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Jacques-Louis David: In Quest of a Hero

by Elaine Adams

rphaned at nine, esteemed artist by thirty- Othree, execution judge at forty-five and exiled at sixty-eight; Jacques-Louis David’s (1748–1825) life was led on a tumultuous path while he searched for a paradigm of virtue. When David was only nine his garrulous father, Louis-Maurice, a prominent Parisian merchant, was challenged to a pistol duel and killed. Little is known of David’s mother Marie-Geneviève Buron, except that after she became a widow she deposited her son in the care of her two brothers. David’s uncles, François Buron (1731–1818) and Jacques-François Desmaisons (c. 1720–1789) were both master masons and architects; Desmaisons was a member of the Royal Academy of Architecture and worked for King Louis XVI. His uncles, as well as his aunt Marie- Josephe and cousin Marie-Francoise all recognized young David’s natu- ral skills for drawing and encour- aged his talent by posing for him. David’s education began at the Collège des Quatre Nations in Paris, but he was an unhappy pupil. He later wrote, “I hated school. The masters always beating us with sticks and worse. I was always hid- ing behind the instructors’ chair, Jacques-Louis David drawing for the duration of the Bonaparte Crossing the Alps at Grand-Saint-Bernard, 1800-01 class.” David’s uncles decided to Oil on canvas 103Љ ϫ 87Љ send him to the medieval painter’s Collection of Musée National des Châteaux de Malmaison et Bois-Préau, guild Académie de Saint-Luc for Reuil-Malmaison drawing classes. David’s wish was to be intro- duced to his mother’s famous dis- had hopes of studying with him. It with Boucher. However, it is sur- tant cousin François Boucher is not clear how David and Boucher mised that Boucher perceived a (1703–1770). Boucher was an were introduced, perhaps through petulant disposition in David that undisputed leader in the established his mother’s intervention, nor is it would not be suited for the gentility Rococo art movement, and David certain if David actually studied of Rococo. Boucher referred David

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to Joseph-Marie Vien (1716–1809), of Rococo and yearned for classical unearthing was that of the Theatre who was gaining recognition as a themes examining virtue, nobility of Hercules, which led to the con- leader in the burgeoning historical and patriotism. The recent and firmation that they had discovered genre painting or le style grande. continuing archaeological findings the ancient City of Herculaneum. From 1766 to 1774 David near the Bay of Naples created a The next significant discovery at apprenticed with Vien at his studio colossal sensation throughout Herculaneum was Villa dei Papiri. and studied at the Académie Royale Western Europe and inspired an era The villa, once home to Lucius de Peinture et de Sculpture. Initially of rediscovering their classical Calpurnius Piso, father of Julius David rejected Vien’s doctrine of Greco-Roman roots in architecture, Caesar’s wife Calpurnia, with its meticulous realism, preferring fashion, philosophy and politics. virtually undamaged frontage of Boucher’s lively Rococo approach This was an era that became 820 feet lined with sixty-four and is quoted to have praised his known as the “Age of columns and ninety statues was idol by saying, “Not everyone can Enlightenment.” heralded as an example of the paint like Boucher.” Ironically, In 1738 the eighteen-year-old finest artistic magnitude. In 1748, David eventually became a catalyst King Charles of Naples and Sicily the same year that David was born, for the demise of the Rococo style. ordered excavations to begin in the the nearby City of Pompeii was dis- Many artists, critics and philoso- areas where fragments of ancient covered. Nine years later, Francesco phers of the day grew weary of marble, statues and frescoes had Valletta, secretary of the what they perceived as the frivolity been found. The first substantial Herculaneum Academy, an institu- tion created by King Charles to study archaeological discoveries, published the first of eight volumes called Le Antichité di Erocolano Esposte (An Account of the Antiquities of Herculaneum). The publication became a major influ- ence on the development of the classical movement in Europe. In 1774 Louis XV died and Louis XVI ascended on the throne. In that same year David’s entry Antiochus and Stratonice, depicting a love story from Life of Demetrius by Greek essayist Plutarch (c. 46 AD-c. 120 AD), won him the Prix de Rome at the age of twenty-six from the Royal Academy. Before succeed- ing in winning this award he had entered and failed three times which led him into a deep depression that nearly drove him to suicide by star- vation. The annual Prix de Rome was a fierce competition of extremely high standards and was entered by a maximum of 100 top male art students, all French citi- zens and all under the age of thirty. The advantage to receiving the award was that it granted the win- ner three to five years of extended

