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Gazella Dorcas) in North East Libya The conservation ecology of the Dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas) in North East Libya Walid Algadafi A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Wolverhampton for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy April 2019 This work and any part thereof has not previously been presented in any form to the University or to any other body whether for the purposes of assessment, publication or any other purpose (unless previously indicated). Save for any express acknowledgements, references and/or bibliographies cited in the work, I confirm that the intellectual content of the work is the result of my own efforts and of no other person. The right of Walid Algadafi to be identified as author of this work is asserted in accordance with ss.77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. At this date, copyright is owned by the author. Signature: Date: 27/ 04/ 2019 I ABSTRACT The Dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas) is an endangered antelope in North Africa whose range is now restricted to a few small populations in arid, semi-desert conditions. To be effective, conservation efforts require fundamental information about the species, especially its abundance, distribution and genetic factors. Prior to this study, there was a paucity of such data relating to the Dorcas gazelle in Libya and the original contribution of this study is to begin to fill this gap. The aim of this study is to develop strategies for the conservation management of Dorcas gazelle in post-conflict North East Libya. In order to achieve this aim, five objectives relating to current population status, threats to the species, population genetics, conservation and strategic population management were identified. These were explored using three distinct methods: questionnaires, a distance sampling field survey and genetic analysis. The findings from both the questionnaires and the field survey indicated that there had been a significant decrease in the population in the study area compared to historical records from the 1970s. The respondents to the questionnaire estimated the decrease in the wild gazelle population to be in the range of 80% and 100% following the conflict in Libya in 2011. The responses also indicated that the main threat to the survival of Dorcas gazelle is illegal hunting and that, to reverse the decline, protected areas should be established and protection laws enforced. The respondents also believed that local communities and international conservation efforts are necessary, including captive breeding and reintroduction programmes. The findings suggested that the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classification of Dorcas gazelle in Libya should be revised from ‘Endangered’ to ‘Critically Endangered’ and conservation efforts increased. Questionnaire and distance sampling methods gave different population estimates at 233 and 1070 respectively, with the distance sampling results considered to be the more accurate. The genetic analysis of the sampled Dorcas gazelle population from North East Libya found eight haplotypes, four of which have not been identified elsewhere, indicating a unique genetic diversity. This suggests that, at present, there is no major risk of a genetic bottleneck. The strategic management outcomes identified seven intervention strategies: declaration of the study area as a protected area, protection laws, awareness-raising, research and monitoring, supplementary feeding, captive breeding and international cooperation, each of theses upported by short-, medium- and long-term activities. However, achieving these requires input from local and international stakeholders and experts in a way that reflects the IUCN’s ‘One Plan’ approach. II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All thanks to Allah, who guided me and illuminated the way, particularly in the difficult stages of this thesis. I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr Christopher H. Young, Dr Lynn Besenyei and Dr Catherine M. Tobin from the Department of Biology, Chemistry and Forensic Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering at the University of Wolverhampton for their guidance and support through the whole PhD process, also for their guidance, support and comments on early and final drafts of this thesis. I would also like to acknowledge the tremendous support provided by Dr Joma Ifhima of the Department of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, Omar AL Mukhtar University, El-Beida, Libya from the inception to the completion of this thesis. My sincerest thanks go to Omar AL Mukhtar University and the Libyan Government for generously funding this thesis, and awarding me a research studentship for fees for the duration of my study. My thanks also go to the Libyan Embassy in the UK (Cultural Attaché, London) for providing administrative support and guidance through the formal procedures. I would like to thank Dr Husam E. M. El Alqamy from the Ministry of Forests, Land, Resource Operation, BC Canada and the Antelope Specialist Group at the IUCN, for his guidance and explanation of the DISTANCE software. I would like to thank Dr Helen Senn of the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland who advised on the extraction and sequencing of DNA from tissue, skin and dung samples, as detailed in Chapter Seven, and facilitated access to the Wildgenes Laboratory. Additionally, I express my gratitude to Dr Simon Maddock from the Department of Biology, Chemistry and Forensic Sciences, at the University of Wolverhampton for his assistance with the DNA data analysis. I would also like to express my gratitude to the questionnaire respondents, the experts and the hunting community for providing information and the necessary facilities to carry out this work. The cooperation of the villagers living in the study area during fieldwork and data collection is sincerely acknowledged. Finally, I would like to thank my loving parents, my dear wife and children, my sisters and brother and friends for their unwavering support and patience throughout this entire process. III TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... III TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ IV TABLE OF FIGURES ................................................................................................ IX TABLE OF TABLES ................................................................................................ XII TABLE OF PLATES ................................................................................................ XV 1. Chapter One: Introduction ................................................................................. 1 1.1. Background to and context of the study .................................................................... 1 1.2. Thesis rationale and justification for the research ..................................................... 3 1.3. Aim and objectives ..................................................................................................... 5 1.3.1. Research aim ....................................................................................................... 5 1.3.2. Research objectives ............................................................................................. 5 1.4. Research questions ..................................................................................................... 6 1.5. Overview of research methodology ........................................................................... 6 2. Chapter Two: Literature review ......................................................................... 8 2.1. Current status of antelope in Libya ............................................................................ 8 2.2. Dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas) .................................................................................. 8 2.2.1. Taxonomy (subspecies) and distribution ............................................................. 8 2.2.2. Identification and description ............................................................................ 10 2.2.3. Habitat and diet ................................................................................................. 12 2.2.4. Reproduction ..................................................................................................... 14 2.2.5. Group size and composition .............................................................................. 14 2.2.6. Longevity ........................................................................................................... 15 2.2.7. Competition and predation ............................................................................... 15 2.3. Status of Dorcas gazelle ............................................................................................ 16 2.3.1. Global status ...................................................................................................... 16 2.3.2. Status of the Dorcas gazelle in Libya ................................................................. 21 2.4. Attitudes and threats to Dorcas gazelle ................................................................... 22 2.5. Social factors in conservation: the role of questionnaires ....................................... 24 2.6. Methods for estimating ungulate abundance and density ......................................
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