants voting Jefferson used his power to change and How did Jefferson use his power and privileges until 14 years of residency. The pass laws that favored his party beliefs, status? Was it for the common good? Did Alien Act and Alien Enemies Act gave the and which failed to protect the rights of he use his power to promote the rights of President the power to imprison or deport other groups. Jefferson’s writings seem to oppressed populations? During his two aliens that posed a threat to the national contradict his attitudes and actions. terms as President, Jefferson used his government. The Sedition Act was devised Jefferson’s writings do reflect his moral power to be an advocate for the slave hold- to silence spoken or written Republican anguish of slavery. However, Jefferson be- ing South (Dabney, 1991). In his first inau- criticism of The Federalist, which hindered lieved Blacks were not capable to survive gural address as President, there was no First Amendment freedoms. on their own and that they were an inferior mention of slavery (Garrett, 1982). Jefferson was in protest of this law race (Belote, 2004; Dabney, 1991; Jefferson, Jefferson’s public life has aspects of during Adam’s presidency. Jefferson ex- 1999). Jefferson wrote, scandal, leadership, failure, and vision. posed Adams in the 1800 election and used Jefferson was convinced of his own beliefs comparing them by their faculties of his presidential power to free all the men memory, reason, and imagination it ap- and made presidential decisions based on imprisoned by Adams, which was one of pears to me, that in memory they are his own perspectives of society. He disre- his first acts of office (2003). This became equal to the whites; in reason much infe- garded legislation such as the federal ra- know as “The Revolution of 1800” (p. 4). rior, as I think one could scarcely be found tio, which allowed southern slave owners Other legislation during Jefferson’s capable of tracing and comprehending the to count each slave held as three fifths of a term included the Judiciary Act of 1802 investigations of Euclid; and that in imagi- person for his own personal gain. This leg- which nullified the last minute appoint- nation they are dull, tasteless, and islation promoted slavery, and allowed ments of previous administrations, which anomalous. (1999, p. 146) unfair representation to those states that consequently had given Federalists lever- Jefferson also believed that African did not promote slavery. Despite the slave age in the Judiciary branch. The 12th Americans would be an obvious problem states declining population, they used this Amendment was also implemented, which to society because they were untrained and to give them an unfair majority and be- subordinated the Vice President and in- illiterate (Dabney, 1991). However, he had came known as the “Jeffersonian Republi- creased the power of the President. personal knowledge of African Americans can Party” (McPherson, 1991, p. 12). In June 1807 a British ship, Leopard, who were educated, intelligent, and ca- Jefferson is often called the Negro attacked the USS Chesapeake. Some his- pable of being productive citizens (Haber, president because the federal ratio gave torians state Jefferson’s concern for keep- 1970). Phillis Wheatly, a Black slave, was him thirteen votes that would not have ing the Nation uninvolved in the Napole- taught how to read and write. She also been allotted otherwise (Robinson, Rakove, onic wars led to the Embargo act 1807-1809 learned Latin and by the age of 21 had her & Wills; 2004; Wills, 2003). This southern (Averon, 2001). Others state it was first full volume of poetry published (De leverage allowed the south a greater share Jefferson’s anti-commercial bias and the Pauw, 1975). There was also Benjamin of the votes and protected Jefferson’s agrar- South’s agrarian life that led to the Em- Baneker who was a mathematician and to ian culture and use of slaves. bargo Act (Robinson, Rakove& Willis, whom Jefferson personally wrote a letter

WINTER 2004 35 and submitted his Almanac to Secretary Even if Jefferson felt he could not to enforce it, was ineffective because it could of the Academy of Sciences in Paris emancipate the slaves, he could have im- only be enforced in Indian Territory (1999). (Garrett, 1982). In the letter to Baneker, proved the conditions in which they were In 1808 Jefferson requested that all terri- Jefferson writes: forced to live. Although Jefferson foresaw torial and state governors propose legisla- that slavery could not prevail (Wilson, tion restricting or prohibiting the sale of No body wishes more than I do to see such proofs as you exhibit, that nature has 1992) he also did not believe Blacks could liquor to Indians. Some responded, but the given to our black brethren, talents equal coexist with whites (Jefferson, 1999). end result was widespread abuse and trade to those of the other colors of men, and Jefferson states in his autobiography, of liquor (1999). that the appearance of a want of them is Jefferson believed Native Americans Nor is it less certain that the two races, owing merely to the degraded condition equally free, cannot live in the same gov- to be vagrants, British soldiers and trad- of their existence, both in Africa & ernment. Nature, habit, opinion has ers to be interlopers, and French and Span- America. I can add with truth, that no- drawn indelible lines of distinction be- ish subjects not capable of self-governance. body wishes more ardently to see a good tween them. It is still in our power to Jefferson’s plan was for ‘civilizing’ the In- system commenced for raising the condi- direct the process of emancipation as de- tion both of their body & mind to what it dians and persuading them to sell their ought to be, as fast as the imbecility of portation peaceably… lands to pay their trading debts (Wallace, their present existence, and other circum- 1999). Jefferson’s plan to Congress was for stances which cannot be neglected, will Jefferson’s writings between 1778 and the inhabitants to be governed by execu- admit. (1984, p. 982; Garrett, 1982, p. 26) his death show no consideration toward tive authority. He justified his rule by say- racial coexistence on the basis of equality It is evident from the examples of ing “the people there were not capable of (O’Brien, 1996). His use of political influ- Wheatly and Baneker that Jefferson was self-rule” (as cited, Wills, 2003, p. 120). ence in the end is tainted instead with the well aware that Blacks were equals in in- Every state was to be guaranteed a re- expansion and protection of slavery (Belote, tellectual abilities to Whites. By not pro- publican form of government, but Jefferson 2004; Wills, 2003). viding opportunities and improving the clearly forgot about this while advancing his conditions of African Americans compa- own agenda, uncompromising without jus- rable to the privileged whites, Blacks Social Justice and Native Americans tification or explanation. Jefferson’s plan would continue to suffer in terms of equal- Jefferson’s opinion of Native Ameri- for obtaining Indian Territory resulted in ity. However, Jefferson because of his rac- cans was higher than that of Blacks. He the acquisition of 200,000 square miles in ist views, failed to use his power and con- writes, nine states (Wallace, 1999). Wallace states tinued to deny African Americans the op- if one looks at the location of the tracts It is in North America we are to seek secured, one realizes that for the most portunities they deserved. their original character. I am safe in af- part they were chosen primarily to clear Jefferson, in March 1807, signed into firming, that the proofs of genius given Indians from the banks of the great riv- law a bill banning the importation of by the Indians of North America, place slaves. Although this slowed the number them on a level with whites in the same ers, the Ohio and the Mississippi, and to compress the eastern tribes into an inte- of slaves being imported, it didn’t stop the uncultivated state. The North of Europe furnishes subjects enough for compari- rior region west of the Appalachians and importation (Degregorio, 1946) because east of the Mississippi, where they would son with them, and for a proof of their there were no serious consequences if it was be easier to dominate. (p. 239) violated; thus slaves continued to be equality. (1999, p. 267-268) Jefferson had secured the future ex- smuggled. Historians state the decrease Jefferson spent his first year and a pansion of the white population into the in the number of slaves being imported half as President tying up what his prede- remaining Indian Territory east of the Mis- increased the value of slaves (Wilkins, cessors had done and formulating a policy sissippi, a task which Andrew Jackson 2001). Jefferson’s slaves became of greater of his own (Wallace, 1999). The Indian- would later complete (1999). value and some were sold at this higher owned territory was unsurveyed and un- One of the most significant achieve- price. His moral beliefs, once again, were marked, which led to trespassing and dis- ments during Jefferson’s administration set aside for personal gain (Robinson, regard (1999). Additionally, ambiguity lay was the purchase of the Louisiana Terri- Rakove& Wills, 2004). in the enforcement of the Trade and Inter- tory (Degregorio, 1946), which was made There are numerous perspectives to course acts by the military (1999). possible by the French defeat in Haiti the question of why Jefferson tragically In January of 1802, Jefferson re- which encouraged Napoleon to sell Louisi- failed to end racial oppression and injus- quested a renewal of the Trade and Inter- ana at a bargain price (Bender, 2001). Once tice by using his political power. One rea- course Act. He specifically asked for the the Louisiana Purchase was accomplished, son given is that Jefferson’s biggest assets prohibition of liquor trade. Jefferson said there was a debate if the land should be were slaves and that they were needed to that the Indians pursue his agrarian culture (Wilson, 1992). slave or free soil (Garrett, 1982). Jefferson A second reason is that Jefferson was show- are becoming very sensible of the bane- raised no objection for its existence to be ing his loyalties to Virginia (O’Brien, 1996). ful effects produced on their morals, their one of slavery (1982). Prior to the purchase, Another reason cited for his failure was health, and existence by the abuse of ar- slaves were guaranteed such rights as to dent spirits, and some of them earnestly observe Sundays and holidays, instruction due to his indebtedness and need of slaves desire a prohibition of that article from in religion, a plot of ground for their own (Wilkins, 2001). Jefferson was never free being carried among them…It has been from his serious indebtedness (Belote, found, too, in experience that the same use, being allowed to testify in court when 2004; Dabney, 1991). Lastly, a plausible abuse gives frequent rise to incidents whites were not available, and be buried reason why Jefferson may not have fought tending much to commit our peace with in consecrated ground (Garrett, 1982). This for the freedom of slaves is he believed the Indians. (as cited Wallace, 1999, p. 212) all changed following the Louisiana Pur- emancipated slaves would not prosper and chase by the United States. However, the prohibition, even though enjoy freedom due to the racial conditions Jefferson’s plan was to divide the new the act authorized the President the power (Garrett, 1982; Wilson,1992). territory at the 31st parallel, with the land

