Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-19623-0 — China's Conservative Revolution Brian Tsui Index More Information

Index

Adorno, Theodor, 149–50 anarchism and, 52 aesthetics and politics, 13–17, 171, 172–82, Anti-Communism and Resist Russia 225, See also liberalism, minsheng Mobilization Movement, 232–3 principle continuity in Taiwan, 229–35 aesthetic perfection, 189–91 cultural expression and, 14–15, 60–1 autonomous aesthetic subjectivity, 191 Dai Jitao on, 37–9, 64 Britain, 182 Indian response to, 217 disinterested aesthetics, 224–6 Japan and, 202 diversion from social revolution, language used about 1927 coup, 57–9 14–16, 67 liberal attacks, 169–71 edifying functions, 42, 174–6, 178–82, moves towards, 35–6 187, 192–4 nationalist activism, 66 new social norms and values, 60, spiritual mobilization and, 134 142, 143 youth targeted, 62, 67 revolution of aesthetics, 43–50 anti-imperialism, 198, 218–19, See also spiritual mobilization, 127–9, 142, 143, nationalism 147–8, 149, 151 Dai Jitao on, 38–40 state leadership of, 182–9 Dai on, 11 Zhu Guangqian on, 157–8 hollowness of, 225, 227f agrarian economy, 44 part of international system, 226 Alitto, Guy, 9 spiritual significance, 16 All Asia Cultural Association, 223 apoliticization. See depoliticization of Amery, Leo, 215–16 political participation anarchism, 52–4 April 1927 coup, 26–7, 35, See also affinity with GMD, 51–2, 158 anticommunism, party purification Dai Jitao on, 52–4 as counterrevolution, 26 in April 1927 coup, 35 birth to the conservative revolution, Li Shizeng and, 34, 51–2 26–7, 31 mass emotions and, 56 n. 89 Bolshevik model continued after, 33 Three People’s Principles and, 51 GMD careers inseparable from, 2–3 United Front and, 49–51 language used about, 57–9 Anderson, Benedict, 47 relations with India and, 217 Anderson, Perry, 31 Arendt, Hannah, 50 anticolonialism, 18, 196, 197, 201, 206–7, Arnold, Matthew, 178–9, 182, 191 222, 238, See also anti-imperialism Arrighi, Giovanni, 6 League against Imperialism, 199 art and literature, 174–8 opposition to a Euro-American aesthetics and, 180–1, 183, 188 modernity, 196–9 fascist investment in, 183–5 Pan-Asianism, 200, 202–3 patronage of authors, 183–5 Tan Yunshan’s travels and, 211–12 politics and, 190 anticommunism, 237–8, See also April 1927 popularization of, 177 n. 55, 178 n. 57 coup, Chinese Communist Party transformative potential of, 174–6, 180

275

276 Index

Asia. See also names of speciﬁc countries, Cai Hesen, 77–9 Pan-Asianism Cai Yuanpei, 71, 173–4, 176, 183 apolitical Asianism, 203–8 Cao Yu, 148 Asianist utopia and wartime diplomacy, Capital School, Beiping. See Jingpai writers 214–16 capitalism, 63–5, 128, See also consumer constructions of, 199 culture, materialism US hegemony over, 222 cultural reiﬁcation under, 43 Asia Union, 223, 225 Dai Jitao on, 65 Asia’s renaissance (fuxing), 224 fraternity in nation-state, 48–50 Asian Relations Conference, 221–3 global capital, 13–14, 39 Asiatic Humanitarian Brotherhood GMD on, 11–13, 207–8 (Yazhou heqin hui, Ashû guided capitalism in Taiwan, 234–6 washinkai), 198 materialism and, 196–7 authoritarianism, 28, 50–1 national capitalism, 181–2 authors. See art and literature national revolution and, 47, 64 Aw Boon Haw, 212 print capitalism, 172, 176–8 Axis powers. See Fascist Italy, Japan, Nazi protests suppressed, 72 n. 11, 72 Germany Rabindranath Tagore and, 213–14, 225 Babbitt, Irving, 204 responses to, 45, 47 Baden-Powell, Robert, 79–80, 82, 86, 89, subordination to Western capitalist 93–4, 96 camp, 235 Badiou, Alain, 8 n. 16, 8 symptoms not foundation addressed, Bai Chongxi, 26 45 baojia communities, 127, 149, 185 union of state and capital, 13–14 Battle of Shanghai (1937), 106–7 wartime restrictions, 144–6 Bauman, Zygmunt, 57 capitals. See Beijing/Beiping, Chongqing, beauty (mei), 180–2, 189–91, See also Guangzhou-based government, aesthetics and politics Nanjing-based government, Wuhan- masculine, 190, 191 based government Beida academics, 156, 165, 173–4, 191 CC Clique, 125–7, 131–2, 149–51, Beijing/Beiping, 156, 160–2, 173 229–31 Beiyang government capital. See Beijing/ Central Bi-monthly (Zhongyang ban Beiping yuekan), 75–7 Beiyang warlord regime, 36, 49, 61–2, 114 Central Daily (Zhongyang ribao), 123, 125 benevolence, 45, 46, 47–9, 181 Central Weekly (Zhongyang zhoukan), 125, Berezin, Mabel, 93 n. 73 158, 165, 170–2, 183–5 Bergson, Henri, 56 n. 89, 179, 181 centralism, 33, 52–3 bibliography, 255–74 Chairman Chiang’s daily life and his Blue Shirts/Lixingshe, 72 n. 13, 91, 125 outlook on daily life, 1, 24f scouting and, 91 Chang, Carsun. See Zhang Junmai Bolshevism. See communism Cheena Bhavana (Chinese Hall, Zhongguo Bose, Subhas Chandra, 215, 218 xueyuan), 197, 212–14, 219, 223–4, Boxi Theatrical Troupe, 148 See also Visva Bharati Boy Scouts Association of China, 80 Communist China and, 224 Bramall, Chris, 151 platform for wartime diplomacy, 214 Britain Tan Yunshan and Zhou Enlai at, 227f aestheticization of politics, 182, 187–9 Visva Bharati, 197 Indian protests and, 220–1 Chen Cheng, 230, 231, 236 British Malaya, 208 Chen Diaoyuan, 104 Buddhism Chen Duxiu, 33 n. 18, 33, 37–9, 52 Dai Jitao and, 215–16 Chinese language reform, 60 Tan Yunshan and, 208–10, 211 Chen Guofu, 35, 125 translations into Indian languages, Chen Jiongming, 52 214–15 Chen Jitang, 88

