The University of Dodoma University of Dodoma Institutional Repository http://repository.udom.ac.tz
Social Sciences Master Dissertations
2015 The role of the police force in combating threats of terrorism: a case study of Tanzania police force
Yusuf, Mohamed
The University of Dodoma
Yusuf, M. (2015). The role of the police force in combating threats of terrorism: A case study of Tanzania police force. Dodoma: The University of Dodoma. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12661/674 Downloaded from UDOM Institutional Repository at The University of Dodoma, an open access institutional repository. THE ROLE OF THE POLICE FORCE IN COMBATING THREATS OF TERRORISM:
A CASE STUDY OF TANZANIA POLICE FORCE
By
Mohamed Yusuf
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master in International Relations (MIR) of the University of Dodoma
The University of Dodoma
October, 2015 CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certifies that he has read and hereby recommends for acceptance by the
University of Dodoma the dissertation entitled; The Role of The Police Force in
Combating Threats of Terrorism:. A Case study of the Tanzania Police Force in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of International Relations of the
University of Dodoma
……………………………………………………………………
Prof. Peter A. Kopoka
(Supervisor)
Date…………………………………………….
i DECLARATION
AND
COPYRIGHT
I, Yusuf, Mohamed declare that this dissertation is my own original work and that it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other University for a similar or any other degree award
Signature ………………………………………
No part of this dissertation may be reproduced or stored in any retrieved system or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission from the author or the University of Dodoma
ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to take this opportunity to thank whole heartedly my supervisor Prof. Peter A.
Kopoka for his criticism and encouragement which made it possible for this study to be successfully completed from the beginning to the end. Furthermore, I would like to thank my wife and daughters for the advice and material support they have given me during the whole period of my studies.
Not only that, but also many thanks should be directed to the Police Commissioner for
Criminal Investigation, Police Commissioner of Operation and Training and The Police
Commissioner for Administration and Resource Management as well as the
Commissioner of Police Dar es Salaam Police Special Zone for their wholehearted assistance and knowledge on terrorism in the study area. This enabled me to study all matters related to terrorism in the country. My thanks also should go to the many police officers of different ranks for their material support which made it easy for me to collect relevant my data during my research. My thanks also should go to all my lecturers at
UDOM who enabled me to understand a lot of things including how to conduct a research.
Lastly, since it is not possible for me to mention all those who assisted me, I would like to take this opportunity to thank all those who in one way or another have assisted me to complete this difficult task of writing this dissertation. I am however entirely responsible for any weakness and error found in this dissertation.
iii DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my beloved father, Yusufu Mohamed and my beloved mother Bibie Khamis Mohamed (Rest in Peace) in particular, for the foundation of my education. This study is also dedicated to my Wife Fatma A. Abubakari, my daughters
Nadya Mohamed and Shadya Mohamed and all my friends.
iv ABSTRACT
This study was conducted at the Tanzania Police Force Headquarters in Dar es Salaam.
The objective of the study was to examine the role of the Police Force in combating threats of terrorism in Tanzania. Primary and secondary data were collected using quantitative and qualitative techniques. Specific objectives included providing an overview of the state of terrorism in Tanzania, Examining existing international collaboration with TPF in combating threats of terrorism and finally to determine the existing capacities of TPF in term of human resources and financial resources in combating threats of terrorism. SPSS and Microsoft excel were used in data analysis and presentation.
A total number of 93 respondents were involved in the study. The methods used in data collection were interview, questionnaires and documentary review. The findings of the study revealed that the Tanzania Police Force faces many challenges in combating threats of terrorism. These include lack of human resources, lack of specialized training, lack of sufficient funds to deal with terrorism and lack of physical resources. Field result further indicated that most police officers, who investigate terrorism cases do not have sufficient knowledge on combating terrorism.
The study therefore recommends specialized training to the majority of the police officers on terrorism, to a recruit more mobile police force, the government should allocate more funds to the Police Force, and modern equipment should be provided to the Police Force so that it can quick response to initial signs of terrorism and to also introduce a ant- terrorist units all over the country. Increased collaboration with the international community to combat threats of terrorism is also a necessary requirement for the Tanzania
Police Force in the war against terrorism.
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ...... i DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iii DEDICATION ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... xi LIST OF FIGURES ...... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... xiii
CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Background of the Study ...... 1 1.3 Statement of the Problem ...... 3 1.4 Objectives of the Study ...... 4 1.4.1 General Objective ...... 5 1.4.2 Specific Objectives ...... 5 1.5 Research Questions ...... 5 1.6 Significance of the Study ...... 6 1.7 Scope of the Study ...... 6 1.8 Chapter Scheme ...... 6
CHAPTER TWO ...... 8 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 2.1 Introduction ...... 8 2.2 Definition of Key Terms ...... 8 2.2. 1. Terrorism...... 8 2.2.2 Threats of Terrorism ...... 11 2.2.3 The Police Force ...... 11 2.2.4 Anti-terrorism (Counter Terrorism) ...... 12 2.3 A Global Overview of Terrorism ...... 12 2.3.1 Terrorism in Africa ...... 14
vi 2.3.2 Terrorism in East Africa ...... 14 2.3.3 Causes of Terrorism in East Africa ...... 15 2.3.3.1. Conflicts, Weak Governance and Statelessness...... 16 2.3.3.2. Porous Borders: Free movement people and illegal weapons ...... 16 2.3.3.3. Radical Islam in the Horn of Africa (HOA) ...... 17 2.3.4 Terrorism in Tanzania ...... 17 2.4 Global Anti terrorism Initiative...... 20 2.4.1 Anti terrorist Initiatives in East Africa ...... 21 2.4.1.1 The role of International and Regional Bodies ...... 22 2.4.1.2 The African Union (AU) ...... 22 2.4.1.3 Intergovernmental Authority on Development ...... 23 2.4.1.4 The U.S. Counterterrorism Programs in the HOA ...... 24 2.4.1 5 The United Nations and Counterterrorism in the HOA ...... 24 2.4.2.6 The European Union and Counterterrorism in HOA ...... 25 2.4.3 Anti terrorism initiatives in Tanzania...... 25 2. 5. Theoretical Framework of the Study ...... 26 2.5.1 Orthodox Terrorism Theory ...... 26 2.6 Empirical Literature Review ...... 29 2.6.1 A Police Force...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.6.2 The Police Force and Counter Terrorism...... 29 2.6.2.1 High Policing and Low Policing ...... 31 2.6.2 Tanzania Police Force: An Overview ...... 32 2.7 Structure and Functions of the Police Force in Tanzania ...... 33 2.8 Police Initiatives in Combating Terrorism in Tanzania ...... 34 2.9 Importance of Using the Police in Countering Terrorism ...... 37 2.1 Disadvantages of Using the Police Force in Counter Terrorism ...... 39 2.11 The impact of Counter Terrorism Initiatives on the Police ...... 42 2.12 Studies on the role of the Police Force in Combating Terrorism ...... 43 2.13 Conceptual Framework ...... 45 2.13.1 Independent Variables ...... 45 2.13.2 Intermediate Variables ...... 45 2.13.3 Dependant Variables ...... 46 2.14. Chapter summary ...... 47
vii CHAPTER THREE ...... 48 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...... 48 3.1 Introduction ...... 48 3.2 Research Design...... 48 3.3 Profile of the Study Area ...... 49 3.3.1 Study Area ...... 49 3.3.2 Geographical Location of the Study Area...... 49 3.3.3 Demographic Patterns ...... 50 3.4 Sampling and Sampling Techniques ...... 51 3.4.1 Sampling Design ...... 51 3.4.2 Population of Study...... 51 3.4.3 Sampling Unit ...... 52 3.4.3 Sample Size ...... 52 3.4.5 Sampling Frame ...... 53 3.4.6 Sampling ...... 53 3.4.7 Sampling Techniques ...... 53 3.4.7.1 Stratified Random Sampling ...... 53 3.4.7.2 Purposive Sampling ...... 54 3.5 Data Collection Method and Instruments ...... 54 3.5.1 Survey ...... 56 3.5.2 Questionnaires...... 56 3.5.3 Interview and Interview Guide ...... 57 3.5.4 Documentary Review...... 58 3.6 Data Collection Processing, Analysis and Presentation ...... 59 3.6.1 Data Processing ...... 59 3.6.2 Data Analysis ...... 59 3.6.3 Data Presentation ...... 59 3.7 Validity and Reliability of the Instrument ...... 60 3.7.1 Validity ...... 60 3.7.1. Iteration ...... 60 3.7.1.2 Pretesting of Questionnaire (Pilot study) ...... 60 3.7.2 Reliability ...... 61 3.8 Ethical Consideration ...... 61 3.8.1 Voluntary Participation ...... 62
viii 3.9 Limitation of the Study ...... 62 3.9.1 Time Constraints ...... 62 3.9.2 Fear and Inadequate Transparency to Share Information on Financial Issues ...... 62 3.9.3 Financial Constraints ...... 62 3.9.4 Over Expectation for Payments ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.10 Chapter Summary ...... 63
CHAPTER FOUR ...... 64 RESULTS, DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...... 64 4.1 Introduction ...... 64 4.2 General Characteristics of Respondents ...... 64 4.2.1 Sex of the Respondents ...... 65 4.2.2 Age of the Respondents ...... 65 4.2.3 Education Level of Respondents ...... 66 4.2.4 Marital Status of Respondents ...... 67 4.3 Terrorism in Tanzania ...... 68 4.3.1 Understanding of Terrorism ...... 69 4.3.1 The State of the Terrorism Incidences in the Country from 1998 to 2014 ...... 70 4.3.3 Incident of Terrorism in Tanzania ...... 71 4.3.4 Effective Measures by Tanzania Police Force in Combating Threats of Terrorism.. 72 4.4 Role of the Tanzania Police Force in Combating Threats of Terrorism ...... 73 4.5. Tanzania Laws and Regulations on Terrorism and their Impact ...... 74 4.5.1 Effectiveness of the Tanzanian‘s Ant-terrorist Laws and Regulations ...... 75 4.5.1 Involvement of the Police Force in the Formulation of laws and Regulation about Terrorism...... 75 4.6 The existence of International Collaboration with TPF in Combating Threats of Terrorism...... 76 4.7 Capacity of TPF in Combating Threats of Terrorism ...... 78 4.7.1 Capacity of TPF in Terms of Human Resources ...... 78 4.7.2 The Capacity of Tanzania Police Force in Terms of Financial Resources ...... 79 4.7.2.1 Sources of Fund for TPF ...... 80 4.7.2.2 Opinion on how the Funds can be Increased and Maintained ...... 80
ix CHAPTER FIVE ...... 82 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMANDATIONS ...... 82 5.1 Introduction ...... 82 5.2 Conclusion ...... 82 5.3 Recommendations ...... 84 5.5 Areas for further study ...... 86
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 87 APPENDICES ...... 93
x LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Sample size to data collection methods and tools...... 55 Table 4.1: Sex of respondents ...... 65 Table 4.2: Age of Respondents ...... 66 Table 4.3:Education Level of Respondents ...... 67 Table 4.4: Marital Status of Respondents ...... 68 Table 4.6: Perceptions of respondents on the situation of terrorism incidences in the country from 1998 to 2014 ...... 71 Table 4.7: Some incident of terrorism in Tanzania ...... 72 Table 4.8: Effective measures by Tanzania Police Force for effective way in combating threats of terrorism ...... 73 Table 4.9: Effectiveness of the Tanzania ant-terrorism laws and regulations in combating threats terrorism ...... 75 Table 4.10: Involvement of the Police Force in the formulation of laws and regulation on terrorism ...... 76 Table 4.11: Capacities of TPF in terms of human resources ...... 79 Table 4.12: Capacity of TPF in terms of financial resources ...... 79 Table 4.13: Opinion on how the fund can be increased and maintained ...... 81
xi LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: The Conceptual Framework developed from the literature review ...... 46 Figure 3.1Geographical location of the study area...... 50 Figure 4.1: Understanding of Terrorism ...... 70 Figure 4.2: Collaboration of the TPF with other anti-terrorist institutions ...... 77 Figure 4.3: Sources of fund for TPF ...... 80
xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AU African Union AQ Al Qaeda CIA Central Intelligence Agency CID Counter Intelligence Department CJTF-HOA Combined Joint Task Force–Horn of Africa CP Commissioner of Police EA East Africa EACTI East Africa Counters Terrorism Initiative HoA Horn of Africa IACP International Association of Chiefs of Police IGP Inspector General of Police IGAD International Authority on Development INTERPOL International Criminal Police Organization SPSS Statistical Package for Social Scientist TPF Tanzania Police Force TPFRP Tanzania Police Force reform Program TPFAR Tanzania Police force Annual Report TPTA Tanzania Preventive Terrorism Act of 2002 NCTC National Counterterrorism Center OAU Organization of African Unity PHQ Police Head Quarters UAMSHO Uamsho na Mihadhara ya Kiislam (Association of Islamic Mobilization and Propagation) UDOM University of Dodoma UK United Kingdom UN United Nation UNGC-T United Nations Global Counter Terrorism Strategy US United States URT United Republic of Tanzania
xiii CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
This chapter provides an introduction and background to the study. It gives the general information on terrorism in Tanzania with an emphasis on the current situation of the
Police Force and its efforts in addressing terrorism in Tanzania. It is followed by the problem statement, general and specific objectives, research questions; significance of the study, and finally the chapter summary.
1.2 Background of the Study
In recent decades, scientific progress and the effects of globalization have had significant impact on our daily life. However, these changes are a mixed blessing, with far reaching effects and unimagined consequences. While innovations in technology, communication, and transportation contribute to improvements in our standard of living and facilitate our day today activities, progress has also created a borderless network of highly motivated adversaries‘ terrorists who act unpredictably and with increasing levels of ferocity around the world. Consequently, terrorism has today become a major concern to all governments and poses a significant threat to our values and way of life. Because terrorist attacks are unpredictable, governments must act proactively to afford a safe and secure environment for law-abiding peace loving communities. (Lyman, 2009).
The catastrophic events of September 11, 2001 in the United States dramatically focused the attention of the world on the threat of terrorism. In fact, it launched what has been called the "global war on terrorism." This war is being fought by many agencies within governments, military and civil, as well as by private security agencies and businesses. Its impact has been felt especially by the police, who, in most countries, bear the primary
1 responsibility for maintaining public safety. The impact has been especially strong in the
United States where, as the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) observed, homeland security "towers above" all other agendas (International Association of Chiefs of Police 2005). Even countries that had organized to fight terrorism much earlier than
9/11, such as Great Britain, Germany, and Israel, raised their alert levels and reappraised their preparedness.
Africa has not been spared from terrorism. Terrorist attack in Africa did not begin on
September 11, 2001; it began in Sudan in the 1990s, where Osama bin Laden operated and where an attack against Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak was organized. Following the
1998 terrorist bombings of the U.S. embassies in Dar es Salaam and in Nairobi, Kenya,
Tanzania enacted the Terrorism Act (2002) to address terrorism and related offenses
(TLHC,2010) The Act gives power to the Tanzanian Police Force to combat terrorism in the country. During the 1998 terrorist bombing in Dar es Salaam the Police Force played a very critical role in maintaining peace and order outside the American embassy. (TLHC,
2009).
So one of the major ways of combating terrorist attacks is to enable the Police Force in all local areas of a country to take an active role in combating terrorism so that they can identify potential terrorists living or operating in their jurisdictions, help to protect vulnerable targets so that they can also coordinate the first response to terror attacks
(Clarke and Newan 2007). They can also help in the formulation of policies and rectification of any security laws which will become more adequate in combating the threat of terrorism. However most Tanzanian police officers in their various jurisdictions are still unable to fulfill these roles due to various constraints and thus causing a major problem which must be looked at, so as to combat the threat of terrorism (TPFAR, 2009).
2 Thus this study therefore attempts to understand the role of the Police Force in combating threats of terrorism using the Tanzania Police Force (TPF) as its case study.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
Terrorism is not a new phenomenon in human experience. Violence has been used throughout human history by those who chose to oppose states, kings, and princes. In recent years, terrorism and especially International terrorism has come to be a topic of growing interest for social scientists (Lyman, 2009).
Following the bombing of the US Embassy in 1998, International terrorism remains a serious issue for the United Republic of Tanzania while the threat for domestic terrorism is low The Tanzania Police Force in collaboration with the International Police (Interpol) have formed The Counter Terrorist Unit which has been mandated with the critical role of combating the threats of terrorism in Tanzania., Establishment of the Counter Terrorism
Centre. Also, the establishment of units dealing with terrorism within the army, Police
Force, Immigration, Prisons, Intelligence and Security Agency. Within these units, there is a swift exchange of intelligence information and best practices on counter terrorism.
A number of legislations have also been put into place to prevent terrorist activities in
Tanzania one of these is the Tanzania Preventive Terrorism Act 2002. This Act provides comprehensive measures of dealing with terrorism, prevention and cooperation with other states in the suppression of terrorism. Under the Act the role of the police has been clearly defined under section 28,(1) which provides that ―Any police officer may arrest without warrant any person who has committed or is committing an offence or whom he has reasonable grounds for suspecting to have committed or to be committing an offence under this Act‖. Under Sections 24, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43 and 44 of the Criminal
Procedure Act cap 20 gives the police power of entry into premises, search and seizure of
3 articles connected to an offence. Such searches and seizure can be conducted on persons, vehicles, vessels and premises. The searches and seizures can be conducted with or without a warrant or order of court depending on the seriousness and urgency of the case.
