Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing

January 2003 Volume 6 No. 1 Working Party 2.08.02

Web page at: http://iufro.boku.ac.at/iufro/iufronet/d2/wu20802/nl20802.htm

Message from the Coordinator Improving and Biomass WP 2.08.02 Production of Some Casuarina Species through Symbiotic Khongsak Pinyopusarerk CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Association in Egypt PO Box E4008, Kingston, ACT 2604, Tel: + 61 2 6281 8247 Samira R. Mansour Fax: + 61 2 6281 8266 Botany Department Email: [email protected] Faculty of Science Suez Canal University A question often asked is why use nitrogen-fixing trees Ismailia Egypt (NFT) and what is their advantage over non-NFT Tel: +20 64 341418 species? There are many good reasons of course. Since Fax: +20 64 327896 no grows without nitrogen and large areas of Email: [email protected] tropical soils have low supplies of this nutrient, NFT Introduction species can establish themselves under these Biological nitrogen fixation has received increasing interest in conditions through their ability to fix nitrogen through recent years for its significance to the ecosystem. Actinorhizal symbiotic micro-organisms that live in root nodules and are trees which can input a huge amount of nitrogen to convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form. Put in the ecosystem through symbiotic nitrogen (N2) fixation simple words, NFT species do not depend solely on process with filamentous soil bacteria (Frankia). The N2 which is fixed by actinorhizal plants is comparable to the that available nitrogen in the soils like non-NFT species. The fixed by legumes. Casuarina species are the most important majority of more than 15,000 species in the family actinorhizal plants in the tropics and sub-tropics. Leguminosae and in other families such as Casuarinaceae and Elaegnaceae are known to fix nitrogen. It is therefore not uncommon for NFT species to find their way into all forms of planting for a wide variety of products and services.

Members will notice a new IUFRO logo on this cover page. The IUFRO board agreed to adopt this new logo as part of its strategy that aims at showing IUFRO as a modern organisation. This followed a word change ‘forestry’ to ‘forest’ in the name of this organisation.

I take this opportunity to welcome many new members of this IUFRO Working Party. Please feel free to use this newsletter as a venue for sharing information and your experiences on NFT species with other members and public audiences.

Three-year-old Casuarina cunninghamiana x C. glauca hybrid in a Frankia inoculation trial at Suez Canal University Farm, Egypt

Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees Casuarina species are widely grown in Egypt for The results demonstrate the need for a suitable multipurpose uses. The major benefits of casuarinas in Egypt Frankia - Casuarina combination to ensure maximum yield are the control of shifting sand, windbreaks for villages and and high nitrogen production in Casuarina plantations. It is agricultural sites from strong coastal winds, and for the concluded that inoculation has significant effect in improving production of wood for construction and firewood. Today, Casuarina plantations and these results confirm the findings casuarinas are used as a pioneer species for soil reclamation. of Reddell (1990) and Sougafoura et al. (1989). With agriculture expansion, more land needs to be reclaimed to meet increasing food demand and thus Casuarina trees are Acknowledgements in high demand for use on-farms. Improving Casuarina The study was a part of project funded by the Ministry of species for wood and biomass production as well as high Agriculture of Egypt in cooperation with Biotechnologie des capability for nitrogen fixation can be achieved by inoculation Symbioses Forestières Tropicales (ORSTOM/CIRAD-Forêt, (Reddell 1990; Mansour et al. 1996). Therefore, selection for France). The experimental design was established in the best Frankia - Casuarina combinations is essential. consultation with Dr Dwight Baker, Panlabs (USA).