Index 277

Chen Lifu, 62, 69, 121–2, 125–7, 129–30, class politics under, 29, 31–2 181–2, 197–9, See also Vitalism crackdown on. See April 1927 coup continuation of ideas of, 230 differences from GMD, 11, 17–19, 20, in April 1927 coup, 35 27, 54–6 spiritual mobilization and, 131, 132–4, 234 during Resistance War, 115, 131 Chen Quan, 167–9, 185, 190–1 dynamism of, 57–9 Cheng Zuyi, 83 hedonism, 62 Chiang Ching-kuo, 230, 232–4 ideological identity, 54–6, 59–61, 66 Chiang Kai-shek instrumentalist relationship with the anticommunism, 68–9 masses, 64 as conservative modernizer, 9 liberal attacks on, 169–71 attraction to fascist states, 8 mass appeal, 68 Basic Treatise on Anti-Communism and nationalism and, 2–3, 34, 35, 193 Resistance against Russia, 229–31 nationalist and social revolution coupled ideological underpinnings rehashed, in, 3 229–34 Nationalist policy on, 28 in Taiwan, 229, 231–3 scouting and, 104 India and, 195, 197, 219–21 spiritual mobilization, 16–18, 132–4, 151 leadership style, 129–30, 191 suppression of, 12 left-leaning origins, 34 Tan Yunshan on, 209–10 mass society and, 68, 71–6 youth and, 61, 76–9 mediated persona, 1–3 Chinese language reform, 60 on capitalism and imperialism, 63–4 Chinese National Socialist Party, 161 on communists, 35, 38, 131 Chinese Nationalist Party. See on Japanese education versus Chinese, Guomindang 140–1 Chongqing on spiritual mobilization, 135–6, 151–2 refugees in, 143 party puriﬁcation, 26 singing and drama troupes, 148 perceptions of, 27–8 spiritual mobilization, 143 n. 75, 143, pseudo-scientiﬁc vocabulary of, 57 144–5, 147 scouting and, 95, 100–2 wartime capital, 115, 143, 144–5, 148–9 Second United Front and, 131–2 Churchill, Winston, 218 subordination to Western capitalist Citizen Convention and Pledge (Guomin camp, 235 gongyue shici), 127 taken hostage, 169 civilians. See everyday life, mass total war and, 115, 116–17 mobilization, total war welcomed to Cheena-Bhavana, 227f class struggle, 238, See also communism work-leisure routine, 1–3, 15–16 administration of class relations, 12 children. See scouting, students, young aestheticization of politics nd, 14–16 people CCP and, 121, 132–4 China Anti-Communist Youth Corps class categorization, 28–31 (Zhongguo qingnian fan’gong jiuguo conservative revolution avoidance of, tuan), 232–4 3–4, 63–5 China Cultural Services Association cross-class framework, 48, 66 (Zhongguo wenhua fuwu she), 149–51 delegitimized as an option, 65–7 China’s National Revolution and the GMD opposition to, 6–10, 11, 26–8, Guomindang (Guomin geming yu 31–2, 51, 120 Zhongguo Guomindang) (Dai), 37–9 mass organizations and, 72 Chinese Communist Party. See also political resolution of, 31–2 anticommunism, communism, GMD- property and, 47–9 CCP coalition, internationalism, Proudhon’s reconciliation des classes,51–2 United Front rearticulated, 231 aesthetics and politics, 14 reciprocal moral relationships, 63 as unorthodox party, 169 replaced with nationalist ethics, 47 bandit spies, 229, 230 n. 1 scouting’s diffusion of, 95–6

278 Index

Clinton, Maggie, 15, 16 n. 41, 74 n. 16, 94 as total revolution, 39 Comintern (or Communist International), assessment of, 236–8 35, 77, 196, 199, 201, 221, See also character formation and, 74–6, 77, United Front 86–7 communism, 2, 3 n. 3, See also Chinese citizens in, 65, 114–16 Communist Party, class struggle, conservative and revolutionary natures internationalism, internationalism, of, 31 labor unions, Marxism, vanguardism co-option of scouting by, 19 appeal of communist literature, 176 cultural conservatism, 9 as institutionalized class warfare, 121 Dai Jitao and, 10–11 Bolshevik party model, 31–3 decoupling of national and social Bolshevism, 11, 28–9 revolutions, 27–8, 29, 31–2 centralism and, 52–3 depoliticizing minsheng,37–43 commonalities with Three People’s destruction and consolidation in, 3–4 Principles, 58 diminished form, 226, 229, 235, converts to GMD, 120 236–8 Dai Jitao on, 119 distinguished from ultranationalists and economism and statism of, 50–1 liberals, 36 incompatibility of anarchists with, domestic interests of, 238–9 52 emergency period and, 116–25 indigenization of under Mao Zedong, fraternity in, 48–50 47 n. 60 ideological underpinnings rehashed, Nationalists’ views on, 14–15, 199–201 229–34 on free choice, 189 in Taiwan, 235–6 revolutionary vanguardism, 49–56 international dimension of, 195–7, Soviet communism similarity to Italian 226 fascism, 50 liberals and, 156–94, 210–12 usurpation of state power, 50–2 nationalism of, 6–10, See also Communist China, India and, 224 nationalism Communist Party. See Chinese Communist non-partisanship and, 203–6 Party Pan-Asianism, 201–2, 221 Confucianism, 48 n. 65, See also New Life scouting and. See scouting Movement Sino–Japanese conﬂict and, 114–17 Confucian fascism, 8 start of, 26, 114 culture and, 178, 180 taming of youth and labor activism, Dai Jitao on, 44–6, 119–21, 120 n. 10 69–70 ﬁlial piety, 44–6, 128–30 Tan Yunshan and, 209–10 nationalists and, 46 use of term, 11 Neo-Confucianism, 46 victory for, 66–7 on preparation for war, 119, 120 youth movement for, 68, 113f n. 10, 120 consumer culture, 176–8, See also everyday spiritual mobilization, 127–9, 140 life, everyday life Sun Yat-sen and, 47–9 aesthetics and, 174–6 consensus-building, 16–20 consumer modernity, 143–6 consent, 72–4 entertainment, 44–5 scouting enlisted to cultivate, 75 Europe, 178–9, 187–9 conservative revolution. See also aesthetics cooperation. See minsheng principle and politics, Confucianism, corporatist corporatist approach, 37–8, 40 approach, everyday life, fascist scouting, 90–2 tendencies, Guomindang, mass state’s role, 37 mobilization, mass society union of state and capital, 13–14 as contradiction, 239 war mobilization, 121, 133 as global trend, 3–7, 116–18 Coué, Emile, 186 as passive revolution, 12–13 Croce, Benedetto, 157, 160, 180, 191 as putative alternative to capitalism, 13 Culp, Robert, 83, 90, 92, 93 n. 73