Jacques-Louis David Self Portrait, 1794 (painted while in Luxembourg Prison) Oil on canvas 31 7/8Љ ϫ 25 5/8Љ Collection of Musée du Louvre, Departement des Peintures

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study at the French Academy in In 1781 David was elected an Rome and highlighted the artist’s Associate member of the Royal YYYYYYYYYYYYY career potential. Prior to David’s Academy and exhibited at his first arrival in Rome the Boucher-enthu- Salon (exhibition held in the Salon siast is quoted to have remarked, d’Apollen in the Louvre) with his CALIFORNIA ART CLUB “the antique isn’t going to seduce earliest classical composition, NEWSLETTER me, it lacks life, it leaves you cold.” Belisarius. It was clear that this lat- est work with its grandiose archi- Spring 2005 n Rome of the 1760s the tectural features, expressive power German art historian, archaeolo- and moral message was following Contents Igist and moral philosopher Poussin’s influence and departing Jacques-Louis David Johann Wincklemann (1717–1778) from that of Boucher. by Elaine Adams urged artists to study and “imitate” The following year, thirty-four- Pages Cover – 8 the timelessness of classical ideal year old David was made a full forms. His enthusiasm for antiqui- Royal Academician with his paint- Peter Brooke ties gained him an international fol- ing Andromache Mourning Hector. by Molly Siple lowing of artists that included the Also in that same year he married Pages 9 – 11 German expatriate Anton Raphael the seventeen-year old Marguerite- Mengs (1728–1779), the Scot Charlotte Pècoul (1765- ), daughter Today’s Art Education Gavin Hamilton (1723–1798), and of a successful building contractor. by Vern A. Swanson, Ph. D. the American Benjamin West David admired and appreciated her Page 12 – 13 & 30 (1738–1820). These classical devo- as a “woman whose virtues and News Briefs tees helped spread the art move- character had assured the happiness Pages 14 – 15 ment in their own countries. of his life.” The following year their David was invigorated by the first son Charles-Louis-Jules was CAAM Workshops five years he spent in Rome study- born and in 1784 Marguerite gave Pages 15 – 16 ing from antique casts, classical birth to their second son Eugène. statues, and the Renaissance mas- The public’s interest for classical Call for Entries ters, which he felt was far more art and the ancien régime was gain- Page 16 instructive than anything he had ing great momentum. However, the learned during his eight years at the major collectors were not eager to Paint-Outs Academy. He was particularly abandon their beloved Rococo Page 16 inspired by the austere paintings of paintings filled with playful themes Donor Recognition Nicolas Poussin (1594–1665) and and soft pastel tones in exchange Page 17 the classical lines of Raphael for buying large-format paintings (1483–1520), and wrote a tribute that emphasized severe forms and Exhibitions to his artistic hero Raphael: strict moral messages. (Note: The Pages 18 – 25 term Neoclassicism to identify this “Divine Raphael! It was you genre of art was not used until the Membership News who led me, step by step, to mid-nineteenth century.) Royal art Pages 26 – 28 antiquity. It was you, sublime commissions were invaluable to painter, who managed to artists for several reasons including In Memoriam come closest to these inim- providing opportunities to create Pages 28 – 29 itable models. You yourself large-scale works, gaining entrée New Members made me realize that the into high social circles, assuring Page 30 antique was greater even than inclusion into important collections, you. It was you, kindly, help- and chiefly, promoting artists’ Board of Directors ful painter that set my chair in careers and thereby building Page 31 front of the sublime remains demand for their works. of antiquity. Their beauties King Louis XVI granted David a Collectors’ Circle Corner were revealed to me by your commission to create a historical Page 31 erudite and graceful paintings. painting that was unique to the Collectors’ Circle Activities In return for my admiration, artist. For inspiration and research Back Page will you do me the favour to the artist decided to resettle in consider me—even with three Rome for one year. The following CAC Programs hundred years between us—as year he returned to Paris with a Back Page one of your pupils? ...” theme that was based on a 669 BC

