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fm.qxd 11/12/01 1:05 PM Page i THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY AMAZING SCIENTISTS A Book of Answers for Kids Jim Callan A Stonesong Press Book John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York fcopyebk.qxd 12/12/01 11:03 AM Page ii To Polly . my amazing discovery Copyright ©2001 by The New York Public Library and The Stonesong Press, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The name “The New York Public Library” and the representation of the lion appearing in this work are trademarks and the property of The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authoriza- tion through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permission Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, email: [email protected]. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional services. If legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought. This title is also available in print as ISBN 0-471-39289-8. Some content that appears in the print version of this book may not be available in this electronic edition. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.Wiley.com CONTENTS Introduction . 1 SCIENTISTS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD . 3 AMAZING BIOLOGISTS . 27 AMAZING CHEMISTS . 57 AMAZING PHYSICISTS . 85 AMAZING ASTRONOMERS . 115 AMAZING EARTH SCIENTISTS . 141 Amazing Scientists Timeline . 160 Glossary . 162 Selected Bibliography . 165 The New York Public Library’s Recommended Reading List . 166 Index . 167 Photography Credits . 172 This 1587 depiction of Tycho Brahe in his observatory shows the astronomer pointing to the innovative instruments used in his work, such as a quadrant, a sextant, and an armillary sphere. INTRODUCTION Which founder of chemistry died by the guillotine during the French Revolution? Which physicist discovered the laws of gravity, motion, and optics while he was on a break from college and didn’t reveal his findings for 20 years? Which Greek scientist held off an invasion by the mighty Roman Empire with his ingenious inventions? Which astronomer made discoveries so threat- ening he was nearly condemned to death? These are just a few of the questions answered in The New York Public Library Amazing Scientists: A Book of Answers for Kids. In the following pages, you’ll be introduced to some of the greatest scientists of the last 2,500 years. Some were ridiculed for their theories. Some offended the religious beliefs of their time. A few died in their search for the truths of science. The history of science has been an amazing journey and we can only tell you some of the sto- ries in these pages. To learn more, a good place to look is the New York Public Library or your local library. From the beginning, humans have tried to understand their world and their universe by asking questions. Why does the Sun appear to move in the sky? Why are there mountains? At first, the answers were pretty fanciful. The Sun was carried by a giant boat on a great river. The mountains were there to hold up the sky. Many different gods and goddesses were thought to control the workings of nature. An ancient science, astrology, theorized that the stars and planets caused many events on Earth. 2AMAZING S CIENTISTS These beliefs lasted for thousands of years, but some people wanted more than beliefs; they wanted to know the truth. Science comes from the Latin word meaning “to know.” The scientists in this book kept asking questions until they could discover the truth. More questions remain. How did the universe begin? What is the cure for cancer? They await the work of future scientists to find the amazing answers. What was the ancient world? ◆ Who was Aristotle? ◆ Why is Aristotle considered the father of Biology? ◆ What was Aristotle’s most important scientific contri- bution? ◆ WhatScientists were Aristotle’s contributions to astronomy and physics? ◆ Who was Hippocrates? ◆ How did Hippocratesof change the medical diagnosis and treatment? ◆ What Hippocratic ideas remain in prac- tice today? ◆ What is the Hippocratic oath ◆ Who was Archimedes?Ancient ◆ What is the Archimede’sWorld screw? ◆ Did Archimedes really once run through the streets of Syracuse naked yelling “Eureka! Eureka!”? ◆ How did Archimedes single-handedly hold off the entire Roman What was the ancient world? There is no exact date when the period known as the ancient world began. There are, however, two important developments that mark the transition of mankind’s his- tory from prehistoric to ancient: farming and written language. Around 8000 B.C., the human lifestyle started to change as people learned to be farmers. Before this, most humans roamed the Earth, hunting animals and gathering food. When the food supply in one area ran out, they would move on to another area. The development of farming meant people were set- tling in one area rather than moving around. The areas settled by these new farmers were in warm and fertile river valleys, where crops would grow well. Some of the earliest farmers settled in an area called the Fertile Cres- cent, which included the valleys of the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates Rivers in what is now Egypt and Iraq. As farming populations grew, cities developed. Peo- ple now had time to do more than simply survive. They built homes and places of worship, they formed govern- ments, and they shared beliefs. As the people in different cities cooperated, civilizations (from the Latin for “living in cities”) like Egypt and Mesopotamia emerged. c01.qxd 11/12/01 9:43 AM Page 4 4AMAZING S CIENTISTS Crafts like stonework and cloth weaving developed, so there were products to trade with nearby civilizations. The trading of goods led to two great inventions in the 3000s B.C.: the wheel and written language. With the wheel, people could transport their goods. With written language, they could communicate and share knowledge. From 3000 B.C. to 1000 B.C., civilizations developed throughout the world—in India, China, the Americas, and Africa. The greatest of these was Greece. Starting around 600 B.C., Greece prospered because of its expertise in crafts, trade, and agriculture. This made possible tremen- dous advances in literature, architecture, mathematics, and science. Greek scholars studied nature to discover how it worked. Most of the scientists in this chapter are Greek. The Roman Empire conquered Greece in 146 B.C. The Romans tried to continue the tradition of Greek learning, but their strength was in government and the military. Their empire grew so huge that it became impossible to manage. Rome fell to German barbarian tribes in A.D. 476. This event is usually considered the end of the ancient world and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Who was Aristotle? Several Greek thinkers who lived between the sixth century B.C. and the second century A.D. are considered the world’s first scientists. While most scholars of their time relied on religion and myths to explain how nature worked, these Greek thinkers used observation and logic. The most influential of these new scientists was Aristotle. Even his wrong ideas were still accepted centuries after his death. Plato realized Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. in Macedonia in north- Aristotle was a ern Greece. When he was 17, he went to Athens to study special student. at the Academy, the ancient world’s first university, He nicknamed founded in 387 B.C. by the great Greek scholar and edu- him Anagnostes, which means cator Plato. Aristotle was deeply influenced by Plato’s “the Brain.” ideas on the formation of the universe, the composition of celestial bodies, and the forces creating the movements of these bodies. After Plato’s death, Aristotle returned to Macedonia and became the tutor to the Macedonian king’s son, c01.qxd 11/12/01 9:43 AM Page 5 S CIENTISTS OF THE A NCIENT W ORLD 5 Alexander. It was the most important job Aristotle would ever have. Alexander loved his teacher, and when he later ruled the world as Alexander the Great, he made sure Aristotle always had what he needed to conduct his sci- entific studies. He helped Aristotle set up his own school in Athens called the Lyceum. The school acquired a huge library and zoo, and it was here that Aristotle would con- duct his most important work. Why is Aristotle considered the father of biology? Aristotle’s great strength as a scientist was observa- tion, and he put this strength to good use in studying Earth’s animals. He compared their anatomy, studied their habits, and recorded thousands of these observations. In This engraving, which first appeared in one of Galileo’s books, depicts Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Copernicus, three of the greatest astronomers of all time. It is meant to show that each astronomer built on the work of the scientists who came before him.

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