These powers which are provided by the Act are given to all police officers whether they belong to the Counter Terrorist Units or not. There is no clear demarcation between the role of an ordinary police officer and those belonging to the Counter Terrorist Unit this is a problem as the role of a police officer within the Counter Terrorist Unit are yet to be clearly defined(TPTA,2002).
O'Reilly and Ellison (2005) would argue that the police should not be involved in counter- terrorism, their precise role is unclear and indeed controversial. Some are concerned that expanding the police role in counter-terrorism will change the character of policing in democratic states while others say that the police will emphasize covert prevention of terrorism to the neglect of publicly visible policing of individual criminal victimization
(Kempa, Stenning and Wood, 2004).
The aim of this study was therefore to examine the role of the Police Force in combating threats of terrorism in Tanzania through the Tanzania Police Force. An examination of the role of the police will provide the basic understanding of how the Police Force counters and combats the threats of terrorism in Tanzania.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are divided into two categories. These are the general objective and specific objectives.
4 1.4.1 General Objective
The study aimed at examining the role of Police Force in combating threat of terrorism in
Tanzania.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
1. To provide an overview of the state of terrorism in Tanzania.
2. To examine the role of Tanzania Police Force in combating terrorism.
3. To assess effectiveness of the legal framework concerning the laws and regulations
on anti-terrorism in Tanzania.
4. To examine the existing international collaboration with TPF in combating threats
of terrorism.
5. To determine the existing capacities of TPF in term of human resources and
financial resources in combating threats of terrorism.
1.5 Research Questions
This study was guided by following questions:
1. What initiatives does TPF use to combat threats of terrorism?
2. How effective are the current anti-terrorist laws and regulations in combating
terrorism in Tanzania?
3. How does the Tanzania Police Force interact with other ant terrorist organizations
in combating threats of terrorism?
4. How has the TPF solved the problems of insufficient human resource, unskilled
police force and technical difficulties in combating threats of terrorism?
5. What are the capacities of TPF in terms of human resources in combating threats
of terrorism?
5 1.6 Significance of the Study
The study is expected to be of vital importance to the Police Force, the government and other stake holders, by providing a critical assessment of the role of the Tanzania Police
Force in combating threats of Terrorism in Tanzania.
The study would further enable the legislature to get a clear understanding of whether the currents laws on Terrorism in Tanzania are effective or not in combating the threats of terrorism in Tanzania so as to ensure that the legal framework is effective to encounter threats of terror.
The findings of the study are also expected to enrich the existing literature on the role of the Police Force in combating terrorism in developing countries such as Tanzania. It would contribute in a theoretical way in explaining how and to what extent the Police
Force is helping to prevent terrorist activities in Tanzania.
Also the study is expected to provide much needed assistance to the Ministry of Home
Affairs and its departments in the formulation of policy and ratify security laws which will be adequate in combating the threats of terrorism.
1.7 Scope of the Study
The study was conducted in Dar es Salaam city at the Tanzania Police Force Head quarters.
1.8 Chapter Scheme
This dissertation contains five chapters. This chapter presents, the background, statement of the problem, research problem, research objectives and appropriate research questions.
The significance of the study and scope of the study were outlined in this chapter.
6 Chapter two focuses on the theoretical and empirical review of the relevant literature on the role of the Police Force in combating terrorist threats in different parts of the world and Tanzania in particular. This chapter also identified the knowledge gap and developed a conceptual framework from the literature review.
Chapter Three is devoted to highlight the of research methodology used for conducting the study. It shows the research design, reseach settings, sample design and sampling procedure, type and source of data. Description of how data was collected, analyzed and presented was preceded by consideration of issues of validity reliability and ethics in this research.
Chapter Four concentrates on data presentation, analysis and discussion. It starts with description of the demographic characteristics of the study. Then it proceeds to present and discuss the findings that answered the research questions. The data presented show what the respondents had to say about the research problem.
Chapter Five presents a summary, conclusion and recommendations of the study. It is the concluding part of the dissertation where a summary of what has been observed in the field is presented. Based on the findings the chapter proposed recommendations and also indicated areas for further study.
7 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter is devoted to the review of literature in order to understand and highlight the concept and theories related to threats of terrorism and empirical studies on the role of the
Police Force in combating threats of terrorism. The literature focuses on studies on
Terrorism, the role of the Police Force in combating terrorism and finally the importance of combating terrorism through the Police Force.
2.2 Definition of Key Terms
2.2. 1. Terrorism
The word ―terror‖ was first used to describe Robespierre‘s terrorization of the royalists during the French Revolution. Since then, the term has been used to describe acts or situations that vary depending on the context and subjects applying the word. Some writers such as Kalliopi, (2001) have aptly underlined a tendency among commentators in the field to mix definitions with value judgments and either qualifies as terrorism violent activity or behaviour which they are opposed to or, conversely, reject the use of the term when it relates to activities and situations which they approve of. Hence the famous phrase
―one man‘s terrorist is another man‘s freedom fighter.
According to Articles 1(3a) ( i , ii, iii) and (3b) of the African Charter of 1996, the term
―Terrorist Act‖ means: (a) any act which is a violation of the criminal laws of a State
Party and which may endanger the life, physical integrity or freedom of, or cause serious injury or death to, any person, any number or group of persons or causes or may cause damage to public or private property, natural resources, environmental or cultural heritage
8 and is calculated or intended to: (i) intimidate, put in fear, force, coerce or induce any government, body, institution, the general public or any segment thereof, to do or abstain from doing any act, or to adopt or abandon a particular standpoint, or to act according to certain principles; or (ii) disrupt any public service, the delivery of any essential service to the public or to create a public emergency; or (iii) create general insurrection in a State.
(b) any promotion, sponsoring, contribution to, command, aid, incitement, encouragement, attempt, threat, conspiracy, organizing, or procurement of any person, with the intent to commit any act referred to in paragraph (a) (i) to (iii) (OAU Charter,1994).
The above articles failed to specifically identify what is be called terrorism or terrorist act but rather enumerate many things that cannot be termed as terrorism and provides an explanations of offences which constitutes acts of terrorism.
According to the laws of the United Kingdom terrorism is defined by Section 1 of the
Terrorism Act 2000. which states that terrorism means the use of threat or action where, the action used or threatened: involves serious violence against a person or serious damage to property endangers a person‘s life, other than that of the person committing the action creates a serious risk to the health or safety of the public or a section of the public, or is designed seriously to interfere with or seriously to disrupt an electronic system. The use of threat is designed to influence the government or an international governmental organization, or intimidate the public or a section of the public; and the use or threat is made for the purpose of advancing a political, religious, racial or ideological cause, (UK,
Terrorism Act 2000).
According to the Tanzania Preventive Terrorism Act of 2002, there is no clear definition of terrorism in the Act but rather it provides an explanation of offences which constitutes acts of terrorism. This offence can be seen in part two section four subsection 1-11 in
9 short ―No person in the United Republic and no citizen of Tanzania outside the United
Republic shall commit terrorist act and a person who does an act constituting terrorism, commits an offence, A person commits terrorist act if, with terrorist intention, does an act or omission which (a) may seriously damage a country or an international organization;
Or (b) is intended or can reasonably be regarded as having been intended to (i) seriously intimidate a population; (ii) unduly compel a Government or perform or abstain from performing any act; (iii) seriously destabilize or destroy the fundamental political, constitutional, economic or social structures of country or an international organization; or
(iv) otherwise influence such Government, or international organization; or (c) involves or causes, as the case may be- (i) attacks upon a person's life which may cause death; (ii) attacks upon the physical integrity of a person; (iii) kidnapping of a person‖(URT,
Tanzania Preventive Terrorism Act of 2002).
Bard O‘Neill (1980) in his book titled ―Insurgency‖ defines terrorism as a struggle of a weaker party against a far stronger adversary, using political resources and violence to upset the ‗illegitimate‘ political system and political authority of the stronger party.
The US Department of Defense defines terrorism as, ―the unlawful use of or threatened use of force or violence against individuals or property in order to coerce or intimidate governments or societies, often to achieve political, religious, or ideological objectives
(US Department of Defense, 1990).
Schmid and Jongman (2004) suggest that terrorism is ―a method of combat in which random or symbolic victims serve as instrumental targets of violence. These instrumental victims share group or class characteristics, which form the basis for the victimization.
Other members of that group or class are put in a chronic state of fear (terror) the purpose of which is to change attitudes or behavior favoring the interests of the user of method of combat‖.
10 The National Research Council (2002) of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education.
Washington, DC defines terrorism as consisting of acts designed to induce terror. True to the name of the phenomenon, it nevertheless includes a world of behaviors in which we are not practically interested for instance stalking and sadistic ―mind games‖.
For the purpose of this study the definitions of terrorism as given by The US Department of Defense and as contained in the Tanzania Terrorism Act of 2000 will be adopted and used as they provide detailed insights into the meaning of terrorism.
2.2.2 Threats of Terrorism
A ―threat‖ is an expression of intent to do harm (The Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2004).
Terrorism is emphasized as a modern joint threat to all states, and to the UN as a whole.
New aspects of the threat including the rise of a global terrorist network, and the potential for terrorist use of nuclear, biological or chemical weapons require new responses. Of all security threats, nuclear terrorism is the most profound (United Nations, 2004). Therefore some of the threats which the world experiences today include bombing, poisoning, hostage taking , hijackings, small arms race, ransom and blackmail, the threat of terrorism is today a daily threat to human lives in every corner of the world.
2.2.3 The Police Force
Webster (2013) The Police Force is defined as a body of trained officers entrusted by a government with maintenance of public peace and order, enforcement of laws, and prevention and detection of crime. According to Mifflin (2009) the Police Force is said to be an organized civil force established for the purpose of maintaining peace and order, preventing and detecting crime, and enforcing the laws. The police Force can thus be defined as a department of a government concerned with the maintenance of order. A A
11 A Police Force is a body employed to keep order, enforce regulations, etc. People who seek to regulate a specified behavior, activity, practice are also Police Force‖.
A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder (Walker, Samuel, 1977). Their powers include the legitimized use of force. The term is most commonly associated with police services of a state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. Police Forces are often defined as being separate from military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors; however, gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing (Walker,
Samuel,1977).
2.2.4 Anti-terrorism (Counter Terrorism)
Anti-terrorism are means of combating terrorism (Shelton, 1998). The government must ensure defensive measures to reduce the vulnerability of individuals and property to terrorist acts. There are some programs to trains civilian on security and law enforcement while encompassing the planning, resourcing, preventive measures, preparation, by proving awareness education, and training that take place before a terrorist incident
(Shelton, 1998).
2.3 A Global Overview of Terrorism
Today terrorism happens in many different parts of the world and each under different circumstances and for different reasons which could be economic, political or for religious reasons. Below are some recent terrorist incidences which have occurred in various parts of the world:
12 In Madrid on 11th March 2004, devastating terror attacks occurred, where 191 persons were killed and 1,800 wounded and in London on 7th July 2005, where 56 persons were killed and around 700 wounded. It became clear that Islamist terrorism had reached
Europe with devastating impacts. In 2010, 249 terrorist attacks were reported in nine EU member states, while 611 individuals were arrested for terrorism-related offences. The majority of these attacks were in France (84) and Spain (90). Last year (2013), Islamist terrorists carried out three attacks on EU territory (two in Sweden and one in Denmark).
Separatist groups, on the other hand, were responsible for 160 attacks, while left-wing and anarchist groups were responsible for 45 attacks. One single-issue attack was reported from Greece. Furthermore, we can see a variety of recruiting activities of Islamist networks as well as efforts in financing terrorism. The internet is currently a crucial facilitating factor for both terrorists and extremists. The EU‘s Counter-Terrorism Strategy covers four strands of work: Prevention, Protection, Pursuit and Response. After the terror attacks in Oslo and on the island of UtØya on 22 July 2011 by Anders Behring Breivik, the European Union has taken stronger actions against ―Lone Wolf Terrorism‖. In this scenario Europol plays a leading role (Roell, 2011).
Clarke and Newman (2007) are quoted as saying that the 9/11 attacks in the United States changed everything and this is certainly true for the police. It has become increasingly clear that national security agencies can no longer work alone in preventing future attacks.
They must work in partnership with other public and private agencies, most importantly with the local police. The police can identify potential terrorists living or operating in their jurisdictions, help to protect vulnerable targets and they can coordinate the first response to terror attacks. These are heavy new responsibilities that significantly expand the workload of already busy police forces. Local police cannot risk the lives of people in their community. They have been, and will be held accountable should a disaster occur. It
13 makes sense, therefore, for them to plan ahead in case of a terrorist attack, and even better sense to fold these plans into everyday police practice. But what should they actually do?
In brief, they must: (a) collect intelligence about possible terrorist activity; (b) ensure that vulnerable targets are protected; and (c) be ready to respond in the event of an attack
(Clarke and Newman 2007).
2.3.1 Terrorism in Africa
Africa has not been spared from terrorism. The war on terrorism in Africa did not begin on September 11, 2001. It began in Sudan in the 1990s, where Osama bin Laden operated and where an attack against Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak was organized. After 9/11,
U.S. focus on terrorism in Africa became much more pronounced. For the first time since
1993, the United States deployed a sizeable contingent of American troops on the continent, with the establishment in late 2002 of the Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of
Africa (CJTF-HOA) in Djibouti. In addition, President Bush announced a $100 million counter-terrorism initiative for East Africa and the Horn in 2003. At the same time, the
U.S. European Command (EUCOM) spear headed a series of training and military support operations in the Sahel, aimed at the Algeria-based GLPF; the program later blossomed into the much larger Trans-Sahara Counter Terrorism Initiative that now involves both
North African and Sahelian states (Lyman, 2009).
2.3.2 Terrorism in East Africa
East Africa (EA) is the most vulnerable to terrorism of all regions in Sub-Saharan Africa
(Bashir, A.H., 2007). Nearly all countries in East Africa have been victims of terrorist acts. These acts have either been carried out by and against a country‘s nationals for a domestic cause or they have focused on ―extra-national‟ or ―extra-regional‟ targets, such as western targets located in the region (Rosand, Millar and Ipe, 2009). Examples include:
14 the 1980 terrorist attacks on the Norfolk Hotel in Kenya, the August 1998 simultaneous attacks on the US embassies in Nairobi, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; the November 2002 simultaneous attacks in Mombasa, Kenya, another at Paradise Hotel and on an Israel- bound aircraft at take-off from the Mombasa International Airport, Kenya; the July 2010 attacks during the World Cup finals in Kampala, Uganda and the December 2010 bombing of a Kampala-bound bus in Nairobi. Local communities in the region have borne the burden of the loss of life and property as well as other economic damage from these attacks.
According to Lauren Ploch ( 2010) in East Africa terrorist activities started ―In 1998, when Al Qaeda (AQ) conducted its first U.S documented terrorist attacks against U.S. interests, killing 224 people, including 12 Americans, and injuring over 4,500 in the bombings of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. Al Qaeda and related groups have executed subsequent terrorist attacks in East Africa, including the first known attack by an American suicide bomber in Somalia in October 2008. On July 11, 2010, 76 people, including one American, were killed in near simultaneous bombings in Kampala, Uganda.
Al-Shabaab, a Somali Islamist uprising group with ties to Al Qaeda, claimed responsibility, marking the group‘s first successful attack outside Somali territory. Al
Shabaab has threatened attacks in Uganda and Burundi, which have deployed troops to the
African Union (AU) peace keeping mission in Somalia (AMISOM), and has threatened other countries and western targets in East Africa (Lauren Ploch, 2010).
2.3.3 Causes of Terrorism in East Africa
The East African region is vulnerable to terrorism because countries in the region experience: conflicts, weak governance, collapsed state institutions; porous borders the allowing extensive and uncontrolled movement of people and illegal weapons; increased extremist religious ideology and radicalization of vulnerable groups. These factors
15 generally coincide with poor socio-economic conditions and create fertile ground for the existence of terrorism.
2.3.3.1. Conflicts, Weak Governance and Statelessness
East Africa has experienced severe civil and inter-state conflicts, which coupled with weak governance and statelessness (in the case of Somalia) have led to instability, poverty, and political isolation. These factors contribute towards the regions vulnerability to terrorist exploitation. Ethiopia, for instance, has been simultaneously at war with several rebel groups (McGregor, 2007) and against Eritrea.
In northern Uganda, insurgent groups especially the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) and the Alliance of Democratic Forces (ADF), which fight against the Ugandan government have employed brutal and terrorist tactics that have reportedly caused the deaths of over
5,000 people across the country (International Crisis Group, 2007), which in turn has helped to increase public tolerance of measures against others under suspicion.
2.3.3.2. Porous Borders: Free movement people and illegal weapons
Porous borders represent a major challenge to ensuring security and stability for national governments in East Africa. The presence of the state security apparatus is marginal in many border areas, which reflects a general inability of the governments to enforce order within each country‘s territorial boundary (Rosand, Millar and Ipe, 2009). This allows for free movement of people and illicit trade across borders. This is particularly true in the case of the Kenya Somalia border, which has not only allowed the movement of refugees fleeing the conflict in Somalia but also allows movement of terrorist and easy flow of illegal weapons.
