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Vietnamese Americans LESSONS IN AMERICAN HISTORY

Glossary V The following is a brief list of dates, people, events and cultural items that are of importance to the experiences and histories of Vietnamese Americans. Many of these terms have been addressed in more detail in this curriculum guide. This glossary is by no means a comprehensive list.

April 30th, 1975 The day the South Vietnamese Presidential Palace was overtaken by North Vietnamese communist forces, thus marking the official end of the Republic of () and the Second Indochina War. April 30th is considered a day of great loss for Vietnamese who fled the country to escape communist rule.

Amerasians Children of American servicemen and Vietnamese women. They are often called “bui dri” (children of the dust or dust of life) and “con lai” (mixed-blood). After 1975, seen as part “enemy,” Amerasians faced severe social and economic discrimination in Vietnam, and were often homeless and illiterate. The passage of the Amerasian Homecoming Act of 1987 brought thousands of Amerasians and their families to the . Once neglected and shunned, Amerasians became a sure ticket to America — many Amerasians without families sold themselves to families eager to leave Vietnam.

Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) The military ground forces of the South Vietnamese government (Republic of Vietnam), until its collapse in April 1975. The war claimed the lives of an estimated 185,000 to 225,000 ARVN troops, with an additional 500,000 to 570,000 wounded. asylum The right of people who flee their country in search of sanctuary to be recognized as bona fide refugees and the legal protection and material assistance that status implies. In the last five decades, several million people were granted asylum in countries around the world. As of 2000, there are approximately 1.2 million asylum applications pending around the world. banh mi Bánh mI, the Vietnamese sandwich, is a unique addition to the Vietnamese diet from the French influence. Added to the French bread roll are different cold meat cuts, pate, BBQ pork, chicken, or fish, with pickled carrots and white radish, cilantro and hot peppers. It is a favorite food during lunchtime.

Bao Dai Bäo Dai was the last emperor of Vietnam. Born 1913, he succeeded to the throne in 1926 and ruled under French and — during the last days of World War II — Japanese occupation until forced out by the in 1945. He returned in 1949 to head the new state of Viet Nam, set up by to rival the Communist government of Hn

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Chí Minh. After Vietnam’s partition in 1954, Bäo Dai remained head of state in South Vietnam until deposed by Premier Ng√ DInh Dicm the following year. Thereafter he lived in exile in Paris, France, until his death in 1997.

Boat People Refugees who fled Vietnam by sea after 1975. Many fell victim to pirate attacks in the Gulf of , drowned or endured starvation and dehydration as a result of their escape in ill-equipped and undersized vessels. Those who reached safety in neighboring Southeast Asian countries were accorded temporary asylum in refugee camps while awaiting permanent resettlement in industrialized Western nations willing to accept them. In 1996, the United Nations decided to end the financing of the camps holding the remaining 35,000 boat people. As a result, Hong Kong, Thailand, , Malaysia, and the returned the refugees to Vietnam.

Bolsa Avenue Bolsa Avenue is the main thoroughfare in Little Saigon, an area mainly encompassing the cities of Westminster and Garden Grove, California, and is widely considered to have the highest concentration of Vietnamese American businesses and residential areas outside of Vietnam.

Camp Pendleton, California One of four relocation camps in the United States that initially housed part of the 130,000 Southeast Asian refugees shortly after the fall of South Vietnam. During six months of operation at Camp Pendleton, 50,418 refugees from Vietnam, and were relocated with the help of private sponsors and charities. The other three camps were located at: Fort Chafee, Arkansas; Eglin Air Force Base, Florida; and Fort Indiantown Gap, Pennsylvania. cha gio Chä gij, the Vietnamese egg roll, is very different from the Chinese egg roll. Chä gij is made with ground pork and/or ground shrimp, finely diced carrots, black mushroom, and mung bean noodle, all wrapped in an egg based sheet or sheet. They are deep-fried and are usually eaten as an appetizer or in a variety of dishes with a light variation of nvqc m0m, Vietnamese fish sauce. che Chf is any number of sweet Vietnamese desserts, which may include a variety of ingredients including corn, mung beans, red beans, taro roots, bananas, seaweed, tapioca and coconut milk.