The present study reports findings of a study carried out References at Suez Canal University Farm, Egypt for the selection Mansour, S.R, Zaied, A. and Dewedar A. 1996. Performance of two of suitable Frankia for C. cunninghamiana and Casuarina species inoculated with pure culture of Frankia C. cunninghamiana x C. glauca hybrid. under field conditions. Egypt Journal of Microbiology 31 (2):287-302. Materials and Methods The experiment was established in new cultivated desert site Reddell, P. 1990. Increasing productivity in planting of Casuarina by at Suez Canal University Farm (latitude 30°40′N, longitude inoculation with Frankia. In: El-Lakany, M.H., Turnbull, 32°15′E, altitude 50m asl). The mean annual rainfall is less J.W. and Brewbaker, J.L. (eds.) Advances in Casuarina than 20 mm and the mean annual temperature ranges from Research and Utilization. Proceedings of the second 18° to 35°C. The trial was irrigated twice a week in the first international casuarina workshop, Desert Development year and once a week in subsequent years. Each plant Center, American University, Cairo, Egypt. p. 133-140. received about 250 mL of water per each irrigation time. Sougoufara, B., Diem, H.G. and Dommergues, Y.R. 1989. Response Soil characteristics at the site are typically sandy with pH 8.1 of field-grown Casuarina equisetifolia to inoculation with and low N content (total N 0.005%), P (available P 3.4 ppm) Frankia strain ORS021002 entrapped in alginate beads. and organic carbon (0.12%). Casuarina cunninghamiana and Plant and Soil 118: 133-137. C. cunninghamiana x C. glauca hybrid were chosen for the experiment. Inoculation was carried by using pure Frankia culture Cg14 and crushed nodule suspension. Pure culture was propagated for three weeks and then harvested hyphae were Performance of Two Exotic homogenized. Each plant received 0.01PCV (Packed Cell Volume) (50 µg protein mL-1). Crushed nodule suspension Nitrogen-Fixing Species at materials were collected, surface sterilized, homogenized and suspended in sterilized distilled water and each plant received Chittagong University Campus, 0.01 gm mL-1 nodule homogenate. Un-inoculated plants Bangladesh served as a control. The experiment was a randomized complete block design with four replicates, 80 plants/plot and 2.5 m x 2.5 m spacing. Plant height, wood production, plant M. K. Hossain and B. M. Khan dry weights and total nitrogen content were assessed three Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences years after planting out. Chittagong University Chittagong-4331, Bangladesh Results and Discussion E-mail: [email protected] Inoculated plants with either pure culture or crushed nodule suspension were more productive compared to un-inoculated Introduction plants. Pure culture of Frankia strain Cg14 produced greater Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp. is believed to be the most values for plant height, wood production, biomass and total widely cultivated exotic tree in Bangladesh. It grows in a wide nitrogen content at age 3 years than crushed nodules variety of soils and climates up to 1000 m asl (Hughes 1987). (Table 1). The Casuarina hybrid appears to perform better It is used in many parts of the tropics for fuel wood, living than pure C. cunninghamiana in all traits. fences, fodder, soil improvement and plantation shade species. The leaves by their chemical composition have a high Table 1. Effect of inoculation and inoculation types on plant height, potential for use as animal feeds and have better nutrient wood and biomass production and nitrogen yield of two Casuarina digestive values than grasses. The ability of Gliricidia to species at three years after planting produce a wide range of products including poles, green manure and bee forage and its management under a variety of Estimated Species Inoculum Plant wood Plant dry Nitrogen silvicultural regimes both in the pure woodlots and the Height production Weight yield agroforestry mixtures have some advantages over other (m) (m3ha-1)(kg tree-1) (kg ha-1) species (Falvey 1982). Casuarina hybrid Control 2.1 0.8 1.5 27.0 Pure culture 6.1 27.5 27.5 481.6 Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. is a small (2-12m tall) Crushed nodule 4.4 14.6 17.7 311.5 leguminous tree with a trunk diameter of up to 30 cm. Tree develops a dense canopy and has white to red brown bark. C. cunninghamiana Control 1.8 0.4 0.9 10.9 The plant is native to the humid and subhumid regions of Pure culture 5.1 18.2 18.9 336.2 Crushed nodule 4.2 16.1 15.2 278.9 Central America and Mexico and is found from southern Mexico to central Panama, approximately between 8° and

2 Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees 19°N (MacQueen 1992). The plant is not very drought Both G. sepium and C. calothyrsus are extremely versatile tolerant although it is able to withstand some dry periods. In plants being used in a number of agroforestry applications humid climates it is evergreen, whereas in areas with a long throughout the tropics. They produce high quality fuel wood, dry season it is semi-deciduous. living fences, green manure, shade and forage. They grow over a wide range of soil types and climates and are often The objective of the present study was to assess individual outstanding on infertile sites where they are extensively used and comparative growth performance of these two valuable for land reclamation. The high yielding ability and high nitrogen-fixing exotic tree species in the Chittagong protein content of C. calothyrsus indicates the potential forage University Campus area, Bangladesh. value in the tropics. From the present findings it may be concluded that C. calothyrsus may be used in further Materials and Methods plantation programs in Bangladesh with different silvicultural A small amount of C. calothyrsus seeds was received from management practices. Further evaluation trials of the species Dr R. C. Gutteridge of Department of Agriculture, University are needed to confirm growth performances and benefits in of Queensland, Australia after the completion of Forage Tree reforestation programs under different environmental Legume Workshop in Queensland University in December conditions. 1998. Gliricidia sepium seeds were collected from Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI), Chittagong. The References seeds were dried properly and stored in airtight polythene Falvey, J. L. 1982. Gliricidia maculata- a review. International Tree bags until used for the experiment. Crops Journal 2: 1-14. Hughes, C. E. 1987. Biological consideration in designing a seed The seeds were sown in polythene bags after pre-sowing collection strategy for Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp. treatments. The poly bags were filled with soil and (Leguminosae). Commonwealth Forestry Review 66: 31-48. decomposed cow dung in a ratio of 3:1. After three months the seedlings were transferred to the field in July 1999. Prior MacQueen, D. J. 1992. Calliandra calothyrsus: Implications of plant to out planting, seedlings were hardened by a gradual , ecology and biology for seed collection. reduction of irrigation. A randomized complete block design Commonwealth Forestry Review 71: 20-34. was followed with six replicates. In each plot, both the Gliricidia and Calliandra were planted in an alternate row. Distance between rows and plants within rows were 1.5 m and 1.0 m respectively.