16 2.3.3.3. Radical Islam in the Horn of Africa (HOA)
The growth of Islamic extremism in E.A appears to be linked to the poor socio-economic conditions of countries in the region where Islamist groups, deliberately leveraging socio- economic grievances, penetrate EA societies (Rosand, Millar and Ipe, 2009, p.11). The use of humanitarian and development relief, social services, education, training and health care by Islamist groups on one hand aim at improving living standards of Muslims in the
HOA. However, on the other hand some of these activities are linked to the proliferation of extremism in the region (Colonel Gabre Egzaiabgher Alemseed, 2011).
2.3.4 Terrorism in Tanzania
In Tanzania, predominantly terrorism activities were first acknowledged 1998, when the famous terrorist group known as Al-Qaeda on November 1998 bombed the United States embassy located in Osterbay Dar es Salaam Tanzania killing 12 people, and another 35 injured, in the bombings of the U.S. embassies in Tanzania (Shinn, 2004).
According to Shinn, (2004), like any other state, Tanzania has responsibility to protect its people and their property. That seems to be the major justification for enacting the
Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 to provide security for the people and their property.
That justification cannot be faulted, and indeed the effort to ensure such security should be intensified. For, although it is true that apart from the 1998 incident, Tanzania has not experienced acts of terrorism, Tanzania should not relax because terrorism is real and it knows no boundaries. In this respect it may be noted that Tanzania is in the process of establishing a National Centre for Terrorism that will be responsible for coordinating the country‘s efforts in fighting acts of terrorism nationally and internationally. However in undertaking such measure, Tanzania, as a member of the United Nations, has the responsibility to promote and protect human rights and the rule of law. The commission for Human Rights and Good Governance has, as part of its mandate, the duty to advise the
17 Government on human rights aspects of the existing or intended legislation. The commission has already set into motion a process for advising the Government accordingly in relation to this law (Shinn, 2004).
Terrorism in Tanzania remains a credible threat. Major terrorist attacks have occurred in the past and threats against western interests occur periodically. In 2013, two separate blasts in the northern city of Arusha gave rise to fears of home-grown political and sectarian terror cells. In addition, the large Somali diaspora in Tanzania has led to concerns that the Somalia-based al-Shabaab Islamist sect may have infiltrated the country.
Al Shabaab took credit for the 2010 Kampala, Uganda coordinated suicide bombings that left 74 people dead, and the attack was linked to a cell operating in Tanzania. Mohamed
Mohamed, a Kenyan national, was charged with coordinating the attack from Tanzania, and was subsequently extradited to Uganda to stand trial (Country Risk Report 2013).
Incidents of terrorist activities in Tanzania between 2011 – 2015 include:
DATE EVENT November 2011 Tanzanian government issues a warning of potential al Shabab attacks after 10 Tanzanian nationals were arrested on the Kenya-Somalia border attempting to join Al Shabab. June 2012 Arrest of Emrah Erdogan, a German national who had joined al Shabab, at Dar es Salaam airport. October 2012 Tanzanian policeman is hacked to death with machetes in Zanzibar by a group of suspected terrorists November 2012 Acid attack on a moderate, anti-UAMSHO Muslim imam in Zanzibar. December 2012: Shooting and killing of a Catholic priest in Zanzibar. February 2013: Inter-faith rioting in Mwanza area related to Muslim protests against Christian butchery practices leads to beheading of a local priest.
18 May 2013: Hand grenade attack at St. Joseph‘s Church in Arusha, killing 3 and wounding 63, during a celebration by the Vatican nuncio. May 2013: Burning of a Christian church in Tanga region. May 2013: Arrest of five men in Dar es Salaam in possession of explosives and improvised explosive device–related materials. July 2013: Arrest of British terrorism suspect, Hassan Ali Iqbal, in Kyele, Mbeya region, as he tried to cross into Malawi August 2013: Acid attack on two young British women in Zanzibar‘s Stone Town August 2013: Homemade petrol bomb attack on a Christian church in Dar es Salaam September 2013: Acid attack on a Catholic priest in Zanzibar‘s Stone Town. September 2013: Attempted hand grenade attack at shopping area in Zanzibar‘s Stone Town. September 2013 Killing of an elderly priest in Zanzibar‘s Stone Town. October 2013: Arrest of 13 suspected al Shabab–linked militants at a military-style training camp at Makolionga Mountain in Mtwara region October 2013: Arrest by Kenyan military forces of three Tanzanians traveling to Somalia to join Al Shabab. October 2013: Arrest of Tanzanian businessman Juma Abdallah Kheri for financing terrorism in Kenya and Tanzania. November 2013: Arrest of 69 people running an ―Al Shabab child indoctrination camp‖ for over 50 4–13 year olds in Tanga. January 2014: Explosives attack at New Year‘s Eve celebration at Christian church in Arusha. February 2014: Three IED attacks in Zanzibar targeting two
19 Christian churches and a restaurant popular with tourists. February 2014: Acid attack on moderate Muslim preacher and his son in Arusha April 2014: Bombing of a crowded bar popular with tourists in Arusha, injuring 15 people. June 2014 : Explosives attack on a mosque in Zanzibar‘s Stone Town, killing one and wounding four people, potentially linked to Islamists‘ intent to attack an anti–al Shabab cleric. July 2014: Explosives attack on the private house in Arusha where moderate clerics were gathered. July 2014: Explosives attack on an Indian restaurant in Arusha popular with tourists and local residents. September, 2014 Two blasts first a hand grenade was thrown into a residential house in Mahengo reas seriously injure two people who were having pre fast Ramadhan Meal. In the second attack by an improvised explosive device, eight people were injures at an Asian restaurant near Gymkana grounds April,2015 Rumours that Somalia-based Al-Shaabab terrorists would strike Dar es Salaam, Mwanza, Arusha and Mbeya Sourced from local and international media sources, including BBC News and Sabahi.com, 2011-2015
2.4 Global Anti terrorism Initiative.
Global and African concerns about terrorism have obviously intensified since the 9/11 attacks, but they have existed for several years. The UN adopting resolution 3034 in
1972.the resolution outlined measures to prevent international terrorism as well as to study and identify the underlying causes of international terrorism. The resolution also ratified
20 the establishment of an Ad Hoc committee on international terrorism within the United
Nation (UN, 1972).
In 2004, resolution 58/187, regarding the protection of Human Rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism. Also in 2001 UN Security Council adopted resolution 1373. This resolution needs all member state to work together in a global campaign to end all forms of international terrorism (UN 2001).
As far back as 1992, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) adopted a resolution aimed at enhancing cooperation and coordination between member states in order to fight the occurrence of extremism (Colliers & Sturman 2002:1). The OAU and subsequently the
AU, have developed several legal instruments to counter terrorism since the 1998 U.S embassy bombings in Nairobi Kenya and Dar es Salaam Tanzania including the OAU conventions on prevention and combating of terrorism of 1999. (OAU, 1999), the 2002 protocol to the OAU convention on the prevention and combating of terrorism and the
2002 plan of action of the AU high level inter-Governmental meeting on the prevention and combating of terrorism in Africa (AU 2002).
2.4.1 Anti terrorist Initiatives in East Africa
East Africa counter terrorism initiative (EACTI) of 2003 has assisted numerous states in the Horn of Africa to strengthen their counter terrorism capacities; it include programs to strengthen control of movement of people and goods across borders; military training to increase coastal security around the Horn of Africa; measure to increase aviation security (
(Black,2004).
21 2.4.1.1 The role of International and Regional Bodies
International actors such as the United Nations, the European Union, the United States and regional actors such as the African Union and Intergovernmental Authority on
Development have comparative advantages in contributing towards counter-terrorism in
East Africa (Chalk, P. 2007), these international actors have at their disposal knowledge and expertise of local issues that makes them well suited to develop approaches that take into account cultural and other contextual issues and undertake region or sub-region-specific initiatives that complement and build upon global counterterrorism objectives; increasing a sense of local ownership of global initiatives; and fostering interest and maintaining momentum on the ground that is key in implementing counter terrorism initiatives.
International actors can facilitate the exchange of expertise and information among governmental and non-governmental experts, as well as the sharing of good national practices and lessons learned from national implementation among the countries of the region.
This section focuses on the activities of the Inter-governmental Authority on Development
(IGAD), the UN, the US and the EU. (Chalk, P. 2007), in tackling terrorism
2.4.1.2 The African Union (AU)
The AU plays an important role in the HOA especially in relation the areas of peacekeeping, conflict prevention and crisis management. In the context of counter terrorism, these three dimensions of AU engagement are important given EAs persistent regional tensions and conflicts which allow terrorist activities to flourish. The AU has taken a broad approach based on a framework of treaties aimed at countering terrorism. It is unfortunate that a large number of AU member states have not yet endorsed OAU convention of 1999, and the AU Plan of Action (2004) has not been ratified by some/any
22 AU member state(s) and many others are yet to implement to be implemented (Rosand,
E., Millar, A., Ipe, 2008, p.92). Only thirty seven fifty-three AU member states have ratified the OAU convention of 1999, and the AU Plan of Action (2004) has not been ratified by some AU member state(s).
Although there are many other priorities to be addressed in the African Unions Peace and
Security Council (PSC), there are also different levels of the terrorist threat perceptions within the member states of the AU. An added challenge is that the Aus CT resources are scarce thereby reducing its ability to actively fully realize its CT policy. In 2004 the AU established the African Centre for Study and Research of Terrorism (ACSRT) to specialize on matters relating to terrorism and implementation of the AU counterterrorism programs (Chalk, P. 2007).
2.4.1.3 Intergovernmental Authority on Development
Initially after its formation, the initial focus of IGAD was on development issues yet over time the organization gradually took on security matters, as evolution that highlights the importance of the development-security nexus in the HOA region (Rosand, E., Millar, A.,
Ipe, 2008). In 2006, IGAD launched a four-year programme in Addis Ababa called the
IGAD Capacity Building Program Against Terrorism (ICPAT), funded by EU and other donors (Colonel Gabre Egzaiabgher Alemseed, 2011). This programme has largely focused on issues regarding capacity and confidence-building in the IGAD region and it also works closely with partners at the regional and global level. It targets five areas :(a) enhancing judicial measures; (b) working to promote greater inter-agency coordination on counterterrorism within individual IGAD member states; (c) enhancing border control; (d) providing training, sharing information and best practices; and (e) promoting strategic cooperation. (Chalk, P. 2007).
23 2.4.1.4 The U.S. Counterterrorism Programs in the HOA
The U.S. military presence in the HOA with headquarters in Djibouti is known as the
Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA). The CJTF-HOA is a component of the wider U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM), which was established in October, 2008.
CJTF-HOA operations encompass Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, Somalia, Djibouti,
Yemen, and the Seychelles and it also works on projects in Uganda and Tanzania. (Chalk,
P. 2007)
The main strategic objectives of the CJTF-HOA are (a) to foster a regional perspective on security problems, (b) build littoral capabilities, and (c) support the AU and UN peacekeeping operations. For example, the CJTF-HOA took part in the logistical organization of transport and support Ugandan troops in the AU peacekeeping force, which were deployed to Mogadishu after the collapse of the Islamic Courts Union there
(US Official, 2011). The CJTF-HOA has worked with other external powers especially the
UK to provide counter terrorism training in Yemen as well as build its Coast Guard. It has also provided military training to Ethiopia, Uganda, and Djibouti; and trained the navies of Kenya and Djibouti. . (Chalk, P. 2007),
2.4.1 5 The United Nations and Counterterrorism in the HOA
The UN General Assembly unanimously adopted the UN Global Counter-Terrorism
Strategy (UNGC-T Strategy) on 8th September 2006, which calls for a holistic, inclusive approach to counter terrorism. Both the UNGC-T Strategy and the 2008 Resolution adopted by the General Assembly recognize the need to enhance the role of regional and sub-regional organizations (SROs) as well as other stakeholders especially the UN member states. This included the establishment of the UN Counter-Terrorism
Implementation Task Force (UNC-T Task Force) and its working groups. The UN Global
Counter terrorism Strategy marked the first time that all UN member states agreed on a
24 common framework for addressing the terrorist threat. It presents a unique opportunity to improve both regional counterterrorism cooperation in EA and the UN systems engagement with the sub-region. (Chalk, P. 2007).
2.4.2.6 The European Union and Counterterrorism in HOA
The EU has adopted a very broad approach to cooperation with Africa. Most EU diplomatic and policy interventions in Africa are undertaken within the framework of
Cotonou Partnership Agreement and the Africa-EU Strategic Partnership Agreement
(2007). Both call for cooperation in various areas, including politics, development and security. Under these treaties parties commit themselves ―to the implementation of UN
Security Council Resolutions 1325 on Women in Peace and Security and 1612 on
Children in Armed Conflicts‖ (Africa-EU Strategic Partnership , 2007, paragraph 22).
Both the EU and the AU have an interest in undertaking measures to protect children in wars, empower women, and offer protection to women in situations of war and conflict.
2.4.3 Anti terrorism initiatives in Tanzania.
Tanzania has established the National Counterterrorism Centre:- An interagency entity that specifically deal with Counter Terrorism Coordination and Cooperation; Established the Financial Intelligence Unit:- An important tool for fighting terrorism financing;
Enhanced Capacity Building for organs responsible with security affairs; Enhanced the international and regional cooperation on Criminal and Security matters; Established
Poverty alleviation programs that are geared to address conditions conducive to terrorism; and Increased observation and adherence to Human Rights and Rule of Law (URT 2012).
Legislatively, Tanzania has; enacted the Prevention of Terrorism Act; enacted the Anti-
Money Laundering Act; and Ratified the relevant United Nations and Regional
Resolutions and Protocols for example the Ratification of United Nations Security
25 Council‘s Resolution 1373, which led to the enactment of Prevention of Terrorism Act
(URT 2012). But the effect of the act has not well known or makes any change on terrorism incident being reduced, this is because the act itself fail to explain what is terrorism and what makes terrorism and what things if a person done are to be considered as terrorism offence.
2. 5. Theoretical Framework of the Study
This study applied Orthodox Terrorism Theory by Jason Franks (2005): A Discourse for
Understanding Terrorism. The decision of using this theory is to understand that, theories are vital in stating research problems and also in choosing the right methodologies that helps in carrying the empirical study and also provides a brief review of theories that are commonly used in understanding Terrorism.
2.5.1 Orthodox Terrorism Theory
According to Jason Franks (2005) Orthodox terrorism theory is based on a number of common themes that reoccur throughout terrorism literature. These can be grouped into three areas, functional, symbolic and tactical. (Bowyer Bell J 1978) By using each of these types as a guide it is possible to expound the orthodox theory of terrorism. Functional relates to the orthodox belief that terrorism is intended to ―provoke a response to further the cause by strategic manipulation. Bowyer Bell J 1978) this is a central concept and suggests that the aim of the act of terrorism is to force a reaction, hopefully an over- reaction by the established power centre, governing authority or state against the instigators, their supporters and even the population in general. Rubenstein calls this
―heroic terrorism‖ and suggests that the aim is to ―provoke intense indiscriminate state repression in order to deprive the government of legitimacy and radicalize the masses.
(Rubenstein R E, 1987) Therefore the relevance of the theory to this study lies in its
26 ability to explain and provide an understanding on the how terrorist can operate their operations and how to deal with and the role of police force in terms of investigation arrest prosecution and detention of suspect.
A second theme of orthodox terrorism theory is symbolic. This is arguably the basis of orthodox terrorism theory, which according to Hoffman (1960) has its origins in the earliest forms of nineteenth century terrorism and is encapsulated in Carlo Pisacane‘s
―theory of propaganda by deed.‖ Orthodox terrorism theory uses this concept of symbolism to explain an act of terrorist violence as being highly symbolic and an attempt to terrorize, intimidate and strike fear into the those against whom the violence is directed,
(even if they are not the actual physical recipients of the violence). Obviously the actual targets of the act and the wider audience who witness it are directly affected by it. The orthodox explanation of the symbolic value of terrorism is as ―coercive intimidation‖ or
―pure terrorism‖ which is ―the systematic use of murder and destruction or the threat of, to terrorize individuals, groups, communities and governments into conceding to terrorists demands. In the writing of Sun Tzu, orthodox terrorism theory suggests the aim of terrorist violence is to ―kill one and frighten ten thousand (Sun Tzu 1963).
The third component of orthodox terrorism theory is tactical. This can be understood in two ways, first as a limited means to achieve short-term gain, such as the exchange of hijack hostages for prisoners or a bank robbery to fund arms procurement. This was a common understanding employed during the hijacks in the 1970s by Palestinian groups.
The second is as a tactical part of a long term strategic initiative; this has its roots in the theories of revolution and guerrilla warfare. (Chaliand G 1987) by proponents such as
Mao Tse-Tung and Carlos Marighela. They suggested that acts of terrorism should be part of the wider struggle for revolution or an initial stage preceding popular revolt. Schmid and Jongman define this phenomenon as ―the insurgency context of terrorism. Orthodox
27 terrorism theory is employed to understand acts of terrorist violence and is based upon the assumptions. It is interesting to note however that by adopting this terrorism theory, assumptions are made about the nature of the terrorist actor. (Chalianda. G. 1987).
