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HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD

Complete chapter dedicated to each family, and individual accountsfor each specieswith a summaryof taxonomy,dis- tribution (including subspecies),habitat, feeding, breeding, movements,status, conservation, bibliography and distribution map. The whole work will comprise 10 large-format volumes of 310 x 240 mm. Volume 1, due out September1992, with a comprehensiveintroduction to ClassAves/the Birds andcover- ing the first 27 families, includes:660 pagesß 50 colour plates depictingall speciesand distinctive subspecies ß 14 anatomical colour platesß over 365 colourphotographs ß 565 distribution mapsß more than 6000 bibliographicalreferences.

The first ever work to illustrate and cover in detail all the species of birds in the world

%.. a milestonein natural historypublishing... We thoroughlyrecommend the book to all ICBP members,and to ornithologistsin general." ICBP HANDBOOK OF THE

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Birdsat Risk

n unprecedentedecological experiment is tures,moderate tidal ranges, and brackish conditions have takingshape in thesubarctic wilderness of resultedin numerousshallow bays, wide coastal marshes, and northernQuebec -- anexperiment with- intertidalflats with highly productive vegetational and inver- out controls,whose consequences may tebratefood resources (Morrison and Gaston 1986). During affectbird populations on a continental, migrationthese habitats attract huge concentrations ofbirds, if nothemispheric, scale. Since 1971, whichfeed intensively and accumulate energy reserves that Hydro-Quebechas pursued a plan to arecrucial to manyspecies. damthe three major river drainages thatrun westward across vast expanses of borealforest to THE ENVIRONMENT JamesBay. This massive project, the first phase of which is JamesBay is an estuarine ecosystem, characterized bytwo nearlycomplete, will create three of theworld's largest reser- majortypes of coastline(Morrison and Gaston 1986). The voirsand generate peak hydroelec- eastern(Quebec) coast consists of a tric power of roughly 27,000 broken, indented shoreline with megawatts,equivalent to about13 rockyoutcrops and numerous small baysand hilly islands. Many of the mityof thisengineering exploit, its bayssupport significant populations long-term,NiagaraFalls.cumulative Yet,despiteecologicalthe enor- of eelgrass(Zostera marina), an impactsare poorly known. Much is extremelyimportant food source for atstake, both for the indigenous manywaterfowl (Curtis and Allen Creeand Inuit people of theregion 1976). The low-lying, poorly- andfor migratory birds that depend drainedwest (Ontario) coast is char- on habitats there. acterizedby a uniform,gentle slope The coastlinesof Jamesand andtidal ranges of upto 3 meters, Hudson baysconstitute an im- contributingto the development of mense,natural migratory funnel extensive(several kilometers wide) throughwhich millions ofsubarctic Harlequin Ducks may soon beflooded outof their intertidal fiats and salt or brackish andarctic breeding waterfowl, habitaL marshes.Exceptionally productive shorebirds,raptors, and passerine birds pass during spring plantand invertebrate communities compensate fora short andfall migrations. The James Bay coast has been identified growingseason. In additionto eelgrass,sedges and marsh asan area of criticalinternational importance for a number grassesprovide important food sources, particularly for water- of waterfowland shorebird species (e.g., Morrison and fowl.Bivalves and other molluscs may reach densities of sev- Harrington1979). The flat topog- eral thousandindividuals per raphy,relatively warm tempera- BY CHRISTOPHER C. RIMMER squaremeter, while mosquitoes