Democratic Republic of Vietnam The official name of Communist after the Geneva Accords in 1954. The name is changed to “Socialist Republic of Vietnam” after the war in 1976.

Dien Bien Phu Dien BiΩn Ph4 was the scene in 1954 of the last battle between the French and the Viet Minh forces. The Viet Minh army won this decisive battle, which signaled the end of French rule in Indochina.

DMZ (demilitarized zone) Extending for 3 miles on either side of the 17th Parallel (demarcation line separating North Vietnam and South Vietnam) was a demilitarized zone. The DMZ was called for by the Geneva Accords.

Doi Moi Dπi Mqi refers to socioeconomic renovation policies adopted by the Vietnam Communist Party in 1986 to further liberalize the economy. The term actually refers to a series of actions taken over a period from 1987

www.teachingtolerance/vietnamese GLOSSARY 3 Vietnamese Americans • Lessons in History to 1998, including liberalization of agriculture, opening the country to international trade, establishment of commercial banking sector, end of almost all centrally managed prices, and elimination of most subsidies to state enterprises. dong The Dnng is Vietnam’s monetary unit, which, as of August 2001, had an exchange rate of approximately 14,982 Dnng to $1 U.S. dollar.

Duong Van Minh Known popularly as “Big Minh,” Dvong VCn Minh led the South Vietnamese army under prime minister Ng√ DInh Dicm. In 1963, he became leader of South Vietnam after the military coup of Ng√ DInh Dicm. Dvong’s rule lasted only two months, but he briefly led South Vietnam again in 1975 before surrendering the nation to Communist forces. He was incarcerated by the Communists after the war. He passed away in Pasadena, California, in August 2001. ethnic minorities (in Vietnam) Vietnam is home to 54 ethnic minority hill tribes. Ethnic minorities make up 15 percent of the country’s population. In recent years, ethnic minority groups, particularly those in the Central Highlands, have clashed with the Vietnamese government over land rights issues and religious freedom.

First Indochina War Between 1946 and 1954, the Vietnamese, both non-Communist and Communist forces, battle the French for independence.

Geneva Accords / Agreements On July 21, 1954, the Agreements temporarily divided Vietnam along the 17th parallel into two zones for the two rival military forces: the pro- forces in the south and the Communist Viet Minh in the north. The question of reunification was to be decided by a Vietnam-wide election in 1956. The United States refused to sign the declaration and proceeded to support the government of of Vietnam (South Vietnam) with Bäo Dai and Ng√ DInh Diem as its head of state and prime minister, respectively. gio Gij is ground pork or beef wrapped in banana leaves and steamed. It is eaten in many Vietnamese dishes. goi cuon Also known as the Vietnamese spring roll, gki cumn is a light and healthy finger food. Gki cumn is usually boiled or charbroiled pork and/or shrimp, lettuce, white vermicelli noodles and mint leaves rolled in a thin rice sheet. A special dipping sauce is used to add flavor.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution On August 5, 1964, three days after President Lyndon Johnson charged that the North Vietnamese attacked U.S. battleships in the Gulf of Tongkin, Congress passed the Resolution authorizing the President to take military actions against any armed attacks on American forces in the area. As a result, the United States entered the Second Indochina War.

Hanoi Hilton The nickname American prisoners of war used to describe the kH a Lj Prison in H@ Npi.

www.teachingtolerance/vietnamese GLOSSARY 4 Vietnamese Americans • Lessons in History hate crime Any of various crimes when motivated by hostility toward the victim as a member of a group (as one based on color, creed, gender, or sexual orientation).

Hoa Hao Hja Häo is an indigenous Vietnamese religion centered in An Giang Province, southern Vietnam. It was founded in the 1930s by Hu5nh Phú Sπ, the son of a village elder in Ch∑u Dmc Province. Doctrinally, the faith is a variant of Mahayana Buddhism, but allows no intermediary between man and the Supreme Being. Before the in 1975, the Hja Häo had more than 1 million followers.

