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The Baja California Peninsula, a Significant Source of Dust in Northwest Mexico

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The Baja California Peninsula, a Significant Source of Dust in Northwest Mexico atmosphere Article The Baja California Peninsula, a Significant Source of Dust in Northwest Mexico Enrique Morales-Acuña 1 , Carlos R. Torres 2,* , Francisco Delgadillo-Hinojosa 3 , Jean R. Linero-Cueto 4, Eduardo Santamaría-del-Ángel 5 and Rubén Castro 6 1 Postgrado en Oceanografía Costera, Facultad de Ciencias Marinas, Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada, Zona Playitas, Ensenada 3917, Baja California, Mexico; [email protected] 2 Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Centro Nacional de Datos Oceanográficos, Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada, Zona Playitas, Ensenada 3917, Baja California, Mexico 3 Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada, Zona Playitas, Ensenada 3917, Baja California, Mexico; [email protected] 4 Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad del Magdalena, Carrera 32 No. 22-08, Santa Marta, Magdalena 470004, Colombia; [email protected] 5 Facultad de Ciencias Marinas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada, Zona Playitas, Ensenada 3917, Baja California, Mexico; [email protected] (E.S.-d.-Á.); [email protected] (R.C.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 26 August 2019; Accepted: 17 September 2019; Published: 26 September 2019 Abstract: Despite their impacts on ecosystems, climate, and human health, atmospheric emissions of mineral dust from deserts have been scarcely studied. This work estimated dust emission flux (E) between 1979 and 2014 from two desert regions in the Baja California Peninsula (BCP) using a modified dust parameterization scheme. Subsequently, we evaluated the processes controlling the variability of E at intra- and interannual scales. During the period 1979–2014 peak E were generally recorded in summer (San Felipe) and spring (Vizcaino), and the lowest emissions occurred in autumn (San Felipe) and winter (Vizcaíno). Intra- and interannual variability in E was associated with fluctuations in wind speed and direction, precipitation, and soil moisture, which, in turn, were controlled by the seasonal displacement of the North Pacific high-pressure center. Key drivers of the interannual variability of E are strong El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. These climatic events and the hydrometeorological variables mentioned above played a major role in the onset and occurrence of dust events, with the highest annual emissions at Vizcaíno. Besides, a lag of 19 months (San Felipe) and 21 months (Vizcaino) was recorded between the occurrence of relevant E and ENSO events, apparently in response to the effect of this climatic event on precipitation. The climate variability of E in both desert regions was evidenced by the positive trends associated with increases in wind speed and air temperature, and with decreases in precipitation and soil moisture. Finally, our findings suggest that the BCP should be considered as a significant source of dust for the regional inventory of particulate matter emissions from the Earth’s surface. Keywords: dust emission flux; Baja California Peninsula; climate variability; El Niño; temporal variation 1. Introduction Emissions of mineral dust (MD) from surface soil have been described as resulting from three main mechanisms: (1) Aerodynamic lift, (2) saltation bombardment (sandblasting), and (3) disintegration of aggregates (auto-abrasion) [1,2]. These mechanisms are part of the wind erosion processes and are subject to weather conditions as well as to the properties, characteristics, and uses of land [1,3]. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 582; doi:10.3390/atmos10100582 www.mdpi.com/journal/atmosphere Atmosphere 2019, 10, 582 2 of 18 According to Shao [4], mineral dust generated by wind erosion is the most important source of aerosols. The dust sources can be either anthropogenic or natural. In the first case, the material is released directly into the atmosphere, in the second one, it is suspended when the wind exceeds a certain threshold t 1 friction velocity (u = 0.25 m s− ) [5–8]. As MD is a key component in the global cycle of dust and ∗ · the cycle of nutrients associated with it [1,3], MD emission rates have been described and quantified through parameterization schemes used in global and regional models [4,8–15]. These have revealed increases in MD emissions in some desert regions during the past decade, consistent with climate change and associated with variations in precipitation, base soil, and surface wind speed [16–19]. Besides, in some desert regions, the frequency of dust events is apparently related to the years after strong El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events [16]. Therefore, the fluxes of atmospheric iron associated with E transported by wind may increase toward the northern region of the Gulf of California (GC) [20]. In the Baja California Peninsula (BCP), the results obtained by Pu and Ginoux [19] suggest that variations in dust emission flux