All the plants in the stands were assessed for survival, initial Characteristics of Nodules of growth and yield. The total height, diameter at breast height Agroforestry Tree Legumes for (dbh), crown diameter, number of shoots at dbh level of each individual plants were measured and 12 random plants of each Sustainable Production in Niger species were harvested at ground level to evaluate green, air dry and oven dry weight. Air-dry weight were determined Delta Region, Nigeria after drying the samples in the open air for 2 weeks and dry weight of stems and leaves including twigs were determined in the oven drying at 70°C for 48 hours. Paul Anegbeh World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Results and Discussion International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Both species had high survival (90-96%) but C. calothyrsus IITA High Rainfall Station, Onne, Nigeria C/o L.W. Lambourn and Co, Carolyn House, recorded higher values for all growth parameters measured 26 Dingwall Road (Table 1). However, G. sepium had a much higher number Croydon, CR9 3EE, United Kingdom stems per ha. Tel: +234 2 241 2626 ext. 2386, 2399 Fax: +234 2 241 2221 Table 1. Mean growth rates and mean biomass production of Email: [email protected] or [email protected] Gliricidia sepium and Calliandra calothyrsus two years after planting Zac Tchoundjeu World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) ICRAF Cameroon Growth parameters G. sepium C. calothyrsus BP 2067 Yaounde, Cameroon Tel: +237 237 560 Survival (%) 90 96 Fax: +237 237 440 Mean height (m) 3.0 4.2 Email: [email protected] or [email protected] Mean dbh (cm) 2.1 3.7 Prof. Mildred Amakiri Mean crown diameter (m) 1.7 2.8 Dean, Post Graduate School Number of shoot at dbh level 2.6 8.8 Rivers State University of Science and Technology Stem fresh weight (kg) 2.6 7.0 P. M. B. 5080, Port Harcourt Leaf fresh weight (kg) 0.5 2.5 Rivers State, Nigeria Stem air dry weight (kg) 1.7 4.6 Email: [email protected] Leaf air dry weight (kg) 0.3 1.1 Stem oven dry weight (kg) 0.7 2.9 Introduction Leaf oven dry weight (kg) 0.2 0.8 There has been an increased demand for food and forest prod- Above ground biomass (kg) 0.8 3.7 ucts as a result of increased population pressure in the Niger Number of stems (ha-1) 3000 322 Delta region of Nigeria in the last two decades in the face of Basal area (m2 ha-1)1.03.5dwindling resources. Sustainable production of land depends Volume (m3 ha-1)3.114.8 largely on nitrogen input to the soil from both biological and non-biological sources. Any nitrogen fixed by agroforestry

Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees 3 tree legume is an added advantage, particularly on acid soils of Table 1. Characteristics of nodules of four agroforestry tree species Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The unaffordable high cost of in Niger Delta Nigeria. inorganic nitrogen fertilizers to rural farmers makes it necessary to introduce legumes into farming systems. It is imperative, Species Family Nodule Degree Number morphology of nodulation of dead nodules therefore, to introduce agroforestry tree legumes (Sprent 1986) Enterolobium fan-shaped + 20 into the already degraded lands in the Niger Delta to help Inga Mimosoideae semi-globose ++++ 38 reclaim swampy lands, improve soil fertility, increase Indigofera Papilionoideae globose +++ 25 food production and enhance food security on a Millettia Papilionoideae bifurcate ++ 32 Notes: sustainable basis. With their high percentages nodulation and + Sparse nodulation (less than 10 nodules per plant) potential multiple uses, Enterolobium, Indigofera, Inga and ++ Moderate nodulation (greater than 20 nodules per plant) Millettia are valuable agroforestry species (Anegbeh 1997; +++ Heavy nodulation (greater than 200 nodules per plant) ++++ Very heavy nodulation (greater than 400 nodules per plant) Anegbeh and Tchoundjeu 2002) for reforestation. This study was carried out to examine the characteristics of nodules of four The shape of nodules of the surveyed plants varied agroforestry tree legumes for sustainable agricultural considerably (Table 1). The nodule shapes in Mimosoideae production in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. were fan-shaped, lobed and semi-globose. In Papilionoideae Materials and Methods the nodules shapes were bifurcate, globose and elongated. The study was conducted at the High Rainfall Station of the Most of the young nodules of Inga and Indigofera were International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Onne, round, white and smooth-surfaced while older nodules were Nigeria (latitude 04°51′N, longitude 07°03′E, altitude 30 m of various shapes. Nodules of Millettia and Enterolobium asl), which is in the Niger Delta zone of southeast Nigeria. were mostly brown in colour and rough-surfaced. Nodule The site has a 20-year average of 2400 mm annual shapes were classified into different types as described by the rainfall with a monomodal distribution (falling from drawings of Lim and Ng (1977). March - November), and a mean annual temperature of 26.5°C. Soils at the experimental site are classified as Ultisol Conclusions derived from coastal sediments, strongly acidic (pH 4.4) and The supply of available nitrogen is a decided advantage in of low fertility. They are classified as loamy, siliceous, Niger Delta, which has a high percentage of nitrogen-deficient isohyperthermic, typic paleudult (coarse-loamy) (Hulugalle et al. 1989). Four species were used for this study viz. soils. In this region, it should be possible to improve nitrogen (Jacq.) Griseb., Indigofera fixation by selecting suitable species that are tolerant to high zollingeriana Miq. (Syn. I. teysmannia.), Inga edulis Mart. acidity. Of the exotic species with high nodulation and Millettia laurentii (O). percentages, the acid tolerant Inga and Millettia have the greatest potential for reforestation and rehabilitation of Root nodulation survey was determined using the method degraded soils in Niger Delta region leading to sustainable described by Anegbeh and Tchoundjeu (2002). Special care production. The agroforestry species are ecologically was taken to distinguish root nodules from root malformation, significant and suitable for fixing nitrogen to natural habitats. such as those caused by nematodes, insects or other root inhabiting pathogenic micro-organisms, by dissecting the The results of this study illustrate the need for clearly nodules to establish whether they were red, pink, brown, dark recognizing the shape, identifying the characters and or green in colour. Collapsed, brown and black nodules were regarded as dead (Fownes and Anderson 1991); these nodules determining the efficiency of nodules of agroforestry tree are believed to have been active prior to collapsing. Generally legumes before they are planted in the Niger Delta region of speaking, when nitrogen fixation has occurred, the contents of Nigeria where lands are fragile and often impoverished. the nodules are used up leading to collapse and dead of the nodules. References Anegbeh, P. O. and Tchoundjeu, Z. 2002. Nodulation in some Nodule activity (active or dead) was determined by dissection agroforestry tree and shrub legumes grown on acid soils in of nodule with razor blade and checking whether the internal southeast Nigeria. NFT News 5: 2-3. colour is red, brown or pink. This was used as another criterion for effectiveness of the nodules. Anegbeh, P. O. 1997. Evaluation of selected woody species for agroforestry systems on acid soils of Onne, southeast Results and Discussion Nigeria. Ph.D Thesis. Department of Crop/Soil Science and Most of the root nodules of the four-agroforestry trees were Forestry. Rivers State University of Science and Technology. developed, in clusters (coralloid), on the upper parts of Port Harcourt. taproot as well as on the lateral roots. The nodules were usually most abundant near the surface of the soil and within Fownes, J. H. and Anderson, D. G. 1991. Changes in nodule and 10cm of the base of the seedlings. The two species of the root biomass of Sesbania sesban and Leucaena sub-family Papilionoideae: Millettia laurentii and Indigofera leucocephala following coppicing. Plant and Soil 138: 9-16. zollingeriana, had larger root nodules than the two species of Mimosoideae: Inga edulis and Enterolobium cyclocarpum. Hulugalle, N. R., Lal, R. and Gichuru, M. 1989. Effects of five years From these four-nodulating species, it was observed that of no-tillage and mulch on soil properties and tuber yield of nodules of I. edulis and M. laurentii were very active. cassava on an acid Ultisol in southeastern Nigeria. Indigofera zollingeriana was moderately active while Experimental Agriculture 26: 235-240. Enterolobium cyclocarpum was sparsely active (Table 1). Nodules of all species were effective as they had pink Lim, G. and Ng, H. L. 1977. Root nodules of some tropical legumes internal colour, which is one of the diagnostic features in Singapore. Plant and Soil 46: 317-327. indicating the presence of haemoglobin in nitrogen fixing root nodules. Sprent, J. I. 1986. Potentials for nitrogen fixing legume trees in the tropics. International Tree Crops Journal 4: 47-54.