Laqueur (2001) calls orthodox terrorism theory as ―the terrorist theory of provocation‖ and suggests that it is intended to produce (State) repression, draconian measures and thus ultimately undermine the ‗liberal‘ façade. (Laquer. W, 2001) Alongside this it attempts to demonstrate the unsuitability of the incumbent authority to govern and by exposing its
‗true‘ nature, orthodox terrorism theory suggests that the terrorists endeavor to wrest legitimacy from the state and bestow it upon their own cause. The intention of terrorists is to undermine the security of the population by demonstrating that the state is unable to provide adequate protection and therefore force them to turn to alternative sources such as the instigators of the terrorist violence to negotiate a settlement or provide alternative governance.
Commenting on the theory, some terrorism theorists like Martha Crenshaw, Brian Jenkins,
Walter Laqueur, David Rapoport, Grant Wardlaw, Paul Wilkinson and Bruce Hoffman, argue that the symbolic nature of terrorism theory allows an act of terrorism to be categorized into domestic or international depending where it occurred (Sun Tzu 1963).
Both the psychology of fear and the role of publicity contained in the symbolic nature of orthodox terrorism theory demonstrate quite graphically the significance of the role of media in propagating the psychological implications of the terrorist message to an even wider audience (Alexander and, Latter 1990). This understanding for example, is used by the Israeli State to explain the reason for a Hamas suicide attack on a school bus.
Orthodox terrorism theory is based on normative definitions that incorporate the above components and thus help to provide an understanding, especially for governments and
28 agencies involved in dealing with terrorism. Orthodox terrorism theory though is a dialogue; it does not automatically represent the ‗truth‘ about terrorism but exists to provide an explanation of the violence. The definitions and the theory of orthodox terrorism discourse whilst comprehensively explaining how terrorism works and what it is intended to achieve, does little to explain why it occurs. This is because investigation into why terrorism occurs could potentially result in the legitimization of the terrorist group and the de-legitimization of the state. Orthodox terrorism theory has a particular and important purpose. It is a discourse employed by the state to tackle terrorism without undermining its legitimacy. Terrorism however is an endemic problem worldwide and despite the continued use of orthodox terrorism theory terrorism remains so
(Franks,2005). The relevance of the theory in this study is that it helps The Police force as an organization to know the function tactical and symbolic nature of terrorism and internal dynamics of the organization and challenges that faced them to carry out their role.
2.6 Empirical Literature Review
This section is a presentation and analysis of what has been written or published as a result of studies carried out on various aspects of the police force focusing on the role of the police force in combating terrorism.
2.6.1 The Police Force and Counter Terrorism
The police, largely through their Special Branch officers and the Anti-Terrorist Branch, are responsible for pursuing counterterrorism investigations by collecting evidence for introduction into any legal proceedings (Masse 2003). The responsibility for counter terrorism clandestine intelligence collection and disruption is distributed domestically in four ways: (1) to a national agency specializing in counter terrorism, (2) to one or more
29 national police services, and (3) to all police agencies at any governmental level. These modes of organization are not exclusive but may coexist in the same country.
All democratic countries have created agencies which specialize in collecting domestic intelligence about potentially violent subversion - Australia (ASIO), France (DST), Israel
(Shin Bet), Japan (PSIA), the United States (FBI). At the same time, they vary in their powers to take preventive action. Some do intelligence gathering only, such as the
Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS), Israel's Shin Bet, and Britain's MI5. They would not, then, fit common definitions of a police organization, which involves the application of constraint to individuals, as in arresting (Sidel 2004)
Skolnick (2005), notes that some national counter terrorism agencies do have full police powers and can detain, arrest, and submit for prosecution - India's Central Bureau of
Investigation (CBI), Italy's Intelligence and Democratic Security Service (SISDE), Japan's
Public Security Investigation Agency (PSIA), Spain's National Intelligence Center (CNI),
Sweden's National Security Service (SAPO). For this reason, they should be regarded as police forces that specialize in counter-espionage. As is the case with foreign intelligence, domestic intelligence gathering is often supplemented by non-police agencies. These agencies tend, for the most part, to be associated with defense establishments all national, that is, centralized, police services engage in counterterrorism with the exception of
Sweden. Counter terrorism in Sweden is the exclusive responsibility of the National
Security Service (Sakerhetspolisen - SAPO). In other words, with one exception, centralized agencies of national government created expressly to be police, in the sense of being responsible for enforcing the law, also engage in counterterrorism. Their activities may be supplemented by specialized militarized counterterrorism "strike forces," such as the UK's Security Air Service (SAS), America's Delta Force, Canada's Task Force 2,
France's Groupe d"intervention de Gendarmerie Nationale (GIGN), Germany's
30 Grenzschutzgruppe 9 (GSG-9), and Spain's Grupo Especial deOperaciones (CEO).
(Skolnick 2005).
All countries that authorize the creation of police at sub-national, decentralized levels require them to undertake counterterrorism operations. Indeed, all sub-national counterterrorism is carried out by police. There are no cases of agencies specializing in counterterrorism at sub-national levels. Thus, the police in most systems have counterterrorism responsibilities. The police in centralized systems may also delegate counterterrorism functions to subordinate levels of command for reasons of operational effectiveness. This occurs, for example, in France, Japan, and Israel. The UK is a special case. It doesn't have a federal system of government, nor does it have a national police force, but all of its 43 police forces have a dedicated intelligence capability (Special
Branch) and, since 2004, a "Counter Terrorist Security Advisor." (Skolnick, 2005).
In sum, police in all democratic countries, centralized and non-centralized, are authorized to engage in high as well as low policing. The extent to which they actually do so varies widely, when the police are engaging in their daily activities they usually practice two types of policing and they are high policing and low policing.
2.6.1.1 High Policing and Low Policing
High policing has two distinguishing features its substantive focus and its methods. High policing targets what might be called macro-crimes, that is, crimes that are considered threats to society in general, such as drug trafficking and an illegal immigration, as opposed to micro-crimes that affect only individuals (Bayley, 2006). In high policing, prevention is the key objective, utilizing the tactics of covert intelligence gathering, surveillance, and disruption. "Low-policing," by contrast, emphasizes prevention through visible patrolling and deterrence through the application of criminal law. High policing
31 differs sharply from the standard practices of normal or "low" policing because it is less transparent, less accountable, and less careful with respect to human rights (Crelistene,
1998; Loader 2002; Sidel 2004; Thacher 2005; Wilkinson 2001). In general, high policing encourages a top-down command structure and changes the orientation of police from servicing to controlling the population. At the same time, other people argue that full- service or general-duties policing should play a large role in counterterrorism, indeed, that it has unique advantages in a war on terror that should be exploited (Henry 2002). For example, general-duties policing provides unprecedented access to communities. Properly focused, it can obtain information about activities that are the precursors of terrorism.(
Kelling 2004)
Furthermore, by being responsive to the mundane concerns of individuals, it raises the likelihood that the public will assist the police by providing information or accepting direction in the event of disasters. More particularly, routine policing can build bridges to communities that may shelter or give rise to terrorists. In short, the activities of low policing are not a distraction from counterterrorism but an essential "force multiplier."
(Innes 2006).
2.6.2 Tanzania Police Force: An Overview
The Tanzania Police Force (TFP) is a product of its political history. ―Police in Tanzania have been a government tool since the 1880‘s and the days of German East Africa, when locals were recruited into the German military to suppress internal dissent and protected
Tanganyika borders. Police and politics have remained linked as Tanzania‘s recent history has unfolded. The German‘s were replaced by the British who formulized the police role as a protector of the ruling regime culturally and legislatively. Following independence and the unification of the mainland Tanganyika and the islands of Zanzibar (including
32 Unguja and Pemba) the government removed any vestiges of police independence by incorporating the force into the machinery of its one party state (Singli, 2006).
After independence did see one major change, however there was a shift in senior ranks as foreign officers were replaced with Africans. But still the forces were to play an important role in the enforcement of the law. The British left behind police well versed in the tactics of regime policing and well practiced at keeping the ruling part in power. The British also left behind a set of laws that stitched regime policing into legislative fabric. These laws are still largely in force today (Singli, 2006).
The Tanzania police force is a union establishment and has mandate throughout Tanzania with its origin in the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania 1977. The police force has been established Under the Police Force and Auxiliary Service Act of 1967. The
Act also provides for the role of the police in preservation of peace, maintenance of law and order, the prevention and detection of crime, the apprehension and guarding of offenders and the protection of property in Tanzania (URT, 2010).The Police Force in
Tanzania has its headquarters in Dar es Salaam which is the economic capital city of
Tanzania. The Police Force in Tanzania was established during colonial rule and after the
Unification of Tanganyika and Zanzibar it was legalized by parliament under the Police
Force and Auxiliary Service Ordinance of 1967
2.7 Structure and Functions of the Police Force in Tanzania
The Tanzania Police Force is a national police force. The functions of the Police Force are stated thus in the Police Force Ordinance.―The Force shall be employed in and throughout the United Republic for the preservation of peace, the maintenance of law and order, the prevention and detection of crime, the apprehension and guarding of offenders and the protection of property, and for the performance of all such duties shall be entitled to carry arms.‖ (S.5 of the Police Force Ordinance Cap.322).
33
Singli,( 2006) provides that the Inspector General of Police has overall command and superintendence of the Tanzania police force subject to general directions of the Minister for Home Affairs. In the administration of the police force the Inspector General is assisted by four Commissioners, heading the departments of: Administration and Finance,
Operations and Training, Criminal Investigation and the fourth commanding the Police force deployed in Zanzibar. For administrative purposes Tanzania is divided into twenty five regions: twenty on Mainland Tanzania and five in Zanzibar. A Regional Police
Commander is appointed by the Inspector General to command the Police Officers deployed in each region. In turn each region is divided into a number of districts and an officer is appointed by the Inspector General to command each district for which responsibility he/she is answerable to the Regional Police Commander. Though
Administrative districts do not always coincide with police operational districts particularly in large urban areas like the commercial capital of Dar es Salaam, Suffice to note that there are 123 Administrative districts countrywide with 113 on Mainland
Tanzania and 10 in Zanzibar. Districts have a number of police stations each under their command and an officer of appropriate rank is appointed to command each police station.
In urban areas as well as some police stations with extensive jurisdictional areas, police posts, which serve as initial reporting and crime is processing centers have been established. Police posts usually have a strength of a few police officers under the command of an Inspector or a senior NCO, depending on size, location and frequency of crime in the area (Singli,, 2006).
2.8 Police Initiatives in Combating Terrorism in Tanzania
The establishment of an anti-terrorism unit and highway patrol to reduce the problem
(TPFAR 2009) and the established of the Financial Intelligence Unit as an important tool
34 for fighting terrorism financing (URT, 2012). The Police in Zanzibar are also holding 15 people in connection with an acid attack on a Catholic Church priest in 2013, The attackers were suspected to have links with the terrorist group, Al-Shabaab, and whether they have actually taken part in combat missions with the terrorist group in some countries.Zanzibar Police Commissioner Mussa Ali Mussa told reporters that some of the suspects were found with diluted and undiluted acid, this is the act of terrorism and to have this kind of materials is not allowed according to Tanzania preventive terrorism act of 2002. The crackdown that facilitated the capture of the suspects started in earnest on
Saturday, a day after Fr Anselm Mwang‘amba, a priest at Catholic Church Machui parish, was splashed with the corrosive chemical. The suspects are still being interrogated and the police have asked all those who have more information to implicate the suspects to come forward. An investigation on the acid attack on two British girls is in final stages. (BBC
NEWS AFRICA, September 2013) and (the citizen news 18 December 2013).
Community Policing Cluster was one of the most important initiatives that were intended to make the police force to move with times consistent with what is happening worldwide.
Activities undertaken to achieve the outputs pertained to adoption of the Community
Policing philosophy that entails establishment of community policing initiatives like
Neighbourhood Watch Security Groups, Safiri Salama, Youth Groups and Rafiki Clubs;
Police Kata/Shehia program. The public is now more willing to work together with the police in fighting crime than was the case before as evidenced by the willingness of the members of the public to report crime and provide material support (TPFRP, 2009).
Another important initiative that were planned to make the police force to move with times reliable with what is happening worldwide are the ―establishment of task forces to deal with organized crime, strengthening the capacity of the Forensic Bureau as well as the Criminal Intelligence Unit‖ (TPFRP, 2009).
35
The above activities have led to strengthening of Police - Private Partnership Programs as well as other government institutions, It has also improved flow of information relating to crime from the general public, increased moral and material support from the community as well as enhanced capability of the police in solving crime (TPFRP, 2009).
According to Tanzania's inter-agency, National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC), the
June arrest of al-Qaeda (AQ) and al-Shabaab associate, Emrah Erdogan, in Dar es Salaam suggests that the organizations have elements and plans within the country's borders. The
NCTC sees itself as a means of preventing terrorist attacks rather than responding to them.
In September and October, intermittent political unrest in Zanzibar, combined with mounting religious tensions on the mainland, created an environment in which the NCTC was on heightened alert watching for potential terrorist attacks. These developments resulted in demonstrations, rioting, and the destruction of property on a localized scale, but the NCTC did not consider any of these actions terrorism-related. The NCTC has identified the most historically radicalized areas of the country, and the police are therefore planning to install counterterrorism police units in these regions in order to better track and respond to violent extremism. The NCTC continued to work with local police to engage community elders and religious leaders in these regions to encourage dialogue as a means of addressing grievances rather than violence (Lyman 2009).
The Tanzania Police Force has proven to be working closely with the local education institutions for instance in an incident Published on Monday, 13 April 2015 written by
Ludovick Kazoka in the Guardian states that the University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) has allayed fears over terrorist attacks at its Mwalimu JK Nyerere Mlimani Campus following messages circulating on social networks and cell phones alleging that the campus was likely to be attacked. The UDSM Vice-Chancellor, Prof Rwekaza Mukandala
36 told the newspaper that the University has beefed up security at the main campus, saying its auxiliary police were cooperating with officers from Dar es Salaam Special Zone
Police to monitor the situation.
2.9 Importance of Using the Police in Countering Terrorism
It is obvious that full-service police agencies can make essential contributions to the war on terrorism in terms of preparedness planning, threat analysis of critical infrastructure, target protection, first-responding, order maintenance, and post-event criminal investigation. Although not all frontline police agencies can do all of these things unassisted, their expertise and resources must be used. They are the first line of defense with respect to these tasks. (Kelling and Bratton 2006).
Low policing can contribute to high policing in six distinct and important ways. (1)
Uniformed police have more opportunities to observe activities that may be associated with terrorism than specialists, especially specialists not deployed routinely in local areas.
In the United States, for example, there are approximately 708,022 full-time sworn police officers compared with 11,633 FBI Special Agents only about 2,200 of whom work directly on terrorism (Maguire and King 2006). In order to utilize these additional eyes and ears helpfully in the war on terrorism, police officers need to be trained to recognize likely terrorists or precursor terrorist activities (Howard 2004; Posen 2001).
The police usually have access to information within communities that cannot be obtained by more remote, specialized intelligence agents (Loyka. 2005). For example, they have more detailed knowledge of facilities that provide resources to terrorists, such as flight- training schools, explosives manufacturers, and providers of nitrogenous fertilizers (Rees
2006). Even more important, their routine activities put them in a position to observe activism among radical groups, the distribution of inflammatory literature, the movements
37 of radical leaders, and people acting suspiciously near critical infrastructure (Davies and
Plotkin 2005). Finally, criminal investigation into ordinary crimes, such as stolen vehicle or identify theft, may lead to terrorist networks (Herzog 2003).
The local police are especially useful in cultivating informative relations with marginalized communities that may harbor, often unwittingly, potential terrorists (Lyons
2002). Because the usefulness of the police contacts depends on the trust they have engendered with local populations, their access is likely to be greater with relatively well- to-do communities than with others. This can be a serious handicap for counterterrorism intelligence-gathering. The implication, however, is not that local police shouldn't try, but that the "soft" strategies associated with community policing may play a critical, even unique, role in terrorism prevention, especially in disadvantaged communities. (Lyons
2002).
Analysis of ordinary crime patterns may reveal activities associated with terrorism, such as the theft of explosives, biological cultures, or protective clothing; the fraudulent use of personal identification; trafficking in drugs and people; and money-laundering (O'Hanlon
2005; Loyka 2005) In Israel, for example, the police often work with the Military Police in investigating thefts of army equipment in part because of possible links to terrorism
(Yamin-Volbowitz 2007). As George Kelling (2004) observes, once terrorists are inside the country, "police not the FBI or CIA - have the best tools for detecting and prosecuting these crimes" (Howard 2004).
Local police are best positioned to develop partnerships in terrorism detection and protection with businesses and the growing private security industry (Howard 2004).
These can be mobilized to protect important facilities and also to provide information about the purchase of chemicals and protective clothing as well as short-term rentals,
38 especially for cash, of apartments, storage facilities, and motor vehicles. The potential for a strong police/private security link in combating terrorism is especially apparent in Israel where the police are heavily involved in approving security measures and supervising security agencies responsible for protecting malls, entertainment venues, and other public spaces (Rofe'-Ofir 2007 ).
According to Innes (2006) by drawing on local knowledge, intelligence specialists can narrow their surveillance, interrogations, and penetration more quickly on likely suspects.