216 ßAmerican Birds, Summer 1992 andbiting flies have been estimated at five million per acre beenand will be lost, their wildlife inhabitants permanendy (Martiniet al. 1980). displaced.Fish spawning beds have been and will be destroyed.Methylmercury contamination in reservoirs of HYDI•)ELEC'rRIC PROI:N)SALS theLa Grandecomplex already has rendered many fish It isthe large and fast-flowing river systems running into unsafefor humanconsumption (e.g., Hazell 1991) and JamesBay from the east that Hydro-Quebec intends to har- posesa clearthreat to fish-eatingbirds like loons, Bald ness.The overall development isplanned in threephases, Eagles(Haliaeetus leucocephalus), andOspreys (Pandion hali- eachinvolving major diversions ofexisting rivers, the con- aetus).In general,however, the direct impacts on breeding structionof numeroushuge dams and dikes, and the instal- ormigrant bird populations in these flooded inland areas are lationof several power stations. At thescheduled completion unknown, because baseline data needed to evaluatethem do ofJames Bay I (theLa Grande complex, begun in 1971)in not exist. 1996, four riverswill havebeen diverted into a fifth, nine Of greateroverall concern than the direct, project-by- generatingstations with a 15,719megawatts capacity will projecteffects of hydroelectricdevelopment onJames Bay havebeen installed, and 11,505 square kilometers of land bird populationsare cumulative,long-term effects. willhave been flooded. James Bay II, theGreat Whale or La Freshwaterinput from rivers and streams appears to bethe GrandBaleine project, isnext on the construction schedule, single most influential physical variable on the ecology of butits future is uncertain, due mainly to concertedopposi- JamesBay. Freshwater runoff contributes substantially to the tionfrom Native peoples, conservationists, andhuman Baysdrculation patterns, ice formation and breakup, salini- rightsactivists. This phase ty gradients,nutrient and will divert three rivers, sedimentloads, and, ulti- flood1,786 square kilo- mately,regional climate metersof landin creating (e.g., Freemanet al. a 3,576square kilometers 1982). All of thesevari- reservoir,and be capable ablesdrive the biological of delivering3,168 mega- processesthat resultin wattsfrom its three power JamesBay's distinctive stations.James Bay III, plantand animal com- theNottaway-Broadback- munities. The cumulative Rupertcomplex, would • • LAGRANDE COMPLEX effectsof significantly diverttwo large rivers into alteredriver discharges a third,affecting a water- fromhydroelectric devel- shed of some 130,060 opmentscould produce squarekilometers. The physicalchanges that lead reservoirscreated will have to profoundecological a surface area of 6,500 i• 6 changes.Any widespread, squarekilometers, of adverseeffects on James which3,900 square kilo- • a 6 .... s6o Bay'splant and inverte- meterswould be newly • • ' HUDSON• a• •B•R brate food resourcescould flooded land. In this provedamaging to popu- scheme,eight generating lationsof migratory birds stationswould produce thatrely on them. 8,400megawatts (Hydro- Quebec,unpubl. data). • P • ATL•TIC EFFECTS ON BIRDS A number of water- ENVIRONMENTAL fowlspecies appear to be •n in 1971, and sch•ul• for complYionin 1996, the • Grande IMPACTS Complexwill havediv• f•r rive• into a fi•h. especiallyvulnerable to Ultimately,an ecosys- ecologicalchanges at temthe size of Californiawill be affected by the disruption JamesBay. The Bayis an extremely important migration ofthe waters in it.An areaof more than 17,000 square kilo- corridorand staging area for LesserSnow Geese (Chen I metersofland will be inundated. Someofthe direct and caerulescens caerulescens), Canada Geese ( Brantacanadensis), morelocalized environmental impacts are obvious. A num- andBrant (Branta bernida). More thantwo millionarctic- berof productive lowland, wetland, andriverine areas have breedingLesser Snow Geese congregate on coastalsedge