Ho Chi Minh Born NguyEn Sinh Cung in 1890, and also called NguyEn TGt Th@nh or NguyEn Aí Qumc, Hn Chí Minh was founder of the Indochinese Communist Party in 1930 and its successor, the Viet Minh, in 1941. He led the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) from 1945 until his death in 1969 and is considered the father of Vietnamese Communism.

Ho Chi Minh City S@i Gjn, the capital of the fallen Republic of Vietnam, is renamed Hn Chí Minh City, in commemoration of the Vietnamese Communist architect. However, residents continue to call the city by its original name. Hanoi becomes the seat of government of the new Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

Ho Chi Minh Trail The nH Chí Minh Trail was an intricate network of jungle trails, paths and roads leading from the panhandle of northern Vietnam through Laos and Cambodia into the border provinces of southern Vietnam. At the height of the , it was a major resupply artery for H@ Npi’s armed forces operating in South Vietnam.

Humanitarian Operation Program (“H.O.” Program) Started in 1990, the H.O. Program, officially known as the Special Release Reeducation Center Detainee Resettlement Program, allows former Vietnamese political and reeducation camp prisoners to be admitted to the U.S. immigration Entrance of a person into a new country for the purpose of establishing permanent residence. Motives for immigration, like those for migration generally, are often economic, although religious or political factors may be very important.

Indochina Migration and Refugee Act In 1975, President Gerald Ford signed the Act, admitting 130,000 Southeast Asian refugees into the U.S. Of this cap, almost 120,000 are Vietnamese, with Cambodians comprising the remainder.

Le Duc Tho Beginning in 1945, LΩ D3c Thl was a senior Communist official who directed Viet Cpng military efforts in South Vietnam from 1955-75. Le negotiated a cease-fire with Henry Kissinger in 1973, but refused the Nobel Peace Prize, which he and Kissinger were jointly awarded.

Little Saigon In 1988, the 1.5-mile stretch of Bolsa Avenue in the city of Westminster, California, became officially known as “Little Saigon.” Since then, Little S@i Gjn has considerably grown, encompassing not only more of Bolsa Avenue, but also other major corridors such as Beach Boulevard, Brookhurst Street and Magnolia Avenue. Orange County’s

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Little S@i Gjn is not only the cultural and commercial center of the county’s Vietnamese American population, but is also the key source of information and discussion regarding various national and international issues (political, economic, or social) that impact diasporic Vietnamese communities as well as Vietnam.

Little Saigon Radio Little S@i Gjn Radio is the first all-day, Vietnamese-language daily news program in the U.S. to go on air (1993). The program, based in Orange County, California, also simulcasts in Houston, Texas.

Little Saigon Television Little S@i Gjn Television is the first Vietnamese American daily news program to go on air (1990) in Southern California. Based in Orange County, the program has an estimated 200,000 daily viewers.

Tony Lam Tony Lâm became the first Vietnamese American elected to public office in the United States, when he joined the City Council of Westminster, California, in 1992. Lâm, owner of a favorite local Vietnamese restaurant, still serves on the City Council.

My Lai Massacre In March 1968, 450 unarmed South Vietnamese civilians in M7 Lai village were killed by U.S. troops. This incident, along with many other significant events in Vietnam and in the U.S., escalated American public opposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. naturalization Official act by which a person is made a national of a country other than his or her native one. normalization (diplomatic) In 1995, the U.S. opened normal diplomatic normalization with Vietnam. The U.S. Embassy is opened in Hanoi. In 1997, Douglas “Pete” Peterson, a former prisoner of war in Vietnam, is named the first U.S. Ambassador to the country since the end of the war.