Index 279

culture (wenhua), 30–1, 189–91, See also art suicide, 230 and literature, Confucianism, everyday The Way for Youth, 128 life, spiritual mobilization visit to India, 215–16 class struggle and, 14 youth and, 31, 61–3, 70, 76–7, 90–2 cultural imagination, 224 Dai Jitaoism (Dai Jitao zhuyi), 31 cultural nationalism, 9–11, 44–5 daily routine. See everyday life Dai Jitao on, 43–5 Dalai Lama, 210–12 folk culture, 44–5 De Grazia, Victoria, 72–4, 103 hegemony in cultural sphere, 60 democracy, 162–4, See also Three People’s mass participation in, 73, 176, 191–3 Principles new social norms and values, 60 Chinese transliteration of, 176, 177 n. 53 state and humanist pursuits, 182, 204 constitutional democracy, 59, 61–2 Taiwan, 233–5 criticism of, 121 towards a new wartime culture, 137–51 Taiwan on, 234–6 traditional culture central to nationalism, democratic centralism (minzhu zhuyi de 9, 43 jituan zhidu), 33, 52–3 Zhu, 178–82 depoliticization of political participation, 42, 87–96, 161–2 Dai Jitao Tagore’s apolitical Asianism, 203–8, aesthetics and, 15, 43–50 209 Asian Relations Conference, 222–4 development. See economic development China’s National Revolution and the devotion. See ideology Guomindang, 37–9 Dewey, John, 86, 161 Drama and the Common People, 43–4 dictatorship (diketuiduo), 36 India and, 195, 197 desire for, 189–94 international engagement, 200 of the proletariat, 50, 78 mass activism and, 42–4 Ding Wenjiang (V. K. Ting), 156 mass politics and, 70–1, 72–5, 104 dirigisme, 6, 119, 140 nationalist goals, 8, 27–8, 66 Dirlik, Arif, 72 Nationalist Revolution,55–6 discipline, 61, 174–5, See also ideology on anarchism, 52–4 required of workers, 27 on benevolence, 48 scouting as disciplinary tool, 79–88, on communism, 26–8, 35–7 92, 93–4 on Confucianism, 119–21 spiritual mobilization, 151–3 on formal political institutions, 59–60 division of labor. See class struggle, labor on imperialism, 10–11 relations On Japan, 201–2 Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong), 47 on labor process, 57–8 “Drama and the Common People” (Yanxi on labor relations, 63, 65 yu pingmin) (Dai), 43–4 on local government, 52 Du Yaquan, 204 on lust for survival, 55–6 Du Yuesheng, 26 on minsheng principle, 37–9, 40–3 Duara, Prasenjit, 13, 225 on need for new ethics, 44–7 on party organization, 52–4, 55–61 Eastman, Lloyd, 4 on preparation for war, 119, 121 East-West relations, 201–2 on revolution, 12 economic development (jianshe), 42–3, on state capitalism, 66 70–1, See also minsheng principle on student politics, 173, 176 conservative revolution, 42–4, on working class, 65 151 n. 103 Pan-Asianism, 201–2 depoliticizing minsheng,37–43 Philosophical Foundations of Sun Yat- economic nationalism, 13–14 senism,37–9, 200, 207 expert input required, 65 scouting and, 79, 87–8, 100, 104, fascist inﬂuences, 11–13 105, 109 global capital needed for, 39 socialism and, 34 global norms, 118