Volume 46, Number 2 ß meadowsin spring,and over 1.5 mil- may numberless than 1000 birds of RedKnots, which depend on a very lion havebeen recorded in fall (Curtis (Goudie1989). Some 200 Harlequin fewkey staging areas between James andAllen 1976, Prevettet al. 1979). Ducksare thought to nestwithin the Bayand Argentina, isintimately linked Tens of thousands of Canada Geese GreatWhale project area. Their pre- tothe ecology of theirpreferred bivalve andBrant stage along the east James ferredhabitat, fast-flowing rivers, prey,Macoma balthica, at James Bay Baycoast (Curtis and Allen 1976). All appearslikely to becompletely lost to (e.g.Morrison 1984). Disruptions to threespecies depend heavily on nutri- flooding.An importantsegment of the JamesBay populations of Macoma could prove disastrousto North American Red Knots. Most Hudsonian Godwitsundertake non-stop trans- oceanicflights of atleast 4,500 kilome- tersfrom James Bay staging grounds to SouthAmerica (Hagar 1966, Morrison andHarrington 1979). The energy reservesstored through intensive feed- ingat James Bay, primarily on Macoma balthica,are thought to beessential in makingthis spectacular migration pos- sible.Cumulative ecological changes affectingthe productivity oftheir inver- tebratefood resources might seriously threatenthe entire eastern breeding populationof this species.Semi- palmatedSandpipers from central and easternarctic breeding populations rely on a fewrestricted sections of theJames JamesBay is an importantstaging area for Canadaand' Lesser Snow geese in migration. Baycoast to accumulatethe energy entreserves accumulated atJames Bay Atlanticcoastal wintering population reserves that must carry them to farther to enablesuccessful spring reproduc- of BlackScoters (Melanitta nigra) has Atlanticcoastal staging areas (e.g. tion andto fueltheir long-distance recently been discovered breeding Morrison1984). Disruptions in this returnflights in fall.Lesser Snow Geese withinthe Great Whale project area vitallink of theirannual cycle could andCanada Geese feed primarily on (A. Reed,pers. comm.). James Bay seriouslyimpair their ability to migrate saltmarsh vegetation, while Brant rely constitutesan extremelyimportant successfully.James Bay constitutes an exclusivelyon eelgrassbeds. Per- molting and stagingarea for this importantmolting ground for central turbationstothese habitats might cause species,with an estimated200,000- arcticbreeding populations of Dunlin. significantdeclines in entirepopula- 300,000individuals using nearshore This species isunique among migrant tionsof thesespecies. American Black watersalong both coasts (Ross 1983). shorebirdsusing James Bay in undergo- Ducks(Arias rubripes), a species of Direct lossesof breedinghabitat, inga complete molt of flightand body managementconcern in thenortheast- combinedwith cumulativeimpacts feathersprior to continuingsouth to ern United States,are abundant breed- to the benthicfeeding areas of this winteringareas on the United States ers and migrants at JamesBay, speciesand its close relatives, the Surf Atlanticand Gulf coasts. Ecological particularlyalong the east coast (Curtis Scoter(Melanitta perspicillata) and perturbationsaffecting the feeding effi- and Allen 1976). The outcome on White-wingedScoter (Melanittafusca), ciency of Dunlinon James Bay might theirfeeding ecology might have seri- couldhave serious, adverse population inhibit the successful completion of ouspopulation consequences that consequences. thismolt, as well as their ability to pre- would be reflected on their Atlantic Amongthe many shorebird species pare physiologically for subsequent coastalwintering grounds. that migratethrough James Bay in migratoryflights. Severaldiving duck species that springand fall, RedKnots (Calidris Althoughwaterfowl and shorebirds breed,molt, and stage at JamesBay canutustufa), HudsonianGodwits arethe only groups adequately studied alsoappear to be at risk. Foremost (Limosa haemastica), Semipalmated thus far at James Bay, detailed studies amongthese is the HarlequinDuck Sandpipers(Calidris pusilia), and areneeded on the habitat requirements, ( Histrionicushistrionicus), whose east- Dunlin ( Calidrisalpina budsonia) feedingecology, breeding status, and ernNorth American breeding popula- appearto depend most critically on the migrationpatterns of mostspecies. tion is classifiedas endangered and Baysresources. The migration strategy Knowledge of other bird groups using 218 ßAmerican Birds, Summer 1992 JamesBay is fragmentaryat best. International Council for Bird CURTIS,S.C. ANDL. ALLEN1976. The water- Particularlylacking is an understanding Preservation (both in Canadaand the fowlecology of theQuebec coast of James of theimportance ofJames Bays