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An Analysis of the Key Environmental and Social Issues Surrounding Wind Energy Generation in New Zealand

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An Analysis of the Key Environmental and Social Issues Surrounding Wind Energy Generation in New Zealand Lincoln Planning Review, 8 (1-2) (2017) 69-74 An analysis of the key environmental and social issues surrounding wind energy generation in New Zealand Mandille ALCEE Master of Environmental Policy and Management, Lincoln University, New Zealand volatility of fossil fuel prices (Saidur, Islam, 1. INTRODUCTION Rahim, & Solangi, 2010). In New Zealand, the use of wind energy has 2. BACKGROUND been identified as one of the ways to assist in transitioning away from the need for fossil New Zealand has a history of renewable fuel-based energy. This source of energy has energy generations in areas such as hydro, several benefits including, inter alia: minimal wind and geothermal energy. To build on this air and water pollution, green and renewable platform, the National-led government energy source, and reduced dependence on signalled its intentions to generate 90 percent fossil fuels. Despite the benefits of wind of its energy from natural renewable sources energy, environmental and social issues by the year 2025, and by the year 2050 to continue to surface in response to an increase reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50 in wind energy generation in New Zealand. percent from the 1990 levels (MBIE, 2011). The These environmental and social issues are wind has been identified as one of the analysed in this paper with consideration given renewable sources of energy that can to current legislative and policy instruments. contribute to achieving these targets. The generation of energy from renewable For the first quarter of 2016 renewable sources such as the wind can immensely assist energy generation contributed 82.2 percent of a country in improving energy security, New Zealand’s electricity with a 12.9 percent reducing greenhouse gas emissions, increase in wind energy generation from combating the adverse effect of climate March 2015 to March 2016 (MBIE, 2016). This change and responding to the global energy upward trend in wind energy generation is challenge (MfE, 2011). The exploration of wind expected to continue in the future and play a energy has been highlighted as one of the significant role in diversifying the energy mix in renewable energy sources to be utilised to New Zealand to meet the projected energy diversify New Zealand’s energy mix to deliver demand. To date, there are 19 wind farms efficient and affordable energy across the either operating or under construction in New country, while also achieving renewable Zealand (EECA, n.d.). This demonstrates that energy targets and meeting international New Zealand is well endowed with wind obligations surrounding greenhouse emissions potential primarily due to its location and and climate change mitigation (MBIE, 2011). topography (Kelly, 2011). Furthermore, renewable energy sources such Notwithstanding the wealth of the wind as the wind have been identified as one of the resource in New Zealand, there are mitigation strategies to combat climate change environmental and social issues that arise from and make countries less susceptible to the wind energy development. The environmental issues include earthworks, landscape effects, Lincoln Planning Review 69 Volume 8, Issue 1-2, December 2017 loss of ecology, loss of wildlife, the landscape, adverse visual effects, noise and displacement of other animals, erections of loss of ecology (Palmer & Grinlinton, 2014). structures and dust. The social issues consider Moreover, the uncertainty with the RMA the noise generated from the wind turbines, also often results in wind energy projects being the aesthetics as it relates to landscape, the heard in the Environment Court, resulting in a visibility of wind turbines and proximity long, expensive and highly contested process dwellings. In this regard, it is important to for wind energy projects (Kelly, 2011). This ascertain whether these environmental and long and contested process may sometimes social issues are adequately addressed under arise due to limited and discretionary public the existing legislative and policy environment. participation during the initial process as the public consultation process varies based on the 3. LEGISLATIVE AND POLICY ENVIRONMENT developer and the proposed wind energy The Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) is project (NZWEA, 2013). In addition, it is New Zealand’s overarching legislation on the important to consider the cultural perspectives management of the environment. It aims to during the AEE as well as during public promote the sustainable use and management consultations due to the indigenous, cultural of the natural and physical resources fostering and historical value of proposed sites and the environmental protection while enabling the ancestral relationship between Māori and the social, economic and cultural well-being of the environment (Sagemüller, 2006). people of New Zealand. The RMA facilitates a At each stage of the wind development hierarchical approach to environmental process, there are certain activities and management starting with central government requirements necessary to successfully outlining national objectives through the undertake a wind energy project. A review of implementation of the National Policy the existing literature, policy, legislation and Statements (NPS), National Environmental case studies revealed some key areas where Standards (NES), and the New Zealand Coastal environmental and social issues are addressed Policy Statement (NZCPS). From these national under existing legislation and policy in New policy statements and standards, regional Zealand. These issues are discussed below in councils develop their own Regional Policy relation to existing wind farms in New Zealand. Statements (RPS) and Regional Plans (RP) and 4. DISCUSSION local councils develop their district plans from the RPS and RP. The hierarchical nature of the A wind farm is a system in which wind can RMA ensures that District Plans are consonant be harnessed to generate electricity and can with those developed at national and regional vary in terms of size, design, turbines and levels. In essence, plans made at the district generating capacity (NZWEA, 2013). The or regional level or decisions taken must be in location and design of wind farms will be based consensus with the provision under the RMA on inter alia, grid connectivity and the (Johnston, 2016). availability and direction of the wind resource. Hence, the RMA is the overarching From the project proposal to decommission or legislation governing wind energy projects but upgrading a wind energy project goes through there is uncertainty that arises from its a very detailed development process which implementation during the wind energy includes site selection, project feasibility, process (Sagemüller, 2006). This uncertainty detailed assessment, consenting, project arises from the sometimes-varying confirmation, construction, operations and interpretation of certain elements of the RMA maintenance and finally upgrading or and can trickle into the resource consent decommissioning (NZWEA, 2013). process as well as the assessment of The first stage of the wind energy environmental effects (AEE) requirements. development project is site selection. At this Resource consent is required for wind energy stage preliminary work is undertaken to projects under the RMA and aims to address ascertain the extent of the wind resource, the environmental and social issues such as possible hurdles are identified and Lincoln Planning Review 70 Volume 8, Issue 1-2, December 2017 consultation with landowner commenced. The 4.2 Assessment of Environmental Effects next stage of the process is the project (AEE) feasibility which explores the business case in To supplement the resource consent terms of project design, development costs, process, there is also a requirement for an AEE and benefits as well as an initial assessment of to be undertaken for proposed wind energy the potential effects on the environment. This projects. An AEE provides an objective leads to the detailed assessment where a more assessment of the potential impact of a project detailed site assessment is undertaken to on the environment as well as possible ways further investigate site design and that any adverse effects will be mitigated (MfE, environmental effects and is followed by the 2006). The RMA provides general definitions formal application for resource consent and and guidance on what are effects and what the consultation with regional and district environment encompasses. However, the AEE councils. The consent process is location has been criticised for providing limited sensitive and in most cases, approval must be specific information for wind energy sought from both the regional and district developers resulting in a lack of consistency in councils. AEE applications and acts as a source of If approval is granted the wind farm design uncertainty for both developer and and business case are finalised with supporting policymakers (Sagemüller, 2006). contracts and the signing of the purchasing power agreement. The project then moves 4.3 RMA as a source of uncertainty into the construction stage with the erection The uncertainty with the RMA arises due to and installation of towers and turbines. Upon a lack of clarity around certain aspects of the completion, the wind farm is commissioned, Act and its interpretation as well as a lack of and operation commences. The final stage of specific requirements for wind energy projects the wind development process is upgrading or (Sagemüller, 2006). For example, in the decommissioning.
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