4 Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees Variation in Casuarina junghuhniana trials are expected to help in the expansion and management of casuarina plantations in southern China. Provenances in Southern China Materials and Methods Two trials were established in 1996 at Yanxi, Changtai county, Zhong Chonglu and Bai Jiayu Fujian province (latitude 24°45′N, longitude 117°49′E, Research Institute of Tropical Forestry altitude 130 m, mean annual rainfall 1580 mm) and at Dianbai Chinese Academy of Forestry county, Guangdong province (latitude 23°30′N, longitude Longdong, Guangzhou 510520 110°53′E, altitude 8 m, mean annual rainfall 1640 mm). People’s Republic of China Twenty-eight seedlots (Table 1) were planted using Tel: +86 20 8726 0037 Fax: +86 20 8772 5622 randomised complete block designs with 4 replicates, 16 Email: [email protected] trees/plot at Yanxi and 25 trees/plot at Dianbai, and 2 m x 2 m spacing. These seedlots were a mixture of natural provenances from and land races from Kenya and Tanzania. Introduction Casuarinas, especially Casuarina equisetifolia, have been At 4 years of age, tree height, diameter at breast height (dbh) and planted in China for more than 100 years. They provide a very survival were assessed and individual tree volume important resource of wood and timber for all utilisation calculated. Analyses of variance were carried out using SAS purposes, as well as for environmental protection. Although software to determine differences between provenances for each most planted areas are confined along the coastal areas in the characteristic. Seedlots were then ranked using selection index as south, some species are also planted on other soil regions, described in the Multiple Objective Strategy Analysis (Hong Wei 1987). such as red earth, ferric lateritic soils and mountain soils. Total planted area reached 1 million ha over a 3000-km Results and Discussion stretch in the 1980s, but has now reduced to around 300,000 There were clear differences in all growth traits between ha due to conversion of the plantations to agricultural lands. provenances and between sites with an indication of a provenance x site interaction. In order to explore the potential of other casuarina species, the Research Institute of Tropical Forestry has participated in Survival was higher and more uniform across provenances at the international provenance trials of C. junghuhniana, Dianbai than that at Yanxi. Overall survival mean at Dianbai was coordinated by CSIRO Australian Tree Seed Centre. The 77% (range 66%-96%) and at Yanxi 53% (range 11%-86%).

Table 1. Growth performance of C. junghuhniana provenances at four years of age in southern China