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Paris to the governing body of the National Convention. As an influen- tial member of the Committee of Public Instruction and the Committee of General Safety David’s duties included organizing festivals and promoting the revolution through the means of his art. The day after the assassination of one of the revolution’s leaders Jean-Paul Marat, the Convention urged David to memorialize their revolutionary hero. Marat was editor-in-chief of the political propaganda journal, L’Ami du Peuple (The Friend of the People), who helped spread ideas of liberté, égalité et fraternité and justi- fied death to all monarchs. Marat was stabbed to death in his bathtub on July 12, 1793 by the beautiful twenty-five year old royalist Charlotte Corday. Corday was guil- lotined four days later. As citizen Guirault, a deputy member of the Convention, spewed Jacques-Louis David in a fiery speech at the Convention The Oath of the Horatii, 1784 lamenting the loss of Marat, “…the Љ ϫ Љ Oil on canvas 130 167 people’s boldest champion whose Collection of Musée du Louvre only crime was that he constantly sacrificed himself for the sake of account from History of Early Revolution. The next year, the freedom.” Another deputy, citizen Rome written by Roman historian David household was increased by Audouin, implored David, “Return Titus Livius (59 BC–17 AD). The two, with the birth of twin girls Marat whole to us again!” David story describes the founding of the Émilie and Pauline. was moved to create a painting that Roman Republic after conquering David was an avid supporter of would martyr their hero Marat. He their warring neighbour Alba. The the lawyer and skillful orator completed the masterpiece Death of painting, The Oath of the Horatii, Maximilien Robespierre Marat in just three months. The was exhibited in the 1785 Salon (1758–1794) and saw in him an scene was based on David’s impec- and received tremendous acclaim. altruistic and virtuous man whose cable visual memory of his last visit In the scene three sons of the sympathies were with the common to Marat, the evening before he was Roman Horatii family swear oaths people. In Robespierre’s 1794 presen- killed. Marat was in his bathtub to their father that they will defend tation On the Principals of Political then as well, soaking his body to their country against the plotting Morality, he wrote, “Again, it may help relieve the pain from a skin Alban Curiatii family. The paint- be said, that to love justice and disease, possibly a form of psoria- ing’s formal composition and equality the people need no great sis, while he wrote his revolutionary defined linear design was reminis- effort of virtue; it is sufficient that essays on a board laid across his cent of Roman sculptural bas-relief they love themselves....” Robespierre bathtub. To David, Marat was a friezes, and its distinct smooth was the leader of the Committee of symbol of venerable virtue. brush and use of balance through Public Safety, as well as the executive David was active in numerous colour created a new style that was committee of the National agencies of the reign of terror. He immediately heralded as the edict Convention, and a key mastermind was a political extremist and presi- of Classical Art. David’s highly cel- behind the French Revolution. dent of the Jacobin Club, a political ebrated painting had a wild effect After 1789 David’s classical party named for the Jacobins on the French populace and was painting style was modified into a (Dominicans) Monastery where interpreted as a symbol of national more realistic approach for the pur- they met. He orchestrated the Great patriotism and a call to abolish the pose of recording scenes of the Festival of the People on ruling class. Thus The Oath of French Revolution. In 1792 the July 14, 1790 in commemoration of Horatii helped ignite the French artist was elected a deputy from the fall of the Bastille, the event