Ngo Dinh Diem Ng√ DInh Diem was the first President of South Vietnam from 1954 to 1963. A former provincial governor and minister of the interior under French occupation, he came to despise their presence in Viet Nam and to disapprove of collaboration with them. Breaking publicly with Emperor Bäo Dai, Diem withdrew from the government, a move that he found favor with the growing number of Vietnamese nationalists anxious to rid themselves of French rule. The U.S. government saw Diem as the sort of Vietnamese nationalist capable of countering the Communists and assisted him in becoming the nation’s president. However, after implementing unpopular measures, Diem was assassinated in 1963 by his own generals in a coup along with his brother Nhu while both attempted to flee.

Ngo Dinh Nhu Ng√ DInh Nhu is the younger brother and chief political advisor of South Vietnamese president Ng√ DInh Diem. He ran his brother’s regime of secret political movements, the Cçn Lao. He was assassinated, along with his brother, during the 1963 coup.

Nguoi Viet Daily News Started in 1978 by Yen Do and based in Westminster, California, Ngvri Viet Daily News is the first Vietnamese- language daily newspaper outside of Vietnam. Ngvri Viet has a daily circulation of over 18,000 and is available on newsstands throughout Orange and L.A. counties, in Vietnamese bookstores and supermarkets and through

www.teachingtolerance/vietnamese GLOSSARY 6 Vietnamese Americans • Lessons in History home delivery in most cities of central Orange County. The newspaper is also available worldwide via electronic vending units and is associated with several newspapers around the world.

Nguyen Cao Ky NguyEn Cao K5 fought with French forces against the Communist Viet Minh before joining the South Vietnamese Air Force after the nation was partitioned in 1954. He was named Commander of South Vietnam’s air force after the 1963 overthrow of the Ng√ DInh Diem government. K5 soon built up a fighting force of 10,000 men. He became premier of South Vietnam from 1965 to 1967. In 1967, K5 became the Vice President of South Vietnam, but was unhappy with his new position. He became an outspoken critic of President NguyEn VCn Thieu’s administration. In 1971, he attempted to oppose Thieu for the presidency but was forced to remove himself as a candidate and returned to the air force. Upon the fall of South Vietnam, K5 fled to the United States and now resides in Orange County, California.

Nguyen Khanh NguyEn Khánh served in the French colonial army until 1954 and rose through the ranks of the Vietnamese army to become chief of staff to General Dvong VCn Minh. He joined Minh and other high military officials in assassinating Diem on Nov. 1, 1963, and led a countercoup against Minh in 1964. Khánh administered the government of South Vietnam in January–October 1964. His regime was undermined by several coups; he himself resigned once. After General NguyEn Cao K5 took control of the government in February 1965, Khánh was named roving ambassador but was, in effect, exiled to the United States.

Nguyen Van Thieu NguyEn VCn Thieu briefly joined Hn Chí Minh’s Viet Minh after World War II, but left it because of its Communist leanings. Later, NguyEn attended the National Military Academy in Hu∫ and fought for the French against the Viet Minh. After 1954, Thieu rose through the ranks of the South Vietnamese army to become a general in 1962. One of the leaders in the 1963 coup that toppled President Ng√ DInh Diem, he emerged four years later as South Vietnam’s president. Shortly before the final Communist victory in 1975, Thieu resigned and went into exile, first in and then in England. nuoc mam Nvqc m0m is a salty sauce made from salt preserved fish widely used in Vietnamese dishes. It is used as a dipping sauce and a flavorful alternative to salt.

Orderly Departure Program (ODP) The United Nations High Commission for Refugees and the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam established the Orderly Departure Program in 1979, which accounts for about 5,000 Vietnamese to come annually to the U.S.

Paris Peace Accords On January 27, 1973, the United States and North Vietnam signed cease-fire agreements, which provide, among other things, for the withdrawal of U.S. troops, the return of prisoners of war and the ceasefire. President NguyEn VCn Thieu of South Vietnam rejected the agreement, as he had not been party to the talks.