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 36 north for use as Indian resettlement. The battle with one another over slavery, states’ land to the south was to be processed into rights, equality, and many other things” territories and later to states. The total (2000, p. 154). territory was to be comprised of planta- tions, consequently further promoting the Abraham Lincoln use of slaves. This plan would have further shifted the electoral power in favor of the Examination through a multicultural South and in support of the Republican lens with concerns for issues of social jus- agenda. Many suggest Jefferson’s plan for tice enables us to critically question who the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 was un- Abraham Lincoln was by his opinions on constitutional (Wills, 2003). political matters, his actions and non-ac- Jefferson concluded that Indian’s were tions, the policies he supported, words he equal: “I believe the Indian, then, to be, in wrote and spoke, and also words he may body and mind, equal to the white man” have failed to speak. President Lincoln is (Jefferson, 1999, p. 268). Equal? Yes. De- depicted by many to have been a humble serving of their freedom according to his and compassionate man who made his way policies and able to partake in life, liberty up from poverty, whose example of leader- and the pursuit of happiness? No (O’Brien, ship is one people feel our country should 1996). Jefferson’s presidential removal poli- be forever grateful. As many think about cies became a negative consequence to the and conjure up thoughts from what they Native Americans (Belote, 2004;1996; were taught in school and from pictures Wallace, 1999). His actions set the means that many historians portray in their writ- for the Indian Removal Bill that would later ings concerning the legacy of Lincoln as be signed by President Jackson President, the one title that always comes (2004;1999). Jefferson’s decisions two cen- to mind is Abraham Lincoln, “the Great Abraham Lincoln turies ago continue to plague Native Ameri- Emancipator.” cans; furthermore, his decisions continue to It is Lincoln whom we recognize as free- life and Presidency of Abraham Lincoln be found in society’s discriminatory prac- ing the slaves from the bondage of captiv- with authors’ views of Lincoln contrasting tices of today (O’Brien, 1996; Wallace, 1999). ity and suffering. Often, when the issues of one another. One aspect which all of them civil rights are discussed it is not unusual seem to be in agreement on concerning Lin- Jefferson’s Beliefs to hear Lincoln’s name mentioned as one coln is that he was an impressive orator, of the key figures associated with that often speaking out of both sides of his Another quality of Jefferson was his movement. Watching the I Have a Dream mouth with a skilled proficiency. Lincoln perspective of religion. Jefferson tried not speech of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., which was a great speaker and considered to be a to allow religion to factor into his elections; took place at the Lincoln Memorial one can’t master of rhetoric (DiLorenzo, 2002). however, opponents tried very hard to cam- help but notice the monument of Lincoln David Donald wrote in his book Lin- paign his religious beliefs against theirs. in the background. coln Reconsidered that “perhaps the secret He was raised as an Anglican. He contrib- However, more recently speculation of Lincoln’s continuing vogue is his essen- uted financially to every denomination in has surfaced with respect to Lincoln and tial ambiguity. He can be cited on all sides his town (Belote, 2004). Jefferson reformed his role in the emancipation of slavery and of all questions” (Bennet, 1999 p. 43). the Christian faith to meet his own beliefs. his feelings concerning social justice for Bennet noted, “Lincoln spoke with a forked At the White House he cut out segments of people of color. The question of consider- tongue… by saying two different things at the four Gospels and created his own ver- ation is, was Lincoln, as many biographers the same time” (Bennet, 1999, p. 618). Lin- sion in 1804 called “The Philosophy of portray him, the humble man who emanci- coln used his gift of rhetoric to convince and Jesus” (Belote, 2004). The version pub- pated slaves because of his compassion deceive people for the purpose of advanc- lished by congress was finished in 1820 and recognition that all people should be ing his views and policies. Murray and titled “Life and Morals of Jesus of treated equal or was Lincoln, as some au- Rothbard, an economist, said of Lincoln, Nazareth” (2004). He deleted all Greek thors seem to think, the President who was “Lincoln was a master politician, which influence, the virgin birth, all claims of forced into emancipation against his will, means that he was a consummate conniver, miracles, Jesus’ divinity, and the resurrec- who held whites to be a superior race when manipulator, and liar” (as cited in tion. This is another example of how compared to people of color, who was re- DiLorenzo, 2002, p.11). It is apparent Jefferson changed anything that did not lentless in serving only his party and his through his speeches and debates that Lin- meet his own beliefs and viewpoint. party’s agenda to further their views while coln would say one thing to one audience Jefferson had a strong belief in lim- continuing to oppress others with a disre- and turn around and say the total oppo- ited national interference and wanted state gard of the Constitution? (Bennett, 1999; site to another audience, offering both sides rights. He used that belief to defend why Di-Lorenzo, 2002). Exposing the different of many issues. the fate of slavery should be left up to the sides of Abraham Lincoln from a multi- Associated with his gift of rhetoric, his- states. However, his use of power contra- cultural perspective leaves the question for torians often describe the sixteenth presi- dicts that belief. He employed his power to you to answer. dent as having the talent and skillfulness change previous practices and policies. Ad- of telling jokes and stories. “Lincoln be- ditionally, he employed his power over the came a general favorite because of his states by restricting slavery from the Lincoln’s Rhetorical and Storytelling Abilities simple manners and fund of jokes…when Northwest Territory (Read, 2000). Read about to tell an anecdote…Lincoln would states the ‘true’ Jefferson “split off and did Many books have been written on the place his elbows upon the table, rest his

WINTER 2004 37 face between his hands and begin with the previous presidents had before him, when purpose of forming a Republican party fa- words ‘that reminds me’ and proceed.… referring to “every man,” the white man, voring the abolition of slavery and a repeal Everyone prepared for the explosion sure males who owned property, the privileged of the fugitive slave law, Lincoln feeling his to follow” (Thomas, 1994 p. 116). “Lincoln who could vote? Because slavery was a ma- presence at such a gathering might com- credited the farmer boys with originating jor political issue leading up to and during promise him with more moderate voters, most of the aphoristic stories he told” (Tho- Lincoln’s presidency, this scrutiny from a did not attend” (Wieck, 2002, p. 127). mas, 1994, p. 135). multicultural perspective, with respect to Another example of his silence, when One close observer recorded in his di- his presidency on the issues of slavery and confronted with an issue involving people ary, “The masses are taken in by Lincoln’s the equality of Blacks, lends itself to ad- of color, was with concern to his opposition apparent simplicity … and by his vulgar dress the question presented above. of the war against Mexico, “From the be- jokes” (Thomas, 1994, p. 411). What few The quote earlier that Lincoln spoke ginning Lincoln had some inner doubts historians fail to speak about when dis- with a forked tongue is never more appar- about the justness and necessity of the war, cussing Lincoln as a story teller and hu- ent than by the revelation of his speeches, but he voiced no opposition to it” (Thomas, morist are the actual jokes and stories he debates, and written documents. Looking 1994, p. 107). told, a number of which appear to have been at the issues of slavery during the imme- A third citation that demonstrates at the expense of people of color. “In the diate time leading up to the Civil War, re- Lincoln’s passivity with issues of oppres- role of storyteller I never knew his equal…. search reveals conflicting views of Lincoln’s sion of people of color is found in Lincoln’s He could perfectly mimic a Dutchman, position on this topic. On the one hand, he Last Moments written by William C. Har- Irishman, or Negro” (Thomas, 2002 p. spoke out against slavery with such con- ris. Harris states, “He virtually ignored the 143). Bennett gives several examples of the viction that it appeared if he had the chance growing conflict between Indians and set- jokes and stories that Lincoln often recited. he would ensure its destruction. John tlers in the West and the need to reform Colleagues voiced their criticism to Lin- Hanks said that on Lincoln’s second visit policies toward Indians after years of coln about his telling of “Darky” and “Massa to New Orleans, he was so distressed by a abuse” (Harris, 2004, p. 4). Lincoln” jokes. “This was cruel, racist, and slave auction that he declared: “If I ever One can only speculate what Lincoln’s sadistic, but he ignored them and even get a chance to hit that thing, I’ll hit it reasons were for not speaking out and for managed to imply, as almost all modern hard.” Thomas then goes on to say that his failure to act on issues concerning so- Lincoln interpreters imply, that there was doubtless what he saw of slavery repelled cial injustices. Was it a political strategy? something wrong with men who didn’t like him (as cited Thomas,1994 p. 24). Or was it that he didn’t want to risk his a good ‘Darky’ joke” (Bennett, 2002 p.99). Another experience is when Lincoln career in politics? Blacks weren’t the only people of color wrote in a letter to his friend Josh Speed Just as historians cite many examples that Lincoln belittled to get a chuckle from while on a trip in 1841, “…that from Lou- of the stories that Lincoln told, they also his constituents. When speaking to a crowd isville to the mouth of the Ohio there were recognize the many stories that are told about Douglas’s plan for expansion of the on board ten or twelve slaves, shackled to- about Lincoln with regards to his exalted country Lincoln says, “When we shall get gether with irons. That sight was continual