As the FBI has found in the Unites States, they often have more leads than they can adequately investigate. Local knowledge as well as the investigatory manpower available to local police can quickly reduce these to the most promising (Innes 2006).
The local police may also be better able to work undercover without detection, perhaps off a federal watch list, than agents brought in from afar (Hart and Rudman 2002; Travis,
1999). This depends, of course, on the size of the jurisdiction because officers in small jurisdictions may be too well known to work effectively undercover.
Because of their leverage over criminals, local police can recruit and monitor informants better than outside agents (Clutterbuck 1994). As Richman observes, "Every felony arrest is an intelligence opportunity and should be recognized as such". Kelling and Bratton
(2006) observe that when Israeli police officers come into contact with criminal suspects, their first priority is gathering intelligence while the prosecution of the case is secondary, and no incident is considered too minor in this process (Kelling and Bratton 2006).
2.1 Disadvantages of Using the Police Force in Counter Terrorism
Kelling and Bratton (2006) observes that although there are some advantages to using local police for high policing, there are also distinct disadvantages both for policing generally and for counterterrorism in particular. Fishman (2004) observes that because
39 police resources are limited, enhancing intelligence gathering capability by general-duties police through surveillance, covert penetration, and the use of informers may lead to the neglect of other important police responsibilities. In other words, there may be significant opportunity costs. This downside of high policing is particularly evident in Israel, where the impact of high policing on the ability of police to respond to crime problems has become a commonly voiced concern among police managers (Fishman 2004).
Whatever the short term gain of high policing for police agencies, there is an eventual public backlash to a growing emphasis on high policing. If local police begin to withdraw resources from activities that provide perceptible services to the public, such as uniformed patrolling, responding to calls-for-service, school liaison programs, and traffic regulation, public regard and support for the police may decline. This in turn can undermine the public's willingness to think of themselves as partners in preventing terrorism.
Paradoxically, then, diversion of resources to high policing can jeopardize the comparative advantage that local police have in counter terrorism. This can be particularly damaging with respect to the very communities that "high policing" needs to focus on, such as transients, disadvantaged people, minority groups, and recent immigrants
(Clutterbuck, 1994).
At the same time, it is important to bear in mind that the public in all public safety emergencies looks for easily understandable solutions, something it can grasp that seems uniquely fitted to the task. In the war on terrorism, high policing is that solution, the
"silver bullet" in the war on terror. In the short-run, therefore, the public may applaud the development of local high policing and fail to notice a diversion of resources away from normal police service.( Clutterbuck, 1994).
40 According to Braga and Weisburd (2006) that although high policing is undoubtedly needed in the war on terror, its injection into local policing can produce tunnel vision that undermines creativity in traditional areas of policing. For example, by opening up a "sexy" new career track, counterterrorism can lure ambitious officers away from the core activities that have connected policing to the communities they serve. Specializations in anti-terrorism convey status inside the police and may become a promising promotion- track. It is instructive that when community policing was promoted in the 1980s and
1990s, many officers thought its community-engaging activities were not "real police work," preferring to work more high-profile rapid response vehicles and to become detectives (Weisburd, Shalev and Amir 2002,). Similarly, we believe that may be a tendency for officers to choose high policing over traditional low policing.
As previous campaigns of counter-espionage have shown, high policing is difficult to control. Because protection from terrorism is so obviously a righteous cause, high policing can lead to the infringement of human rights, particularly the procedural protections of due process, and to the overzealous and sometimes illegal monitoring of speech, thought, and association. Big Brother replaces "serve and protect." The Israeli police have been the subject of repeated investigation and criticism (B‘Tselem, 1990, 2001). Richman
(2004).says the problem is that a single episode of thoughtlessness or overreaching may undermine public trust. Perception is everything. The loss of public confidence is especially costly for the success of counterterrorism itself if it increases the alienation of minority and immigrant communities. (Richman, 2004).
High policing changes the mind-set of officers from service to suspicion, where people are viewed as suspects to be watched rather than individuals to be helped. George Kelling and
Mark Moore (1989) have argued that the police have evolved during the 20th century through three distinct periods of reform professionalism, constitutionalism, and
41 community-involvement. By implication, if covert counter terrorism by local police is not handled very carefully, it could push the clock back, undoing decades of community consultation and involvement, collaborative problem-solving, and adherence to the rule of law. ((B‘Tselem, (2001).
The general point is that legitimacy is the bedrock of successful policing, whether in the control of ordinary crime or of terrorism. It can be lost by acts of omission as well as commission on the part of police. Using frontline police as high police can, ironically, jeopardize the very advantages that local policing has in the war on terror.( (B‘Tselem.
2001)
2.11 The impact of Counter Terrorism Initiatives on the Police
There is universal agreement among police officials, academics, and other observers that terrorism has sharply impacted the activities of full-service police departments since 9/11 in America and 1998 in Tanzania. This is true not only for Tanzania but for police agencies around the world, even those with.
The IACP's (2005) own survey of changes in policing as a result of terrorism showed that
86% of forces reported operational or policy changes since 9/11 (IACP, 2005). Most of these (48%) were in strategic planning with respect to national alerts, WMD response, risk assessment, and first responding procedures. The other major areas of impact were in training, equipment, reorganization, redeployment, and interagency collaboration. As well as those countries with longer histories of dealing with terrorist threats.
The impact of terrorism on policing, however, involves more than high policing. Besides collecting intelligence and undertaking preventive actions, counterterrorism involves limiting the damage from terrorism and investigating, arresting, and prosecuting those who have done it (Bradley and Lyman 2006).It's important to remember that all terrorist
42 attacks are local. This means that although some counterterrorism functions can be made the responsibility of dedicated units deployed at centralized levels of organization, police on the ground will necessarily become involved wherever terrorism strikes or is likely to strike. Counterterrorism impacts, then, almost all levels of policing to some degree.
(Bradley and Lyman 2006).
2.12 Studies on the role of the Police Force in Combating Terrorism
According to Hikmet Yapsan (2012) the international collaborative police institutions may better achieve their fundamental tasks of countering transnational terrorism so long as they are constructed on transgovernmental relations and operate as regional networks. On one hand, transgovernmental relations would enable swift, accurate, and flexible information exchange while creating a strong sense of trust, professionalism, and fertile organizational climate for further cooperation. On the other hand, regionalization or geographic proximity may help them to work on symmetrically concerning problems and overcome linguistic, cultural, and logistical problems (Yapsan 2012).
Joel and Scott (2009) points out that the American Bar Association has stated so clearly that, the police have multiple objectives that sometimes must be balanced one against another. These police objectives include the following: Prevent and control conduct threatening to life and property, including serious crime. Aid crime victims and protect people in danger of physical harm. Protect constitutional guarantees, such as the right of free speech and assembly. Facilitate the movement of people and vehicles. Help those who cannot care for themselves, including the intoxicated, the addicted, the mentally ill, the physically disabled, the old, and the young. Resolve conflict between individuals, between groups, or between citizens and their government. Identify problems that have the potential for becoming more serious for individuals, the police, or the government (Joel and Michael, 2009).
43 Pienaar (2007) contends that many African Countries were unable to prevent threats of terrorism from happening as they do not yet have the capacity to ensure efficient law enforcement, border control, institutional sovereignty and political, economic and social cohesion and development. This has made them easy target for terrorist groups to infiltrate and in which to develop important, economic and political networks especially in the case of those African countries that have Islamic community residing within their border.
According to Clarke and Newman (2007), because of the devastating consequences of terrorism, prevention assumes far greater importance than for other crimes where bringing perpetrators to justice may be equally important. But there is another general point to be made about prevention police should guard against devoting the bulk of their efforts to gathering intelligence at the expense of effort on protecting targets. Gathering intelligence about potential terrorists might be congruent with their usual business, but devoting their efforts exclusively, or even predominantly, to ‗taking out‘ terrorists is likely to be unproductive (Clarke and Newman, 2007).
Vermaat (2010) argue that ―Terrorists and Muslim extremists are also active in Tanzania and Zanzibar. In Tanzania about 45 percent of the populations are Muslims. Most of them are moderate and peaceful, but there are worries about outside fundamentalist Wahhabist influences from Sudan and Saudi Arabia. Saudi, Sudanese and Gulf charities and businesses are active in Tanzania which may serve as a cover for terrorist operations and financing. There are also indications that Al-Qaeda and other extremists (―Pakistani missionaries‖ and the like) are stepping up their recruitment efforts in Tanzania and
Zanzibar. There have been violent incidents including armed takeovers of moderate mosques in Dar es Salaam. At least three Al-Qaeda operatives have been identified as originating from Zanzibar: Khalfan Khamis Muhammed, one of those convicted in connection with the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings, Qaed Sanyan Al- Harithi, a suspected
44 East African point man for bin Laden who was killed in Yemen by a CIA drone, and
Ahmed Khalfan Ghalaini. However, few studies about terrorism and its evils are documented in Tanzania hence necessitating the need to conduct a study of this kind in order to establish the challenge facing Tanzania police force in combating threats of
Terrorism in Tanzania.
2.13 Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for the study on the role of the police force in combating threats of terrorism using the Tanzania Police Force as its case study provides an indispensible guideline for identifying study variables for successful and efficient data gathering. The researcher developed the conceptual framework for this study based on the literature review to depict the relationship between independent, background and dependant variables
2.13.1 Independent Variables
The independent variables are the ones causing a change on the other variables in an experiment. (Kothari,2004) in this study the independent variables is the Police Force which has been mandated with the specific purpose of maintain peace and order in the country as well as keep the citizens of the county safe from the threats of terrorism by enforcing the laws are regulation and by creating awareness among the public on terrorism
2.13.2 Intermediate Variables
Intermediate variables appear in more complex causal relationship. They affect both the independent and dependant variable, showing the connection between them. Advances in knowledge depends on documenting causes and effect relationship and specifying the mechanism that explain the resulting relation. In this instance the intermediate variable is
45 the role played by the police force when combating threats of terrorism. The way in which the Police Force will deal with terrorism with in the country will determine the removal of the threat of terrorism or increase in the terrorist activities within the country.
2.13.3 Dependant Variables
Dependant variable is the factor which is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable, that is, aspects that appear, disappear or varies as the researcher introduces, removes or changes the independent variable. The dependant variable is the outcome of the experiment (Kothari, 2004). The dependant variable of interest in this study is the threat of terrorism.
Intermediate Independent Variables Dependent . Variables Variable
Role of the police force
Political and Must provide awareness and economic support on anti-terrorism settings of a initiatives
country Understand the causes of Individual terrorism
human behavior Must provide an Effective use of the laws and regulations Capacity building against terrorism Threats of initiatives Must strengthen the Terrorism through training relationship of anti-terrorism Social and activists within and outside the Cultural particular country practices of the Competence of the members of community Police Force on the use of ICT in detecting terrorism threats
Figure 2.1: The Conceptual Framework developed from the literature review
Source: Researchers own construct, 2014
46 2.14. Chapter summary
The chapter has dealt with a review of various literatures from published sources, journals, magazines and legislative acts. It discusses the terrorism in the world and in
Africa. The chapter has also looked at the role of the police force in combating terrorism its advantage, disadvantage and the impact it has on the society and the police force in general. The next chapter discusses the research methodology applied in the study.
47 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter focused on the methods that will be adopted and used for this study with the aim of achieving the research objectives. It provides detailed description of the study area, research design, study population, sampling design, technique, size, frame and unit. It further describes how data was collected, analyzed and presented. The effort to ensure reliability and validity of the study were done and especially the pilot study. Finally ethical consideration of the study were described
3.2 Research Design
A research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted. It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data (Kothari,
2004). A Cross-section research designed was employed as a guide of this study because data was collect from respondents only once at a given period of time. A cross sectional research was used for the study employing descriptive survey approach. Further, it used a mixed data collection and analysis approach in which qualitative and quantitative data were collected. (Kothari, 2004).
A cross sectional design provides description of the existing characteristics of a sample that represents a population at one point in time. Also it has the ability to enhance high degree of accuracy and precision in social science research (Frey, 1991). Cross sectional design was preferred for the reason that it enabled the researcher to collect data at a single point in time April - May 2014 from respondents on the variable.
48 Also a case study design was used to get an in-depth contextual analysis of the study, flexibility in data collection methods and again to save time and money. (Komba, 2006).
Accordingly, the case involved in the study is an area of great importance in the keeping security within and out of the country. Through this study the citizens of Tanzania will become more aware of the role which the police play in keeping them safe. Consequently, the findings of the study may be generalized for other cases. Yamane, (1967) adds that case studies are more exhaustive and reliable because they make a deep exploration of a case or unit so as to obtain information that is powerful, compressive and reliable for easy analysis of findings. Apart from that, a case study saves time and resources, it also provides suggestions for intelligent interpretation of the cases and it is possible to identify pattern of factors that are to uncommon to be amenable to traditional statistical analysis.
3.3 Profile of the Study Area
3.3.1 Study Area
The Tanzania Police Force Head quarters (PHQ) inDar es Salaam was chosen as the study area because it was considered to be the institute where most of the information about terrorism can easily be found and the police force is the organization which deals with terrorism by means of arresting, investigation and prosecution of terrorist offences.
According to Kothari (2004), selection of an area for study may be based on variety and comparison. However, the opportunity to learn was the primary reason for selecting the area for study.
3.3.2 Geographical Location of the Study Area.
Tanzania is in East Africa on the Indian Ocean. To the north are Uganda and Kenya; to the west, Burundi, Rwanda, and Congo; and to the south, Mozambique, Zambia, and Malawi.
Its area is three times that of New Mexico. Tanzania contains three of Africa's best-known
49 lakes—Victoria in the north, Tanganyika in the west, and Nyasa in the south. Mount
Kilimanjaro in the north, 19,340 ft (5,895 m), is the highest point on the continent. The island of Zanzibar is separated from the mainland by a 22-mile channel (URT, 2003)
Figure 3.1Geographical location of the study area.
Source URT, (2003)
The headquarters of the Tanzania Police Force are located in Dar es Salaam city and it is located along the Indian Ocean coast which covers a total area of 139.3 km. Administratively, the city is divided into three municipalities; namely Kinondoni, Temeke and Ilala.(URT,2003). It is at the police headquarters that all police activities in the country are carried out and it is the seat where senior police officers of the force including the IGP are located.
3.3.3 Demographic Patterns
The 2012 Population and Housing Census results show that, Tanzania has a population of
44,928,923 of which 43,625,354 is on Tanzania Mainland and 1,303,569 is in Zanzibar.
Administratively, the United Republic of Tanzania has 30 regions of which, 25 are in Mainland and 5 in Zanzibar. Dar es Salaam with a population of 4.36 million accounts for 10 percent of the total Tanzania Mainland population, whereas Mjini Magharibi with a population of 0.59 million accounts for 46 percent of the total Zanzibar population.(NBS,2013) there is no evidence that the
50 Tanzania local population by location or religious affiliations are directly connected to terrorist acts.
The ethnic groups in Tanzania include native African (99%) of which 95% are Bantu consisting of more than 130 tribes. The remaining 1 percent consists of Asian, European, and Arabic origin. In mainland Tanzania, religions include Christians (45%), Muslims (35%), and indigenous beliefs
20%. In Zanzibar, 99% of the populations are Muslims and 1% belongs to other denominations.
3.4 Sampling and Sampling Techniques
3.4.1 Sampling Design
According to Kothari (2002), a sample is a specific small group or subset of a population selected for the purpose of making interference about the nature of the total population, or is a representative of the population to be studied. It makes the task of survey less costly and manageable. According to Harper (1977), samples have been found to give accurate results than using an entire population. Harper advocates that examining the whole population is coupled with examining large numbers of items, hence much time is needed, it may include unskilled investigators, and this leads to so many errors, that the overall cumulative error is greater than the error inherent in using sample results to draw conclusions about the whole population (Harper, 1977).
3.4.2 Population of Study
Population refers to all the elements in a well defined collection or set of values
(Eusuruku, 2003). According to Harper (1977), population is a group of people or items about which information can be obtained from. .In this study; the target population will be the police officers in the Tanzania police force.
51 3.4.3 Sampling Unit
Kothari (2006) points out that a sampling unit is the basic unit containing the population to be sampled. The sampling units in this study were 93 members of the police force in
Tanzania.
3.4.3 Sample Size
Sample size refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe or population to constitute a sample (Kothari 2004). The sample selected was based on the study‘s need in relation to research‘s results. Thus size of sample was not too large, nor too small. It was optimum because fulfilled the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility. Basing on these explanations the optimum sample involved in this study was 93 respondents as indicated in Table 3.1. Therefore the basis of the number in the table below shows the contribution of each departments and their selected sample to represents their departments, the sample of high number are mostly likely the department dealing with criminal investigation. Yamane (1967) who provided simplified formula for calculating sample size as follows.
N=N/1 +N (e)2
or
N=N
1+N (e) 2
Where by N =total population 1299
e=Sample error 10 %( 0.01)
Sample Size (n) = 1299/1+1299(0.1)2 = 92.8520371694 ≈ 93
Where,
N= Population size (6,698) e =Precision level (error detection) 10%
52 n =Sample size (Yamane, 1967)
3.4.5 Sampling Frame
According to Kothari (2005) a sample frame is also known as the source list. It contains the names of all items of a universe in case of finite universe. The sampling frame was the employees of the Police Head Quarters (PHQ) – Dar es Salaam. The target population for the study was the Police Officers in their differentiated ranks, authorities and sections.