Yanxi Dianbai CSIRO Provenance Latitude Longitude Altitude Survival Height dbh Tree Survival Height dbh Tree volume °' S °' E m % m cm m3 10-4 % m cm m3 10-4 18952 Mt Willis, East Java, Indonesia 7 50 111 47 1500 54 4.4 3.4 14.9 70 2.7 2.1 5.4 18948 Mt Kawi, East Java, Indonesia 7 55 112 25 2000 65 4.8 3.8 20.1 80 2.9 1.7 5.0 18951 Mt Arjuno, East Java, Indonesia 7 45 112 35 1350 62 4.4 3.5 15.6 75 2.5 1.4 2.9 18950 Mt Bromo, East Java, Indonesia 7 55 112 55 1600 53 4.8 3.7 21.2 81 2.5 1.5 2.7 18954 Mt Bromo, East Java, Indonesia 7 55 112 55 2500 62 4.4 3.5 16.7 73 2.7 1.6 3.8 18949 Agropuro East Java, Indonesia 8 00 113 35 1500 67 4.6 3.6 17.8 70 2.4 1.4 2.8 18847 East Batu Kawu, Bali Indonesia 8 40 115 05 1500 86 4.8 3.9 21.7 81 2.8 1.6 4.0 18845 Mt Pohen, Bali, Indonesia 8 40 115 05 2000 33 4.6 3.8 21.2 76 3.1 1.9 6.5 18844 Mt Tapak, Bali, Indonesia. 8 45 115 15 1500 40 3.8 2.9 10.6 96 5.2 4.1 25.8 18846 Mt Pengalongan, Bali, Indonesia 8 50 115 15 1500 61 4.6 3.6 18.9 79 2.8 1.6 4.5 18849 Kintamani, Bali, Indonesia 8 13 115 20 1500 34 4.1 3.2 12.5 70 2.7 1.5 2.9 18848 Mt Abang, Bali, Indonesia 8 55 115 25 1500 37 4.5 3.6 19.2 69 2.7 1.5 8.4 18850 Mt Santong, Lombok, Indonesia 8 25 116 28 1500 11 3.6 2.8 9.2 77 2.3 1.2 1.7 18851 Mt Lamore, Lombok, Indonesia 8 25 116 45 1500 14 4.6 3.6 10.0 66 2.9 1.9 4.6 18852 Mt Tambora Sumbawa Indonesia 8 20 117 55 1500 33 4.7 3.8 24.8 85 3.3 2.0 5.3 19489 Kupang, Timor, Indonesia 10 13 123 38 600 60 3.9 3.1 11.0 86 4.7 3.3 24.6 19490 Camplong, Timor, Indonesia 10 05 123 57 600 43 4.0 3.1 12.8 87 4.2 3.0 10.4 17878 Noelmina Timor, Indonesia 9 59 124 06 170 47 4.2 3.1 13.0 75 4.4 3.2 19.5 17877 SW Soe, Timor, Indonesia 9 54 124 14 550 78 4.8 3.6 18.9 71 4.6 3.4 26.3 19491 Buat, Soe, Timor, Indonesia. 9 51 126 16 800 77 4.3 3.3 14.5 76 4.2 3.0 17.6 17844 Old Uhak NE Wetar, Indonesia 7 36 126 30 5 67 4.6 3.6 17.7 71 2.1 1.2 1.7 19239 Kari-Muguga, Kenya 1 16 36 36 2060 71 4.1 3.2 12.5 82 3.4 2.2 12.1 19240 Muka Mukuu, Kenya 1 05 36 39 1460 71 4.0 3.1 11.7 82 4.5 3.4 22.3 19238 KEFRI Headquarters, Kenya 1 13 36 39 2080 80 4.9 3.9 23.4 75 2.9 2.1 12.4 19242 Kabiruini, Kenya 0 23 36 56 1800 31 3.3 2.5 6.7 71 2.4 1.5 4.3 19241 Thika, Kenya 1 02 37 12 1440 50 3.4 2.8 8.9 82 3.4 2.2 9.1 19237 Meru, Kenya 0 07 37 37 1750 51 3.9 3.0 10.8 78 2.8 1.9 5.1 18853 Kwai Mission, Tanga, Tanzania 4 19 38 14 1600 49 3.9 3.1 12.2 77 3.3 2.0 8.8 Mean 53 4.3 3.3 15.3 77 3.2 2.1 9.3 At Yanxi, most provenances from East Java, Indonesia grew between the two sites, indicating significant provenance and well across the trial. Other provenances that also performed site interaction (Table 2). well at this site came from the islands of Bali, Sumbawa and Wetar in Indonesia, and one landrace from Kenya Table 2. Ranking of the best 10 provenances, based on selection (KEFRI Headquarters). The results were different at index, in two provenance trials of C. junghuhniana in southern China Dianbai where all provenances from Timor were growing Rank Yanxi Dianbai well. The best provenance at Dianbai, however, came from Seedlot Index Seedlot Index 1 18844 0.995 19238 0.961 Mt Tapak, Bali, which had the highest survival rate and 2 19489 0.850 18847 0.949 largest stem volume. However, Mwihomeke et al. (2002) 3 17877 0.811 18948 0.849 3 19240 0.811 17877 0.841 reported performance of similar trial planted in Tanzania 5 17878 0.737 18950 0.815 which showed a high correlation between altitude of seed 6 19491 0.692 18852 0.803 7 19490 0.660 18949 0.781 sources and growth performance. This pattern was not 8 19239 0.542 18846 0.776 9 19241 0.512 17844 0.773 found in the trials in China. Ranking of the top 10 10 19238 0.474 18845 0.751 provenances, based on selection index, was very different

Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees 5 The growth performance of C. junghuhniana is considered to The Honge oil has been revitalised by Prof. Udipi Shrinivasa be better than that of C. equisetifolia on red earth soils in of the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore, who was not southern China. Breeding program for C. junghuhniana based impressed to see huge amounts of seed from going to waste in on the best seedlots will be developed for both Guangdong the poor remote village of Kagganahalli where agriculture is and Fujian provinces. However, the significant provenance hardly feasible due to scarcity of water and a lack of electric and site interaction suggests a need for separate breeding power. A cottage industry of the Honge oil has been set up. populations for each province. The production is easy. The seeds are mashed, milled and the detritus filtered out. The oil can be used as a fuel for cooking References and lamps, and is being promoted as fuel for irrigation pumps Hong Wei. 1987. Use of the multiple objective strategy analysis in and power generators. In experiment tests in Bangalore, one forestry. Forest Reconnaissance and Design 14: 40-46. (in litre of pure Pongamia oil was found to be equivalent in Chinese) performance to the same amount of standard diesel fuel.