Phan Boi Chau Phan Bpi Ch∑u was one of Vietnam’s most prominent anti-colonialist leaders. Born into a scholar-gentry family, Ch∑u passed the regional examination in 1900 and later published nationalistic books, including The History of the Loss of Vietnam, which had a tremendous impact among both scholars and common people in Vietnam, despite its ban by the French. He founded Duy T∑n Hpi (Reformation Society) in 1904 and Viet Nam Quang Phuc Hpi (Association for the Restoration of Vietnam) in 1913 to foster revolutionary monarchism based on the

www.teachingtolerance/vietnamese GLOSSARY 7 Vietnamese Americans • Lessons in History model of , whose emperor had allowed the development of a constitutional government in response to the challenges of the West. In 1925, perceived as a threat to Vietnamese Communism, Ch∑u was captured by the Communists at the direction of Hn Chí Minh and was sold to the French government for 100,000 piasters. Ch∑u was sentenced to death, though later, because of widespread public protests, the sentence was commuted to life. The great patriot languished and died in 1940.

Phan Chau Trinh Phan Ch∑u Trinh, a prominent Vietnamese nationalist in the first quarter of the 1900s, believed that monarchy as an institution had become outdated. Trinh was a firm believer in democracy and an advocate of a Western- style republican constitution. He led a tax-resistance movement in 1908, was arrested and was later deported to French prisons, where he remained until 1925. Trinh’s death in 1926 indirectly fueled the nationalist movement. A reformist paper, with a eulogistic obituary to Trinh, was censored by the French, and its editor was arrested. The arrest provoked strikes among students and among bank and postal employees. Several hundred students were expelled from colleges and universities for defying the ban on wearing bands mourning the passing of Trinh. pho Phµ is a Vietnamese noodle soup dish — perhaps the most famous dish in Vietnamese cuisine. It is usually a beef broth soup base served with thin white rice noodles, rare beef strips, tendons and tripe. Phµ can also come in a chicken broth soup base with rice noodles and pieces of chicken. It is a versatile dish that can be eaten for breakfast, lunch or dinner. Phµ is served with mints leaves, bean sprouts, lime and hot peppers on the side. re-education camps Term used by the North Vietnamese Communists to describe what were essentially prisons to hold former South Vietnamese individuals whom they considered dangerous elements to the new government formed after the end of the war in 1975. An estimated 1 million people were imprisoned in re-education camps without formal charges or trials. The U.S. Department of State reports that prisoners were incarcerated for as long as 17 years, with most terms ranging from three to ten years. At least 100 re-education prisons were built, and an estimated 165,000 prisoners died in these camps. One in three South Vietnamese families had a relative in a re-education camp. refugee As defined by the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, any person who is outside his or her country of nationality and is unable or unwilling to return to that country because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution that may be based on race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. This definition excludes persons displaced by natural disasters or persons who, although displaced, have not crossed an international border. Also excluded are persons commonly known as “economic migrants,” whose primary reason for flight has been a desire for personal betterment rather than persecution per se.

Refugee Act of 1980 Signed by President Jimmy Carter, the Act provided a definition of a refugee, created the Office of Refugee Resettlement, set the number of refugee admissions at 50,000 per year (unless in a case of an emergency), and allowed a refugee to adjust his or her status after one year to become a permanent resident and, after four more years, to become a U.S. citizen. repatriation (forced) The process of returning refugees or immigrants to their country of origin. In 1989, in response to the growing impatience of resettlement countries with the outflow of Vietnamese, the United Nations oversaw the first forced repatriation of Vietnamese refugees in Southeast Asian refugee camps. The United Nations’ new policy required

www.teachingtolerance/vietnamese GLOSSARY 8 Vietnamese Americans • Lessons in History asylum-seekers to prove refugee status; many are deemed economic migrants, and not refugees. Over the next 10 years, over 110,000 were forced to return to Vietnam.

Republic of Vietnam (RVN) The official name of South Vietnam after the Geneva Accords in 1954.

Saigon S@i Gjn was the name of the capital city of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). In 1976, S@i Gjn was renamed Hn Chí Minh City, in commemoration of the father of Vietnamese Communism, with the city of H@ Npi as the seat of government of the new Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Despite the Communists’ ridicule of S@i Gjn as a haven for foreign gluttony and their efforts to socialize the S@i Gjn area’s economy after the war, the city has remained the anchor of Vietnam’s economy, especially since the implementation of more liberalized economic measures in the mid-1980s.