These are expected to give appropriate/relevant information on the role of the police in combating threats of terrorism in Tanzania as well as the impact this new role has had on the day to day activities performed by them.
3.4.6 Sampling
Sampling is the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality in the basis of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. That means obtaining information about an entire population by examining only part of it as a sample representative (Kothari, 2002)
3.4.7 Sampling Techniques
The various sampling techniques were carried out in order to collect information and provide basis for analysis. They were (a) stratified random sampling and (b) purposive sampling
3.4.7.1 Stratified Random Sampling
The study used a stratified random sampling procedure. Stratified random sampling is the grouping of the representative composing a population into homogeneous groups before sampling (Babbie, 1992). In this study, the first category was the various officers from different departments and units within the country who were seventy (70) in total as well
53 as the representatives from the various officers of the Ministry of Home affairs, IGP and the Commissioner of Operations and Home Affairs who were six (6) and the inspectors of the different districts in Dar es salaam (17). All the members were selected by means of stratified random sampling.
Stratified random sampling methods gives each item in the stratum an equal probability of being picked up and once the item is selected for the sample, it cannot appear in the sample again. The method was used to provide an opportunity for gender balance for all sexes. Also it enabled the ability to pick a small number of respondents for using in the study.
3.4.7.2 Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling refers to a non- probability sampling in which the researcher selected the respondents to be interviewed on the basis of the researcher‘s own judgment about which respondents were most useful representatives. In addition to that, the respondents were selected by virtue of their positions and responsibilities (Babbie, 1992). The respondents selected for purposive sampling were the representatives from the various officers of the Ministry of Home affairs, IGP and the Commissioner of Operations and
Home Affairs who were six (6).
3.5 Data Collection Method and Instruments
Data collection for the study involved survey, interview and documentary review. The researcher employed a variety of techniques to triangulate information. According to Ary,
(1996), triangulation means that use of multiple methods to verify the findings. This was done intentionally on the ground that no single research technique or instrument is adequate in itself to collect valid and reliable data on a particular problem. This is similar to what Bogdan and Biklen (1992) observed that exclusive reliance on one method may
54 bias or distort the researcher‘s picture of a particular reality being investigated. What is certain is that research techniques or instruments have shortcoming that need to be complimented by the use of other variety of methods. What follows is a description of each method and techniques and how they were used in the process of data collection.
Table 3.1 Sample size to data collection methods and tools
N Groups of No. of Sampling Data Data Justification respondents responden method collection collectio t method n tools 1 Rep. from the 1 They are the ones who are in Ministry of Home charge of the policies and Affairs administrative activities of 2 Rep. from the 1 Interview Intervie the police force office of the IGP w 3 Rep. from the 1 And office of the Purposive Questio commissioner for sampling Survey nnaire O.P method 4 Rep. from each 3 This zone is special zone in Dar es salaam 5 Inspectors 17 They are in charge of the overall investigations of crime within their jurisdictions 6 General duty 25 They are the ones who work police officers closely with the communities they understand what is happening in their areas 7 Police officers 4 The act international in from Interpol terms of crime related Stratified incidents with the country 8 Officers working 21 random They deal with all criminal within the CID sampling investigations in the country with in Dar es Questio salaam Survey nnaire 9 High way petrol 10 method They understand the police movements of vehicles in the
55 officers(traffic) country 1 Field force Unit 10 They are the ones who 0 answer the call when mass disruptions occur in the country Total 93 Source: Data findings from the field, 2014
3.5.1 Survey
Survey is an investigation of the option and behavior of a particular group of people conducted by asking them probing questions. Survey is a preferable method for many studies because this is an approach most suited for gathering descriptive information for which the study is focused on (Kothari, 2009).
3.5.2 Questionnaires
Questionnaires was one of the tool which were used in this study, A questionnaire has been defined by Goode (1980) as a device for securing answers to questions using a form which the respondents fill in. Lindberg, (1980) observed that questionnaires are ―a set of stimuli to which illiterate people are exposed in order to observe their verbal behavior under these stimuli.‖ In this study, questionnaires are referred to as schedule of questions distributed to persons in the study sample to fill in and return them to the person conducting the study.
The questionnaire designed for this study covered the main parts of the data collection for the study. The respondents were mainly representatives from the officers of the Ministry of Home Affairs, including the IGP, Commissioner of Operations and Training, and from each special zone in Dar es salaam as well as the general duty police officers, officers from the Interpol office in Dar es salaam, officers with in the CID in dare s salaam, High way patrol officers, the Field force unit and police inspectors from different areas around
Dar es salaam.
56 Generally, questionnaire as a tool is relatively economic as it has standard questions to ensure clarity (Shumacher, 1993). The tool can also be administered to many people using a short time. However, the disadvantages of this tool are that some respondents may give answers that are essentially irrelevant to the researchers‘ interest (Babbie, 1992). This observation was not very much different from our field experience in the study.
Questionnaires were distributed to 93 respondents‘ police officers in their differentiated ranks, units, departments and sections. The semi-structured questionnaire (having both open and close ended questions) was designed and pre-tested prior to its administration for the purpose of checking its reliability and validity and making necessary rectifications.
Open-ended questions are expected to give respondents chances of giving their own opinions regarding initiatives being taken by TPF against threats of terrorism. Open-ended questions were applied to allow participants to respond in any way they choose. Open- ended questions provide primarily qualitative data, and are frequently used in exploratory research. The closed-ended questions were requiring participants to choose from a limited number of responses predetermined by the researcher and this was generating quantitative data. Selection of questionnaire as data collection method was based on its convenience for obtaining information from large number of people in the shortest possible time and with limited use of resources as revealed by Rwegoshora, (2006) who contends that questionnaires are less costly, reliable and can cover large area.
3.5.3 Interview and Interview Guide
Kothari C, (2004). The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral- verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews. Bell, (2005) is of the view that ‗the major advantage of interview is its flexibility; follow up of ideas,
57 checking responses and exploring motives and feelings, which questionnaires cannot as well do‘.
For the purpose of this study, interview were conducted with various officers of the
Ministry of Home affairs, IGP and the Commissioner of Operations and Home Affairs who were six (6).respondents was chosen, the chosen respondents are considered to have a lot of additional information which were useful in using other methods of data collection.
This study were used semi-structured interview for five key informants, the chosen respondents are considered to have a lot of additional information as it which enable the researcher not to repeat asking the questions already answered by the respondent when explaining issues asked. Such interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized techniques of recording. Additional probing questions were asked. The guiding questions were aimed to get information on how policemen collect terrorism incident data, problems encountered in dealing with the incidents and victims, how rules and regulations are controlled and to give opinions on how terrorism activities can be prevented. Interview is chosen due to its strength of capturing empirical data in both formal and informal settings.
For this study, an interview guide was prepared and used as a tool for different levels of respondents; this involved presentation of oral verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral verbal responses. This was important for collection of primary data and all the officers preferred interview than questionnaire based survey.
3.5.4 Documentary Review
Documents are stable sources of data that can be used repeatedly. They are valued because they can provide more insights into the study, by cross-validating and augmenting evidence obtained from other sources. For this study, the key documents involved both
58 primary and secondary sources. Primary sources included statistics in the crime rate in
Tanzania since 1998 and the legislation which provides power to the police to combat terrorism in the country. The secondary sources included books, journals, articles and technical papers on terrorism, causes of terrorism impact of terrorism on the police force and the society at large. These were obtained from libraries and from the internet.
3.6 Data Collection Processing, Analysis and Presentation
3.6.1 Data Processing
Processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis (Kothari, 2004). The collected data were edited to detect errors and omissions before being coded to make them amenable for analysis.
3.6.2 Data Analysis
The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures of certain along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist among data- groups (Kothari, 2004). The tools used for the analysis of the data were Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSSP software version 16). Qualitative and Quantitative data were presented through the use to frequency, descriptive and multi responses statistic in SPSS. Frequency distribution tables were used to examine the relationship between variables. Here the words, and phrases analyzed depended on the topic discussed during the interview schedules.
3.6.3 Data Presentation
Data presentation involved the coded data which were tabulated by counting the number of cases falling in different categories of variables. Again bar charts were used to describe the frequency of cases belonging to different categories.
59 3.7 Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
3.7.1 Validity
Validity refers to universal laws, evidence, objectivity, truth, actuality, deduction, reason, fact and mathematical data to name just a few (Winter, 2000). Validity determines whether the research truly measures what was intended to measure or how truthful the research results are. It refers to whether the means of measurement are accurate.
Validity was ensured by including a variety of questions, pretesting of the questionnaires prior to actual data collection also gauging the questions in the instruments to the study objectives so that all important aspects are taken into consideration and attention of researcher to opinions from the supervisor as well as from colleagues in the field. After consultation a modification of the instruments in light of the shared opinions was made.
And finally, researcher has to correct the instruments, mistakes observed from the piloting.
3.7.1. Iteration
Iteration method was used as a cross checking technique by returning to the respondents whenever there was a need to fill data gap or check its accuracy. The techniques are important for establishing validity. The researcher used it as a means of getting more details and approval of accurate information already obtained.
3.7.1.2 Pretesting of Questionnaire (Pilot study)
A pretesting of questionnaires or pilot study refers to a trial administration of an instrument to identify flaws. Mc Nabb (2002) says a pilot study is a small scale design used primarily for gaining insight and ideas about the research problem variables and other associated with those problems. The main objectives of a pilot study is to determine
60 whether questions and directions were clear to the respondents that they understood what was required of them, when the questionnaire was used as a data gathering instrument.
The pilot study for this research was conducted within and outside The Tanzania Police
Force Headquarters prior to actual gathering of data from the expected respondents. The testing of tools identified a number of problems, involving clarification of wording of the questions and permitting early detection of necessary additions or omissions that were dealt with accordingly.
3.7.2 Reliability
Joppe (2000) defines reliability as the extent to which results are consistent over time and an accurate representation of the total population under study. If the results of a study can be reproduced under a similar methodology, then the research instrument in considered to be reliable. It refers to whether the result is replicable. And whether they are actually measuring what they are intended to measure.
The researcher ensured reliability by minimizing sources of measurement error through personally administering the questionnaires and conducting interviews thereby standardizing conditions that exhibit similar personal attributes to all respondents. Further, the physical and psychological environment where data were sought was made comfortable by ensuring privacy and confidentiality. The pilot study was also used to ensure reliability of the instruments.
3.8 Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations are of extreme importance as indicated by Goode and Hattp (1952).
This research was in line with ethical guidelines in that the main ethical issues were considered when conducting research including the voluntary nature of participation,
61 reduction risk for participants, ensure confidentiality and privacy of participants and institutional issues which include obtaining permission to conduct the research.
3.8.1 Voluntary Participation
The right of respondents to participate in the research or not as they chose was respected.
All respondents participated freely after receiving the information on the study and their rights to answer the questions or not.
3.9 Limitation of the Study
The research was conducted within a framework of the following constraints and limitations:
3.9.1 Time Constraints
The time allocated for the field work, data collection, data analysis and report writing was limited to ensure carrying out a comprehensive field research with a large sample size.
The researcher solved this problem by working even on weekends, asking the respondents to pardon his for the inconvenience.
3.9.2 Fear and Inadequate Transparency to Share Information on Financial Issues
In case of some of the respondents, there was lack of transparency in sharing information or appropriate data on their financial status. They feared that such information was sensitive and they never wanted other people to know their financial position.
3.9.3 Financial Constraints
Funds available were very insufficient to enable collection of large samples of data from the relevant respondents. This constraint was addressed by effective follow-up of questionnaires and by spending more hours in the field.
62 3.10 Chapter Summary
The chapter discussed the methodology used to conduct the study. The quantitative and qualitative (descriptive) used; stratified random and purposive samplings were used to select 93 respondents for the study.
The chapter also discussed the data collection methods and instruments, survey and face to face interviews by the interviewer. Validity and reliability of measurements and findings as well as the ethical considerations were also discussed in this chapter, apart from data analysis design.
63 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS, DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents, interprets and discusses the primary data obtained from the field and secondary data obtained from written documents relating to the study. Analysis and presentation of data revolved around five specific objectives and all the significant information collected from other sources including library documents and reports. The specific objectives were to provide an overview of the state of terrorism in Tanzania ,to assess effectiveness of the Tanzanian anti-terrorism laws and regulations in combating terrorism, to determine the existing international collaboration with TPF in combating threats of terrorism, to determine the existing capacities of TPF in term of human resources and financial resources in combating threats of terrorism, to explore ways of improving the role of TPF in combating terrorism, and to Discover the problems and challenges affecting TPF in combating threats of terrorism in Tanzania. This chapter also discusses other important variables for the study in relation to the subject especially the characteristics of the respondents from Tanzania Police Force.
4.2 General Characteristics of Respondents
The respondents involved in this study were classified into various categories including the various officers from different departments and units within the country, the representatives from the various officers of the Ministry of Home affairs, IGP and the
Commissioner of Operations and Home Affairs and the Inspectors of the different districts in Dar es Salaam. The discussed characteristics of respondents include; sex, age, level of education and marital status, as described in the tables below.
64 4.2.1 Sex of the Respondents
The results shown by table 4.1 indicated that a relatively large proportion of respondents were male who accounted for more than half of respondents as evidenced by 68 (73.1%) and female amounted to 25 (26.9%). This implies that majority of respondents in the
Police Force were male.
Table 4.1: Sex of Respondents
S/N Sex Frequency Percentage 1 Male 68 73.1 2 Female 25 26.9 Total 93 100.0
Source: Fieldwork Survey, 2014
Martin (1991) first drew attention to the occupational role dilemmas based on gender stereotypes faced by female police. One of the reasons for there being more male than female police is that female police are not accepted as full professional colleagues by their male co-workers (Balkin 1988). Evidence from other traditionally male occupations confirms that women experience significantly adverse working conditions and report less satisfaction and more conflict at work than do their male co-workers (Worden, 1993)
4.2.2 Age of the Respondents
Table 4.2 shows that the age of the majority of the respondents was between 22-25 years which accounted 38(40.9%), followed by the age group between 26-37 years who accounted for 30(32.2%), followed by the age group between 18-21 years who accounted for 12(12.9%), followed by the age group of 38 and above who accounted for 13(13%) of the respondents as shown on table 4.2. These findings partly suggest that most of the active members who are involved in the operations of combating threats of terrorism in the study area are in the age of active labor force and therefore are likely to be actively
65 involved in terrorism related matter it also implies that they require constant training and exposure to develop their capabilities in addressing acts of terrorism.
Table 4.2: Age of Respondents
N/S Age Frequency Percentage 1 18-21 12 12.9 2 22-25 30 32.3 3 26-37 38 40.9 4 38 and above Years 13 13.9 Total 93 100.0
Source: Fieldwork survey 2014
4.2.3 Education Level of Respondents
Education is the most important tool for developing human skills, knowledge, understanding and liberation from poverty. This study focused on the education level of the respondents in relation to the Police Force in Tanzania. Table 4.3 shows the results that most of the respondents have attained secondary education. 38(40.9%) attained form four education level, 20(21.5%) form six education level, 15(16.1%) colleges education level while only 20(21.5%) attained University Education level These findings indicate that most of the police officers involved in the security of the nation have at least form four education level and therefore have the basic knowledge hence it can be easy for them to learn and understand different issues and techniques relating to terrorism. According to
Ayres (2001), police officers should be graduates of a four-year college, in view of the complexity of police work, particularly in combating terrorism.
66 Table 4.3: Education Level of Respondents
N/S Education Level Frequency Percentage 1 Form four 38 40.9 2 Form six 20 21.5 3 College 15 16.1 4 University 20 21.5 Total 93 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2014
In interview when asked why there were so many form four officers that graduates the reasons given were that the officers once they become graduates they no longer think of the job as challenging enough so they look for work elsewhere. This can be collaborated by Trojanowicz (1976) who found that a collage graduate likes a job that is more challenging he suggests that one way to increase the satisfaction and retention of college educated officers is to give them duties that stimulate their thinking and imagination and to encourage duties that emphasize high levels of communication, constructive feedback and participative decision making. There is a need to seek for specialized educational skills on terrorism particularly from outside countries. This can be more effectively achieved if police officers are in possession of higher education and are given regular opportunities to build on that education.
4.2.4 Marital Status of Respondents
Marital status of the respondents, the findings shows that, the respondents who were married accounted to 40(43.0%), followed by single which accounted to 39(41.9%), while
9(9.7%) of the respondents were divorced, sample of respondent who were widows accounted for 5(5%) of the respondents as shown in table 4.4. These results imply that a mixture of married, divorced, widows, separated and not yet married were very important
67 to them to share different ideas concerning terrorism so that they can reach to the point of solution on how they can combat terrorism threats.
Table 4.4: Marital Status of Respondents
N/S Marital Status Respondents Percent 1 Married 40 43.0 2 Single 39 41.9 3 Divorced 9 9.7 4 Widow 5 5.4 Total 93 100.0
Source: Fieldwork survey, 2014
4.3 Terrorism in Tanzania
Terrorism is the threat or use of violence for political, religious or ideological purposes designed to influence the attitudes and behavior of a group or to achieve objectives that are otherwise unattainable (Rapoport and Alexander, 1982). Terrorism differs from other forms of violence in the choice of targets and modes of activity.
Bashir, (2007) states that Tanzania as one of the Eastern African Countries closest to the
Horn of Africa also faces numerous threats of international terrorism. These threats are intensified by the ongoing instability in the Horn of Africa. We all know that, the situation in Somalia has attracted international terrorists in Tanzania as one of the Eastern African
Countries close to the Horn of Africa also faces numerous threats of international terrorism. These threats are intensified by the ongoing instability at the Horn of Africa.
We all know that, the situation in Somalia has attracted international terrorists in the region and this poses serious threats to regional peace and security, as well as our economic and social development. Tanzania has also suffered from terrorists‘ attacks. The
1998 attack on the Embassy of the United States of America in Dar es Salaam was a
68 wakeup call to us that we are also not immune from international terrorists‘ attacks
(Bashir, A.H., 2007).
During the interviews it was mentioned by the interviewers that some of our youth were being taken to countries like Somalia and Mozambique for training into terrorist activities.
This is an alarming revelation which was later affirmed during one parliamentary session on 19th June,2014 when a member of parliament asked the Prime Minister about the ongoing activities in Mtwara region where some of the youth were being taken to the boarders of Mozambique and trained for terrorist activities. This is an indication that terrorism in Tanzania is not going away but is very much present and must be dealt with at all cost.
4.3.1 Understanding of Terrorism
This question wanted to determine the extent to which respondents understood the concept of terrorism. From the field results found on figure 4.1 indicate that 38 (40.9%) of the respondents have just a general knowledge of what terrorism means, while 25 (26.9%) of the respondents know nothing about terrorism, only.17(18.3%) of respondents they have enough knowledge on terrorism this indicated that some of police officer are well trained on terrorism and mostly with higher ranks. 13 (14.0%) of respondent have little knowledge with low understanding on the threats of terrorism.
69 Figure 4.1: Understanding of terrorism
Source: Fieldwork Survey, 2014
According to Kelling (2004), the fight against terrorism requires the police to be aware of and follow up suspicious behavior. Terrorists try to blend in and assimilate with their surroundings. Most terrorist acts are well organized and well planned. Comparing reports of suspicious behavior helps the police to identify potential threats and act to prevent terrorist attacks. Therefore it is important for the police to have firsthand knowledge on terrorism and in reporting suspicious behavior may help stop a terrorist attack. (Kelling,
2004)
4.3.1 The State of the Terrorism Incidences in Tanzania from 1998 to 2014
When respondents were asked about terrorist incidents in the country from the period ranging between 1998 to 2014 they responded as follows: 48 (51.6%) of respondents said that there were on the increase, on the other hand 22 (23.7%) of respondents said that terrorist incidents were decreasing .while. 23 (23%) of respondents said they did not have enough information to know whether incidents of terrorism were on the increase or not.
70 Table 4.6: Perceptions of Respondents on the Situation of Terrorism Incidences in
the Country from 1998 to 2014
N/S Responses Frequency Percentage 1 Increased 48 51.6 2 Decreased 22 23.7 3 Neutral 23 23.7 Total 93 100.0
Source Field work survey, 2014
So from the above finding it seems that the majority of the police respondents feel that the terrorist activities and incidents are increasing in our country. This made very clear during the interviews with the representatives of the various officers under the directive of the
Ministry of Home affairs.
4.3.3 Incidents of Terrorism in Tanzania
Respondents were asked to mention some of the incident of terrorism in Tanzania. The findings from table 4.7 show that 82 (92.2.%) of respondents mention the 1998 when US ambassy were bombed, the Arusha incident of 2013 at the christian church and chadema campagn was mentioned by 62(89.2%) also 62 (89.2%) of the repondents mentioned the
2014 blast in Zanzibar. And only 10(10.8%) of respondents they didn‘t mention anything . this shows that there are threats of terrorism in Tanzania.
71 Table 4.7: Some Incident of Terrorism in Tanzania
N/S Responses Frequency Percentage 1 Incident in Dar es salaam of 1998, 83 89.2 2 The Arusha bombing during the CHADEMA 62 66.7 rally in 2013 3 The Zanzibar blast in 2012 62 66.7 4 They didn‘t mention anything 10 10.8 Source: Fieldwork Survey, 2014
Other incidents of terrorism include for instance in June 2012, a German national of
Turkish origin, Emrah Erdogan (also known as Abdulrahman Othman), was arrested at
Julius Nyerere International Airport in Dar es Salaam upon his arrival from Kenya. The purpose for his travel to Tanzania remains unknown, but it closely followed his departure from Somalia, where Erdogan had joined the al Shabab movement. Moreover, Erdogan was wanted in connection with recent bomb attacks in Kenya. More recently, in July
2013, a British national, Hassan Ali Iqbal, was also arrested in Tanzania as he attempted to transit overland to Malawi. Iqbal was carrying multiple passports with different names and was wanted in the UnitedKingdom for involvement in terrorist activities there.24
Finally, in October and November 2013, several training camps, weapons caches, and
―child indoctrination centers‖ associated with Somalia‘s al Shabab movement were identified and dismantled by Tanzanian authorities, leading to dozens of arrests. As a result, Tanzania is now under increased scrutiny as a potential transit zone and safe haven for foreign terrorist operatives.( Sabahi News, Nov, 7, 2013).
4.3.4 Measures Taken by Tanzania’s Police Force in Combating Threats of Terrorism
Respondents were asked to give their opinion on what the Police Force should do as an effective way of combating threats of terrorism. The findings in table 4.8 shows that
43(46.2%) of respondents indicated that they needed more training so that they can easily
72 attend to cases relating to terrorism, from this response it means that most of the police officer do not have adequate training on how to handle cases concerning terrorism,
34(36.6%) of respondents indicated that fund should be allocated to those police officer so as to enable them to gather intelligence information and deter the threats of terrorism whenever they occur, while 21(22.8%) of respondents indicated that they should introduce ant-terrorism units all over the country rather than only at the Police Headquarters because of the geographical nature of the country, and finally 4(4.3%) of respondent said that the existing way should continue because the Police Force in the country they doesn‘t have enough resources and skilled man power to effectively implement all that is need to combat threats of terrorism in the country
Table 4.8: Effective measures by Tanzania Police Force for effective way in
combating threats of terrorism
N/S Responses Frequency Percentage 1 Training of police officers 43 46.2 2 Financial assistance 34 36.6 3 Introduce ant-terrorism unity all over the country 21 22.8 4 Existing way remain 4 4.3
Source: Fieldwork Survey, 2014
4.4 Role of the Tanzania Police Force in Combating Threats of Terrorism
Respondents were asked to indicate the role of Tanzania Police Force in combating threats of terrorism. The findings from field results shows that 100(100%) of respondets indicated that their role is prevention, protection, detection,investigation, arresting and prosecution.
This shows that the work of the police force in combating threats of terrorism basically on six key elements or areas.
73 According to Clutterbuck, (1994) the police are entrusted with the responsibilities of prevention, detection, investigation, prosecution and arrest and that these are the major services function delegated to the Police Force by their respective governments towards the security of the country.
From interviews it was further noted that, the Tanzania Police Force have been given higher priority to deal with all matter related to terrorism. The detailed interview with the representatives of the offices of the Ministry of Home Affairs, the office of IGP,
Commissioners Office of Training and Operations revealed that the central government financial transfers being allocated to TPF is not only used for terrorism operation but with other functions and this results by making investigations of terrorist activities became very hard.
4.5. Tanzania’s Laws and Regulations on Terrorism and their Impact
Although terrorism is not an altogether new phenomenon on the world stage, it has
th increasingly assumed a high profile since the September 11 2003 attack on the United
States by the Al-Qaida network. In the wake of the said attack a number of initiatives in the form of counter-terrorism measures have been taken right across the globe to deal with the perceived risks posed by acts of terrorism or threats thereof.
During interviews respondents indicated why Tanzania is one of the countries which are trying to effectively remove terrorism in its country the first reason is that the Tanzanian
th government is a signatory to the UN Security Resolution 1373 of 28 September 2001, soon after September 11 US attacks. Tanzania has taken steps towards fulfilling the spirit of the Resolution by enacting the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002., also the enactment of the Non-Governmental Organizations Act, 2002 whose aim was to regulate NGOs in the wake of crackdowns on financial accounts some religious organizations suspected to
74 have links with terrorist networks, the government purchase of a DNA Analyzer to analyze criminals, and to analyze various exhibits in particular regard to terrorists and finally Tanzania has signed a bilateral agreement signed between Tanzania and USA to
Combat Financial Crimes
4.5.1 Effectiveness of the Tanzanian’s Ant-terrorist Laws and Regulations
Respondents were asked to assess the effectiveness of Tanzania‘s anti-terrorist laws and regulation in combating threats of terrorism. The findings from the field results shows that
42(45.1%) of respondents indicated that the existing law and regulation are not enough to combat threats of terrorism, while 30(32.2%) of respondents indicate that the existing laws should be amended also 16(17.2%) of respondent indicated that the existing law and regulation are enough to deal with threats of terrorism, and 5(5.4%) of respondent they don‘t know anything of what should be done as shown in table 4.9.
Table 4.9: Effectiveness of the Tanzania ant-terrorism laws and regulations in
combating threats terrorism
N/S Responses Respondents Percentage 1 Not enough 42 45.1 2 Need to amend 30 32.2 3 Enough 16 17.2 4 Neutral 5 5.4 Total 93 100.0
Source: Fieldwork Survey, 2014
4.5.1 Involvement of the Police Force in the Formulation of laws and Regulation on Terrorism
Respondents were asked whether the police officers were involved in the process of formulation of law and regulation on terrorism. The result shows that 49(52.7%) of
75 respondents indicated that police officers were not involved in the process of formulation of laws and regulation. 34(36.6%) of respondents responded that they did not know if they were involved in the formulation of laws and regulations, and 10(10.8%) of respondents said that the police officers were involved in the process of formulation of laws and regulation as shown in table 4.10.
Table 4.10: Involvement of the Police Force in the Formulation of Laws and
Regulation on Terrorism
N/S Responses Frequency Percentage 1 Not involved 49 52.7 2 Neutral 34 36.6 3 Involved 10 10.8 Total 93 100.0
Source: Fieldwork Survey, 2014
4.6 The Existence of International Collaboration with TPF in Combating Threats of
Terrorism
The respondents were asked whether the Tanzania Police Force collaborating with other ant terrorism organizations and institutions internationally. Based on the findings, the results shows that 62(66.7%) said yes that the Tanzania Police Force does collaborate with other international organizations and institutes to combating threats of terrorism, only 23
(24.7%) of respondents said no that the Tanzania Police Force does not collaborate with other international organizations and institutions in combating threats of terrorism, while
8(8.6%) of respondents said that they did not know if Tanzania collaborated with other international institutions in combating threats of terrorism. This gives the sense that
Tanzania police force in the act of combating threats of terrorism they do collaborate with international activities. The results are indicated in figure 4.2.
76 Figure 4.2: Collaboration of the TPF with other Anti-terrorist Institutions
Source: Fieldwork Survey, 2014
On Tuesday 2nd September, 2014 while addressing the African Union Security Council in
Nairobi, President Kikwete said terrorism was a threat to all countries on the continent.
The President said that terrorism was a threat to all countries on the continent; he added that there was no country which was immune to terrorism and called for collective efforts to fight the scourge. He continues by say that the commission report we now know that terrorism is a major threat to ever country‘s security, so it is paramount that we join force from national level, regional level, and continental level and at a global level. In doing so the president argued that, countries should seek to know the source of terrorism, adding that it would be easier to tackle terrorism if countries were aware of what causes it.
Countries should also come up with policies which would benefit all people in a particular regardless of their race, ethnicity religious or political affiliation.
77 4.7 Capacity of TPF in Combating Threats of Terrorism
4.7.1 Capacity of TPF in Terms of Human Resources
Respondents were asked whether the human capacity of the Tanzania Police Force was enough to deal with terrorism or not enough. Results in table 4.11 shows, that the existing human capacity of the Police Force on dealing with the threat of terrorism was not enough. Of the respondents 60(64.5%) indicated that the human capacity was not sufficient to deal with the threats of terrorism, only 20(21.5%) of respondents indicated that human capacity was enough to deal with the threats of terrorism, but 13(14%) of respondents said that they did not know if the human capacity of TPF was enough to deal with threats of terrorism in Tanzania.
According to Max security (2013) in February 2013, the Deputy Minister for Home Affairs alleged that the Tanzanian police force does not have a sufficient number of police officers to deal with security concerns in the country. While there are approximately 38,850 policemen in the force, the country would need to employ at least 48,000 more officers in order to meet international standard ratios for the number of policemen in relation to the population.
Additionally, the Tanzanian Police Force faces numerous assertions of weaknesses in the personnel. Members of the Police Force are reportedly hired based on personal connections rather than professional training or experience. The allegations of rampant corruption within the force are substantiated by various studies of outside impartial entities, such as the World Economic Forum and Transparency International, which indicate police‘s susceptibility to accepting bribes.(Max
Security, 2013).
78 Table 4.11: Capacities of TPF in Terms of Human Resources
N/S Responses Frequency Percentage 1 Not enough 60 64.5 2 Enough 20 21.5 3 Don‘t know 13 14 Total 93 100.0 Source: Fieldwork Survey, 2014
4.7.2 The Capacity of Tanzania’s Police Force in Terms of Financial Resources
Respondents were asked whether the existing capacity of Tanzania police force in terms of its financial resources is enough to deal with terrorism or not. Results on table 4.12 shows that, the existing capacity of the Police Force on financial resource is not sufficient.
68(73.1%) of respondents indicated that the fund were not enough, they further commented that to deal with terrorism money and human resources are needed therefore the fund provided to the Tanzania Police Force according to the field result are not sufficient. 20(21.5%) of respondents indicated that the fund were enough but suggested there seems to be a lack of funds is sometimes caused by either misuse of the funds or misallocation of the funds from the needed areas and 5(5.4%) of the respondents had nothing to say they remained silent.
Table 4.12: Capacity of TPF in Terms of Financial Resources
N/S Responses Frequency Percentage 1 Not enough funds for the police force 68 73.1 2 Enough funds for the police force 20 21.5 3 Remained neutral 5 5.4 Total 93 100.0 Source: Fieldwork Survey, 2014
79 4.7.2.1 Sources of Fund for TPF
The respondents were asked to mention the source of fund for TPF. Results in figure 4.3 show that 67(72.0%) of respondents indicated that the main source of fund for TPF came from the Tanzanian government while 20 (22.6%) of respondent indicated that the main source is the police collection from Traffic Notification Fees, Miscellaneous Receipts,
Firearms Licenses, Vehicles Inspection Fees, Driving School Licenses and 6 (6.5%) of respondents indicated that the source of fund for TPF comes from donor countries.
Figure 4.3: Sources of Funds for TPF
Source: Fieldwork Survey, 2014
4.7.2.2 Opinion on how Funds can be Increased and Sustained
The respondents were asked to provide their opinions on how to increase the finances of the Tanzania Police Force. The results in table 4.13 indicate that 61(65.6%) of respondents suggested that the Government should allocate enough fund to the Tanzania Police Force so that they can be able to deal with the problem of lack of funds. 23 (24.7%) of respondents suggested that the funds provided to the police force if they are well allocated to the appropriate areas then the current funds are more than enough to meet the needs of
80 the force and finally 9(9.7%) of respondents suggested that the Tanzanian police force should look for external help.
Table 4.13: Opinion on how the Fund can be Increased and Maintained
N/S Responses Frequency Percentage 1 Government 61 65.6 2 Funds provided should well utilized 23 24.7 3 Donors 9 9.7 Total 93 100.0
Source: Fieldwork Survey, 2014
81 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMANDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the conclusion of what has been discussed in chapter four. It further provides recommendation for the role of the Police Force in combating threats of terrorism using the Tanzania Police Force as the case study.
5.2 Conclusion
Maintenance of peace and security together with securing people‘s life and property is the responsibility of the state and state is powered to create security forces and one of which is the Tanzania Police Force.
From the literature review and from study findings, it has been shown that terrorism is still relatively new terms to the Tanzanian community especially the Tanzania Police Force who do not have the experiences of their fellow police officers from the United States of
America or from countries in Africa which have experience terrorism in force.
Tanzania lacks the skilled manpower and the technology to combat terrorism, this is due to the insufficient funds allocated to the Police Force each year as well as the technical know how to handle terrorism. From interviews with the members of the Police Force this seems to be one of the biggest problems.
The study specified on over viewing the state of terrorism in Tanzania. Through the interview with respondents, field results indicated that in the country there are threats of terrorism but with little knowledge that the Police Force currently has especially those who are involved in combating terrorism. Other complained that training is undertaken by
82 those with high ranks in the police force however they are not the one‘s going out in to the streets every day dealing with the people and the threats of terrorism.
Basing on the findings, the results showed that the main role of the Police Force is the prevention of crime, detection of crime, investigation of crime, and prosecution in other part where state autonomy is not present. The respondents demanded the equipments to be provided so that their work will become easy.