unconditional compassion for others. Gen- Mexico…. We know the Judge has a great torment to me” and concluded, “That eral Sherman said of Lincoln, “He seemed horror for mongrels, [laughter] and I under- memory still had the power of making me to have charity for all and malice toward stand that the people of Mexico are most miserable” (Loewen, 1995 p. 173). none” (Thomas, 1994, p. 508). When an of- decidedly a race of mongrels[renewed laugh- Yet when given an opportunity politi- ficer exclaimed that Jefferson Davis should ter]” (as cited in Bennett, 2002 p. 329). cally to voice his outrage and opposition to be hanged for his treatment of Union pris- Lincoln’s telling of racial stories and slavery, which may have led to something oners Lincoln replied, “Judge not, that ye jokes and referring to Mexicans as mon- being done about it, he often remained si- might be judged” and when Lincoln was grels are factors that our textbooks fail to lent. Thomas notes, “The House and Sen- asked how to treat Richmond’s conquered recognize and authors often seem to ignore. ate recommended the adoption of a series people Lincoln replied, “I’d let em up easy” Could it be that we suppress this aspect of of resolutions condemning the abolition- (Thomas, 1994, p. 512). Lincoln because our country would be em- ists, that the Constitution sanctified the It distressed Lincoln that his own con- barrassed to celebrate a holiday for a man right of property as slaves…. The resolu- stituents sought revenge upon the south who said such disparaging things? tions did not accord with Lincoln’s think- after the Union’s victory. Lincoln appealed Early in his political career Lincoln ing on the slavery question…for the mo- to the people then to act with forgiveness voiced his concern for wanting to make life ment he kept quiet and the resolutions and compassion. He signed the pardon of a better for every man and that given the passed” (Thomas, 1994 p. 61). deserter commenting, “This boy can do us chance he would see to it that his agendas Later, Thomas says, “Opposed to un- more good above ground than under would reflect those of his supporters who necessary agitation of the slavery question, ground,” while also revoking the death sen- voted him into office. In Springfield, Illi- Lincoln remained silent during the discor- tence of a confederate spy (Thomas, 1994, nois, on March 9, 1932, he declared, “For dant debates that shook the house” (Tho- p. 517). ‘every man’ should have sufficient educa- mas, 1994, p. 126). Donald Riddle, an au- Yet, what is so confounding, Lincoln tion to enable him to read the history of thority on Lincoln the Congressman, said, had this overwhelming abundance of com- his and other countries… ‘Every man’ is “The most conspicuous feature of Lincoln’s passion for others in need yet failed to show said to have his peculiar ambition” (Tho- congressional career on the slavery issue this compassion when confronted with a mas, 1994 pgs. 28-29). was his discreet silence…even Lincoln’s situation involving people of color, such as Whom was Lincoln referring to when colleagues were among the thirty-six the Sioux Indians. he spoke using the phrase ‘every man’? Was speakers on slavery…. But Lincoln re- In August of 1862, the Santee Sioux he including people of color, poor white im- mained silent” (Bennett, 2002, p. 213). Indians revolted when thousands of white migrants, freed Blacks, Native Indians, “In October, 1854 a convention was settlers began settling on their land after women, and slaves? Or did he mean, as the held in his hometown of Springfield for the the federal government refused to pay what

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 38 it had owed the Sioux for land the govern- speech, replied to Douglas on his position was addressing Congress, he stated, “I can- ment bought in a treaty made in 1851. Af- in disagreement of the Supreme Court’s not make it better known than it already ter the federal army overwhelmed the ruling on the Dred Scott case, defending is, that I strongly favor colonization” Sioux, killing many of them, hundreds of his views of what the founding fathers (DiLorenzo, 2002, p. 17). Thomas noted prisoners of war including women and chil- implied in the Declaration of Indepen- that Lincoln had proposed to Congress for dren were imprisoned and sentenced to dence. Lincoln said, “They meant to set the United States to recognize the Negro death just because they were present dur- up a standard maxim for a free society, republics of Haiti and Liberia as a sign to ing the battle. which should be familiar to all and re- the antislavery radicals that he was Lincoln, fearing the execution of 303 vered by all…constantly spreading and against slavery (Thomas, 1994). Sioux would draw criticism from Europe, deepening its influence and augmenting Although this action by Lincoln may bargained with Minnesota to only execute the happiness and value of life to people be an attempt to argue his willingness to thirty- nine of them. But in return he prom- of all colors everywhere…” (1994, p. 174). recognize people of color, one could also ar- ised to have the federal army murder or Later in that same speech, when gue that his action and involvement with chase out of the state all the other Indians, speaking about a Black woman slave, Lin- these countries was a part of his plan for in addition to sending the Minnesota Trea- coln said, “but in her natural right to eat the colonization of Blacks to be deported sury two million dollars. On December 26, the bread she earns with her own two by the United States to these countries. 1862, Lincoln ordered the largest mass ex- hands without asking leave of any one else, Did Lincoln favor colonization, out of con- ecution in history (DiLorenzo, 2002, p. 158). she is my equal, and the equal of all oth- cern for Blacks realizing African Ameri- As to this mass Indian execution, ers” (1994, p. 175). Here we see a Lincoln cans would always suffer under the power George Sinkler wrote in his book The Ra- who holds Blacks to be his equal in that of White supremacy, or was his intention cial Attitudes of American Presidents, men and women should not be denied the one that the nation would be better off with- “Thirty-eight Indians were hanged, while privilege of these rights based on sex and out Blacks or was he also concerned for the after the civil war, not one rebel swung for race. However a year later, in his 1958 de- possible extinction of the White race rebellion” (Sinkler, 1972 p. 68). Bennett bate speech with Douglas in Ottawa, Lin- through interbreeding? commented on this injustice, “A double coln says, “I have no purpose to introduce standard of race value might have had political and social equality between the Proclamation of Emancipation something to do with his treatment of the White and Black races. There is a physical One thing in history that can’t be de- Sioux” (Bennett, 2002, p. 165). difference between the two…I am in favor nied is that Lincoln did sign the Procla- Lincoln also appeared to have a double of the race to which I belong having the mation of Emancipation. However, Lin- standard with respect to his compassion superior position” (DiLorenzo, 2002, p. 11). coln, in his wording of the proclamation on the treatment of Black and White union At Galesburg Lincoln said, “I have all freed slaves in the rebellious states of the soldiers who fought in the civil war. “Un- the while maintained that inasmuch as south over which he had no control and fortunately, the black soldiers did not re- there is a physical inequality between the held slaves in captivity in the north where ceive the same pay and treatment as the White and Black races that the Blacks he did have control (Sinkler, 1972; white soldiers” (Garret, 1982, p. 124). must remain inferior…” (as cited Bennett, Bennett, 1999). Sinkler poses the ques- Union soldier George Washington Will- 1999, p. 212). Lincoln also claimed the tion as many have wondered, did emanci- iams wrote in his book, The History of the White race to be superior to the Native pation make Lincoln or did Lincoln make Negro Race, published in 1882, “I was ap- American race, as Harris stated, “he be- emancipation? palled by his conservative policy which paid lieved the Native Americans could and Lincoln seems to answer for us him- White soldiers thirteen dollars a month should be civilized into Anglo-American self with respect to the emancipation, “I and Black soldiers seven dollars a month ways” as Lincoln told a group of Indian claim not to have controlled events, but and who failed to take decisive action when chiefs at a White Hose meeting in 1863, “I confess plainly that events have controlled Confederate generals and soldiers mur- can see no way in which your race is to be- me” (Donald, 1961, p. 138; Sinkler, 1972, dered Black troops” (Bennett, 2002, p. 32). come as numerous and prosperous as the p. 63). It is clear that although Lincoln’s This leaves one to question if Lincoln’s com- white race except by living as they do” (Har- Proclamation of Emancipation was a step passion for men may have been different ris, 2004, pp. 169-170). in the right direction, it was not a giant depending upon the color of their skin. Although Lincoln’s opposing views on step and it appeared to be a forced step. It Lincoln’s attitudes on the equality of Blacks with concerns to equality would wasn’t until April 1865, eight months af- people of color paints another blurred pic- qualify him as a fence sitter rather than a ter the death of Lincoln and three years ture by his contrasting discourse. In a let- rail splitter, his plan for the colonization after he signed the Emancipation Procla- ter that Lincoln wrote to Speed question- of Blacks clearly exemplifies his view on mation that the Thirteenth Amendment ing what political party he felt attached to the equality of Blacks. was enacted which abolished slavery he said, Due to Lincoln’s belief that Whites (www.mdcbowen.org). were the superior race, he concluded the As a nation we began by declaring that Yet, with regards to the emancipation mixing of races should be prohibited all men are created equal, we now practi- of slaves, Lincoln the “Great Emancipa- (Bennett, 1999; DiLorenzo, 2002). With cally read it all men are created equal tor,” in his own words declared before, dur- this view Lincoln’s plans for the slaves and except Negroes. When the Know-Noth- ing, and after the Civil War that he had no ings get control it will read all men are for all Blacks was colonization. Thomas intention for abolishing slavery. In 1860 created equal except Negroes, and for- says of Lincoln’s plan for slaves, “His first during his first inaugural address he said, eigners and Catholics. When it comes to impulse would be to free the slaves and “I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to this I should prefer emigrating to some send them to Liberia, where the American interfere with the institution of slavery in country where they make no pretense of Colonization Society had established a loving liberty. (Thomas, 1994, pp. 163-164) the states where it exists” (Dilorenzo, Negro republic” (Thomas, 1994, p. 150). 2002, p. 21). In 1861 Lincoln said to On June 26, 1857, Lincoln, in a On December 1, 1862, when Lincoln