coastal United States),the NationalAudubon Bay.Manuscript Report. Canadian Wildlife and inland habitats to Common and Society(Beyea et al. 1990), andthe Service,Ottawa, ON, 72pp. FREEMAN,N.G., ROFF,J.C. ANDR.J. PETT. Red-throatedloons (Gayla immer and Canadian Nature Federation have 1982.Physical, chemical, and biological G. stellata),wading birds (herons, urgeda comprehensiveenvironmental featuresof riverplumes under an ice cover cranes,and rails), gulls and terns, rap- reviewof Hydro-Quebec'sentire pro- in Jamesand HudsonBays. Naturaliste tors(eagles, hawks, falcons, and owls), posedscheme. So little is known, yet so Can. 109:745-764. andpasserines. Virtually nothing is much is at stake. This much is certain: GOUDIE, R.I. 1989. Historical status of known about bird distribution and theJames Bay ecosystem is a vitally HarlequinDucks wintering in eastern NorthAmerica - a reappraisal.Wilson Bull. ecologyin theoffshore waters of James importantavian staging area where sea- 101:112-114. Bay.It ispremature to assessthe conse- sonallyabundant food resources are HAGAR,J.A. 1966. Nesting of the HudsonJan quencesof director cumulative impacts convertedto fat andprotein reserves. Godwitat Churchill,Manitoba. Living of hydroelectricdevelopments on Theseenergetic stores are essential as Bird 5:5-43. speciesin anyof thesegroups, but risky fuelsupplies, both to enablelong, non- HAZELL,S. 1991.Environmental impacts of to assumethat none will occur. stopflights over broad ecological barri- hydro-developmentin the JamesBay Formany waterfowl and shorebird ersin fall,and to permitmaintenance region.Northeast Indian Quarterly 8:20- species,direct migratory connections of bodycondition necessary for suc- 24. MARTINI, I.P., MORRISON, R.I.G., havebeen documented between James cessful reproduction in spring. GLOOSCHENKO, W.A. AND R. PROTZ. andHudson bays and states or provinces Significant disruptions to this vital link 1980. Coastalstudies in JamesBay, to the south.For example, between in theannual cycle of manymigrant Ontario. GeoscienceCanada 7:11-21. NewYork State and James and Hudson specieswill likely have far-reaching and MORRISON,R.I.G. 1984.Migration systems baysalone, 1608 bandrecoveries of adverseconsequences. of someNew World shorebirds. Pp. 125- waterfowl and 195 202 in: Burger,J. andB.L. Olla (eds.), sightingsof color- Shorebirds:migration and foraging behav- marked shorebirds ior, Behaviorof Marine Animals, vol. 6, PlenumPress, New York and London. have been recorded MORRISON, R.I.G. AND B.A. HARRINGTON. (Rimmer1992). These 1979.Critical shorebird resources in James include 629 Canada Bayand eastern North America. Pp. 498- Geese, 577 Brant, 507 in: Trans. 44th N. Am. Wildl. and 200 American Black Nat. ResourcesConf., Wildlife Manage- Ducks, 127 Mallards, mentInstitute, Washington, D.C. and 175 Semipal- MORRISON,R.I.G. ANDA.J. GASTON.1986. matedSandpipers. If Marine andcoastal birds of JamesBay, HudsonBay and Foxe Basin. Pp. 355-386 JamesBay populations in: Martini, I.P. (ed.), Canadianinland of anyof thesespecies seas,Elsevier Oceanography Series No. decline,the impacts to 44, New York. New Yorkers alone PREVETT,J.P., MARSHALL,I.F. ANDV.G. couldbe pronounced THOMAS. 1979. Fall foods of the lesser in the case of econom- snowgeese in theJames Bay region. J. icallyand recreational- Hudsonian •odwits a• e•re•l• deandent on the •'s Wildl.Manage. 43:736-742. •ou•es during migrat•n. ly valuablebirds like RIMMER,C.C. 1992.Potential impacts of JamesBay hydroelectric developments on Canada Geeseand Brant. For birders, ACKN0•LE•MEN• migratorybirds in NewYork. Unpubl. Thanks are due to M.K. McNicholl, diminishedpopulations of Semi- reportto NY Dept. of Environmental palmatedSandpipers or Hudsonian R.I.G. Morrison, and S.E. Sennet,whose Conservation,Vermont Inst. of Natural Godwitswould pose an equallydis- criticismsimproved earlier versions of this Science,Woodstock, 58pp. turbing,if lesstangible, loss. paper. Ross, R.K. 1983. An estimateof the Black Concernfor the fate of Jamesand Scoter,Melanitta nigra, population moult- Literature Cited Hudson bays' migratory birds is ingin James and Hudson bays, Can. Field- BEYEA,J., J. ROSENTHALAND J. HANSELL. Nat. 97:147-150. widespread.Recognizing theecological 1990. Long-termThreats to Canada's complexitiesinvolved in hydrodevelop- JamesBay from Hydroelectric Deve- --Chris Rimmer is a consultantto the Cree, mentof theregion and the paucity of lopment.Information North. Arctic andDirector of Research, Vermont Institute adequatebird population data, conser- Instituteof North America.Calgary, of NaturalScience, Church Hill Road, vation organizationssuch as the Alberta.Vol. 16, No.3. Box86, Woodstock,VT 05091 Volume 46, Number 2' 219