Furthermore, the study assesses the effectiveness of the Tanzania ant-terrorism laws and regulation in combating threats of terrorism. Basing on the study findings, results shows that, The Tanzanian Act fails to define the offence of terrorism and instead enumerates various elements that would amount to terrorism. Therefore, this piece of legislation relies on vague, ambiguous and imprecise definitions whereby it is possible to criminalize legitimate forms of exercising fundamental liberties, peaceful political and/or social opposition and lawful acts.
Moreover, the study examines the existing international collaboration with TPF in combating threats of terrorism. Basing on the findings, the result shows that Tanzania
Police Force collaborate with other international police organization and international security agency in combating threats of terrorism.
Lastly, the study intended to determine the existing capacity of TPF in terms of human and financial resources in combating threats of terrorism. Basing on the study findings result shows that there are both challenges in both human and financial resources in combating threats of terrorism, for the case of human resources result show that the number of police officer in the country do not correspond with the entire population
,therefore this make it very difficult to attend to all matter in the quickest way and for the case of financial resources result shows that the fund allocated to the Police Force is not
83 sufficient to deals with terrorism and hence depend on foreign help but even the money collected for foreign donors was not obtained within the appropriate time and hence the process became unsuitable.
5.3 Recommendations
The utility of any research lies mostly in the conception of the research findings and then putting it into use. If the research findings cannot be put into the use desired, then the whole research exercise is meaningless and the research finding can be termed as a mere waste of material. The research findings cannot be put into use unless the researcher recommends to and directs these recommendations to the desired audience. The following are the measures recommended to be taken to reduce the existing problems.
There is a need for better intelligence gathering and sharing between police agencies across the Africa and the world to prevent the development of international terrorism across the world. These include the sharing of intelligence between East Africa Police
Chiefs Co-operations Organizations, the Southern African Police Chiefs Organization and
Interpol. The improvement of intelligence gathering and sharing capabilities in the Police
Force will enable the Police Force in every country to become more successful in detect and prevent the threats of international terrorism poses to their national security.
Also the study recommends that the Tanzania Ant-Terrorism Act of 2002 should be amended and improved so that it can explain what terrorism means and the offence of terrorism this make will make it easier for the police officer to enforce and implement the law without ambiguity.
Moreover the researcher also recommends that the Police Force should be involved in all process of formulating laws and policies concerning terrorism because they are the one to
84 implement these laws and regulations. This will be achieved through a round table discussion with police officers of all ranks.
Also measures should be put into place so as to make improvements on police capability so as to strengthen its counterterrorism capabilities across the country. The police force in
Tanzania undoubtedly plays an important role in prevention, detection and investigation of threats of terrorism and ensure that international terrorist organization are unable to gain a foothold anywhere within the country.
Secondly, the study recommends that training should be increased towards the police officer of all ranks. This will help the force to have enough skilled police officer with the knowledge of terrorism. This training should not only be conducted outside the country but also internal training should also be provided by those who have already received training. The Police Force should put more emphasis in designing measures and developing capacity building programmes that aim at changing the mid set of police officers. This can be done through various means such as workshops, seminars, and on job training.
Thirdly, the study recommends that the government must provide sufficient funds to the
Police Force. This is because dealing with terrorism need money. The money provided according to the findings is not enough this can hinder the police work on terrorism, for example all process of investigation needs money but if it happens that funds are not readily available then the work of investigating becomes very difficult.
Fourthly, the study recommend that for the Folice force to have the ability to combat threats of terrorism it needs to have enough police officers all over the country. Therefore the Government should recruit enough police officers so that they can adequately safe guard the entire population. The field results show that the ratio of one police officer goes
85 well beyond the population, according to the international standard of one police officer to one thousand two hundred and fifty 1:1250.
In addition, the Police Force should be provided with enough modern equipment which will help them to identify the initial sign of terrorism, this may include laboratory equipments, vehicle, mental detectors, bomb detectors as well as screening machines. The field results shows that even though the police have these equipments but still they are not adequate with the needs of the police force to cover all the country.
Last but not least, public awareness campaign is very critical in enhancing the involvement of community in the war on terrorism as crime which affect the lives of the individual and community in general. There are ambiguities in understanding and interpreting the concept of terrorism and it is threats both within the police force and the public in general. Therefore, Tanzania Police Force should review the effectiveness and sufficiency of existing awareness programs of community involvements in that area and add it to the community policing project.
5.5 Areas for further study
The study suggested the following topics for further research
i. Assessments of ant-terrorism laws and regulation in combating threat of terrorism
in Tanzania there is a need to study the applicability of these laws in combating
threats of terrorism.
ii. The involvement of Tanzania police force in East African Police Chiefs
Cooperation Organization on counter terrorism measure, how this involvement is
progressing and how this collaboration is helping the Tanzanian police force. iii. Relevant training of police officers in combating terrorism
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92 APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Questionnaire for the representatives from the Ministry of Home Affairs, office of
the IGP, O.P , officers of the special zone in Dar es salaam,
Dear Sir/ Madam
My name is Mr.Mohamed Yusuph, a student pursuing a Masters degree at the University of Dodoma (UDOM). I am undertaking a research on the topic ―The role of the police force in combating threats of terrorism: A case study of the Tanzania Police Force‖. This part is a part of my course for the fulfillment of the award of Masters Degree of
International relations. You are kindly requested to participate in this study and respond to this questionnaire for this purpose. All the information you will provide will be strictly kept confidential and only be used for academic purposes. I thank you for your cooperation and purpose.
(A) Personal particulars
1. Full name……………………………………………
2. Sex: Male ( ) Female ( )
3. Age (years)………………………….
4. Marital status: Married ( ) Single ( ) Divorced ( )
4. Education Level:
i. Primary school ( )
ii. Secondary school ( )
iii. College ( )
iv. University ( )
93 v. Others specify………………………………………………..
6. Job title ……………………………
7. Rank……………………………
B) General Questions:
1. What is your understanding of terrorism?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Can you mention some of incident of terrorism in Tanzania? a)………………………………………………………………………………………… b)……………………………………………………………………………………… c)……………………………………………………………………………………… d)…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. How do you perceive the situation of terrorism cases in the country from 1998 to 2014?
a) Increased ( ) b) Decreased ( ) c) Neutral ( ).
4. What is the role of Tanzania police force in combating threats of terrorism?
a) ………………………………
b) ………………………………. c)……………………………….... d)………………………………..
5. Is there any special training for the officer to deal with the threats of terrorism? a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
94 6. If No in 4 above what are the reasons? a)……………………………… b)……………………………… c)………………………………
7. What kind of training do police officers get on terrorism? a)……………………………………………………… b)……………………………………………………… c)……………………………………………………….
8. How long is the training takes? a).One month ( ) b. Two month ( ) c. Three ( ) d. Four month ( ) e. Six month ( ) f. one year ( )
9. How Tanzania police force is cooperating with other police force in combating terrorism.
10. Are the Tanzania police force involved in the formation of laws and regulation on terrorism? a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
11. If Yes in 10 above how is the police force involved in the formation of laws and regulation on terrorism? a)……………………………………………………… b)……………………………………………………… c)………………………………………………………
12. If No in 11 above why did not involved? a)…………………………………… b)…………………………………… c)……………………………………
95 13. Does TPF have enough resources to deal with threats of terrorism? a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
14. What are the existing numbers of police officers in the country? a) Above 40,000( ) b) Below 40,000 ( ) c) Other specify……………………
15. Are the existing numbers enough? a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
16.) If No in 15 above what are the requirements of the TPF? a)……………………… b)…………………….. c)………………………..
17. What are the main sources of funds for TPF? a)…………… b)…………… c)……………
18. Did the fund enough to deal with all matter of terrorism? a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
19. If No in 18 above what is your opinion? a)……………………………………………………… b)………………………………………………………. c)……………………………………………………….. d)……………………………………………………… e)………………………………………………………..
***Thank you very much for your kind assistance in answering my questions***
96 Appendix 2
Questionnaire for Inspectors
Dear Sir/ Madam
My name is Mr.Mohamed Yusuph, a student pursuing a Masters degree at the University of Dodoma (UDOM). I am undertaking a research on the topic ―The role of the police force in combating threats of terrorism: A case study of the Tanzania Police Force‖. This part is a part of my course for the fulfillment of the award of Masters Degree of
International relations. You are kindly requested to participate in this study and respond to this questionnaire for this purpose. All the information you will provide will be strictly kept confidential and only be used for academic purposes. I thank you for your cooperation and purpose
(A) Personal particulars
1. Full name……………………………………………
2. Sex: Male ( ) Female ( )
3. Age (years)…………………………
.4. Marital status: Married ( ) Single ( ) Divorced ( )
4. Education Level:
i. Primary school ( )
ii. Secondary school ( )
iii. College ( )
iv. University ( )
v. Others specify………………………………………………..
6. Job title ……………………………7. Rank……………………………
97 B) General Questions:
1. What is your understanding of terrorism?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
2. Can you mention some of incident of terrorism in Tanzania? a)………………………………………………………………………………………… b)……………………………………………………………………………………… c)……………………………………………………………………………………… d)…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What is the role of Tanzania police force in combating threats of terrorism?
a). ………………………………
b) ………………………………. c)……………………………….... d)………………………………..
4. Is there any requirement to make an amendment of Tanzania preventive terrorism act of
2002? a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
5. If Yes in 4 above what are those improvements a)……………………………….. b)………………………………… c)………………………………....
6) .If No in 4 above why? Give reason a)……………………………………
98 b)……………………………………… c)………………………………………. d)……………………………………..
7. What kind of training do police officers acquire on terrorism? a)……………………………………………………… b)……………………………………………………… c)……………………………………………………….
8. Do TPF able to investigate terrorism cases? a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
9. Is the police force work together with other law enforcement organ in the process of combating threats terrorism? a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
10. If No in 9 above, what do you think are the reasons? a)…………………………………… b)…………………………………………… c)……………………………………………
11. What do TPF do to detect, investigate and prosecute threats of terrorism? a) ……………………………………………….. b) ……………………………………………….. c) …………………………………………………
12. Is there any ant-terrorism laws and regulations? a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
99 13. If Yes in 12 above how effectiveness is the current Tanzanian anti-terrorism laws and regulations in combating threats terrorism?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
14. What do you think are the most important things that should be done in all process of preparation, formulation of policy and regulation by Tanzania police force for effective way in combating threats of terrorism?
Suggested solutions Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly Agree know disagree 1 2 3 4 5 The senior officers and junior officers in police force should be involved. TPF should seek advice from other law enforcement organs within country. Tanzania Police force should leave only parliament to do so. TPF should seek advice from outside country on how the regulation and policy should be. Recent Tanzania Preventive Terrorism Act of 2002 should be amended
***Thank you very much for your kind assistance in answering my questions***
100 Appendix 3
Questionnaire for General duty police officers, Interpol, officers working within the
CID, The high way patrol police officers and the field force unit officers
Dear Sir/ Madam
My name is Mr.Mohamed Yusuph, a student pursuing a Masters degree at the University of Dodoma (UDOM). I am undertaking a research on the topic ―The role of the police force in combating threats of terrorism: A case study of the Tanzania Police Force‖. This part is a part of my course for the fulfillment of the award of Masters Degree of
International relations. You are kindly requested to participate in this study and respond to this questionnaire for this purpose. All the information you will provide will be strictly kept confidential and only be used for academic purposes. I thank you for your cooperation and purpose
(A) Personal particulars
1. Full name……………………………………………
2. Sex: Male ( ) Female ( )
3. Age (years)…………………………
.4. Marital status: Married ( ) Single ( ) Divorced ( )
4. Education Level:
i. Primary school ( )
ii. Secondary school ( )
iii. College ( )
iv. University ( )
v. Others specify………………………………………………..
6. Job title ……………………………
101 7. Rank…………………………
B) General Questions:
1. What is your understanding of terrorism?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
2. Can you mention some of incident of terrorism in Tanzania? a)………………………………………………………………………………………… b)……………………………………………………………………………………… c)……………………………………………………………………………………… d)…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What is the role of Tanzania police force in combating threats of terrorism?
a) ………………………………
b) ………………………………. c)……………………………….... d)………………………………..
4. Did you attend any training or seminar on terrorism matter? a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
5. If Yes in 4 above where did you attend? a)……………………… b)……………………… c)……………………… d)………………………
102 6. What ways do you use in recording terrorism incident when happens? a) ……………………………………………….. b)…………………………………………………. c) ………………………………………………….
7. Is there any special place to detain the suspect of terrorism?
a) Yes ( ) b No ( )
8. If No in 7 above what are the reasons a)………………… b)……………….. c)……………….. d)……………….
9. Is there any difficulties are you facing in combating the threats of terrorism in the country?
a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
10. If Yes in 9 above, what are the difficulties? a)…………………………………………………………………………………… b)…………………………………………………………………………………… c)…………………………………………………………………………………….
103 11. What do you think are the most important things that should be done by Tanzania police force for effective way in combating threats of terrorism?
Suggested solutions Strongly Agree Don’t Disagree Strongly Agree know disagree 1 2 3 4 5 The senior officers and junior officers in police force become aware of factors that constituent the threats of terrorism. TPF should collaborate with other anti-terrorism activists outside the country in combating terrorism. Police force should prepare special training for the officer to deal with the threats of terrorism Initiatives are needed by TPF to ensure community awareness and involvement in anti-terrorism efforts. The police maintain a good working relationship with other law enforcement agencies like TPDF, National security, Immigration to combat threats of terrorism.
12. Does TPF collaborate with other anti-terrorism activists outside the country in combating terrorism? a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
13. Is there any challenges faced Tanzania police force in combating threats of terrorism?
a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )
104 14. If Yes in 13 above what are those challenges? a) ……………………………………… b) ………………………………………
c) …………………………………….. d) ………………………………………
15. What did you think should be done to reduce the threats of terrorism in the country? a)……………………………………… b)………………………………………. c)……………………………………… d)………………………………………. e)……………………………………...
***Thank you very much for your kind assistance in answering my questions***
105 Appendix: 5
Interview Check list for the representatives from the Ministry of Home Affairs, office of the IGP, O.P, officers of the special zone in Dar es Salaam,
Dear Sir/ Madam
My name is Mr.Mohamed Yusuph, a student pursuing a Masters degree at the University of Dodoma (UDOM). I am undertaking a research on the topic ―The role of the police force in combating threats of terrorism: A case study of the Tanzania Police Force‖. This part is a part of my course for the fulfillment of the award of Masters Degree of
International relations. You are kindly requested to participate in this study and respond to this questionnaire for this purpose. All the information you will provide will be strictly kept confidential and only be used for academic purposes. I thank you for your cooperation and purpose
1. What is your understanding of terrorism?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
2. Can you mention some of incident of terrorism in Tanzania? a)………………………………………………………………………………………… b)……………………………………………………………………………………… c)……………………………………………………………………………………… d)…………………………………………………………………………………………
106 3. How effective are the current Tanzanian anti-terrorism laws and regulations in combating terrorism?
4. To what extent does TPF collaborate with internationals institution in combating threats of terrorism?
5. What are the linkages between TPF with other law enforcement agencies in combating threats of terrorism?
6. What were the challenges faced Tanzania police force in combating threats of terrorism?
7. What are the capacities of TPF in combating threats of terrorism?
8. Is there any regulation of terrorism after the Tanzania preventive terrorism act being implemented?
9. Is the regulation sufficient to deal with terrorism matter?
10. In which area of the act or regulation needs to make some changes?
***Thank you very much for your cooperation***
107 Appendix 6
Impact of the laws and regulations on counter terrorism
These laws and regulations have had a number of impacts as stated in the interviews.
Below are some of the impacts
Lack of clear definition of the term “terrorism” in the Act portends
violation.
Act provides (s.35) for admission of documentary evidence without
requirement for authentication of signature of maker of document in breach
of laws of evidence and of criminal laws and practice.
Officers can arrest without warrant where they have cause to believe an
offence has been committed.
Act prohibits right to bail vide section 46.
Extension of police powers of arrest to immigration officers and
intelligence personnel with no police training.
Minister granted too broad discretionary powers to ‗declare any person a
suspected international terrorist‘.
Act makes no provision for legal aid.
Attempts have been made to link innocent Muslims to terrorism.
Lack of procedural safeguards to protect suspects during trial; spirit of Act
points to the contrary.
Section 49 curtails right to Bail.
Undue interference with one‘s personal dignity and privacy.
l) Overriding effect of the Act over other laws or human rights instruments; the
provisions of this Act contained in any enactment other than this Act or in any
108 instrument having effect by virtue of any enactment other than this Act‘.
(Section 11) m) Draconian sentencing from 10-30 years without taking into account gravity of
offence n) Instances of violation of Freedom of Expression as in case of Dr Mario
Marianna, Italian Consul in Zanzibar in 2003 o) Instance of likely violation of freedom of Association exemplified in the winding
up of an organization, namely the Saudi charitable organization AL-Haramain
Islamic Foundation p) Violation of Freedom of Worship; there is a general assumption that all
fundamental Muslims are terrorist, and some such as Khamis Khalifa have
been interrogated severally. q) The Act can be used to deny applications for registration or revoke registration
of refugees as well as prevent entry and order removal of person under section
46 r) Act portends violation of Right to Access to Information; where one gets
information that is specific; the burden falls on him to prove that he did not
wish to receive that information.
109