280 Index

education, 140–1, See also students, Visva body/machine of the party, 56 Bharati Confucian fascism, 8 drama education network, 147 Donald Trump, 236–7, 239 spiritual mobilization, 149–50 economic change, 11–13 Education Review (Jiaoyu zazhi),on GMD, 3–5, 118 scouting, 80–1 nationalism and class struggle and, 6–8 Emergency Law on Crimes Against the political violence in interwar France, 56 Republic, 116, 118 populist nationalism and, 6 emergency period (feichang shiqi), 116–25 scouting, 93–4 conservative revolutionary vision and, Soviet communism similarity to Italian 116–25 fascism, 50 distinction between China and spiritual mobilization, 138–40 Japan, 122 federalism, 52–3 nationalist commitments privileged by, Fewsmith, Joseph, 12, 13 118–20, 159 Fichte, Johann, 106 Engels, Frederick, 11 ﬁlial piety (xiaoci), 44–6, 128–30 entertainment. See consumer culture ﬁnance-imperialism, 221 ethics. See aesthetics and politics, moral First United Front. See United Front improvement First Wartime Service Corps, 107–9 eugenics, 189 Fitzgerald, John, 28 Europe, aestheticization of politics in, folk culture. See culture, everyday life 187–9 foreign concessions. See International European War (Ouzhan), 204 Settlements everyday life. See also aesthetics and politics, “formalism” (xingshi zhuyi), 59–60 consumer culture, health fraternity/bo’ai, 47–9 aestheticization of life, 172–82, 193 freedom, 50–2, 191–2 children’s activities, 149–51 freedom of speech, 162–3 concerns with, 15–17, 109 French Revolution, 47 contests, 145–7 Freud, Sigmund, 187 disciplining of, 135, 137–8 Fu Sinian, 174, 192 education on, 140–1 Fung, Edmund, 9, 10, 156 leisure activities, 72, 111, 187–9 national census on social habits, 74 Gandhi, Mohandas K., 177, 191, 195–7, physical education, 187–9 215, 217, 218–21, 224 punctuality, 144–6 swadeshi movement, 195 social habits, 179 Tan Yunshan and, 210–12 spiritual mobilization, 127–9, 135, 139, Garde Mobile (France), 119 142–8, 151–5, 187–9 geming, 30, See also national revolution students and teachers’ role in, 149–50 gender roles urban culture, 146–8 child rearing, 124–5 Zhu Guangqian on, 172, 184 in preparation for war, 122–5 Examination Yuan, 223 in the Resistance War, 130 role models of participation, 123 families, state role in, 188–9, 189 n. 96 work in umbrella organizations, 132 Fascist Italy, 93 n. 73, 138–40 Generalissimo. See Chiang Kai-shek authors and artists under, 183–4, Germany. See Nazi Germany 190 n. 99 global modernity, 46–7, See also modernity international war and, 118–19 glossary of romanized terms, 241–54 mass organizations in, 72, 103 GMD. See Guomindang scouting and, 89 GMD–CCP coalition, 2–3, 11, 68, See also Soviet communism similar to, 50 April 1927 coup, United Front war mobilization, 126 alliance formalized, 52 youth appeal, 61–2 CCP presence during war, 131 fascist tendencies, 8, 18–19, 238, See also class politics under, 29, 31–2 Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany collapse of, 27–8, 29

Index 281

expulsion of communists, 35 depoliticization of political participation, radicalism of, 173 87–96 Republican Daily essay on, 43–4 domestic interests of, 238–9 rivalries, 31–2 engagement with mass society, 16–18, Second United Front, 131–2 31–3, 65, 237–8 withdrawal of GMD from, 201 fractured rule, 18 Gramsci, Antonio, 12, 46, 73 global ambitions, 197 state’s entanglement with civil society, 60 India and, 195–7, 217–19, 220, n. 101, 60 223–4 working-class politics, 65 inertia of Nationalist cadres, 57–9 Great Chinese Word Dictionary (Hanyu da international engagement, 199–203, cidian), meaning of geming, 29 200 n. 8 Great World Union (datong), 223 involution, 13–14 Gregor, A. James, 9 liberals and, 156–60, 165–7, 169–70, Grieder, James B., 161–2 183–5, 191–4, 224 Grieder, Jerome, 157 n. 2 mass society under, 59–61, 65, 71–6 Gu Jiegang, 30 nationalism, 8–10, 36, 39 Guangdong nation-state formation, 7–9 scouting in, 83–6 opposition to class struggle, 35–6 spiritual mobilization, 145 Pan-Asianism, 197, 198–204, 221–2 Guangzhou-based government, 2, 18, 28, party organization, 31–3, 52–5, 59–60 35, 38 party reform from 1950 to 1952, 231 Guiding Principles and Implementation pluralism, 90, 93 n. 73 Measures for National Spiritual revolution of the everyday, 94, 96 Mobilization, 127, 128, 130, 136, Revolutionary Alliance reorganized 137–8, 145, 147, 152–4 into, 32–3 Guo Taiqi, 215–16 scouting and, 70–2, 83–7, 89–92, 98, guomin geming. See national revolution 100–5, 106–8, 109, 113f Guomindang (GMD, Chinese Nationalist socialism in origins of, 34, 230 Party). See also aesthetics and politics, Soviet revolution compared to, 50–2 class struggle, Confucianism, spiritual mobilization and, 136–8, 146–7, conservative revolution, conservative 152–4 revolution, fascist tendencies, GMD- Supreme National Defense Council, CCP coalition, GMD–CCP coalition, 136 ideology, national revolution, Tan Yunshan and, 209–10 Nationalist government, Three violence and, 126, 216 People’s Principles Youth Corps youth and, 18, 61–3, 67, 72–5, 109, 1st National Congress of Kuomintang 113f (1924), 52 affinity with anarchism, 51–2 Han Yu, 47 alignment with US, 222 harmony. See universal harmony alliance with communists formalized, He Lin, 183 52 He Yingqin, 101, 106 anticommunism of, 11, 12, 26–7, 35–7, health 38, 52, 67, 237–8 as a patriotic duty, 140–4 body/machine of the party, 55–61 fitness and, 140–3, 187–9 cautious and ossified, 72 hygienic and unhygienic practices, CCP and, 134 146 centralization drive, 87–9, 90–1 physical and spiritual, 187, 188–9 Chiang and, 1–3 Healy, Maureen, 137 class politics under, 29, 31–2, 65, Heidegger, Martin, 11 132–4 hero worship, 167–9, 189–91 communist converts to, 120 Hinduism, 216 consensus-building, 16–20 home front management. See everyday life continuity in Taiwan, 229–34 Hong Kong, ceding of, 212

282 Index

Hu Hanmin industrial modernity, 62–3, 66, See also anticommunism of, 35 modernity international engagement, 200 as key to revolutionary success, 63–4 nationalist goals, 8, 39, 66 Indian views on, 195–6 on GMD mission, 36, 39–40 industrial relations. See labor relations on party organization, 52–4 industrialization of warfare, 138 on youth problem, 75–7, 78 intellect (zhi), 65 rival government of, 18 intellectuals. See also liberalism scouting and, 86, 95, 100, 109 as agents of pacification, 174–6 socialism and, 34 conservative revolution and, 156 Hu Menghua, 139 idealization of Japan, 224–6 Hu Shi, 30, 60, 156, 158, 160, 161, 169, lack of political neutrality, 177 173–4, 176, 192 liberal inclinations, 15 Huang Xianzhao, 83 popularization of art and, 177 n. 55, Huang Xing, 32 177 Huang, Max K. W., 159 n. 4 Sino-Indian amity and, 203–6 humanist pursuits, 182, 204 support for GMD, 17–18, 158–60, 183–5, 210–12 ideology (zhuyi), 54–5 International Settlements Dai Jitao on, 56, 59–61 Shanghai corps and, 107–9 imperialism. See also anti-imperialism spiritual mobilization and, 143 scouting origins, 70, 79–81, 84, 86, internationalism, 38, 119–21, 130–2, 169, 88–9 196, 226, See also Comintern Independent Critic (Duli pinglun), 156, 161 Pan-Asianism and, 199–200, 224 India, 195–7, See also Cheena Bhavana, Italy, influences from. See Fascist Italy Tan Yunshan 1927 coup and, 217 jamborees arrest of Indian National Congress first and second jamborees, 96–100 leaders, 220–1 middle class values and, 98–100 colonial history, 211–12 militarism of, 100–2 GMD and, 196, 217–19, 220, 221, narrative of, 97–9 223–4 nationalism and, 96–8, 100–2 independence for, 218, 219, 221 third jamboree, 97 n. 83 Indian National Congress, 195–7, 199, Japan. See also Sino–Japanese War 208–9, 212, 216–17 anticolonialism and, 197–8 Japan and, 218–20 British war efforts against, 218 leaders in, 177 Chinese regard for, 140–2, 141 n. 68 non-aligned movement, 222–4 idealization of, 62, 224–6 non-violent mass struggle, 220–1 imperialism, 197–8, 214, 218–19, 225 opposition to Euro-American modernity, India and, 218–21 196–9 intellectuals and, 224–6 spiritual introspection, 48 n. 65 invasion. See Sino–Japanese War Tagore’s apolitical Asianism, 203–8, 209, National Spiritual Mobilization 212–14 Movement, 141 Tibet and, 210–12 Pan-Asianism, 131, 198–204, 218–21 union with China, 215, 217–21 relations with China, 201–3 India Travelogue (Yindu zhouyou ji), 211 scouting in, 89 individual behaviors, 90, 185–7, 239, See scouts in war of resistance against, also everyday life, spiritual mobilization 107, 109 communism and, 189 Jiang Baili, 138–40, 141–3 focus on, 15–16 Jiang Lianchun, 104 liberalism and, 162–5 Jiang Tingfu, 119, 156 psychotherapy and, 186–7, 188–9 Jingpai writers, 160, 162–5, 171, 176, scouting as path to personal See also Zhu Guangqian refinement, 102 Ju Zheng, 140–3

Index 283

Kaiming (Enlightened) Publishing House, based on individuals, 162–5 160, 165, 171 conservative revolution and, 156–94 Karatani Kôjin, 18, 47, 48–50, 224–6 depoliticization sentiment, 161–2 Kautsky, Karl, 35 intellectual complicity, 165–72 Kemp, G. S. F., 80, 81, 83 non-partisanship, 156–8 Kirby, William, 5 opposition to, 28, 121–2 Kita Ikki, 199 scouting and, 90 Konoe Fumimaro, 203–4 self-interest transcended, 67 Korea, 141 n. 68, 142 support for GMD, 156–60, 191–4, 224 Kuomintang, use of term, x, See also Taiwan suspicion of, 234–6 Guomindang thinking on class, 30–1 use of word, 163 n. 12 L’Impartial (Da gongbao), 166 weakness of, 61 n. 106, 61–2 labor relations, 63–5, 67, 69 young people and, 172–5 Sun Yat-sen and Dai Jitao on labor liberation movement. See national revolution process, 57–8 liberty. See freedom labor unions. See also communism life history as art, 180–1 crackdown on, 26 life, everyday. See everyday life inﬁltration of, 69 life, impulse (sheng de chongdong), 55–6 yellow unions, 26 Lin Sen, 143 Laclau, Ernesto, 37 Lin Tongji, 167, 185 land reform, 235 Lin Yutang, 156 n. 1 Taiwan, 231 Lingnan University, 83 leadership style, 193–4 literature. See art and literature Gandhi, 212 Liu Jihui, 75 n. 20 personality cults, 189–91 Liu Kang, 172 League against Imperialism, 199, 217–18 livelihood of the people. See minsheng Lean, Eugenia, 14 principle, Three People’s Principles Lee, Chiu-chun, 46 Lixingshe/Blue Shirt Society, 72 n. 13, leftwing politics. See communism, socialism 91, 125 Lei Haizong, 167 local government, 52–3, See also baojia leisure activities, 72, 111, See also everyday communities life loyalty (zhong), 128–30 recreation, 187–9 Lu Fang-shang, 220 work-leisure routine, 188 Lu Xun, 77 Lenin, Vladimir I., 45 Ludendorff, Erich, 116–18, 138–40, Pan-Asianism, 199 140 n. 65 working-class politics, 65 Lukács, Georg, 206 Levenson, Joseph, 48 n. 65 Luo Longji, 161 Li Pusheng, 84, 85–6, 87 Li Qifan, 80–1 Ma Chaojun, 143 Li Shizeng Malaya, 208 anarcho-syndicalism, 52, 66 Manchukuo/Manchuria, 101, See also in April 1927 coup, 35 Mukden Incident nationalist goals, 66 Mao Zedong on communists, 35 allied with GMD against Japanese, 169 on freedom, 50–2 animosity towards bureaucratism, 59 on minsheng,36 indigenization of communism under, socialism and, 34 47 n. 60 Liang Qichao, 172, 204–6 Nehru’s relationship with, 224 Liang Shiqiu, 125, 161, 166, 169–71, 174, New Democracy doctrine, 132 176, 192 on war with Japan, 114 n. 2 Liang Shuming, 204 opposition to liberal values, 28 liberalism, 238–40, See also art and views on party-state, 8 literature, intellectuals, intellectuals working-class politics, 65

284 Index

Marx, Karl, 45 May Fourth Movement, 32, 63, 178, Marxism. See also communism 199–200 limitations of, 38–40, 49–50, 51–2 McDougall, Bonnie, 178 n. 57 nationalism and, 34, 35 means of production. See production self-interest transcended, 67 relations working-class politics, 65 Mehta, Vadilal L., 217 mass mobilization, 226, See also scouting, Meiji Restoration, 62 spiritual mobilization, spiritual men. See gender roles mobilization, war mobilization, youth Mencius, 47 movements Methodism, 1–2 Asian thinking and, 206 militarist society. See also mass mobilization changes in gender roles, 122–5, 130 children’s activities, 150 Confucianism and, 46 Ludendorff on, 138–40 discouragement of students, 71–2 military training, 174, 193 India, 195 scouting as military preparation, 81–2, party-led mass movement, 59 84, 86–7, 90–1, 93, 100–2, 106–7, 233 state leadership of, 63–5, 136 spiritual mobilization, 153–5, 174 state-engineered, 69 Tagore on, 206 Taiwan, 231–4 Warring States Group, 166–8, 183 transition from agitational to Young Soldiers, 149–51 collaborative, 91 Mingxing Film Company, 98 war preparation, 116–20, 121 minsheng principle, 7, 35–7, 238–40, See mass movements, 232–4, See also New Life also socialism, Three People’s Movement, scouting, Three People’s Principles Principles Youth Corps a good deed a day, 96 Chen Lifu on, 130 April 1927 coup and, 26–7 Fascist, 72 body/machine of the party, 56 for constructive expression, 174–6 codiﬁcation by Chiang, 230 GMD and, 71–6 Dai Jitao on, 15, 40–2, 91–2, 207–8 reshaped into aesthetic experiences, depoliticizing minsheng,37–43 174–6 economic and aesthetic in, 67 skepticism of youthful immaturity, 173–4 in Taiwan, 235–6 Zhu Guangqian on, 176–7 interclass unity as goal, 72 mass society. See also consumer culture mass politics and, 42–4, 72 awakening vs political mobilization, 206 property under, 47 CCP relationship with, 64 Proudhonian freedom tied to, 50–1 centralization drive, 87–9, 90–1 scouting and, 91–2, 109 cultural transformation, 191–3 socialism and, 40–2 GMD engagement with, 16–18, 31–3, strength in ambiguity, 51 42–4, 65–7, 237–8 Sun Yat-sen on, 40–1 hero worship, 167–9, 189–91 youth and, 76, 77 India and China commonalities, 196 yu (cultivation) and le (happiness) as part leaders for, 177–8 of, 42 mass culture in Europe, 178–9 Mitter, Rana, 114 mass emotions, 56 Miyazaki Ryûsuke, 202–4 modern production, 63 Miyazaki Toten, 199 political campaigns, 63–4 modernity, 141, 187, See also industrial Zhu Guangqian on, 162–5 modernity, materialism materialism, 41, 67, 204–6, See also culturalist critiques of, 48 capitalism global modernity, 46–7 Euro-American modernity, 196–9, in conservative revolution, 10 207–8, 215 Japan, 206–8 India and China commonalities, 196 modernization program, 116 materialist vision of history, 14–15 Sino-Indian amity and, 203–6, 207–8 May Day, 143 war and, 120, 130

Index 285

moral improvement, 74–5, See also Citizen Pledge Song, 147 n. 92, 147, 151 aesthetics and politics, New Life inspectors, 151–3 Movement, spiritual mobilization Japan, 141 Dai Jitao on, 44–7 launching ceremony, 143 n. 75, 143, GMD and liberal agreement on, 192 147, 194 India and China commonalities, 196 national unity, 28, 130–2 moral activism, 77, 164, 171, 175–6 intellectual complicity and, 166, moral ediﬁcation, 182, 185, 196 167–71 national ethics, 46–7 nationalism, 18–20, See also India, politics collapsed with lifestyle, 15–18 liberalism, Three People’s Principles Sino-Indian amity and, 203–6 basis of fascist mobilization, 6 socialist ethics, 44–6, 47–9 conservative consensus in, 207 state shaping of norms, 46–7 Donald Trump, 236–7, 239 Tan Yunshan on, 208 GMD brand of, 8–10 Mukden Incident (1931), 101, 114 India and China commonalities, 195–7, n. 2, 117 212–14, 215–16, 217–21 Mussolini, Benito, 6–8, See also Fascist Italy opposition to class struggle, 6–10 Tan Yunshan’s travels and, 211–12 Nanjing-based government, 87, See also traditional culture as central to, 9–11 Nationalist government Nationalist government. See also nation building, 46–7, 59, See also spiritual Confucianism, democratic centralism, mobilization fascist tendencies, Taiwan as priority during war, 120 administrative role, 18–19 industrial modernity, 62–3 anticommunism as focus of, 2–4, 26 national identity (guomin xing), 48 China as part of international system, national jamborees. See jamborees 226 national psyche. See aesthetics and politics cultural policy, 182, 210, 211 n. 37 national revolution (guomin geming). See Dai Jitao on bureaucracy, 59–60 also vanguardism for the people as a whole, 37 capitalism’s role in, 63–4, 66–7 India and, 195, 215–16, 217–21 Chiang Kai-shek as leader of, 26 international counterparts, 3–5 communists and, 132, 199–201 interwar period, 236–8 conservative socioeconomic goals, liberals and, 156–8, 192 3–4, 64–6 management of society, 17 cultures of violence, 114 modernization program, 116 decoupling from social revolution, move to Nanjing, 26, 87 27–8, 31–2 party-state alignment, 54 enjoyment or moral uplift in, 42 policy on CCP, 28 goal of, 65, 67 product of national revolution, 2–4 inertia and nihilism to suppress, 61 scouting and, 82–3, 84–6, 94, 96–8, launched by Sun Yat-sen, 2–3 100–2, 103, 105, 106, 107, 109 mass activism and, 68 spiritual mobilization, 127–9, meaning of geming, 29, 39 140 n. 65 nature of political struggle, 32 state governed by, 33 Pan-Asianism and, 199 Nationalist Party. See Guomindang rightward shift of, 35 Nationalist Revolution (Dai), 55–6 workers and peasants in, 63–4 Nationalist vision. See anticolonialism, national revolution (minzu geming) anticommunism, Guomindang, (Taiwan), 231 liberalism national spirit. See spiritual mobilization nation-state. See also fascist tendencies, National Spiritual Mobilization Movement state (Guomin jingshen zong dongyuan as target of loyalty, 128–31, 200 yundong), 116–17, 127, 134, 135, formation of, 7–9, 28–31 151–3, 162, 166, 169, 187 Rabindranath Tagore and, 213–14 Chiang and, 136, 151–2 supremacy of, 3, 8, 133–4, 138–40

286 Index

Nazi Germany, 11, 93 n. 73, 126 Asianist utopia and wartime diplomacy, Hitler Youth, 72 214–16 international war and, 118–19 ideals of, 224–5 spiritual mobilization, 138–40 ideological import of, 198–9 war preparation, 119–20 India and, 196–8, 209, 212–13 Nehru, Indira, 213 Japan and, 197, 198–204, 214 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 195, 199, 214–16, limits of, 219, 227f 217–18, 219–21 Taiwan and Communist China and, non-aligned movement, 222–4 235–6 notion of Asia, 221–2 Tan Yunshan’s travels and, 211–12 on Second World War, 221–2 parliamentary politics, 59, 61 relationship with Mao, 224 party puriﬁcation (qingdang), 26, 27, 59, 60, New Asia Society, 201–2, 202 n. 13, 208, 67, See also April 1927 coup 211, 223 party reform (gaizao), 229–31, 232–3 New Culture Movement, 30, 160, 162–5, Party Scouts (dang tongzijun), 84–6 176, 183, See also Zhu Guangqian Peking University. See Beida academics family ideal of, 74 People’s International (Minzu guoji), 200 on national unity, 158–9 personal behavior. See everyday life, health, student activism during, 15, 62 n. 108 individual behaviors Tan Yunshan on, 208, 210 personality cults, 189–91 New Democracy doctrine, 132 Philosophical Foundations of Sun Yat- New Life Movement, 17 n. 42, 17, 74 senism (Sun Wen zhuyi zhi zhexue de n. 16, 75 jichu) (Dai), 37–9, 200, 207 as mass movement, 94–5, 103 philosophy, 157, 160 contests, 145–7 pinyin, in this book, x spiritual mobilization and, 130, 134–7 Polanyi, Karl, 11–13 Tan Yunshan on, 210 Polish insurrection, 11 New Youth (Xin qingnian), 37–9 political careerists (zhengke), 59 Nietzsche’s “God is dead” dictum, 167 political economy, failure to change, Nishida Kitarô, 224–6 39, 40–3 Noguchi, Yone, 207 political participation, 57–9, See also mass nomenklatura, 59–60 mobilization non-aligned movement, 222, 226 depoliticization of, 87–96 non-partisanship, 183–5 opposition to gatherings, 191–2 conservative revolution and, politics, treated as art, 43, 190 203–6 popular culture. See culture intellectual complicity and, 156–8 post-capitalism, 235 Tan Yunshan and, 209–10 power relations, 206, See also class struggle Northern expedition, 199 Principle of Livelihood. See minsheng principle On Beauty (Tan mei), 179 print capitalism, 172, 176–8 On Cultivation (Tan xiuyang), 165, production relations, 27, 39, 40–2, 45, 170–2, 184 67, 238 On Japan (Riben lun), 201–2 propaganda, 125, 134, 165 On Literature (Tan wenxue), 165 ﬂexible media forms, 147–8 orthodoxy, 26, 179 singing and drama troupes, 147–9 Outline for Nation-Building (Guomin zhengfu protests. See political participation jian’guo dagang), 52 Proudhonian ideal, 48–52 psyche, national, 186, See also aesthetics Pan Gongzhan, 125, 129, 132, 134, and politics 143–5, 148 psychotherapy, 186, 188–9 Pan-Asianism, 238, See also India, Japan alternative conceptions, 225 Qin empire, 167 anticolonialism and, 202–3 Qing empire, 8, 30, 46 anticommunism and, 130–2, 201 Qu Jingbai, 77