during the past decade directly depend on two factors, namely (a) surface wind speed (June–November), and (b) bare soil (December–May). In the first case, wind speed and direction respond to topography, two thermal contrasts, and low-pressure systems [21]. In general, the interaction between wind and ground surface is one of the primary causes of degradation in the Mexican territory, mainly in desert regions [22]. The arid nature of these regions makes drought one of the major natural threats for vegetation cover in the BCP. According to official projections, the magnitude of drought will become aggravated in the coming years [23]. An analysis by Salinas-Zavala et al. [24] revealed that the negative trends in the vitality of vegetation in the southern region of the BCP are associated with increased human population density and tourism development. As a result of the natural processes mentioned above that affect the BCP, coupled with steady anthropogenic influences such as increasing population density, the expectation is that fluctuations in MD emissions in San Felipe and Vizcaino—the most relevant desert regions in BCP—respond to seasonal and interannual variations in climate. For this reason, this study evaluates the seasonal and interannual variability of MD emissions and four hydrometeorological variables (wind speed, soil moisture, temperature, and precipitation). The trends and fluctuations related to climate variability in the region are also explored, as well as the effects of climate phenomena such as El Niño, making this region a relevant source of dust in northwest Mexico. 2. Study Area 2.1. Location and Geography The BCP is located in the semi-arid region of northwest Mexico (20◦–33◦ N and 109.5–117◦ W). It is crossed by a mountain range forming a nearly continuous barrier across its entire length, with heights from 600 to 2800 m a.s.l. (Figure1). In general, its west coast is influenced by the cold California Current, while the east coast is affected by the warm water of the GC [24]. The BCP includes two ecoregions (San Felipe and Vizcaino) that have been classified by González-Abraham et al. [25] and Morales-Acuña [26] as desert areas. San Felipe desert is an area with a few hills dominated by extensive alluvial slopes, gravel and sand plains, and a dune system [25]. Vizcaíno desert is formed by a series of extensive arid plains <100 m a.s.l., which spread along the Pacific coast between 26◦ and 29◦ N[25]. It comprises extensive desert plains, interior dunes, and saline soils [25]. The only elevations in the western margin of the peninsula are the small mountains of Sierra del Placer and Picachos de Santa Clara, with approximate heights of 700 m [25]. The dominant vegetation in these deserts is made up of microphyll and rosetophilous desert scrubland, sand and coastal dune vegetation, and xerophilous halophilic vegetation [25]. The predominant soil units are arenosol, gravel, and clay. According to Morales-Acuña [26], these areas are sources of dust to the GC based on the percentage of wind speed and direction that fostered W-E winds from Vizcaino and San Felipe to the GC from 1979 to 2013. Atmosphere 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17 predominant soil units are arenosol, gravel, and clay. According to Morales-Acuña [26], these areas Atmosphereare sources2019 of, 10 dust, 582 to the GC based on the percentage of wind speed and direction that fostered3 W-E of 18 winds from Vizcaino and San Felipe to the GC from 1979 to 2013. Figure 1. Map of the study area showing the location of the sources of dust at San Felipe and Vizcaino Figure 1. Map of the study area showing the location of the sources of dust at San Felipe and Vizcaino (black dots). It also shows the orography of the BCP from Etopo 1 global data with a 1 arcmin resolution. (black dots). It also shows the orography of the BCP from Etopo 1 global data with a 1 arcmin 2.2. Climateresolution. 2.2. ClimateIn general, the BCP is an arid area with mean annual precipitation of ~200 mm distributed across the latitudinal range and a bimodal pattern characterized by peaks in summer (in the south) and winterIn general, (inthe the north)BCP is [an27 ].arid San area Felipe with is mean one of annual the hottest precipitation and driest of ~200 deserts mm indistributed North America. across the latitudinal range and a bimodal pattern characterized by peaks in summer (in the south) and1 Air summer temperature exceeds 45 ◦C and the total mean annual rainfall is less than 200 mm year− . winter (in the north) [27]. San Felipe is one of the hottest and driest deserts in North America. Air In Vizcaino desert, the maximum temperature is 35 ◦C, with the rainy season between July and October, −1 andsummer minimum temperature precipitation exceeds between 45 °C and December the total and mean February annual [ 27rainfall]. is less than 200 mm year . In VizcainoGiven desert, the importance the maximum of moisturetemperature and is dust 35 °C, transport with the in rainy the season desert, between studies onJuly the and circulation October, ofand wind minimum in the precipitation BCP have focused between mainly December on the and summer.
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