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that began the French Revolution when I tell you that twelve pro- way of working and seeing the previous year. He also designed fessors a year, that is one for things twelve times a year to uniforms, banners, triumphal arch- each month (note, too, that they please each one of them in turn, es, and inspirational props for the were irremovable), vied with and when he has learnt his art Jacobin Club’s propaganda. In 1793 each other to demolish the first twelve times over he ends up David was appointed to the Comite principles a young artist has knowing nothing at all, for he de Salut Public, which gave him the learnt, and is learning daily, doesn’t know what to believe.” authority to sign orders for execu- from his teacher; and as each of tion by guillotine, which he did for these professors approves of no David was instrumental in re- more than 300 victims, including principles but his own, the poor establishing The Royal Academy his first most important art patron young man has to change his and in 1795 it became known as King Louis XVI and his family. When Queen Marie Antoinette was led on a gruesome procession to the guillotine David callously saw an opportunity to record history by sketching an un-regal image of her. His wife Marguerite, a royalist, was so disgusted with her husband’s role in these executions that she divorced him. The Revolutionary Tribunal, with Robespierre as its leader, ordered the execution of 2,400 peo- ple in Paris by July 1794. Across France 30,000 people lost their lives, most were ordinary people who spoke against the revolution. David orchestrated an inventory of all national treasures, some col- lected from guillotined aristocrats, making him one of the founders of France’s museums including The Louvre. He became an art dictator and played a pivotal role in the demise of the Royal Academy. One of David’s objections to the Academy was the unequal treatment of students. As an example, when a model posed for students, those who were sons of Academicians had the best view advantage, followed by Grand Prix winners, then the Prix de Quartier or petits prix, and at the very end were the common pupils. In a speech delivered at the National Convention in 1793, David denounced the Academy system:

“I promised I would show the damage the Academicians do to the art they profess, and I shall keep my word. I won’t bore you, citizens, with pedantic details, with the poor teaching Jacques-Louis David methods used by the Academy Death of Marat, 1793 of Painting and Sculpture; it will Oil on canvas 65Љ ϫ 50 3/8Љ be easy enough to convince you Collection of Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels

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École Nationale Supérieure de near Versailles and vowed that they was imprisoned for a year at the Beaux-Arts and catered to a larger would continue to meet until they Luxembourg Prison while facing a body of students. David must have had established a new constitution possible sentence of execution by been a remarkable teacher, judging for France. David was inspired by guillotine. His students rallied and by his list of illustrious students, what he perceived to be a valorous his ex-wife successfully pleaded for which included Etienne-Jean group of men—symbols of the new his life and he was consequently Delécluze (1781–1863), Francois French nobility. He decided to glo- released. David’s painting Gérard (1770–1837), Antoine-Jean rify them in an elaborate scene. Intervention of the Sabine Women, Gros (1771–1835), Jean-Baptiste Detailed sketches for The Tennis which was begun while in prison, Isabey (1767–1855), Jean-Auguste- Court Oath were made, but the was painted in Marguerite’s honour. Dominique Ingres (1780–1867) and painting was never completed. As The theme being one of love prevail- Louis-Leopold Robert (1733–1808). the revolution progressed and cer- ing over conflict was interpreted by Trying to keep up with the latest tain members of the National the French as a message of reconcili- revolutionary heroes must have Assembly fell out of favour, David ation, and helped re-establish been quite a daunting task for had to erase them from his picture. David’s position as an artist of the David. A group of commoners who After the fall and execution of people. The painting also helped dubbed themselves the “National Robespierre and nineteen of his reconcile Jacques and Marguerite Assembly” met on a tennis court comrades on July 28, 1794, David and the couple remarried in 1796.

Jacques-Louis David Intervention of the Sabine Women, 1799 Oil on canvas 152Љ ϫ 205Љ Collection of Musée du Louvre