WINTER 2004 39 Seward, “As to fugitive slaves and slave his one and only priority was to save the trade among the slave states…I care but Union, by winning the war. little” (Bennett, 1999, p. 338). Even after Lincoln said, “My paramount object in the Civil War Thomas noted, “It had never this struggle is to save the union and it is been Lincoln’s intention to interfere with not either to save or destroy slavery. If I slavery in the states; he had been driven to could save the Union without freeing any it by necessity, he explained” (Thomas, slave I would do it, and if I could do it by 1994, p. 502). Lincoln openly admitted that freeing all the slaves I would do it….and I the Proclamation of Emancipation was intend no modification of my oft-expressed merely a war measure, so it only was effec- personal wish that all men everywhere tive while the war was going on. could be free” (Thomas 1994, pp. 342-343). Lincoln’s speeches and letters about Social Justice Issues his position on slavery and equality of Blacks appear to contradict one another. Many historians explain that the rea- Although Lincoln may have done more than son why Lincoln felt he couldn’t abolish sla- the previous presidents about the cause very is that the Constitution prohibited for social justice concerning slavery, it ap- him as the President and the Congress from pears that the Civil War which happened doing anything about it. Yet his concern and while he was President seemed to be the allegiance for the Constitution was often cause for the social revolution of Black ignored as he used the war to justify his equality. Based on Lincoln’s actions and causes. “In 1861 Lincoln implemented a words and the many conflicting sides he series of unconstitutional acts including portrayed, we think referring to him as the launching an invasion of the South with- “great emancipator” is a huge stretch that out the consent of Congress, as required by Lincoln himself would contradict. Lyndon B. Johnson the Constitution; declaring martial law; blockading the southern ports; suspending the writ of habeas corpus…..” (DiLorenzo, Lyndon B. Johnson to use his power effectively (Caro,1982; 2002, pp. 131-132). Caro, 2003; Goodwin, 1991). Some of Lyndon Johnson’s earlier ex- Once Johnson took office as the Presi- When his Generals tried to abolish periences may have influenced his actions slavery in the cities and states they con- dent of the United State he considered him- and policies during his Presidency. LBJ self a leader of all people (Goodwin, 1991; quered, Lincoln admonished them for it grew up poor without indoor plumbing or and made them recant their statement Johnson, 1971). He wanted action and set electricity in a small rural area near his priorities on civil rights, which promoted (DiLorenzo, 2002; Thomas, 1994). Under Johnson City, Texas (Dalleck, 2004; the suspension of the writ of habeas cor- complex and mixed feelings among the pub- Goodwin, 1991). Johnson stated, “When I lic (Goodwin, 1991; Unger & Unger, 1999). pus, thousands who opposed the war and was young, poverty was so common we Lincoln’s policies were imprisoned. On May 22, 1964 at the University of Michi- didn’t know it had a name” (Dalleck, 2004). gan, Johnson spoke of a “Great Society.” He DiLorenzo writes of this social injustice, Johnson’s first teaching job was in a very “Thus it was in Maryland that the orgy of stated “The Great Society rests on abun- poor Mexican-American school district in dance and liberty for all” (Johnson Library). suppression, of civil liberties reached its Cotulla, Texas. apex” and “Under the protection of federal This set forth Johnson’s platform and vast These poor conditions touched Johnson agenda for social reform. What set Johnson’s bayonets,” wrote David Donald, “New York deeply and impressed upon him a desire went Republican by seven thousand votes “Great Society” apart from other reform ef- to help his students to find and live the forts of previous Presidents, such as Wilson’s in the 1864 presidential election” (as cited American dream (Dalleck, 2004; Goodwin, DiLorenzo, 2002, p. 144). “New Freedom” or Roosevelt’s “New Deal,” 1991; Kunhardt, Kunhardt, & Kunhardt, was his reforms included all people. These actions are in direct contrast to 1999). Johnson was personally touched by the political philosophy of the parties that this experience because he could identify Social Justice, Actions and Policies Lincoln held himself to as a Whig and Re- with the disadvantaged and was moved by publican. These parties believed that the the oppressed (Kunhardt, 1999; Unger & Johnson was more of a domestic policy President was a mere passive figure in the Unger, 1999). leader than a foreign policy leader (Dalleck, government under the control of the Con- Johnson was very tied to his Southern 2004; Goodwin, 1991). Johnson is consid- gress and that matters and interests of the roots. His Southern political bonds kept ered by many to be one of the greatest do- people were to be left up to the individual Johnson from more forcefully advancing mestic reform presidents (Dallek, 2004; state’s government control. The actions that many of his moral and national concerns Goodwin, 1991). He initiated the “Great Lincoln took as the President seem more (Dalleck, 2004). He was the youngest man Society” reforms which included the “War associated with that of a tyrant than of the to become a state director of the National on Poverty.” These reforms included an ar- leader of a democratic nation. Youth Administration. He was later elected ray of initiatives, such as the Civil Rights Regardless of how right or wrong one to the House of Representatives, and then Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965, thinks Lincoln was in his actions, one must to the Senate. He then became the Senate Medicaid/Medicare, Federal Aid to Educa- take into consideration that he had the majority leader (Dalleck, 2004; Goodwin tion, environmental protection, food overwhelming responsibility as the com- 1991). In 1960 he became the Vice Presi- stamps, Headstart, public radio and TV mander and chief of a country which was dent of the United States. Johnson at- legislation, and consumer protection laws. greatly divided by the Civil War through- tained power by being an apprentice to Johnson stated, “…Well I wanted power out his presidency. He acknowledged that those who had power and he learned how to give things to people—all sorts of things

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 40 to all sorts of people, especially the poor worthy of the high office of President is gation, local control of neighborhood and the Blacks” (Dalleck, 2004, p. 13). His going to do the same thing. ( 1971, p. 109) schools, and the separation of church and colleague George Reedy states that Johnson considered the passing of the state (1999). Johnson had no racial, ethnic, or religious bill to be his greatest achievement of his Despite the advisement of Johnson’s prejudices, unlike himself (Dalleck 2004). administration (Johnson, 1971). It lead to staff and members of Congress to also Johnson believed in racial equality. He be- an increased number of African Americans avoid the issue of federal aid for educa- lieved African Americans and Hispanics holding political office positions. Johnson tion, Johnson made it a fundamental is- deserved a chance. He believed Federal aid predicted then that the Voting Rights Bill sue in his 1964 campaign (Johnson, 1971). to education could transform lives and raise would be better and do things that the civil Unger and Unger (1999) describe educa- their standard of living (Johnson, 1971). One rights act could not do (Beschloss, 2001). tion as a may question if this was part of Johnson’s Johnson’s ability to convey a message …piece of American mythology that pov- true beliefs, or just his political goals, or publicly and privately was very different erty, social inequality, racism, and crime maybe he truly had undergone a transfor- from one another. He felt more comfortable can be expunged if everyone has access mation after serving in the Senate. one-on-one or in a small group (Goodwin, to good schooling. By the 1960’s most Johnson knew if he could lead a ma- 1991;Unger & Unger, 1999). He had a spe- Americans also agreed that the public jor civil rights bill through the Senate, it schools were in crisis, beset by over- cial ability to reach all sides, even oppos- would be the first in 82 years. Johnson crowded classrooms, underpaid teachers, ing sides, by using subtle differences in was warned by Senator Russell if he bad teaching, and a soaring pupil dropout tones and in the way he conveyed a mes- passed the Civil Rights Bill, it would cost rate. (p. 343) sage to reach liberal Democrats, people of him the South and the election. Johnson color, the Southerners, and the Republicans Johnson realized the conditions of said, “If that’s the price I’ve got to pay, I’ll (Dalleck, 2004; Goodwin, 1991). Johnson public schools and sought legislation to pay it gladly” (Dalleck, 2004, p. 163). In is often portrayed as a manipulator due to improve it. In addition to the poor condi- June, 1963 Johnson submitted to Con- this skill (Caro, 1982; 1991; Kunhardt, tions of the public schools, in 1964 the pub- gress the most extensive civil rights bill 1991). “To Johnson there were foreign cus- lic became aware that the armed services ever proposed (Dalleck, 2004; Goodwin, toms, foreign religions, foreign govern- had rejected more than a quarter of all 1991;Unger & Unger, 1999). Sex discrimi- ments, but there were no foreign cultures, draftees because they were unable to read nation was added to the bill to actually only different ways of pursuing universal or write at an eighth-grade level (1999). persuade Congress to vote against it desires” (1991, p. 194). He continued to In December 1963 Johnson ended the (Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998;1999). convey his message that the Great Society previous unsuccessful attempts and “Judge” Smith thought no one would vote had something to offer everyone. passed the Higher Education and Facili- for his provision, Title VII, which extended Johnson’s campaign for President was ties Act. He requested to double federal the benefits to women, however it passed built on two messages, building the “Great education spending from 4 billion to 8 bil- the House 290 to 130 (1999; Loren 1993). Society” and fighting the “War on Poverty.” lion. In 87 days Congress passed the El- At the signing of the equal rights act The public seemed enthusiastic about the ementary and Secondary Education Act Johnson stated, future and its possibilities (Johnson, 1971). (ESEA) that included Title I funding and We believe all men are entitled to the The “Great Society” was described with an antipoverty program. This was a step blessings of liberty. Yet millions are be- different words at different times (1971). toward improving educational opportunity. ing deprived of those blessings—not be- Johnson’s vision of the “Great Society” was Johnson called ESEA “the most significant cause of their own failures, but because an extension of the fundamental Ameri- education bill” in congressional history (as of the color of their skin. The reasons can rights that were set forth by the Found- cited Unger & Unger, 1999, p. 346).Fur- are deeply imbedded in history and tra- ther it led to a cabinet level for the Depart- dition and the nature of man. We can ing Fathers. Johnson states, “.