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Contents Chapter 1 Introduction CONTENTS Declaration............................................................................................................................ii List of Abbreviations ……………………………………………………………..............iii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………….viii List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………...xiii ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………....xv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background………………………………………………………………………….2 1.1.1 Historical evidence of the traditional use of medicinal plants…………….2 1.1.2 The use of traditional medicine in South Africa…………………………. ...5 1.2 Listeriosis………………………………………………………………………….......8 1.2.1 Epidemiology…………………………………………………………………..8 1.2.2 Listeriosis in animals………………………………………………………….12 1.2.3 Causative agent of listeriosis – Listeria monocytogenes……………………..13 1.2.4 Drug resistance of listeriosis…………………………………………………...14 1.3 Scope of the thesis……………………………………………………………………16 1.3.1 Antilisterial activity of plant extracts……………………………………..16 1.3.2 Susceptibility testing (to the plant extracts) of L. monocytogenes………..16 1.3.3 Cytotoxicity assay of plant extracts……………………………………........17 1.3.4 Isolation, purification and identification of the active compound(s) from Acacia karroo…………………………………………………………..18 1.3.5 Isolation, purification and identification of the active compound(s) from Plectranthus ecklonii ………………………………………………….19 iv 1.4 References…………………………………………………………………………….20 CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON THE SELECTED PLANTS Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………31 2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………......32 2.2 Plants selected for the present study……………………………………………......32 2.2.1 Acacia karroo Hayne………………………………………….......................33 2.2.2 Aloe arborescens Mill. var. natalensis Berger...............................................35 2.2.3 Artemisia afra Jacq.…………………………………………….....................36 2.2.4 Clivia miniata Reg.…………………………………………….....................38 2.2.5 Datura stramonium L.…………………………………………....................39 2.2.6 Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl...................................................................40 2.2.7 Eucomis autumnalis (Mill.) Chitt……………………………......................41 2.2.8 Gomphocarpus fruticosa (L.) W.T. Aiton…………………………….........43 2.2.9 Heteromorpha arborescens (Spreng) Cham. &. Schltdl.............................44 2.2.10 Plectranthus eckloni Benth…………………………………......................45 2.2.11 Senecio inonartus DC…………………………………………...................47 2.2.12 Tulbaghia violacea Harv.……………………………………......................47 2.2.13 Ziziphus mucronata Willd.………………………………………….............48 2.3 References……………………………………………………………………………50 CHAPTER 3 Susceptibility testing of Listeria monocytogenes to extracts of selected South African medicinal plants Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………..56 v 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….57 3.2 Materials and methods………………………………………………………….....58 3.2.1 Plant material................................................................................................58 3.2.2 Preparation of crude plant extracts............................................................58 3.2.3 Bacterial strain and inoculums preparation...............................................58 3.2.4 Antimicrobial bioassay.................................................................................59 3.3 Results and discussion...............................................................................................65 3.4 References.................................................................................................................84 CHAPTER 4 Bioactivities of Plectranthus ecklonii constituents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………….94 4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….95 4.2 Experimental: Materials and Methods……………………………………………..95 4.2.1 General experimental Procedures…………………………………………….95 4.2.2 Chemicals and Reagents……………………………………………………....96 4.2.3 Plant material………………………………………………………………....96 4.2.4 Isolation of the bioactive compounds from P. ecklonii..................................96 4.2.5 Activity of samples against Listeria monocytogenes and other bacteria..............................................................................................................99 4.2.6 Antimycobacterial bioassay.............................................................................100 4.2.7 Antityrosinase assay.........................................................................................100 4.2.8 Cytotoxicity test.................................................................................................101 4.2.9 Effect of the crude extract of P. ecklonii and its compounds on listerial biofilms ……………………………………………………………....101 4.3 Results and Discussion……………………………………………………………….102 4.3 References…………………………………………………………………………….117 vi CHAPTER 5 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Motivation of this study……………………………………………………………..122 5.2 Discussion and conclusion…………………………………………………………..123 5.7 References……………………………………………………………………………125 CHAPTER 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………128 APPENDICES Appendix 1 - Presentation at conferences………………………………………………..132 Appendix 2 – Publications………………………………………………………………...133 Appendix 3 – Additional information…………………………………………………….134 vii List of Figures Figure 1.1.............................................................................................................................…13 Characteristic lesions of acute renal tubular necrosis including renal tubular dilation and flattening of the renal tubular epithelium in sheep caused by L. monocytogenes (magnification x 40) - photo William Byrne (Regional Veterinary Laboratories, 2006) Figure 2.1………………………………………………………………………………….…35 Acacia karroo a tree with golden-yellow round flowers (Courtesy: Van Wyk et al., 1997) Figure 2.2…………………………………………………………………………………….36 Aloe arborescens (Courtesy : Van Wyk et al., 1997) Figure 2.3………………………………………………………………………………….…37 Artemisia afra (Courtesy: Van Wyk et al., 1997) Figure 2.4…………………………………………………………………………………….39 Clivia miniata, flowers (a) and (b) rhizomes (Courtesy: Van Wyk et al., 1997) Figure 2.5..........................................................................................................................……40 Datura stramonium (Courtesy: Van Wyk et al., 1997) Figure 2.6……………………………………………………………………………………..41 Drimia altissima, (a) bulbs and (b) leaves viii Figure 2.7…………………………………………………………………………………….42 Eucomis autumnalis (a) flowers and leaves, and (b) bulb (Courtesy: Van Wyk et al., 1997) Figure 2.8………………………………………………………………………………….…43 Gomphocarpus fruticosus (Courtesy: Van Wyk et al., 1997). Figure 2.9………………………………………………………………………………….…45 Heteromorpha arborescens (a) bark, (b) leaves and flowers (Courtesy: Van Wyk et al., 1997) Figure 2.10 ……………………………………………………………………………….….46 Shrubs of Plectranthus ecklonii with leaves and purple flower. Figure 2.11………………………………………………………………………………….48 Tulbaghia violacea with purple flowers (Courtesy: Van Wyk et al., 1997). Figure 2.12……………………………………………………………………………….….49 Ziziphus mucronata (a) tree and (b) fruits (Courtesy: Van Wyk et al., 1997). Figure 3.1…………………………………………………………………………………...61 Schematic representation of the isolation process of the bioactive compounds from Acacia karroo Figure 3.2…………………………………………………………………………………...63 (a) Silica gel column chromatography of the ethyl acetate extract of A. karroo (b) and (c) direct bioassay on the TLC plates ix Figure 3.3...........................................................................................................................….67 1HNMR spectrum of compound 1 (epicatechin) isolated from A. karroo. Figure 3.4.............................................................................................................................…69 1HNMR spectrum of compound 2 (β-sitosterol) isolated from A. karroo. Figure 3.5.............................................................................................................................…70 13 CNMR spectrum of compound 2 (β-sitosterol) isolated from A. karroo. Figure 3.6.............................................................................................................................…72 1HNMR spectrum of compound 3 (epigallocatechin) isolated from A. karroo. Figure 3.7.............................................................................................................................…73 13CNMR spectrum of compound 3 (epigallocatechin) isolated from A. karroo. Figure 3.8.............................................................................................................................…74 Chemical structures of compounds isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of the leaves of A. karroo, (1) epicatechin, (2) β-sitosterol, (3) epigallocatechin. Figure 3.9…………………………………………………………………………………….78 Dose response curve of A. karroo ethyl acetate extracts against Vero cell lines. Figure 3.10……………………………………………………………………………………80 Dose response curve of (a) β-sitosterol (b) epigallocatechin compounds against Vero cell lines. x Figure 3.11……………………………………………………………………………………81 CSLM images of L. monocytogenes (LMG21263) biofilms without treatment (a) and after treatment with β-sitosterol (2). L. monocytogenes biofilm formed on coverslips were examined with Zeiss LSM 510 META confocal scanning laser microscope using a water immersion lens (scale: 1 unit represents 5 µm). Figure 3.12…………………………………………………………………………………...82 CSLM images of L. monocytogenes (LMG21263) biofilms after treatment with A. karroo (a) and after treatment
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