Seventeenth Parallel The seventeenth parallel is the provisional military demarcation line established by the Geneva Accords (1954), separating North Vietnam and South Vietnam. The line did not actually coincide with the 17th parallel but ran south of it, approximately along the B∫n Häi River to the village of Bo Ho Su and from there due west to the Laos-Vietnam border.

Socialist Republic of Vietnam After defeating South Vietnam in 1975, North Vietnam (then the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) officially calls the new nation as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

Tet T∫t is the Vietnamese New Year, usually celebrated in late January or mid-February. It signifies the coming of spring, a new beginning. Traditionally, the celebrations last for many days. T∫t is a time to celebrate the ideals of peace, concord and mutual love. Many believe that the New Year sets a tone for the rest of the year.

Tet Offensive On January 31, 1968, during the national celebration of the T∫t, North Vietnam and the Viet Cpng launched a major offensive on all the main cities and towns of South Vietnam. The Offensive proved to be a military failure for North Vietnam, but it had a tremendous impact on U.S. politics. Washington questioned the potential costs of continuing the war as the American public saw on television the devastation that was occurring in Vietnam. The United States decided then to disengage from involvement in Vietnam.

Thich Quang Do Thích Quäng Dp is the second highest figure of the government-banned Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam, the main Buddhist organization in south and prior to 1975. He has been arrested several times by the Vietnamese government and has been under permanent house arrest. In 1999, twenty-nine U.S. Congress members nominated the outspoken, elderly monk for the Nobel Peace Prize, in recognition of his lifelong efforts for religious freedom and democratic reform in Vietnam.

Trung Sisters Trvng Tr0c and Trvng Nhi, two sisters, led the first Vietnamese revolt against the Chinese. They raised troops and drove out the Chinese. They proclaimed themselves joint queens of Vietnam for two years until the Chinese returned and crushed the revolt. The sisters committed suicide in defiance. The martyred Trvng Sisters were later deified by the Vietnamese and their story of bravery and patriotism became an inspiration for Vietnamese

www.teachingtolerance/vietnamese GLOSSARY 9 Vietnamese Americans • Lessons in History resistance to foreign domination.

United Nations Office of High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) The commission under the jurisdiction of the United Nations, created for the purpose of providing international legal protection for refugees and facilitating their voluntary repatriation or resettlement in new national communities. Established by a General Assembly resolution, the office began operating in 1951.

U.S. trade embargo In 1964, the U.S. first implemented a trade embargo on Vietnam, restricting commercial trade to Vietnam. In 1993, in an effort to normalize U.S.-Vietnam relations, President Bill Clinton lifted the U.S. trade embargo, allowing U.S. firms to export to Vietnam and to compete for business opportunities in Vietnam that had been previously closed.

U.S. – Vietnam Trade Agreement In 2000, a major trade agreement was signed between the U.S. and Vietnam, clearing the way for an open economic relationship that is meant to reduce tariffs on goods and services, protect intellectual property and improve investment relations. The Agreement has yet to be ratified by the U.S. Congress.

Viet Cong Viet Cpng was a contraction of the term Viet Nam Cpng Sän (Vietnamese Communists), the name applied by the governments of the United States and South Vietnam to the Communist insurgents. The official English name for the group was National Liberation Front for South Vietnam. The war claimed the lives of an estimated 900,000 North Vietnamese and Viet Cpng troops and an unknown, but huge, number of wounded.

Viet Minh Viet Minh was a contraction of the term Viet Nam Dpc LLp Dnng Minh Hpi (Vietnam Independence League), a coalition of nationalist elements dominated by the Communists and led by Hn Chí Minh. The movement first identified itself in May 1941, when it called for an uprising against the French colonial government. It proclaimed the independence of Vietnam on , 1945, and led the anti-French guerrilla war that followed, until the victory at Dien BiΩn Ph4 brought the conflict to an end.