…in our time ment of Education. In 1965 Johnson signed understand-without rancor or hatred— a broadened concept of freedom requires how this happened, but it cannot con- that every American have the right to a the Higher Education Act which provided tinue…. Our Constitution, the founda- healthy body, a full education, a decent federal aid, loans and work study programs tion of our Republic, forbids it. The prin- home, and the opportunity to develop to to the economically disadvantaged. ciples of our freedom forbid it. Morality the best of his talents” (p. 104). forbids it. And the law I will sign tonight Johnson’s “Great Society” was to in- Following The Election forbids it.” (Dalleck, 2004, p. 169) clude something for everyone: Educational On November 3, 1964, Lyndon Johnson remained concerned that the assistance for the youth, civil rights for the Johnson was elected President with the South might resist the law. He feared a oppressed, vocational training for un- greatest percentage ever attained by a can- revolution, bloodshed, and violence (2004). skilled, higher minimum wage for the la- didate with the total popular vote of 61 The issue of civil rights was unpredictable borer, subsidies for farmers, tax relief for percent (Lyndon Baines Library, 2004). and Johnson faced criticism from both business, Medicare for the elderly, reduced With the public and congress behind him, sides. The Civil Rights Bill set Johnson quotas for the immigrants, and more Johnson felt the moment was right to push apart forever from the South (Johnson, (Goodwin, 1991). his agenda for the “Great Society” forward. 1971; Unger & Unger, 1999). Some people Johnson’s agenda included education, pro- refused to recognize the bill. In a speech in Justice: Move Toward Equality tection of civil rights, urban renewal, Medi- New Orleans with 2, 500 people gathered Beginning with Andrew Jackson, ev- care, conservation, beautification, control Johnson spoke from the heart, ery American president that tried to use and prevention of crime, the arts, consumer we have a Constitution and we have a Bill federal money for public schools had been protection, and foreign policy (LBJ Li- of Rights, and we have the law of the land, unsuccessful for one of three reasons brary). Johnson had a moral conviction to and two-thirds of the Democrats in the (Unger & Unger, 1999). The issues that end segregation, discrimination and dis- Senate voted for it and I am going to ob- blocked the legislation were racial segre- franchisement (Unger & Unger, 1999). serve it, and I think that any man that is

WINTER 2004 41 Johnson knew that the time was right an issue lay bare the secret heart of overlooked, at the time, because there was to get legislation passed while he had such America itself…. Rarely are we met with a lack of accurate census numbers for His- broad support (Johnson, 1971; Unger & a challenge…to the values and the pur- panics and Latinos, and a language bar- Unger, 1999). Most of Johnson’s legislation poses and the meaning met with a rier that also complicated the issues challenge…to the values and the pur- originated from task forces consisting of men poses and the meaning of our beloved (Pycior, 1997). Many Mexican Americans and women who were considered experts in Nation. The issue of equal rights for felt unaccepted in the educational system their fields (Goodwin, 1991; Unger & Unger, American Negroes is such an issue. And because it banned Spanish and ignored 1999). Johnson requested the task forces should we defeat every enemy, should their heritage (Katz, 1993). work secretively and required that informa- we double our wealth and conquer the The Voting Rights Act opened new po- tion remain closed to others because he stars, and still be unequal to this issue, litical avenues for Mexican Americans. It feared those in opposition would try and then we will have failed as a people and eliminated state literacy tests for those sabotage his reform efforts. Johnson started as a nation.”… And he further declared whose first language was Spanish and en- “what happened in Selma is part of a far with 15 task forces and by 1968 there were larger movement which reached into ev- abled them to register and vote (Katz, 27 task forces (1991; 1999). ery section and State of America. It is the 1993). Under Johnson’s administration effort of American Negroes to secure for almost 2,000 Mexican Americans were Civil Rights themselves the full blessings of Ameri- placed in federal jobs (Pycior, 1997). can life. Their cause must be our cause Women’s Movement. Many women also In the 1940s and 1950s African Ameri- too. It is not just Negroes, but really it is began to rethink their lives following 1963 cans had few Presidents that took action all of us, who must overcome the crip- (Katz, 1993). A Commission on the status to improve their conditions (Goodwin, pling legacy of bigotry and injustice. And of women issued a report that year which 1991). One exception was Truman’s deseg- (Johnson paused, raising his arms for em- phasis) We shall overcome.” (Dalleck, documented the discrimination against regation of the armed forces (1991). Only women in every area of American life six civil rights bills made it to the floor of 2004, p. 205; Lyndon Baines Library, 2003) (Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998). The the Congress and every single one was de- movement was further spurred by Betty feated. Senators, congressmen, and other observ- Friedan’s landmark book, The Feminine Johnson felt the Civil Rights Act of ers were moved to tears and elation. Mar- Mystique, which documented women’s op- 1964 would begin the process of integrat- tin Luther King, Jr., watching on TV, cried pression and motivated women to inspire ing African Americans (Dalleck, 2004). In (Dalleck, 2004; Unger & Unger, 1999). beyond the duties of housewife (1993; 1998). Johnson’s view, allowing Blacks to vote and Johnson continued, Johnson encouraged his staff to fill hold a political office would further advance A century has passed, more than a hun- federal positions with women (Bornet, their influence and serve their interests dred years, since the Negro was freed. 1983; Pycior, 1997). By October of 1965, (Dalleck, 2004). Johnson was determined And he is not fully free tonight…. A cen- Johnson had appointed 120 women to key to put forth a voting bill of rights by 1965. tury has passed, more than a hundred positions in the government (1983). Fur- In his 1964 State of the Union address years, since equality was promised. And thermore, he signed Executive Order No. Johnson demanded an end to unconstitu- yet the Negro is not equal…. The real 11375 that prohibited sex discrimination tional limits on Black voting. In 1965 Mar- hero of this struggle is the American Negro. His actions and protests, his cour- in federal employment or by anyone doing tin Luther King and the Southern Chris- business with the government (Katz, 1993). tian Leadership conference lead a cam- age to risk safety and even to risk his life, have awakened the conscience of this Johnson appointed Patricia Harris to be- paign in Selma, Alabama, that persuaded Nation…. He has called upon us to make come the first African American woman to Johnson to sponsor a voting bill of rights good the promise of America. And who serve as an American ambassador. The de- act (Goodwin, 1991; Unger & Unger, 1999). among us can say that we would have cade began with 17 women in Congress and A violent confrontation in Selma called made the same progress were it not for those numbers have continued to increase “Bloody Sunday” further pushed Johnson his persistent bravery and his faith in (1993; Pycior, 1997). to mobilize congressional action on voting American democracy? rights (1991; Katz, 1993). In our research of the Presidents and Voting Bill of Rights Johnson was attacked from both po- social justice issues no other President has litical sides. The Southern conservatives felt Johnson continued to spread his mes- spoken so strongly about these issues and he was doing too much in the area of civil sage for increased civil rights legislation. utilized the power of the presidential of- rights and the northern liberals felt he did On June 4, 1965, at a commencement ad- fice to begin to remedy these inequalities. too little (Dalleck, 2004). Many of his dress at Howard University entitled “To constitutents warned him that he would Fulfill These Rights,” Johnson stated, Other Oppressed Groups Impacted jeopardize his political ties and career if he Our enemies may occasionally seize the continued to support such social reform ef- Mexican Americans. Our history leads day of change, but it is the banner of our forts (Johnson, 1971). Johnson would have us to believe that civil rights changed soci- revolution they take. And our own fu- preferred to work behind the scenes on is- ety on racial issues concerning only African ture is linked to this process of swift and sues of civil rights, but was pushed by mo- Americans. However, the civil rights act was turbulent change in many lands in the mentous events (2004; Katz, 1993). intended to give rights to all Americans re- world. But nothing in any country touches Johnson’s speech on March 15, 1965, gardless of their sex, color, race, religion, or us more profoundly, and nothing is more freighted with meaning for our own des- was one of the most moving speeches in national origin. Mexican Americans were tiny than the revolution of the Negro this country’s history (Beschloss, 2001; also seeking the opportunities that civil American. In far too many ways Ameri- Dalleck, 2004). He compared Selma to Lex- rights and Johnson’s “Great Society” offered can Negroes have been another nation: ington and Concord, to Appomattox, as (1997). Furthermore, they were in support deprived of freedom, crippled by hatred, of Johnson and his agenda (1997). the doors of opportunity closed to hope. a turning point in man’s unending search Mexican Americans may have been (Lyndon Baines Johnson Library, 2003) for freedom…. Rarely in any time does

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 42 On July 7, 1965, Johnson continued to quota systems discriminated against (Johnson, 1971). Federal outlays for health feel the pressure from the press, the South, people from Asia, Africa, the West Indies, and education were up 59 percent, city and the Republicans. In a meeting with and eastern and southern Europe (Katz, spending up 76 percent, and unemployment Dr. King, discussing the Voting Bill of 1993; 1999). Additionally, Japanese-born was down 32 percent for whites and 34 per- Rights, Johnson stated, residents were denied naturalization. Ad- cent for African Americans (Dalleck, 2004). mission to the U. S. would now be based on The last two years of Johnson’s presi- We’re confronted with the…problem that we’ve faced all through the years—a com- family ties, rather than race, nationality, dency was negatively marked by the war bination of the South and The Republi- and ethnicity. in Southeast Asia and the urban riots at cans…. How do we avoid this combina- home (Pearson Education). By 1966, 85 tion?... I’ve done the best I could. But Johnson’s Support Declines percent of the American people believed they’re hitting me on different sides, and Negroes were moving too fast and demand- the press is…[on] Vietnam or the Domini- The country became divided when ing too much (Goodwin, 1991). The Demo- can Republic. (Beschloss, 2001, p. 387) Johnson escalated the war in Vietnam crats in the 1966 mid-term election also (Goodwin, 1991; Katz, 1993). This action He felt the vote for the bill would be suffered a reversal (Kunhart, Kunhart diverted funds from his War on Poverty close and dangerous because he had lost Kunhart, 1999). Johnson found his initia- (1993). By July 1966 public support for civil his influence on the Republicans. Johnson tives increasingly voted down (1999), but rights legislation had declined, with 90 per- also felt that Congress was getting tired of continued to submit them anyway. cent opposing additional civil rights legis- his continued requests (Johnson, 1971). Johnson was faced with the disunity lation. Despite declining public support, of the nation and challenges at home and They [Congress] don’t like for me to be Johnson continued to push the reform ef- abroad. He was slow to recognize the sig- asking for rent one day and poverty the forts of his “Great Society.” nificance of the riots and the public back- next day, and education the next day, and There was strong support for safety lash (1991). The first riot to capture na- voting rights the next day. They know I legislation and pollution programs because can’t defeat them out there in their dis- tional attention was in the Watts section they came at a lower cost (Unger & Unger, trict in Michigan and some other place. of Los Angeles, August 1965. More than So I am fighting the battle the best I can. 1999). Johnson attempted to sustain Afri- 100 riots followed, leaving 225 dead, 4,000 (Beschloss, 2001, p. 388) can American gains through the courts and wounded, and $112 billion in property dam- additional legislation that required little age. Johnson’s reaction was “It simply Johnson requested that King advocate or no increases in spending (Dalleck, 2004). wasn’t fair for a few irresponsible agita- and get the local chapters of CORE (Con- In his state of the union address, he urged tors to spoil it for me and for the rest of the gress of Racial Equality), NAACP, or his Congress to enact a civil rights bill with Negroes….” (p. 305). group in New York to get out and “answer housing, jury selection, and crime enforce- Johnson never took responsibility for the roll call” (p. 388). ment provisions. Johnson stated the riots, but did say, “We’ll never know Despite the controversy and public how high a price we paid for the unkind- criticisms, the Voting Bill of Rights passed The time has come for the Congress to declare resoundingly that discrimination ness and injustice we’ve inflicted on the Senate 77 to 19 and the House 333 to in housing and all the evils it breeds are a people—the Negroes, Mexicans, and 85 vote. The Voting Rights Act eliminated denial of justice and a threat to the devel- Jews—and everyone who really believes he almost all qualifying tests for voting and opment of our growing urban areas…The has been discriminated against in any way allowed the federal government to make truly insufferable cost of imprisoning the is part of the that great human price… the decision whether or not a voter’s rights Negro in the slums is borne by our na- (p.305). The media used the riots to make had been violated. It also eliminated the tional conscience. When we restrict the it clear that “equality for the Negro was a state literacy tests that prevented many Negro’s freedom inescapable we restrict far greater problem than anyone had imag- Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and a part of our own. (Dalleck, 2004, p. 241) ined and its solution probably more remote others whose first language was Spanish Johnson’s unrelenting drive toward than ever” (p. 307). from voting (Katz, 1993). equality for people of color and the economi- The growing anger on all sides pre- On August 6, 1965, Johnson signed the cally oppressed resulted in the housing bill sented Johnson with a far more difficult Voting Rights Act. Johnson declared, “to being passed by the house, but the Senate task, which forced him to take the defen- every Negro in this country: you must reg- refused to act on the bill. sive and further drained his resources ister. You must vote…Your future and your Johnson feared that like FDR’s New (Goodwin, 1991; Unger & Unger, 1999). children’s future depend on it.” He de- Deal, the Supreme Court might consider Black nationalists, radicals, Feminists, manded equality “not as a theory, but as a some of his programs to be unconstitutional militants, Mexican Americans, and social fact and a result” (Beschloss, 2001, p. 419). (Beschloss, 2001). This compelled him to nonconformists once hopeful of the “Great By the end of 1966 only four states had want to appoint Abe Fontas (a friend) to Society” began to find discontent with the less than a 50 percent (three reached 47 the Supreme Court. Fontas declined, but Great Society and believed the President’s percent) of their voting-age African Ameri- Johnson publicly announced his nomination vision was too wide and raised hopes it cans registered (Dalleck, 2004). anyway. This was another example of could not fulfill (1991; 1999). Johnson’s character, not to take no for an By 1968 Johnson had lost the Ameri- Immigration Reform Bill answer, manipulate people, and do what- can people’s trust because he did not fully Johnson asked for a new immigration ever it takes to continue his agenda. disclose America’s increased involvement bill designed to eliminate “the bigoted na- Johnson’s war on poverty began to fal- in the Vietnam War (Califano, 1991; tional origins quota system” (Unger & ter. The Vietnam expenditures, inflation, Goodwin, 1999; Unger & Unger, 1999). Unger, 1999, p. 338). On October 3, 1965, and economic struggles weakened his so- There was growing opposition towards the Johnson signed the Immigration Reform cial programs (Goodwin, 1991; Unger & war and increasing resistance to social re- Bill which ended the National Origins Act Unger, 1999). Johnson rebuked the criticism form bills. of 1924. Prior to this legislative reform, by repeatedly stating the gains being made Johnson’s term in office was filled with

WINTER 2004 43 highs and lows. Despite the growing oppo- slavery and the culture of slavery for other etal structures of privilege and of disenfran- sition, there were highs in 1968 such as, plantation operators such as themselves. chisement” (Adams, p. 6). the Civil Rights Act of 1968, The Fair This insulated position would protect the Housing Act of 1968, and the Federal Jury interests of the slave owning community” Lincoln’s Legacy on Social Justice Reform Act of 1968. In the years 1964-1968 (Baptiste & Sanchez, 2004, p. 37). The de- the lows seemed to materialize in the form cision prevented federal business and Lincoln is credited as the president of the war, riots, burnings, killings, and as- members of congress from having to con- who emancipated the slaves and it can be sassinations. duct their business in an “abolitionist’ en- argued that without his support for free- Johnson’s leadership for the legisla- vironment. dom, this process of emancipation would tive phase of the Great Society included Most of what Jefferson wrote is con- have taken a lot longer. He spoke out often 535 individuals and 45 committees. Be- tradicted by something he did (Kirn, 2004; about the social injustice of slavery and tween the years of 1965 and 1968 a collec- Kunhardt, Kunhardt, & Kunhardt, 1999; oppression, yet he also spoke of Blacks, tion of over 500 social programs had been Read, 2000; Wilkins, 2001). Jefferson had Mexicans, and Indians as being inferior to created (Goodwin, 1991). Eventually the the power and the opportunity to do great Whites, and he favored colonization. His number of employees grew to one million things in the area of social justice. Instead proclamation paved the way for the thir- in order to implement the growing pro- he remained silent and failed to submit teenth amendment (abolishing slavery). grams under the Great Society. any plan for emancipation to Congress for However, Lincoln’s gradual emancipa- Additionally, the growing tensions in consideration (Ellis, 2000). He used his tion plan could have continued slavery un- Vietnam demanded that Johnson turn his power and made a personal and political til the 1900s. His contradictions are simi- attention to the war. Due to these factors choice not to free slaves or provide social lar to those of Jefferson as it appears they Johnson could not control and monitor each justice for all (Garrett, 1982). both struggled with the issues of equality social program as he had in the past. This As a result, inequality grew and be- for people of color and freedom for slaves. resulted in each program operating in its came institutionalized. His acceptance of Lincoln’s legacy that is evident in today’s own way and following sometimes differ- slavery was extended and today we con- existing economy and government is that ent loyalties (1991). Others believe that it tinue to fight the injustices of our past. of federal control and one of centralized was Johnson’s lack of commitment to moni- Jefferson could have freed his own slaves, government. Lincoln held strongly to the tor each program (1991) that lead to inef- “but financially, and probably psychically views of his idol Henry Clay and his fectiveness. as well” he was incapable of such sacri- “American System,” which included inter- fices (Wilkins, 2001, p. 122). Even at his nal improvements, protective tariffs, and Legacies: death, he failed to free his own slaves centralized banking (Dilorenzo, 2002). It (Garrett, 1982; Kunhardt, Kunhardt, & was Abraham Lincoln who signed into law Jefferson, Lincoln, and Johnson Kunhardt, 1999; Robinson, Rakove& the first income tax in American history, including a tax bill imposing hundreds of Each President left a legacy on soci- Wills, 2004). taxes on the people. ety. The President holds a very influential Jefferson’s actions, policies, and atti- DiLorenzo suggests instead of referring position on the matter of social justice. tudes set a precedent to oppress other groups. Jefferson taught his daughters that to Lincoln as the Great Emancipator he From the beginning, American national they were created for men’s pleasures and should be known as the Great Centralizer identity has been less a condition than a believed women’s place was at home, not (2002). Lincoln, through his success at cen- set of ideas—the values and virtues and tralizing government, left the people from purposes and ideals that have served to in the office (Appleby, 2003). Jefferson “took his daughter, Patsy, to France to clothe her the South no alternative after the war but unite us as a people. Through our his- to conform to the Northern way of thinking. tory, the president has been in a unique with culture and to stay close to her, yet he position to help articulate these basic val- shut her away in a convent” (Kunhardt, Although we can look at Lincoln’s apparent ues…. (Kunhardt, Kunhardt, & Kun- Kunhardt, Kunhardt, 1999, p. 270). Here emancipation of slaves through the war as hardt, 1999, p. 259) again is yet another example of how his the great triumph it was, at the same time, actions contradict his beliefs. it was a tragedy enslaving freemen to the The President must make a decision Jefferson believed people of color were control of the federal government. “Lincoln to free or oppress others through his ac- inferior and Whites and Blacks could never declared that he fought the war to preserve tions and policies. “The president is the coexist (Jefferson, 1999; Gordon-Reed, the Union…the Union, however, was pre- central player in the American political 2004). Even though Jefferson knew of Afri- served in name only, while the formerly free order” (Remini, 2002, p. xiii). He also has can Americans that possessed great tal- condition of America was subjugated to the the power to do nothing in the area of so- ent and intellectual abilities, he still chose power of the president” (Dieteman, 2001). cial justice continuing the institutionaliza- to ignore that knowledge. The federal In- tion of the status quo. dian removal policy was set by Jefferson Johnson’s Legacy on Social Justice as “the solution to dealing with Indians Jefferson Legacy on Social Justice Johnson is not a highly recognized who rejected ‘civilization’ or waged war on President as compared to Jefferson and Jefferson was instrumental along with the United States” (Wallace, 1999, p. 275). Lincoln. It seems his failed efforts in Viet- George Washington and James Madison Jefferson had the opportunity to estab- nam overshadow all other aspects of his in placing the nation’s capital at its present lish policies that embraced diversity and Presidency (Dalleck, 2004). The recognition (southern) position so that the national instead he chose actions of assimilation or he deserves for his efforts will forever suf- governmental business would be conducted separation of other groups. Jefferson’s ac- fer because America will not forget he was in a southern agrarian culture. “Washing- tions continue to influence how others are the only President to lose a war (2004). ton, supported by Jefferson and Madison, viewed. “Institutionalized learning’s at the Johnson stated “once the war began, then decided that a location in a more isolated individual level are reinforced throughout all those conservatives in the Congress and southern position would help secure our experience by organizational and soci- would use it as a weapon against the Great

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 44 Society. You see, they’d never wanted to help President in American history (p. 232). The South, but Lincoln can also be credited for the poor or the Negroes in the first place” civil rights movement provided a model for changing the Constitution and system of (Goodwin, 1991, p. 252). social change for other reform movements, government that the founding fathers cre- Despite Johnson’s successes and fail- like the women’s movement and “free ated when this country was founded. ures, his legacy continues to have a signifi- speech” campaigns. It provided “a language Lincoln’s belief in a centralized govern- cant impact on Americans today. His so- about equality, rights, and community that ment made it so that state control has been cial reforms such as Civil Rights, the Voter’s transformed public discourse in a decade” replaced with federal control. It is easy to Bill of Rights, Medicare, Headstart, and (as cited Katz, 1993, p. 48). argue that his Presidency moved our coun- federal aid to education continue to endure. However, we must almost recognize try further from a true democracy and Johnson took up the cause for the rights that despite Johnson’s convictions the closer to the tyranny that once existed be- of people of color at a time that very few Great Society reforms suffered under fore the Declaration of Independence. politicians had or would (Goodwin, 1991). Johnson’s administration due to his esca- It was Lincoln who set the precedents Johnson “took the most advanced position latory policy in Vietnam. Johnson failed to for the powers that the president could on racial issues of any President in Ameri- make a choice between war or the Great assert during times of war. In order to do can history” (Goodwin, 1991, p. 232). Society, which resulted in poor results for this Lincoln had to maneuver his way Johnson had an unmatched capacity to per- both (Goodwin, 1991; Unger & Unger, around the obstacles that the Constitution suade individuals (Dalleck, 2004; Goodwin, 1999). We believe that the Vietnam War presented to him. His success is apparent, 1991). Despite opposition he was able to did negatively impact Johnson’s efforts as today we deal with the federal control persuade nearly everyone that his goals toward his reforms; however, he continued that exists with respect to education, were in the best interests of all Americans. to submit, promote, and further advance health care, and the many other social pro- Johnson felt he had made major these needed initiatives. In 1968 he was grams that exist in our country. progress in the five short years that he was still able to achieve such acts as Fair Hous- Johnson’s actions also promoted a in office (Johnson, 1971). He stated, ing, Indian Bill of Rights, Safe Streets, more centralized form of government. His Food for Peace, School Breakfast, Truth in presidency brought fourth a historical Distinguished Black men and women have assumed their rightful places in the Lending, Fair Federal Juries, Juvenile De- groundswell of government control and in- highest offices of the land—the Supreme linquency Prevention, Guaranteed Student tervention. However, Johnson was unable Court, the Cabinet, the foreign service, Loans, FHA-VA Interest Rate Program, to recognize the growing resentment due the Federal Reserve Board, the mayor- Health Manpower, Gun Controls, Aid to to the increased degree of central author- ship of Washington, D. C., the chairman- Handicapped Children, and Vocational ity. It was not specific objections to his so- ship of the Equal Employment Opportu- Education. cial reforms, but whether or not the fed- nity Commissions—Thurgood Marshall, eral government should be involved Robert Weaver, Andrew Brimmer, (Goodwin, 1991). Patiricia Harris, Walter Washington, Great Divide on Government Clifford Alexander—and many others for Does increased power of government Legacy on Education their competence, wisdom, and courage, mean a loss of liberty for the governed? The not for the color of their skin. (p. 179) resistance to the amount of government Jefferson’s idea of education was In 1964 there were only 280 elected intervention in matters of social justice based on social class. Every citizen was African American officials, serving in still separates political parties and agen- entitled to an education in proportion to mainly minor offices (Katz, 1993). By 1968 das today. Jefferson believed in less gov- his pursuit of life (Sparagana, 2002). The there were eight African American mem- ernment control and intervention in social role of education for women was that they bers of Congress, 11 federal judges, seven issues, and Lincoln and Johnson believed were to educate their children. The ratio- ambassadors, 79 state representatives, 18 in more government intervention and con- nale given for allowing more serious edu- senators, seven mayors of major cities, and trol on social issues. cation for women was that it “would make 212 convention delegates (1993). Jefferson was concerned about the the Americans better wives and mothers Johnson’s Voting Bill of Rights led to power of strong central government and (De Pauw, 1975, p. 212). the fact that only four states had less than that it might put an end to slavery (Reed, Lincoln had little to do with education a 50 percent (three reached 47 percent) of 2004). During Jefferson’s presidency he during his presidency due to the ongoing their voting-age African Americans regis- strived to limit government and change Civil War and efforts in trying to save the tered by the end of 1966. By 1980 ten mil- elite practices of the federal government Union. He did believe and spoke out that lion African Americans were on the nation’s (White House Historical Association). every person should have the right to an voting rolls, only seven percent less than However, he was willing to exercise his education. However, when states set up the proportion of voting age whites (Dalleck, leadership by making the Louisiana Terri- education policies that weren’t socially eq- 2004). In the six states most impacted by tory, which was actually outside the power uitable for Blacks, Lincoln only persuaded the law, the number of elected office posi- of the President (Kirn, 2004). He was also states to reconsider their policies rather tions for people of color increased from 70 willing to expand the military force (Kirn, than demanding such. to 400 (Unger & Unger, 1999). In 1965 only 2004). He used Federal action to enforce Prior to Johnson’s term in office, very a couple hundred African Americans held the Embargo Act, which crippled the few education laws were enacted at the public office, by 1989 there were 6,000 economy (Kunhardt, Kunhardt, & national level. At a time when schools had (2004). The bill also promoted an increased Kunhardt, 1999). His position promoted grown 43% and were in need of repair, number of Mexican Americans, Latinos, elitism over equality for people of color and Johnson stepped forward to improve edu- and women into Congress (Katz, 1993). women (Appleby, 2003). cation with federal resources, despites We are in agreement with Goodwin It is Lincoln that we credit for preserv- many who argued against it (Johnson, (1991) that “Johnson took the most ad- ing our United States of America as he 1971). Out of Johnson’s legacy many feder- vanced position on racial issues of any saved the Union from secession by the ally-funded urban action programs were

WINTER 2004 45 developed to empower the oppressed by it ironic that he used this same power to edy of Lyndon Johnson: The white house providing them resources that facilitated enslave not only the slaves he freed but years. New York: Simon & Schuster. and liberated them from their inadequate freemen of all colors by forcing citizens to Caro, R. A. (1982). The years of Lyndon conditions. These programs offered services live under the control of the federal govern- Johnson: The path to power. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. such as career opportunities, counseling, ment. Lincoln’s legacy is that he ignored Caro, R. A. (2003). The years of Lyndon and financial assistance (Baptiste & and disregarded the Constitution, that Johnson: Master of the Senate. New York: Meindl, 1971). During Johnson’s term 60 while saving the Union he establish a less Vintage Books. laws regarding education were passed. As democratic society that conformed to his Columbia electronic encyclopedia 6th ed. a result of his efforts, by 1970 one out of philosophical views of a centralized gov- (2004). Alien and sedition acts. Retrieved every four college students was receiving ernment. from http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/his- federal financial aid (Dalleck, 2004). It is hard to envision how the United tory/a0803344.html. States would be today if Johnson had not Dabney, V. (1991). The Jefferson scandals. Lanham, MD: Madison Books. Conclusion taken a strong stance on civil rights. He Dalleck, R. (2004). Lyndon B. Johnson: Por- was not content with what Kennedy had trait of a president. New York: Oxford We must remember that there is not a started. He pursued reforms and tried to University Press. single historic truth or perception. Each provide each individual with some kind of Degregorio, W. A. (1946). The complete book President leaves us a legacy, which some- benefit in spite of the fact he was advised of U. S. presidents. New York: Barricade times is allowed to become somewhat dis- not to and faced tremendous opposition. Books. torted. Each of us seeks truth and uses our He leaves us with a great legacy in the area De Pauw, L. G. (1975). Founding mothers: own lens from different vantage points to of social justice. It is our hope that one day Women of America in the Revolutionary pass judgment on actions and failures of Era. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. we may recognize and celebrate his cru- Dieteman, D. (2001). Lincoln’s legacy: Om- our past leaders. We can only hope to use sade to end racism and poverty. If we were nipotent government. Retrieved August 16, our past as a source of knowledge that in- to rank the presidencies and legacies of each 2004 from http://www.lewrockwell.com/ spires us to widen our lens and enables us of these presidents, in terms of who dieteman/dieteman78.html. to continue our pursuits in a land of oppor- brought about equity and social justice for Dilorenzo, T. (2002). The real Lincoln. tunity. all people, especially people of color, we Roseville, CA: Prima Publishing. Our society is greatly influenced by the would conclude Johnson would be ranked Eisenberg, B. and Ruthsdotter, M. (1998). The actions or failures to act of our past Presi- first. What do you conclude? women’s right movement 1848-1998. Re- dents. We have all learned to conform to trieved from The National Women’s His- tory project at http://www.legacy98.org/ an ethnocentric culture and call it the References move-hist.html. “American Way.” We have continued to op- Ellis, J. J. (2000). Founding brothers. New press people of color and have learned to Appleby, J. (2003). Thomas Jefferson, the York: Vintage Books. justify it by saying all Americans have the American presidents, Arthur M. Schle- Frontline (2000). Jefferson’s blood: Is it true? right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of hap- singer, (Ed). New York: Times Books. PBS. Retrieved August 1, 2004 from piness. We fail to embrace diversity and Averon (2001). Dispelling the myths of the www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ media machine. Retrieved from www. are taught to say we are proud to be an jefferson/true. fightthebias.com/people/Thomas_ American. Our awareness of inequality, Garrett, R. B. (1982). The presidents and the Jefferson/Thomas_Jefferson.htm Negro. Peoria, IL: Bradley University. conscious or unconscious, at all three lev- Baptiste, P. H. & Meindl, C. O. (1971). A model Goodwin, D. K. (1991). Lyndon Johnson and els (individual, institutional, and societal) for relevant urban education. Notre Dame the American dream. New York: St. needs to be revealed, questioned, and Journal Education 2(3), 270-277. Martin’s Griffin. changed so that together we can proclaim Baptiste, P. H. & Sanchez, R. (2004). Ameri- Gordon-Reed (2004). Was the sage a hypo- the U. S. is indeed a place where all people can presidents and their attitudes, beliefs, crite? Time. can partake in the same opportunities and and actions surrounding education and Haber, L. Black pioneers of science and inven- multiculturalism. Multicultural Education have equal access to life, liberty, and the tion. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. 11, 35-42. pursuit of happiness. Hamilton, A. (2004) A family divided: Sex, race Belote, Thom (2004). Thomas Jefferson. Dic- and the Jefferson feud. Time. Some of the possible conclusions that tionary of unitarian and universalist bi- Harris, W. C. (2004). Lincoln’s last months. can be drawn are that Jefferson’s stance ography. Retrieved June 13, 2004 from Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. on emancipation was deficient. He failed http://www.uua/org/uuhs/duub/articles/ Hartmann, T. (2003). How an earlier “patriot to take a risk and take a stand against thomasjefferson.html. act” law brought down a president. Re- slavery, his choosing not to do anything left Bender, T. (2001). The age of revolution: trieved on August 1, 2004 from http:// a legacy that continued to oppress people Founding fathers dreamed of uprisings, www.commondreams/org/views03/0616- except in Haiti. The New York Times, Week of color while benefiting white males. 03.htm. in Review. Retrieved August 8, 2004 from Jefferson failed to present Congress with Jefferson, T. (1984). Thomas Jefferson auto- http://www.hartford-hwp/com/archives/ biography. New York: Viking Press. a gradual plan for emancipation even for 43a/173.html. Jefferson, T. Thomas Jefferson Autobiogra- consideration and therefore, he was fully Bennett, L. (2000). Forced into glory: Abraham phy [On-line, 2004]. Retrieved August, 4, in support of slavery. Lincoln, like Jefferson, Lincoln’s white dream. Chicago: Johnson 2004 from http://libertyonline/Hypermall. struggled with equality as he appeared to Publishing. com/Jefferson/Autobiography.html. support the emancipation of slaves yet still Bornet, V. D. (1983). The presidency of Lundon Jefferson, T. (1999). Notes on the state of Vir- apparently believed people of color to be B. Johnson. Lawrence, KS: University ginia. New York: Penguin. Press of Kansas. inferior, and thus he planned for their colo- Johnson, L. B. (1971). The vantage point. New Boyer, J. B. & Baptiste, H. P. (1996). nization. York: Holt, Rinehard & Winston. Transfroming the curriculum for multi- Katz, W. L. (1993). A history of multicultural Many credit Lincoln for using his cultural understandings. San Francisco, America. Austin, TX: Steck-Vaughn. power to free slaves, referring to him as CA: Caddo Gap Press. Kirn, W. (2004). Life, liberty and the pursuit the “Great Emancipator,” yet others find Califano, J. A. (1991). The triumph and trag- of Thomas Jefferson. Time.

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 46 Kunhardt, P. (1999). Lyndon B. Johnson: The www.theatlantic.com/issues/96oct/ Thomas, B. P. (1994). A biography: Abraham art of political bluster. From The Ameri- obrien.htm. Lincoln. New York: Barnes & Noble. can president on line. Retrieved July 24, Pearson Education, publishing as Infoplease. Thomas, B. P. (2002). Lincoln’s humor and 2004 from www.americanpresident.org/ (2000-2004). Lyndon Baines Johnson. Re- other essays. Chicago: University of Illinois history/lyndonbJohnson/biography/re- trieved on July 31, 2004 from http:// Press. sources/articles/Kunhardt. www.infoplease.com/ipa/a0760620.html. Thomas, C. (1998). Culture defined: A twenty- Kunhardt, P. B., Kunhardt, P B., Kunhardt, P. Pycior, J. L. (1997). Johnson and Mexican first century perspective. Educational Ho- W. (1999). The American president. New Americans.: The paradox of power. Austin, rizons, p. 122-126. York: Riverhead books. TX: University of Texas Press. Wallace, A. F. C. (1999). Jefferson and the In- Lyndon Baines Johnson Library (2004). Chro- Read, J. H. (2000). Power versus liberty. dians: The tragic fate of the first Ameri- nology. Compiled by Lyndon Baines Charlottesville, VA: University Press of cans. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Johnson Library Archives Staff. Retrieved Virginia. Press. July 23, 2004 from www.Johnsonib.utexas. Reed, I. (2004). The patriot act of the 18th cen- White House Historical Association. Back- edu/Johnson/archives. tury. Time. ground. Retrieved July 30, 2004 from http:/ Lyndon Baines Johnson Library (2003, Dec. Remini, R. (2002). John Quincy Adams. New /www.whitehousehistory.org/04/subs/ 10). Speeches and addresses: Commence- York: Henry Holt & Company. 04_b_1801.html. ment address at Howard university: “To Robinson, P. (Announcer), Rakove, J. (Guest), Wildman, S. M. & Davis, A. D. (2000). Lan- Fulfill These Rights.” June 4, 1965. Re- Wills, G. (Guest) (2004, January 19). A slave guage and silence: Making systems of privi- trieved July 23, 2004 from www.Johnsonib. to the system. [Transcript 829]. Funded by lege visible. In Readings for diversity and utexas.edu/Johnson/archives. the John M. Olin Foundation. Retrieved social justice (pp. 50-60). New York & Lon- Lyndon Baines Johnson Library.( 2003, Dec. June 13, 2004 from http://www.uncommon don: Routledge. 10) Speeches and addresses: Voting rights knowledge.org/800/829.html. Wilkins, R. (2001). Jefferson’s pillow: The address to congress. March 15, 1965. Re- Sparagana, J. (2002). The educational theory founding fathers and the dilemma of black trieved July 23, 2004 from www.Johnsonib. of Thomas Jefferson. Retrieved June 28, patriotism. Boston: Beacon Press. utexas.edu/Johnson/archives. 2004 from http://www.newfoundations. Wills, G. (2003). Negro president. Boston & Loewen, J. (1995). Lies my teacher told me. com/Gallery/Jefferson.html. New York: Houghton Mifflin. New York: New Press. Tatum, D. (2000). The complexity of identity: Wilson, D. L. (1992). Thomas Jefferson and O’Brien, C. C. (1996). Thomas Jefferson: Radi- Who am I? In Readings for diversity and the character issue. The Atlantic Monthly. cal and racist. The Atlantic Monthly. Re- social justice (pp. 9-14). New York & Lon- Retrieved August 2, 2004 from http:// trieved August 4, 2004 from http:// don: Routledge. www.threatlantic.com/issues/.

Previous installments in this series of articles on Presidents of the United States and multicultural education appeared in the following issues of Multicultural Education: Winter 2003 issue: Presidents James Madison, Rutherford B. Hayes, and John F. Kennedy. Spring 2004 issue: Presidents Andrew Jackson, Woodrow Wilson, and Dwight D. Eisenhower. Summer 2004 issue: Presidents John Quincy Adams, Theodore Roosevelt, and Harry S. Truman. Fall 2004 issue: Presidents George Washington, James K. Polk, and Franklin D. Roosevelt Look for additional installments in future issues of Multicultural Education.

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