Mwihomeke, S.T., Mugasha, A.G., Chamshama, S.A.O, For large commercial scale production, the oil is extracted Mgangamundo, M.A., Kumburu, O.C. and Lupala, Z. 2002. from the seeds using a screw press. The filtered and Early performance of Casuarina junghuhniana degummed oil is treated with methanol or ethanol and provenances/land races at Lushoto, Tanzania. Southern transesterification is achieved with sodium hydroxide or African Forestry Journal 194: 7-14. potassium hydroxide as catalysts. Thus the bio-diesel produced is an alcohol ester, non-toxic and free of sulphur and aromatics. It is safe to store, has a long shelf -life and is biodegradable. Pongamia pinnata: Another Miracle During recent visits to Sivagangai district in Tamil Nadu, Tree? south , it was like a dream came true to see irrigation pumps and farm machinery operating with this eco-friendly, Prof. Sophie Jakowska bio-fuel from the seeds of P. pinnata. Further development Arz Merino 154 and production of this oil for the preservation of the environ- Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic ment should be supported by international agencies dealing Tel/Fax: +809 687 3948 with energy issues. Email: [email protected] References Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre, syn. Derris indica (Lam.) Gilman, E.F. and Watson, D.G. 1994. Pongamia pinnata Pongam. Bennet and Pongamia glabra Vent. (common names: Indian Fact Sheet ST-498. A series of the Environmental beech, karanga, karum tree, pongam, poonga-oil tree) is a Horticulture Department, Florida Cooperative Extension nitrogen-fixing and fodder tree of the Leguminosae family Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, (subfamily Papilionideae). It is native to humid and University of Florida, USA. subtropical environments along the coasts and riverbanks in India and Myanmar, and will thrive in areas having an annual Daniel, N.J. 2001. Pongamia pinnata: a nitrogen-fixing tree for rainfall ranging from 500 mm to 2500 mm (Daniel 2001). It oilseed. In: Roshetko, J.M. (ed.). Agroforestry species and can grow up to 18 m tall and a trunk diameter of more than 50 technologies: a compilation of the highlights and factsheets cm with a broad spreading crown canopy casting moderate published by NFTA and FACT Net 1985-1999. Taiwan shade (Gilman and Watson 1994, Daniel 2001). Mature trees Forestry Research Institute and Council of Agriculture, can withstand waterlogging, and are resistant to high winds Taiwan, Republic of China; Winrock International, and drought but are susceptible to freezing temperatures. It is Morrilton, Arkansas, USA. easily propagated by seed, and grows well in full sun or partial shade and well-drained soil. It does not compete with crops because its roots can reach 10 m deep into the soil making it very suitable for agroforestry systems. Trees start Improvement Program of Tropical first flowering at about three years old, producing up to 160 kg of seed pods per tree each year. Australian Acacias in Thailand

Pongamia pinnata is popular for various uses, but mainly medicinal and culinary uses. The sap of the roots is used to Vitoon Luangviriasaeng clean ulcers, the twigs used to clean teeth, leaf juices used to Silvicultural Research Division treat dyspepsia, diarrhoea and coughs, and the seed oil used to Royal Forest Department treat skin diseases. Dried leaves are used as an insect repellent Phaholyothin Road Chatuchak in stored grains. The wood is used as fuelwood and for low Bangkok 10900 Thailand quality timber. However the plant is also known to be Tel: +66 2 5614292 ext 445 poisonous, both roots and seeds are used as fish poison. The Fax: +66 2 5799576 species is also often planted in homesteads as a shade or Email: [email protected] ornamental tree and in avenue plantings along roadsides and canals. More than 20 Australian Acacia species have been introduced to Thailand, e.g. Acacia auriculiformis in 1935 and A thick yellow-orange to brown oil is extracted from seeds A. mangium in 1980. More recently in 1985, A. crassicarpa (Daniel 2001). This oil was used as fuel for lamps in ancient and A. peregrinalis (formerly A. aulacocarpa) were among times. It is known as Honge oil (Kannada), Karanji (Hindi) many Australian acacias imported through CSIRO Australian and Pungai (Tamil). However, the potential of this oil was Tree Seed Centre. These four species have shown most neglected when fossil fuels such as kerosene became potential for reforestation in Thailand because of fast growth popular in rural India. and adaptability to a wide range of environmental conditions.

6 Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees The wood of these species is suitable for various applications Hybrid Acacia mangium x A. auriculiformis including paper pulp. These four acacias have been chosen for The potential of Acacia hybrids has been recognised. tree improvement programs by the Royal Forest Department Selection of natural hybrids is underway and selected trees (RFD). clonally propagated for field testing. In addition, production of hybrids is being enhanced by mixed row-planting of the Acacia auriculiformis two species. Superior hybrid clones will be selected for pulp An improvement program for A. auriculiformis commenced in wood production. 1984, focusing on improving the stem form. New genetic resources were imported with assistance from CSIRO. Replicated provenance/progeny trials revealed marked differences in growth and stem form. The program has now entered the second-generation breeding cycle and the results showed that new imports from Queensland and Papua New New Authoritative Guides to Guinea (PNG) out-performed local unimproved seed in tree volume by up to 5 times. Intraspecific hybrids of Queensland and Australian Species of Acacia PNG parents have been developed. Laboratory tests confirmed their superiority in wood volume and pulp yield. Selection of high pulp-yielding clones will be carried out by RFD Maurice McDonald in collaboration with some private companies with financial CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products support from the government - Thailand Research Fund. PO Box E4008, Kingston ACT 2604, Australia Tel: +61 2 6281 8221 Fax: +61 2 6281 8266 Email: [email protected]

