J. For. 115(5):426–434 PRACTICE OF FORESTRY https://doi.org/10.5849/jof.16-033

Managing Black Oak for Tribal Ecocultural Restoration

Jonathan W. Long, Ron W. Goode, Raymond J. Gutteriez, Jessica J. Lackey, and M. Kat Anderson

Many tribes in California and Oregon value California black oak (Quercus kelloggii) as a traditional source of (Patagioenas fasciata) (Gleeson et al. 2012); food and other values. Over centuries or millennia, Native Americans learned that they could enhance production and many predators that consumed acorn- of desired resources by regularly igniting low-intensity surface fires in stands of black oak. Although black oak eating birds and small mammals, including is likely to remain widespread in the future, a warming climate, increasingly dense forests, and altered fire fsher (Pekania pennanti, an omnivorous regimes threaten the large, full-crowned mature trees that produce crops of high-quality acorns and provide mammal in the weasel family) and spotted cavities for many wildlife species. To examine the effects of different kinds of burns on tribal values including owl (Strix occidentalis) (Long et al. 2016). associated plants, fungi, and wildlife of special cultural significance, we reviewed and synthesized scientific Native Americans actively managed studies of black oak in conjunction with interviews and workshops with tribal members who use the species and oak stands for centuries or millennia, with recall burning by their ancestors. We conducted two exploratory analyses to understand trends in large black families gathering and storing thousands of oaks and potential tradeoffs regarding black oak restoration. Our findings identify opportunities for reintro- pounds of acorns (Anderson 2005). These ducing low-intensity fire, in conjunction with thinning, to restore stands that are favorable for acorn gathering. oak stands occurred both within open oak We present examples of such projects and discuss how to overcome challenges in restoring the socioecological woodlands and within conifer-dominated benefits of black oak ecosystems for tribes. forests. Indigenous people had learned that igniting low-intensity fres regularly within Keywords: ecosystem services, forest planning, cultural burning, traditional ecological knowledge, landscape oak stands not only facilitated acorn collec- restoration tion but also stimulated production of acorns, berries, and other foods, controlled alifornia black oak (Quercus kellog- such signifcance, black oak qualifes as a populations of insects that consumed gii, hereafter called simply “black “cultural keystone” species (Garibaldi and acorns, and did not damage to mature oaks oak”) provides acorns, a traditional Turner 2004, Long et al. 2016). (Jack 1916, Anderson 2006). Their practices C maintained more open and heterogeneous staple that remains a cherished food for Black oaks directly or indirectly support tribes in California and Oregon. Black oak many animals that Native Americans valued stands with low fuel levels, which in turn was the preferred species among many tribes for many reasons, including their utility in stimulated understory diversity and in- with access to its acorns, and second only to preparing food, regalia, baskets, and other creased resilience of the remaining trees to its distant relative, the tanoak (Notholitho- goods. Examples include deer (Odocoileus drought and fre (Underwood et al. 2003, carpus densiflorus), for many others (Figure hemionus); birds such acorn woodpecker Long et al. 2016). 1). Acorns have had an important role in (Melanerpes formicivorus), pileated wood- Today, black oak remains widely dis- cultural transmission and rituals, including pecker (Dryocopus pileatus), mountain quail tributed across California and into southern dances, festivals, and ceremonies. Because of (Oreortyx pictus), and band-tailed pigeon Oregon, with even a small population re-

Received August 4, 2016; accepted September 1, 2016; published online December 15, 2016. Affiliations: Jonathan W. Long ([email protected]), USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, Davis. CA. Ron W. Goode ([email protected]), North Fork Mono Tribe. Raymond J. Gutteriez ([email protected]), SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry/Wuksachi Band of Mono Indians. Jessica J. Lackey ([email protected]), University of Minnesota/Citizen of the Cherokee Nation. M. Kat Anderson ([email protected]), USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Acknowledgments: We thank several individuals for providing insights and assistance for this project, including Richard Lavell, Jesse Valdez, Lois Conner-Bohna, Dirk Charley, and Joanna Clines. We also thank Frank Lake, Angela White, Andrew Gray, Danny Manning, and Clint Isbell for contributing helpful feedback, data, and/or photographs that improved this article. The USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station and the Washington Office of Research and Development, as well as The Wildlife Society provided support for this research.

426 Journal of Forestry • September 2017 ported from Baja California, Mexico (Long et al. 2016). Oaks may fare better than many Sidebar: Glossary of Technical Terminology other kinds of trees under a hotter and drier Cultural keystone—Species that signifcantly shape the cultural identity of a peo- ple, as refected in diet, materials, medicine, and/or spiritual practice. future climate (McIntyre et al. 2015). De- Cultural ecosystem services—“The nonmaterial benefts people obtain from eco- spite their adaptability, the species is vulner- systems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, refection, recreation, able to localized extirpations after severe and aesthetic experiences” (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). drought or wildfres in drier, more southerly Epicormic branches—Shoots that arise from adventitious or dormant buds on the areas, as well as to the introduced sudden stem or branch of a woody plant, often after fre or increases in sunlight. oak death pathogen (Phytophthora ramo- Heartrot—Rotting of the bole and large limbs of living trees by fungal pathogens. rum) in the more humid, northwestern part Top-kill—Aboveground portion of plant is killed while the belowground portion of its range (Frankel and Palmieri 2014, survives and is able to sprout. Alternative postfre outcomes for black oaks include Long et al. 2016). Moreover, tribal members having no damage, resprouting from their crowns, or being entirely killed. are particularly concerned about the ecolog- Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)—“A cumulative body of knowledge, ical services provided by mature black oaks, practice, and belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through genera- rather than the simple abundance of the spe- tions by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including hu- cies. mans) with one another and with their environment” (Berkes et al. 2000). We synthesized fndings from scientifc studies of black oak and traditional ecologi- cal knowledge (TEK) from tribal members who have interest in gathering acorns and enous populations and lifeways, including for maintaining traditional diets and prac- other values associated with the species. Our long-standing relationships with forests, tices (Anderson and Lake 2013). objective was to understand how treatments through a myriad of violent acts and policies TEK is cultivated through practice that promote conditions desired by tribal mem- recognized as by descendants and builds and maintains relationships between bers who value black oak and associated academic researchers (Fenelon and Trafzer people and place. The lack of suffcient op- wildlife, plants, and fungi. In this article, we 2014, Norgaard 2014). Native Americans portunities to gather acorns and continue characterize desired conditions from the who survived that era and the continuing other traditions threatens not only material scale of individual acorns to large land- legacies of dispossession and cultural as- benefts but also important values including scapes, examine concerns over current con- similation have embarked on a cultural re- spiritual, religious, cultural heritage, social, ditions, and present an approach for target- surgence, including strengthening their sense of place, and educational values (Nor- ing restoration treatments. Finally, we food sovereignty by renewing their rela- gaard 2014), which collectively have been tionships to traditional foods (Conti provide examples of ongoing collaborations described as “cultural ecosystem services” 2006, Turner and Turner 2007, Adamson between national forests and tribes in restor- (Daniel et al. 2012). The federal govern- 2011). However, many tribes have insuf- ing black oak systems. ment is actively working toward fully inte- fcient land bases to tend or restore cultur- Threats to Tribal Values ally signifcant plant species and commu- grating such ecosystem services into agency decisions (Schaefer et al. 2015). Tribal Associated with Black Oak nities. Many tribal gatherers contend that because of limited access, lack of fre, and groups in particular have promoted the con- Although large black oaks have thick cept of “ecocultural restoration” that em- bark that protects them from low-intensity forest densifcation, they have limited opportunities for gathering high-quality phasizes the inextricable connections among burns, intense fres often kill the above- ecological and cultural values held by indige- ground stems. However, the trees typically black oak acorns, as well as understory nous peoples (Higgs 2005, Burger et al. 2008). resprout after such “top-kill” events. Re- plants and mushrooms that are important searchers have described fre both as the “worst enemy” of black oak (McDonald 1969) and as a “blessing” by completely Management and Policy Implications killing competing conifers that cannot re- sprout (McDonald and Tappeiner 2002). Wildfires and forest densification threaten the large California black oaks that produce acorns valued by Mature black oaks are shade intolerant, so tribes for food and social well-being. Tribal members identified desired conditions including large black as conifers overtake them in the overstory, oaks with full crowns and low branches that produce abundant acorns free from pests and a relatively black oaks can become stunted due to re- open ground surface with diverse plant communities and edible fungi near the oak trees. Tribal knowledge duced light, as well as more vulnerable to of using frequent, low-intensity fires and other traditional tending and gathering practices can advance fre as ground and ladder fuels accumulate strategies for promoting these conditions. Active treatments that remove competing conifer trees, reduce (Cocking et al. 2012b). fuels, and reintroduce low-intensity fire are needed to support tribal values associated with gathering Most tribes in the de- acorns and other plant resources associated with black oak stands. Targeting stands with large black oaks pend on access to national forests to gather in gently sloped areas close to roads would promote tribal access while reducing the likelihood of adversely traditional resources because they have been affecting sensitive wildlife such as spotted owls and fishers. Forest management plans can build on recent dispossessed of their ancestral forestlands. efforts to work with tribes in developing monitoring, forest thinning, and fire management activities to Colonization and settlement by Europeans promote black oaks. and Euro-Americans decimated both indig-

Journal of Forestry • September 2017 427 Figure 1. Preferences for acorns from California black oak among tribal language groups. (From Long et al. 2016.)

Priority Areas for Black Oak tural, and spiritual connections. Native trading forays for a variety of resources Ecocultural Restoration American archaeological sites in the south- (Morgan 2008). Generating maps of poten- One strategy to strengthen relation- ern Sierra Nevada landscape are strongly as- tial priority sites for promoting abundant ships between tribal communities and their sociated with black oak stands below average acorn crops is an important step to facilitate ancestral lands is to reinitiate tending and snowline (4,600 ft) (Hunt 2004), but acorns such efforts. Using geographic information gathering within black oak stands on na- were also gathered and cached at higher ele- systems (GIS) to map forest resources with tional forests to reinforce their physical, cul- vations to facilitate summer gathering and participation of community members can

428 Journal of Forestry • September 2017 help to include TEK in forest planning, im- Exploratory Analyses approximates the smallest sites treated in the prove decisionmaking, reduce unintended We conducted two exploratory analyses projects on the Sierra National Forest. We consequences, and better manage conficts to help evaluate need and opportunities for summed the area of those potentially high (Daniel et al. 2012). Comparing depictions restoring black oak. First, we evaluated suitability sites for acorn gathering, and then based on TEK and conventional ecological trends in black oak basal area using data col- we overlaid them onto maps of potential data sets within a GIS can reveal tensions lected following standardized methods in resting and denning habitat for fshers devel- and opportunities for alignment among land permanent feld plots spaced at about 3-mile oped by the Conservation Biology Institute managers and members of indigenous com- intervals across US forests by the Forest In- for a recent fsher conservation assessment munities (Robbins 2003). ventory and Analysis (FIA) branch of the (Spencer et al. 2015). That report notes that USDA Forest Service (Christensen et al. denning habitat is a subset of resting habitat Methods 2016). We used data from 420 plots across that is concentrated at lower elevations, dis- Researchers from the US Department the range of black oak in California and Or- tinguished by trees that can form large cavi- of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service and egon that were located on national forests, ties, and strongly associated with black oak. the USDA Natural Resources Conservation sampled initially between 2000 and 2006 A comparable map for the spotted owl in the Service (NRCS), the Chair of the North and remeasured between 2006 and 2014. Sierra Nevada was not available. Fork Mono Tribe, and managers from the We evaluated changes in black oak basal area Sierra National Forest held meetings with between the two periods within several size Results and Discussion members of several tribes located near North classes and compared results from plots that Through synthesis of the meeting dis- Fork, California, in 2013 and 2015 to dis- were either affected or unaffected by fre. We cussions, interviews, and literature, we iden- cuss black oak restoration and management, calculated means and variances using double tifed conditions that infuenced the suit- including visits to active restoration sites. sampling for poststratifcation (Scott et al. ability of acorn gathering areas, which in Several of the participants developed a re- 2005) and tested for differences based on the turn helped to interpret trends in black oaks port that integrated fndings from those Z statistic. and develop potential restoration strategies. workshops, agency reports, and research Second, we generated a map of poten- Conditions Desired by Gatherers publications (Long et al. 2016). We re- tially desirable areas for gathering acorns us- Native Americans describe the charac- viewed literature featured in syntheses on ing GIS software (ArcMap 10.1) to analyze ter of oak stands in a desirable condition at black oak (McDonald 1969, 1990), Native data sets for vegetation (CALVEG) (USDA Forest Service 2004), slopes (using a 330-ft scales that range from the quality of individ- American forest management (Anderson digital elevation model), and system roads ual acorns to the size and arrangement of 2005), socioecological restoration for forests on the Sierra National Forest (USDA Forest patches within large forested landscapes of the Sierra Nevada and southern Cascade Service 2015). Based on our reviews and in- (Figure 2). These qualities are important for Range (Long et al. 2014), and the proceed- terviews, we considered several ecological outlining treatment strategies and focal areas ings of a recent symposium on oak manage- criteria to identify potential priority stands. for restoration. ment in California (Standiford and Purcell The frst criterion was whether black oak was Acorn Scale. At the fnest scale, gath- 2015). Because tribal practitioners and man- the dominant overstory tree (“Regional erers desire acorns that are not infested with agers described several dynamics based on Dominance type 1”) or a subdominant tree flbert weevils (Curculio spp.) or flbert traditional and local ecological knowledge, underneath a conifer overstory in a mixed worms (Cydia latiferreana) (Anderson we searched for scientifc literature relevant forest (“Regional Dominance type 2”). The 2005). Useful indicators of acorn quality in- to those particular topics using Google vegetation data set classifed those types clude the quantity of such good acorns per Scholar. Two Native American students based on relative overstory cover in aerial tree or unit area and the ratio of good to joined our effort; they conducted several imagery between 2000 and 2008. Second, infested acorns. The traditional practices of semistructured interviews with some tribal we considered only stands with the qua- knocking to remove acorns from the trees members in the North Fork area who work- dratic mean dbh greater than 5 in., which and burning fallen acorns and ground un- shop participants suggested as being knowl- McDonald (1990) had reported to be the derneath oaks after the harvest have been re- edgeable of black oak systems, and they at- minimum size for black oak to produce via- garded by practitioners and experts as an ef- tended public meetings held by the Sierra ble acorns. As metrics of accessibility by el- fective means to control these pests that and Sequoia National Forests to address ders or other community members with overwinter in the soil (Anderson 2005). Re- tribal issues in forest planning. Our research physical limitations, we also considered two search in many nut orchard systems has centered on Western Mono ancestral terri- social criteria by selecting sites with slope less shown that retention of unharvested nuts in tory in the central Sierra Nevada, but we than 25% and within 492 ft (150 m) of a the trees and on the ground contributes to considered fndings and consulted tribal road maintained by the USDA Forest Ser- such problems (Siegel et al. 2008, Eilers and practitioners from other regions, particu- vice. The black oak stands that the Sierra Klein 2009). larly parts of . Although National Forest and North Fork Mono Tree Scale. Gatherers prefer large, ma- we did not have the resources to explore Tribe have been treating have been within ture trees with well-developed crowns that tribal traditional management practices 150 ft of such roads, but we thought that the produce abundant crops of high-quality across the full range of the species, we would more generous buffer would still ensure ac- acorns (Figure 3). Gatherers desire low expect those traditions to represent varia- cessibility and avoid excluding otherwise branches that can be reached with knocking tions around the themes in central Califor- high-quality stands. We also applied a min- sticks (up to 8–10 ft long) or climbed to nia. imum size of 5 acres as a threshold, which help gather acorns (Anderson 2007). Practi-

Journal of Forestry • September 2017 429 Cocking et al. 2014). It also favors produc- tion and accessibility of understory plants (Wayman and North 2007) and fungi such as morels (Morchella spp.) (Winder 2006), many of which are culturally important re- sources (Long et al. 2014, 2016). Community Scale. When considering the suitability of large areas that include black oak stands for gathering, practitioners favor areas that afford a diversity of desired products, including berries, edible roots and tubers, mushrooms, basketry materials, and seeds (Figure 3). Landscape Scale. The desire to har- vest diverse resources increases the value of stands of black oak that are near meadows. To facilitate access and gathering, desired ar- eas are relatively fat and are located near roads, many of which probably coincide with former trails used by Native Americans (Lake 2013).

Current Trends in Black Oaks and Figure 2. Various scales used to describe desired condition to guide restoration of black Associated Tribal Values oak. (From Long et al. 2016.) Tribal members noted that reductions in regular fres have diminished habitat qual- branches closer to the ground (Long et al. ity for mature black oaks and associated pro- 2016). This difference in tree architecture duction of acorn and other foods. Research- may indicate where naturally ignited wild- ers studying changes in vegetation types from 1936 to 1996 in the Central Sierra Ne- fres have shaped trees rather than burning vada found that the area where black oak was and tending by Native Americans. Knock- present as a subdominant under conifers de- ing and pruning by gatherers would also clined by 25%, but its area expanded by a have reshaped the crown by trimming long similar amount in areas classifed as domi- branches and stimulating more acorn-bear- nated by montane hardwoods (Thorne et al. ing branches (Anderson 2007). Treatments 2008). They attributed the increase in oak- that increase light to Oregon white oaks dominated area to removal of overstory co-

(Quercus garryana) by removing encroach- nifers by logging and wildfres that promote ing conifers stimulate crown regrowth as oaks over many conifer species. That in- well as acorn production (Devine and Har- crease in area may have been facilitated by Figure 3. Idealized condition of trees and rington 2006). and may continue as the result of a warming surrounding areas desired by tribal acorn Tribal practitioners were not concerned climate marked by drought and wildfres gatherers. (From Long et al. 2016.) by the presence of cavities in black oaks, (McIntyre et al. 2015). which are formed through heartrot caused However, such trends do not favor the tioners also explained that children climbed by oak canker rot fungi (Inonotus andersoni increase in the large, mature oaks that pro- along the low branches of black oaks during and Inonotus dryophilus) and sulfur fungus vide large quantities of acorns and large cav- games of tag. However, both conifer en- or chicken of the woods (Laetiporus gilbert- ities used by wildlife. Acorn production in croachment and relatively intense wildfres sonii) (McDonald 1969, Swiecki and Bern- black oaks and in many species of oaks in the promote narrow and high crowns rather hardt 2006); the latter fungus is also a tradi- eastern has been associated than the broad and low crowns desired by tional tribal food (Anderson and Lake with age, diameter, basal area, and crown tribal members (Cocking et al. 2012b, Crot- 2013). conditions (McDonald 1969, Garrison et al. teau et al. 2015). A description of extensive Stand Scale. Close proximity of coni- 2002, McShea et al. 2007). In addition, pro- black oak woodlands in the Central Sierra fer trees tends to degrade the acorn produc- duction of acorns does not ensure usability, Nevada from the late 19th century noted tion, crown structure, and vigor of oaks because tribal members avoid acorns with that trees often had full crowns but with (Holmes et al. 2008, Devine and Har- high levels of pests (Anderson 2005). large branches beginning only 30 –40 ft rington 2013). Use of frequent fre can pro- McIntyre et al. (2015) reported that black oak above the ground (Greene 1889). On the mote relatively open stand conditions, in- in California maintained its basal area be- other hand, historical photos from vegeta- cluding small gaps around black oaks, by tween the 1930s and early 2000s (average tion surveys also show black oaks with large reducing conifers (Engber and Varner 2012, change was 5 ft2/ac, credible interval 8to

430 Journal of Forestry • September 2017 of the last two panels of resampled FIA data revealed a modest but signifcant decline in basal area from 24.6  1.4 to 23.8  1.4 (mean  SE) ft2/ac (change of 0.87  0.39 ft2/ac, Z  2.25, P  0.012) across the entire range of the species over the average remeasurement period of 7.2 years. Within size classes, most changes were modest and not statistically signifcant, although there were signifcant losses in trees greater than 24 in. and between 5 and 13 in. dbh within plots affected by fre (either wildfre or pre- scribed fre) (Figure 4). Intense fre often re- Figure 4. Recent changes in basal area in black oak sorted by size class and influence of sults in top-kill of even mature black oaks fire, based on 420 FIA plots located on national forests. (Cocking et al. 2012b, 2014). Although re- sprouts have produced acorns within 11 years after being top-killed by wildfre (Crotteau et al. 2015), several decades may be needed for trees to return to heavy pro- duction (McDonald 1990). The formation of large, well-insulated cavities, in which fshers and spotted owls raise young (Long et al. 2014), also requires many decades for stems or branches to frst grow large and then be hollowed out by heartrot (Long et al. 2016).

Identifying Potential Areas for Restoring Black Oak Acorn Production Our GIS analysis identifed 946 areas as potentially highly suitable for acorn gather- ing; these totaled 31,228 acres, or about 2.2% of the entire Sierra National Forest (Figure 5). Considering proximity to mead- ows would reduce that estimate even fur- ther. This fnding is consistent with archae- ological studies indicating that prime gathering sites were historically quite limited in extent (Hunt 2004). The North Fork Mono Tribe and Sierra National Forest had already been collaborating to restore four sites. Our analysis included the Meserve and Progeny sites where large oaks were promi- nent (Figure 6); the Crane Valley site had mostly small black oaks in the fatter areas, and the Texas Flat site involved only meadow restoration. This kind of analysis can help tribes, forest managers, and the public understand opportunities for restora- tion, especially when further customized Figure 5. Potentially highly suitable areas for acorn gathering within part of the Sierra based on more detailed forest inventories National Forest, overlaid with suitable fisher habitat, and location of four sites where the and knowledge of local forest managers, North Fork Mono Tribe has collaborated with the Forest Service on forest restoration. wildlife managers, and tribal members. Strategies to Promote Desired 15). They also found that trees larger than numerical changes in very large black oaks in Conditions 24 in. dbh in general appear to have declined particular are diffcult to evaluate because of An active management strategy is im- across California and especially in the Sierra the low sample size in the 1930s data set portant for promoting tribal values, because Nevada (McIntyre et al. 2015). However, (Thorne et al. 2007). Moreover, our analysis current trajectories in many mixed-conifer

Journal of Forestry • September 2017 431 on both burning and thinning treatments to enhance populations of prey for these spe- restore more favorable conditions. Air-qual- cies, including dusky-footed woodrats (Neo- ity regulations have posed obstacles to ex- toma fuscipes) and western gray squirrels panding use of prescribed burning (Quinn- (Sciurus griseus) (Innes et al. 2007, Thomp- Davidson and Varner 2012), including son et al. 2015). Monitoring outcomes for cultural burning by tribes, despite the fact sensitive species and tribal acorn harvest that tribes have emphasized the importance would help to evaluate how landscape resto- of both fre and smoke in sustaining the ration can promote both objectives. health of oaks and quality of acorns and other resources (Long et al. 2014). Tribes Creating Effective Partnerships to consider fre an essential tool in tending to Promote Oak Restoration Figure 6. Black oaks fringing the Progeny gathering areas, and traditional use of fre is Restoration of oaks for tribal use holds site on the Sierra National Forest, where the interwoven with society, culture, and educa- promise for establishing federal-tribal part- North Fork Mono Tribe and Forest Service tion (Anderson 2006, Lake 2013). nerships that build on TEK. The barriers to staff have performed thinning and pre- Conservation measures have restricted such partnerships are signifcant, including scribed burns to restore desired conditions forest treatments in areas occupied by fshers the potential for mistrust between the for oaks and the adjacent meadow. and spotted owls. Because those species are agency and local communities due to staff also associated with relatively dense and turnover, the appearance of slow progress, forests are likely to lead to increased conifer multilayered conifer stands, treatments to and historical resentments (Davenport et al. encroachment or top-killing wildfres. Nei- release black oaks from encroaching conifers 2007). Tribes have highlighted a number of ther of those outcomes is likely to sustain may appear to confict with their conserva- recommendations to promote more effec- large black oaks. In many stands, mechanical tion. However, adopting a multiscale per- tive communications and collaboration, in- thinning or girdling, combined with treat- spective on restoring forest landscapes can cluding early and frequent consultation and ments to reduce fuels, may be necessary be- allay that concern by balancing conifer re- coordination at local levels (Vinyeta and fore large black oaks are likely to withstand moval with conifer retention around oaks Lynn 2015). fre (Cocking et al. 2012b). However, fre is that appear suitable for nesting/denning or Examples of Current Oak Restoration important because consumption of litter resting (Long et al. 2014). Efforts Involving Tribes and production of smoke may help to con- Our analysis indicated that 79% of po- As discussed above, the North Fork trol pests and pathogens, enhance gathering tentially high-quality areas for acorn gather- • Mono Tribe has been working with the Si- effciency, and promote desired understory ing are located in habitat deemed suitable for plants and fungi (Long et al. 2014, 2016). fshers (Figure 5). Yet, those 24,733 acres erra National Forest to restore meadows at Consequently, reinvigoration of the black represent only 5.9% of the total area identi- several sites that also have black oaks (shown oak system depends on combining structural fed as fsher resting or denning habitat in Figure 5). The Tribe has worked with restoration with restoration of low-intensity (416,964 acres) on the Sierra National For- staff on the Bass Lake Ranger District to ap- fre to maintain suffcient canopy openings est. Moreover, fshers may prefer steeper ply a multistaged process for restoring oaks. around black oaks. Such openings maintain slopes for denning, with studies in the south- The frst stage involves removing small en- the productivity of the mature oaks and de- ern Sierra Nevada reporting slopes greater croaching conifers, invasive plants, broken sired understory species and provide areas than 17% in one analysis and a mean of 37% branches, and other fuels around oaks, and where young replacement oaks can grow. in another (Spencer et al. 2015). Further- then conducting an initial burn to reduce Given the diversity of stands with black oak more, both fshers and spotted owls are fuels on the forest foor. The second stage across the species’ range, it will be important likely to fare better in sites that are distant requires cutting larger conifer trees to open to customize treatment prescriptions to local from roads and are on moister aspects that the forest and release the oaks, followed by a conditions and local tribal values. Some re- support high canopy cover and less frequent second burn. The third stage involves prun- searchers have expressed concern that open- fre (Long et al. 2014). Those fner-scale as- ing, trimming, and thinning the oaks, fol- ing stands too much would increase produc- sociations further decrease the potential for lowed by another low-intensity burn. After tion of new branches along the stem treatment of priority gathering sites to pose a those preparatory stages, the Tribe intends (epicormic branching), which might at least threat to these sensitive species. Further- to use more routine burns to consume acorn temporarily divert energy from acorn pro- more, fshers appear tolerant of both thin- pests, fumigate the oaks with smoke, and duction (McDonald and Ritchie 1994). ning and burning up to 2.6% of a landscape facilitate acorn gathering. The Tribe has also However, such new growth provides the per year, and they are likely to resume using been actively engaged in planning treat- means to restore fuller crowns and lower treated areas within a few years of even more ments and monitoring for enhanced acorn branches (Devine and Harrington 2006) extensive fuel reduction treatments (Zielin- production as part of the collaborative Din- that acorn gatherers desire. ski et al. 2013, Sweitzer et al. 2016). Our key Landscape Restoration Project on the results suggest that managers could target Sierra National Forest. Finally, the Tribe has Challenges to Restoring Areas for many sites with burning and oak release been working with researchers to study ef- Tribal Use treatments to enhance acorn production fects of treatments on acorn productivity Tribal practitioners expressed concern while avoiding areas that are particularly and gathering effciency. about not only lack of access to favorable sensitive for spotted owls and fshers. In ad- • The Klamath National Forest has stands in national forests but also constraints dition, increases in acorn production could considered feedback from the Tribe

