Holt2019.Pdf

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New light on the Inner Light: An assessment of how Rufus Jones attempted to synthesize Quakerism and modern thought in Social Law in the Spiritual World by Helen Holt Doctor of Philosophy The University of Edinburgh 2019 2 Abstract Concerned by the threat that psychology seemed to pose to Christian belief, Rufus Jones wrote Social Law in the Spiritual World in 1904 to show how this new science would actually lead to a deeper understanding of God. In particular, Jones, an American Quaker, discussed the relationship between humans and God in terms of the Quaker concept of the Inner Light. He argued that the traditional dualistic formulation, which saw the Inner Light as distinct from human nature, was psychologically flawed and that instead it should be understood as describing an inherent relationship between God and humans. Jones returned to the ideas in Social Law throughout his life, invariably generating controversy. Liberal Quakers endorsed his use of psychology, and his novel formulation of the Inner Light became axiomatic. Many Evangelical Quakers, however, worried that he was promoting humanism and marginalizing the need for Christ. He has thus been feted for revitalizing Quakerism on the one hand while being accused of making this Quakerism Christless on the other. In spite of his enduring legacy, however, his key ideas have received little critical attention. This thesis identifies the multiple strands of thought that are apparent in Social Law, assesses Jones’ attempts to synthesize them, and explains why his ideas have met with such varied reactions. I conclude that Jones’ new formulation of the Inner Light draws on the idealism of Josiah Royce, the psychology of William James and the social imperative of the Social Gospel movement. Furthermore, I propose five reasons why Jones’ synthesis provoked criticism. First, although Jones self-identified as a Christian, his theism draws on the ‘Absolute’ of Royce and the ‘more’ of James so is actually multivalent. Second, he used psychology to argue that humans and God were related through the subconscious, a strategy that carried with it an implicit universalism. Third, Jones had an experiential approach to Christian doctrine, which meant that his formulation of the Inner Light explained his own experience of God, but not that of someone who had no sense of God’s presence. Fourth, his deliberate avoidance of theological concepts meant that he did not have the theological tools to address the points at which he diverged from traditional Christian doctrine, for example concerning how the Creator and creation could be distinct. Finally, his informal prose meant that he was particularly vulnerable to being quoted out of context and therefore of being misinterpreted. My thesis starts with Jones’ accounts of his childhood experiences of God and a brief overview of the relevant aspects of the thought of James and Royce. I then analyse how he wove this thought together with Christian ideas about God, Christ and human nature, and with Quaker ideas about the Inner Light and mysticism. Finally, I assess the wide range of reactions to his ideas that are apparent both in unpublished archival letters and in the secondary literature. It is hoped that this critical evaluation of an important Quaker thinker, who is little known outside Quakerism, will be of use both to those interested in the historical interaction between Christianity and psychology and to those seeking to understand the origins of today’s ‘post-Christian’ Quakerism. 3 4 Lay summary In the early 20th century, many Christians were concerned about the questions that the new science of psychology was asking about the nature of the soul and religious experience. The American Quaker Rufus Jones, however, was convinced that psychology, far from being a threat to Christian belief, would provide new insights into the nature of God and the relationship between God and humans. His 1904 book, Social Law in the Spiritual World, was an attempt to share this conviction with the general public. The book focused on what Quakers refer to as the Inner Light, or ‘that of God in everyone’. Whereas Quakers had traditionally understood the Inner Light as a divine spark implanted in humans (like a divine candle in a human lantern), Jones insisted that this view did not fit with the new discoveries of psychology. Instead, the Inner Light was both human and divine. Jones returned to the ideas in Social Law again and again throughout his life, invariably generating controversy. While some Quakers endorsed his use of psychology and his ideas about the Inner Light, others worried that he had too optimistic a view of human nature and that Jesus was no longer needed to reconcile humans and God. Thus, although Jones has been called one of the most influential Quakers in the history of the movement, not everyone approves of his legacy. In spite of his influence, Jones’ ideas have not been critically assessed. My thesis identifies the multiple strands of thought that are apparent in Social Law, assesses Jones’ attempts to weave them together, and explains why his ideas have met with such varied reactions. I conclude that Jones draws on the Harvard philosopher Josiah Royce, who argued that God is the ultimate consciousness, and on the Harvard psychologist William James, who believed that humans are related to a ‘more’ through the subconscious. I propose that the ideas in Social Law provoked criticism partly because Royce’s and James’ ideas differed from traditional Christian ideas about God, and partly because Jones’ informal style meant that he was often misinterpreted. I start by considering Jones’ accounts of his childhood experiences of God and giving a brief overview of the relevant aspects of the thought of James and Royce. I then analyse how he wove this thought together with Christian ideas about God, Christ and human nature, and with Quaker ideas about the Inner Light and mysticism. Finally, I assess the wide range of reactions to his ideas that are apparent both in archival letters and in published comments on his work. It is hoped that this critical evaluation of an important Quaker thinker, who is little known outside Quakerism, will be of use both to those interested in the historical interaction between Christianity and psychology and to those seeking to understand why British Quakerism has shifted from a Christian movement to one that welcomes people with a diverse range of beliefs. 5 6 For my parents, Sandra and Morley Forrester, with gratitude for over half a century of unwavering support 7 8 Acknowledgements Rufus Jones recognized that the spiritual life involved individual effort in the context of a supportive community, and the same could be said for the academic life. In this respect, I am especially grateful to my supervisor, Dr Mark Harris, who managed to tread the fine line between offering suggestions, encouragement and constructive criticism on the one hand and letting me own this project on the other. My secondary supervisor, Dr Steven Sutcliffe, offered helpful feedback on early drafts of material relating to mysticism and psychology. More generally, the many excellent courses offered by the Institute of Academic Development proved invaluable in easing my transition from erstwhile mathematician to researcher in the humanities, and the School of Divinity provided a fees scholarship, for which I am grateful. Rufus Jones and his era were brought to life for me by the archival letters in Haverford College library. I am grateful to the librarian, Sarah Horowitz, who retrieved letters from what I imagined to be dusty shoeboxes, scanned them, and sent them through the ether to Peebles. Family and friends also had a role to play, particularly as I studied from home in Peebles rather than in Edinburgh. I thank my husband Martin for emotional (and financial!) support, and my two sons, Calum and Andrew, for their forbearance. Calum was a source of empathy for the highs and lows of academic study, and Andrew’s gentle teasing always made me smile and stopped me taking myself too seriously. Friends supported and encouraged me in my return to university, and have patiently and politely listened to me enthuse about early 20th century Quakerism. Finally, my gratitude goes to the small community of Tweeddale Quakers, who offered a warm welcome when I turned up at the beginning of my studies knowing virtually nothing about Quakerism. Many of them are physically frail, but they are spiritually robust, and I have found their curiosity about and engagement with life inspiring. 9 10 Declaration I declare that this thesis has been composed solely by myself and that it has not been submitted, in whole

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