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In 1797 David met Napoléon Bonaparte (1769–1821) and was captivated by his authoritative char- acter and saw in him a hero who rose up through the ranks. Napoleon saw in David his propa- ganda painter who could promote his persona as the modern day Alexander the Great. Napoleon’s image required grandeur, and David accommodated by altering his stern classical style to include elements of opulence and pageantry. David became a staunch sup- porter of Napoleon, an association that enabled the artist to regain the dominant social and artistic posi- tion he so enjoyed and previously held under Robespierre’s leader- ship. In 1802 Napoleon founded the Légion d’honneur, a prestigious Order of Chivalry and France’s highest civilian honour awarded for outstanding achievements in mili- tary or civilian life. David was made a Knight (Chevalier) of the Legion, the fifth rank of order, and in twelve years rose to the third rank as Commandant of the Legion of Honour. Napoleon also bestowed on David the lofty title of “Painter of the Emperor.” David painted a series of pictures glorifying the Emperor’s exploits. In 1801 he completed one of his most Mars Disarmed by Venus and the Graces, 1824 supreme masterpieces, Bonaparte Љ ϫ Љ Crossing the Alps at Grand-Saint- Oil on canvas 121 103 Bernard, a fantastic propaganda Musée Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels painting depicting a heroic, bigger- than-life and very handsome Cathédrale on December 2, 1804. sentiments of France, as both David Napoleon on his magnificent white The 30Љ ϫ 48Љ painting was com- and the people of France searched charger rearing in a diagonally pleted in 1807, three years after the for their identities and for leader- upward motion indicating a tri- commission was given to David, and ship. As France experienced periods umphant future. In the painting shows remarkable details of each of political upheavals from monar- David links Napoleon to the leg- person present at the ceremony, chy, anarchy, republic, imperialism, endary conquerors Hannibal and including one who was not present, and back to monarchy, David Charlemagne who also crossed the Napoleon’s mother. Napoleon was stayed in step with each move, while same pass and succeeded in military so pleased with the realism of the continuing his personal search for victories. In reality Napoleon painting that he remarked “This is the ideal image of classic virtue. crossed the Saint Bernard Pass rid- not painting; you walk in this David is unique in the annals of ing a mule and wearing a practical work.” art history as not only the foremost and unassuming grey coat. After the fall of Napoleon and artist of his time, but also an influ- Also artistically and historically the return of the Bourbon monar- ential political figure that helped significant is the elaborate painting, chy, David was banished from shape France’s government and art Coronation of Napoleon and France in 1816 at the age of sixty- institutions. Toward the end of his Josephine, documenting eight and spent the remainder of his life and living away from his the crowning ceremony that took life exiled in Brussels. David’s life beloved homeland, one can specu- place at the Notre Dame was closely intertwined with the late that David must have contem-

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math the innocents must endure the deeds of their fathers. David completed approximately 100 paintings in his lifetime, with his last work being, Mars Disarmed by Venus and the Three Graces, 1822-24. Mars, the god of war, suc- cumbs to the virtues of Venus with the help of Cupid and their three virginal attendants, The Three Graces, amidst a celestial and classi- cal Greco-Roman setting. This painting attracted more than 10,000 visitors, and may have been David’s final propaganda message; however one that expresses peace within him and the realization that love is tri- umphant. In a letter the artist wrote in December 1823 he explains, “This is the last picture I want to paint, but I want to surpass myself in it. I will put the date of my seven- ty-five years on it and afterwards I will never again pick up my brush.” Jacques-Louis David died in Brussels on December 29, 1825. The restored French monarchy forbade the David family to return the body of the “king killer” to France. Y

Notes: Jacques-Louis David: Empire to Exile is on view at the J. Paul Getty Museum February 1 – April 24, 2005 and will travel to the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute in Williamstown, Massachusetts, June Jacques-Louis David 5 – September 5, 2005. The exhibi- Zénaïde and Charlotte Bonaparte, 1821 tion is accompanied by a catalogue. Oil on canvas 51Љ ϫ 39 3/8Љ Research for this article was gath- Collection of The J. Paul Getty Museum ered through the following sources: Jacques-Louis David: Empire to Exile by Philippe Bordes, 356-page plated his childhood as an orphaned ism. A gentle sense of bravery is exhibition catalogue published by boy in need of security and authori- expressed in the painting of two Yale University Press, 2005; David ty. In his virile youth he idolized exiled Bonaparte sisters clinging to by Antoine Schnapper, published by men of power by portraying them each other for support as the more Alpine Fine Arts Collection, Ltd., as honourable and heroic figures of stoic Charlotte holds a letter from leadership in the classical sense. In their exiled father Joseph Bonaparte, 1982; The Concise Oxford his serene later years David’s com- once the king of Naples and Spain Dictionary of Art and Artists, pub- missioned portraits are best and elder brother of Emperor lished by Oxford University Press, described as passive and dignified. Napoleon. The two girls are seated 1990; Artists on Art from the XIV In one of his last portraits, on a red velvet settee covered with to the XX Century, published by Zénaïde and Charlotte Bonaparte, embroidered gold “Napoleon bee” Pantheon Books, 1945, and David shows us a different and emblems, reminders of old glories www.artrenewal.org. enlightened interpretation of hero- and a realization that in the after-

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