432 Journal of Forestry • September 2017 in promoting black oaks on ridge tops after acorns in the world, you can get me all the COCKING, M.I., J.M. VARNER, AND R.L. SHER- wildfres. These oaks provide buffers to fa- fsh in the world, you can get me everything RIFF. 2012b. California black oak responses to cilitate benefcial use of fre in addition to for me to be an Indian, but it will not be the fre severity and native conifer encroachment in the Klamath Mountains. For. Ecol. Manage. supporting tribal values. same unless I’m going out and processing, 270:25–34. • The Greenville Rancheria has collab- going out and harvesting, gathering myself. I CONTI, K.M. 2006. Diabetes prevention in In- orated with the Plumas National Forest and think that really needs to be put out in main- dian Country: Developing nutrition models to other partners to use prescribed burning to stream society, that it’s not just a matter of tell the story of food-system change. J. Tran- promote black oak and other valued species. what you eat. It’s about the intricate values scult. Nurs. 17(3):234–245. Objectives for managing oak stands include that are involved in harvesting these re- CROTTEAU, J.S., M.W. RITCHIE, J.M. VARNER, AND ERRILL maintaining an open understory for cultural sources, how we manage for these resources J.-P. B . 2015. Quercus kelloggii (Newb.) sprout response to fire severity in North- activities and gathering pliable saplings for and when” (Norgaard 2014, p. 81). Collab- ern California. P. 377–386 in USDA For. constructing cradleboards (Long et al. orative restoration of black oak stands or Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-251, Pa- 2016), in addition to gathering acorns. “orchards” to enhance acorn production can cifc Southwest Research Station, Berkeley, CA. • A partnership in Oregon led by the be an important strategy for promoting DANIEL, T.C., A. MUHAR,A.ARNBERGER,O.AZ- Lomakatsi Restoration project, the Klamath these important socioecological values for NAR, J.W. BOYD, K.M. CHAN,R.COSTANZA, Tribes, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the tribes across much of California and Ore- ET AL. 2012. Contributions of cultural services to the ecosystem services agenda. Proc. Natl. NRCS, the Klamath Bird Observatory, and gon. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109(23):8812–8819. several other organizations in southern Ore- DAVENPORT, M.A., J.E. LEAHY, D.H. ANDERSON, gon has promoted restoration of black oak Literature Cited AND P.J. JAKES. 2007. Building trust in natural and Oregon white oak (Cocking et al. ADAMSON, J. 2011. Medicine food: Critical envi- resource management within local communities: 2012a). ronmental justice studies, native North Amer- A case study of the Midewin National Tallgrass ican literature, and the movement for food Prairie. Environ. Manage. 39(3):353–368.

The Future sovereignty. Environ. Justice 4(4):213–219. DEVINE, W.D., AND C.A. HARRINGTON. 2006. ANDERSON, M.K. 2005. Tending the wild: Native Changes in Oregon white oak (Quercus garry- Under the next generation of Land and American knowledge and the management of ana Dougl. ex Hook.) following release from Resource Management Plans for national California’s natural resources. Univ. of Califor- overtopping conifers. Trees 20(6):747–756. forests, the use of prescribed fre and man- nia Press, Berkeley, CA. DEVINE, W.D., AND C.A. HARRINGTON. 2013. aged natural ignitions (also known as wild- ANDERSON, M.K. 2006. The use of fre by Native Restoration release of overtopped Oregon Americans in California. P. 417–430 in Fire in land fres managed for resource objectives) white oak increases 10-year growth and acorn California’s ecosystems, Sugihara, N.G., J.W. production. For. Ecol. Manage. 291:87–95. may expand to help address the backlog of van Wagtendonk, J. Fites-Kaufman, K.E. EILERS, E.J., AND A.-M. KLEIN. 2009. Landscape forest restoration and constraints on me- Shaffer, and A.E. Thode (eds.). Univ. of Cali- context and management effects on an impor- chanical treatments in many areas (North fornia Press, Berkeley, CA. tant insect pest and its natural enemies in al- ANDERSON et al. 2015). Proactively managing black oak , M.K. 2007. Indigenous uses, manage- mond. Biol. Control 51(3):388–394. ment, and restoration of oaks of the far western stands with high potential to meet tribal re- ENGBER, E.A., AND J.M. VARNER. 2012. Predict- United States. Tech. Note No. 2, NRCS Na- ing douglas-fr sapling mortality following pre- source needs can reduce the likelihood that tional Plant Data Center, Washington, DC. scribed fre in an encroached grassland. Restor. fres, whether wild or managed, jeopardize 20 p. Ecol. 20(6):665–668. the services afforded by mature oaks. ANDERSON, M.K., AND F.K. LAKE. 2013. Califor- FENELON, J.V., AND C.E. TRAFZER. 2014. From Black oak restoration achieves multiple nia Indian ethnomycology and associated for- est management. J. Ethnobiol. 33(1):33–85. colonialism to denial of California genocide to ecological goals, but it also affords oppor- misrepresentations: Special issue on indige- BERKES, F., J. COLDING, AND C. FOLKE. 2000. tunities to achieve social goals recognized Rediscovery of traditional ecological knowl- nous struggles in the Americas. Am. Behav. Sci. under new federal forest planning rules, edge as adaptive management. Ecol. Applic. 58(1):3–29. including engagement of tribes, minori- 10(5):1251–1262. FRANKEL, S., AND K. PALMIERI. 2014. Sudden oak death, Phytophthora ramorum: A persistent ties, low-income populations, and youth BURGER, J., M. GOCHFELD,K.PLETNIKOFF,R. threat to oaks and other tree species. Int. Oaks and consideration of ecological services and SNIGAROFF,D.SNIGAROFF, AND T. STAMM. 25:43–56. cultural benefts (Long et al. 2014). Inclu- 2008. Ecocultural attributes: Evaluating eco- logical degradation in terms of ecological GARIBALDI, A., AND N. TURNER. 2004. Cultural sion of tribal communities in all phases of goods and services versus subsistence and tribal keystone species: Implications for ecological planning, implementation, and monitoring values. Risk Anal. 28(5):1261–1272. conservation and restoration. Ecol. Soc. 9(3):1. can create valuable opportunities to pro- CHRISTENSEN, G.A., K.L. WADDELL, S.M. STAN- GARRISON, B.A., R.L. WACHS, T.A. GILES, AND mote ecocultural restoration, especially for TON, AND O. KUEGLER. 2016. California’s forest M.L. TRIGGS. 2002. Dead branches and other younger generations. Members of several resources: Forest Inventory and Analysis, 2001– wildlife resources on California black oak (Quercus kelloggii). P. 593–604 in Proc. of the tribes who participated in meetings on na- 2010. USDA For. Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep. 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