Vietnamese commandos Term refers to Vietnamese commandos who spent time, some for as long as 25 years, in Vietnamese Communist prisons after the Central Intelligency Agency (CIA) and the U.S. military infiltrated them into North Vietnam in the . Despite contracts assuring the commandos would be paid $2,000 annually even if captured, they were written off as dead by the U.S. government. In 1996, the U.S. Senate approved a measure to compensate more than 200 commandos for their services and time spent in jail.

Vietnamese Nationalist Party Founded in 1927, the Vietnamese Nationalist Party, or Viet Nam Qumc D∑n Däng, was the most prominent non-Marxist organizations of the 1920s and held far greater appeal among the Vietnamese masses than did the Communists. Modeled after the Chinese , the party adopted Sun Yatsen’s principles of , democracy and people’s livelihood, and committed itself to overthrowing the French colonial rule in Vietnam. Phan Bpi Ch∑u was invited to lead the new party, but his arrest and absence put NguyEn Thái lH c, a 23-year- old teacher and revolutionary at the head of the party. In 1929, after the of a high-ranking French official by a Vietnamese youth (possibly at Communist instigation), the French authorities suspected the party, imprisoned party supporters and launched a thorough but clandestine investigation of the party’s underground activities. Fearing French retaliation, the party ordered nationwide insurrection in 1930, but the French were able

www.teachingtolerance/vietnamese GLOSSARY 10 Vietnamese Americans • Lessons in History to suppress the uprisings and conclusively destroyed the effectiveness of the party. Many members fled to China, and others were arrested and executed. The French destruction of the party opened immediate opportunity for Hn Chí Minh and the Communists and virtually guaranteed their ultimate control of the nationalist movement.

“” In 1969, President Richard Nixon begins the policy of “Vietnamization,” which entailed the slow withdrawal of U.S. troops and the simultaneous build-up of South Vietnamese troops, as well as the secret bombing of Communist supply lines in Cambodia.

Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Washington, DC Designed by Maya Ying Lin, the “Wall” was first dedicated in 1982 in memory of the U.S. servicemen and women that died in the Vietnam War.

Vietnam War / Second Indochina War The Vietnam War refers to the conflict in Southeast Asia, primarily fought in South Vietnam between government forces aided by the United States and guerrilla forces aided by North Vietnam. It is also known as the Second Indochina War and is known in Vietnam as the American War. The war began soon after the Geneva Conference of 1954 provisionally divided Vietnam at the 17° N latitude into the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). It escalated from a Vietnamese civil war into a limited international conflict in which the United States was deeply involved. It did not end, despite peace agreements in 1973, until North Vietnam’s final offensive in 1975 resulted in South Vietnam’s collapse and the unification of Vietnam by the North. The effects of the long conflict were harsh for all involved. More than 47,000 Americans were killed in action, nearly 11,000 died of other causes, and more than 303,000 were wounded in the war. Casualty figures for the Vietnamese are far less certain. Estimates of the South Vietnamese casualties range from 185,000 to 225,000 killed and 500,000 to 570,000 wounded. The North Vietnamese and Viet Cong suffered about 900,000 troops killed and an unknown, but huge, number of wounded. In addition, more than 1,000,000 North and South Vietnamese civilians were killed during the war. Parts of the countryside were scarred by bombs and defoliation, and some cities and towns were heavily damaged. By the war’s end much of the population of South Vietnam had become refugees seeking an escape from the fighting. Agriculture, business and industry were disrupted and damaged for years.

Vo Nguyen Giap Võ NguyΩn Giáp was a general and Minister of Defense from 1945 to 1980, and known as the architect of the Communist military victory in Vietnam. Vo is best known for planning and directing military operations against the French that culminated in their defeat at the Battle of Dien BiΩn Ph4 in 1954. During the 1960s, Vo took charge of guerrilla operations against South Vietnam and the United States, and planned the T∫t Offensive of 1968. He retired from politics in 1982.

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