Two major works on Australian species of Acacia have recently been published. All currently recognised species, subspecies and variants of Australian wattles have been described and illustrated in two volumes of the series. Complementing the Flora volumes is an electronic key titled WATTLE – Acacias of Australia. WATTLE is compact disk that enables all species treated in the Flora of Australia volumes to be quickly and accurately named, irrespective of whether specimens are in flower or fruit. These works provide a complete account of nearly 1200 taxa for the first time and are the culmination of a decade of work by a team of botanists from throughout Australia. The Flora of Australia volumes include background essays on the relationships, biology, fossil history and utilisation of wattles, authoritative descriptions, identification keys, bibliographic information, and notes on ecology and distribution. All taxa are illustrated by line drawings and 128 colour photographs of a range of species are also presented. Figure 1. Two-year-old clonal trial of Acacia auriculiformis at The WATTLE CD has a browser interface enables quick Sakaerat, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand access to the identification component or to similar information presented in the Flora of Australia volumes. All Acacia mangium characters used to key-out a species in the identification The improvement program of A. mangium is less advanced component are clearly described and illustrated. A botanical compared to that of A. auriculiformis. A breeding population description, a distribution map and diagnostic drawings, using seedling seed orchards seed of PNG origin supplied by annotated to highlight the most critical features of the plant, CSIRO Australian Tree Seed Centre was established at are included for all species treated in WATTLE. The works Sakaerat in 1997. Growth performance is currently being are published as: evaluated Orchard A.E. and Wilson J.G. (Eds) (2001). Flora of Australia, 11A and 11 B, Mimosaceae, Acacia parts 1 and 2. Australian Acacia crassicarpa and A. peregrinalis Biological Resources Study/CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne. Breeding populations of both species have been established. Seed from a first-generation seedling seed orchard of Maslin B.R. (coordinator) (2001). Wattle: Acacias of Australia. A. peregrinalis is now available for commercial planting. The CD–ROM, Version 1.0. Australian Biological Resources best sources came from the Fly River (south-east PNG), Study: Canberra/Department of Conservation and Land especially those distributed along the Oriomo River, which Management: Perth/CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne. form a major part of the second-generation breeding population currently being evaluated. Both are available from CSIRO PUBLISHING PO Box 1139 Collingwood Victoria 3066 Australia or via their web site at http://www.publish.csiro.au/ or email: Three breeding populations of A. crassicarpa were [email protected] established; one in 1996 at Kanchanaburi (west), and two in 2002 at Nakorn Ratchasima (northeast) and Chachoengsao (east). The Kanchanaburi population has been thinned twice to convert it to a seedling seed orchard. The first commercial seed collection is expected in 2003.

Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees 7 Coordinator: Mr Khongsak Pinyopusarerk CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products P.O. Box E4008 Kingston, ACT 2604, Australia Guidelines for Contributions Tel: + 61 2 6281 8247 Fax: + 61 2 6281 8266 We encourage members of the NFT Working Email: [email protected] Party to share their experiences and research results with others. Please help to make this newsletter and the NFT Working Party successful Deputy Coordinator: Dr Dietrich Werner by sending articles on relevant topics to us. Phillips-Universitat Marburg Fachberich Biologie Botanisches Institut Lahnberg D-35043 Marburg, Germany Content: IUFRO WP news, conference reports, brief review or technical articles, letters or Tel: + 49 6421 283475 comments related to improvement and culture of Fax: + 49 6421 282057 nitrogen fixing trees. Email: [email protected] Language: The newsletter will be published only in English at present. All submissions should be presented in English. Text Format: All submissions may be sent by email or in print with a copy in Word file on a 3.5 diskette (PC or Mac). Typescripts or disks will not Published by IUFRO Working Party 2.08.02, be returned unless indicated. Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees Figures: Submit accompanying graphs, tables, Editors: Khongsak Pinyopusarerk charts, etc and captions in printed, camera-ready or electronic form. Slides and photographs will Antoine Kalinganire be accepted. Advisors: John Turnbull Submissions: Please address submissions to the Stephen Midgley WP Coordinator or Deputy Coordinator. The newsletter will be available in print and from Web version: Kron Aken the IUFRO web page. Design and production: Vlad Mosmondor Subscription of NFT News Sponsor: CSIRO Forestry and Subscription of the NFT News is free of charge. Forest Products To obtain a copy, please write to the Co-ordinator Australian Tree Seed Centre or the Deputy Co-ordinator

CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Australian Tree Seed Centre PO Box E4008 Kingston ACT 2604 AUSTRALIA

Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees