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Bansah Et Al. 2018 Cleaner Production.Pdf Journal of Cleaner Production 202 (2018) 465e475 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Cleaner Production journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro Socioeconomic and environmental assessment of informal artisanal and small-scale mining in Ghana * K.J. Bansah a, , N.K. Dumakor-Dupey b, B.A. Kansake a, E. Assan c, P. Bekui b a Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, USA b University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa, Ghana c Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA article info abstract Article history: The socioeconomic and environmental impacts of informal artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in Received 31 October 2017 Ghana are assessed in this paper. The paper includes a case study of an informal ASM-affected com- Received in revised form munity located in the Western Region of Ghana. A two-phase mixed-method approach consisting of 16 August 2018 literature reviews, questionnaires, interviews, and water quality assessments was employed. The Accepted 16 August 2018 informal ASM was found to be a significant source of livelihood for many rural people who have few Available online 17 August 2018 employment alternatives. However, it was observed to promote truancy, child labor, teenage pregnancy, and environmental degradation. Water quality was significantly affected by turbidity, followed by Keywords: Small-scale mining manganese and iron, leading to a water quality index at least 500% higher than the upper limit for Galamsey potability. The authors describe economic, political, social, regulatory, and technological factors as major Artisanal mining drivers for the informal ASM. Formalization of the informal ASM in Ghana could minimize the socio- Environment economic impacts and ensure environmental performance. Water pollution © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Land degradation 1. Introduction describe the environmentally dangerous nature of ASM and its associated health and safety consequences for workers and sur- The socioeconomic significance of artisanal and small-scale rounding communities and attribute the issues to lack of knowl- mining (ASM) of precious minerals has been discussed by many edge, poor technology, economic restrictions, lack of law authors. It provides employment (Hilson, 2016), supports liveli- enforcement, and inadequate environmental legislation. hoods of poor rural populations (Fisher et al., 2009), and contrib- ASM has been practiced in Ghana for hundreds of years and utes to national income (Shen and Gunson, 2006), through taxes, continues to be an important economic activity, particularly within export earnings, and provision of raw materials for local industries remote and poorer areas of the country (Aryee et al., 2003). ASM in (e.g., jewelry industry). According to the World Bank (2013),an Ghana has mainly focused on the production of gold and diamonds. estimated 100 million people in the world depend on ASM for It accounts for more than 30% of total gold produced and is livelihood. currently the only source of diamond in the country. ASM generates Despite the economic gains of ASM, it is known to cause secu- foreign exchange; provides direct and indirect employment, espe- rity, safety, and environmental issues such as mercury contami- cially in rural communities; provides raw materials for local gold- nation (Hilson et al., 2007; Serfor-Armah et al., 2005), land smiths; and promotes local commerce. The Minerals Commission of degradation (Hentschel et al., 2002), pollution, and harm to Ghana (government regulator), estimates more than one million biodiversity (Kitula, 2006). It is also reported to cause land disputes people are directly involved in registered ASM. and violent confrontations between the artisanal and small-scale Artisanal and small-scale mining exists in two forms in Ghana: miners and large-scale mining firms and/or government security licensed and unlicensed (informal ASM) operations. The informal force (Andrew, 2003; Aubynn, 2009). Hentschel et al. (2002) also ASM is locally called galamsey, derived from the English phrase, “gather them and sell.” Formerly, informal ASM involved the uti- lization of rudimentary tools (e.g., pickaxes, chisels, sluices, and * Corresponding author. Mining and Nuclear Engineering Department Missouri pans) and techniques to exploit mineral deposits. The typical University of Science and Technology Rolla, MO 65401, USA. mining processes involve digging of mineral-bearing gravels/rocks, E-mail address: [email protected] (K.J. Bansah). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.150 0959-6526/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 466 K.J. Bansah et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 202 (2018) 465e475 transportation of excavated materials (gravels/rocks), and recovery into economic, social, regulatory, technological, and political. to obtain the gold for sale. While the digging process commonly results in vegetation destruction, the recovery process typically 3.1. Economic factors leads to discharge of contaminated effluents into streams and the natural environment. More recently, the sector has seen gradual Even though there is emerging evidence that wealthy in- mechanization (use of excavators, trucks, dredging machines, dividuals in society engage in informal ASM by acting as sponsors crushers, etc.), which has increased the scale of mining with its and investing in the activities (Hilson and Potter, 2005), informal concomitant environmental, safety, and security issues. This ASM in many parts of Ghana is largely poverty driven. Informal increased scale of informal ASM has resulted in public outcry, with ASM has been practiced for more than 100 years as source of many people calling for a permanent ban on the activities, while livelihood in many communities without the participation of pro- the miners call for legitimacy of the informal ASM because it is their fessionals or affluent people. Andrews (2015) shares views that only source of livelihood. This view is similar to what was reported informal ASM has been practiced for survival for many years in by Smith et al. (2016, p.50), who stated that ASM is “reviled by its rural communities. Moreover, Banchirigah (2008) indicates that opponents and romanticized by its proponents.” people engage in ASM because there are few income alternatives Additionally, much of the existing scholarly work has consid- and attributes increasing informal ASM activities to unemploy- ered socioeconomic and environmental issues of ASM separately. ment. A parlance that has become popular among informal ASM These topics (socioeconomic and environmental issues of ASM) workers in Ghana is, “It is better to die looking for food than to sit have not been discussed together in a single publication. Accord- and die from hunger.” ingly, there is lack of consensus on the way forward. This complex Increasing levels of unemployment and poverty have driven situation has even caused the Ghanaian government to place a many people into informal ASM (Tschakert and Singha, 2007). temporary ban on ASM activities in the West African country, while Hilson and Potter (2005) also cite high unemployment in Ghana as authorities explore alternative and sustainable measures to a cause for professionals', semi-skilled personnel, and university manage the ASM sector. We believe that a holistic assessment graduates' engagement in informal ASM. These professionals presents an opportunity for consensus building towards a sus- typically do not directly engage in the mining, but act as sponsors tainable ASM sector whose socioeconomic and environmental by providing financial or material resources to the miners and impacts are significantly improved. Thus, we perform a compre- buying their products at discounted prices. In certain communities, hensive socioeconomic and environmental assessment of ASM to dislocation of informal farmers by large-scale mining companies contribute to the literature and to inform stakeholders' views and has impoverished such farmers (Banchirigah, 2008). These farmers discussions towards an improved ASM. To achieve the goal of the may engage in informal ASM in order to escape poverty and to study, a two-phase mixed-method approach comprising of litera- provide for the needs of their dependents. ture reviews, questionnaires, interviews, and water quality as- sessments was employed. While presenting empirical data from a 3.2. Social factors case study in the Tarkwa mining district of Ghana, where ASM activities are widespread, the study also discusses the situation in Many informal ASM workers see mining as a way of life that other areas where ASM is practiced. As part of its broader impacts, existed long before large-scale mining operations (Tschakert and the paper could also serve as a useful reference to guide various Singha, 2007). Though they are aware of the illegal nature of governments who are undertaking ASM reforms in their countries. their operations, they feel marginalized by government and multinational companies who operate on their lands. As a result, 2. Methods they “dig for justice” by operating illegally since they consider the “land they work on as natural entitlement” (Andrews, 2015). Relevant literature on factors contributing to ASM and the so- Andrews (2015) therefore proposed addressing social injustice and cioeconomic and environmental effects of ASM were reviewed. marginalization of operators to minimize informal ASM. Literature was sourced from scientific databases, including Web of The issues raised by Andrews (2015) are confirmed by informal
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