Index 287

Qu Qiubai, 31, 77–9, 206 Dai Jitao and, 90, 94–6 Quit India Movement, 220 depoliticization of political participation quotidian experiences. See everyday life through, 87–96 enthusiasm for, 104–5 radical leftwing politics, 199, See also girl scouts, 93 communism, socialism GMD’s appropriation of, 19, 75 radical rightwing politics, 18, See also fascist in Guangdong, 83 tendencies incorporation into Three People’s Donald Trump, 236–7, 239 Principles Youth Corps, 135 inﬂuences from, 3–7 mandatory at school, 105 international war and, 118–19 mass mobilization theory and, 85 replacing capitalism with nationalist minsheng theory and, 91–2 ethics, 47 national jamborees, 96–102 revolutionary right as evil twin of, 28 organizational weaknesses, 103–5 socialism in origins of, 34 origins of, 79–81, 105 recreation. See leisure activities political resistance and, 104 red bandits (chifei), 95 proposed as Nationalist youth wing, 84 Red Guards, 172 scout-like groups in Taiwan, 86 religious experience. See spirituality spread of, 81–3 Republican Daily (Minguo ribao), 43–4 synergy between scouting and the Resistance War. See Sino-Japanese War revolution of the everyday, 94 revolution. See conservative revolution, to draw youth from communism, 103 national revolution urban phenomenon, 103 Revolutionary Alliance (Tongmenghui), wartime work performed by scouts, 105, 32–3, 34, See also Guomindang 107–8, 109, 111 revolutionary history. See also conservative Scouts Law 1908, 94 revolution Scouts of China, 92 degeneration of movements, 42 on 1930 jamboree, 97–9 interwar period, 236–8 special issue on discipline, 1931, 110f revolutionary vanguardism. See Scouts of China General Association vanguardism (Zhongguo tongzijun zonghui), 70, 88 rightwing politics. See radical rightwing 1934 founding of, 88 politics activities, 92–4 romanization, note on, x Dai Jitao and, 90 romanized terms, glossary of, 241–54 elitism and conservatism, 93–4 Romanticism, 47, 49 in schools and workplaces, 105 Ross, Kristin, 75 lack of political neutrality, 107–9 Ru Chunpu, 130–2, 231 name of, 90 ruble party (lubu dang), 59 relative independence of, 89–92 rural areas Scouts of the Chinese Nationalist Party agrarian economy, 44 rebranded as, 88 ﬂexible media forms in, 147–8 subsumed under Youth Corps, 108–10 Russia. See Soviet Union visit to United States, 103 wartime service corps (zhanshi fuwu school children. See education, scouting tuan), 106–7 Schwartz, Benjamin, 9 Scouts of the Chinese Nationalist Party scouting, 70–2, 111f, 112f, 113f, 192 (Zhongguo Guomindang achievements and limitations, 102, 113f tongzijun), 88 ambiguity in goals and missions, 105–6 Second Sino–Japanese War. See Sino– as form of military preparation, 81–2, 84, Japanese War 86–7, 90–1, 93, 106–7, 233 Second United Front, 131–2 as mass disciplinary tool, 79–88 Sex Histories (Xingshi), 77 association with imperialism, 70, 79–81, sex, political implications of, 76–9, 84, 86, 88–9 187–8, 189 Chinese translation of, 81 Shanghai corps, 107–9

288 Index

Shanghai massacre. See April 1927 coup Song Qingling, 26 Shanghai Morning Post (Chenbao), 119, India and, 217 125–7 Soong, T. V. (Song Ziwen), 203 Shanghai School, 160 Southwestern Associated University, 165–7 Shanghai, scouts in, 79–81 Soviet Union Shen Congwen, 159 n. 4, 160 communism in, 221 Shen Zemin, 77–9 influence on students morality, 77 Shenbao, 98, 171 internationalism in, 196 Shi Huangdi, 50 nationalists’ views on, 199–201 Shih, Shu-mei, 162 state-building model, 49–50 Sichuan railway dispute, 59 youth organizations, 108 singing and drama troupes, 147–9 Spengler, Oswald, 14–15, 167, 204 Sino-Indian Cultural Society, 208–9, 212, spiritual mobilization. See also mass 214, 218, 223–4 mobilization, National Spiritual Sino–Japanese War (Resistance War), 114, Mobilization Movement 207, See also emergency period CCP and, 132–4 CCP during, 131 centralization of, 146–7 citizens in resistance effort, 123, 185 consumer modernity and, 143–6 India and, 195, 214–15, 217–19 contests, 145–7 nation building and, 123, 167–8, 193–4 culture and, 147 refugees from, 143 in action, 134–8 significance of, 114–16, 117–19, 130 in Taiwan, 234 women in, 130 limits and persistence of, 151–5 social change. See also class struggle motivations for, 131 chaos resulting from, 62 national spirit in Chinese conservatism, 9 decoupling of national and social overseas involvement, 136–8 revolutions, 27–8, 31–2 psychological malaise, 185–6, 188 involution, 13 spiritual construction, 127–9 party-state coordination, 134–6 state as priority, 114–55 political ambitions limited, 67 war preparation, 119–20, 126, Taiwan, 232 137–51 women’s activism, 123 spirituality, 15, 48 n. 65, See also Buddhism Social Democratic Party (Shakai minshû tô, aesthetics and religious experience, 180 Social People’s Party), 202 n. 15, 202 anticolonialist resistance, 16 social discipline, 77, 187–8 God as spirit, 179 social edification, 183, 187 Sino-Indian interactions, 203–8, 211–14 social habits. See everyday life state. See also nation-state Social News (Shehui xinwen), 117 aestheticization and state power, 182–9 social revolution, 162–5, See also class as priority in wartime spiritual revolution, struggle, mass mobilization 114–55 students and teachers’ role in, 149–50 as target of loyalty, 128–31 universal harmony, 50, 51 role in family planning, 188–9, 189 n. 96 unwillingness to pursue, 11–12, 42, 66 shaping of mass moral norms, 46 social welfare. See minsheng principle, Three statism, 28, 50–1 People’s Principles Stuart, John Leighton, 191 socialism students in GMD, 34, 230 discouragement of student unions, 71 minsheng principle and, 40–2 hopelessness, 185–7 socialist (shehui zhuyi de) ethics, manipulation of student activism, 69–70 44–6, 47–9 mass activity discouraged, 71–2 Song Bailian, 102–3 New Culture Movement, 15 Song Jiaoren, 32 sexual relations, 77–9 Song Meiling, 1, 17 n. 42, 17, 130, See also skepticism of youthful immaturity, 173–4 New Life Movement spiritual mobilization, 149–50 India and, 227f Zhu Guangqian on, 158, 175–6, 191–2

Index 289

subjective experience. See aesthetics and call for Asia’s spiritual unity, 225, 227f politics cautions about Japan, 219 Sun Ke, 83 fundraising, 212 Sun Yat-sen, 230, See also minsheng in Gandhian cap and khadi, 226f principle, Three People’s Principles India Travelogue, 212 eight traditional virtues (ba de), 212 internationalism, 219 n. 45, 212 on hollowness of anti-imperialism, 225, Kobe address, 200–1, 201 n. 11 227f mass politics and, 71, 85 Rabindranath Tagore and, 209, 212–13 national revolution and, 2–3, 30 support to the conservative revolution, on class politics, 65 210–12, 215 on democratic centralism, 33 visit to Nanjing, 214 on fraternity, 47 visit to Tibet, 210–12 on GMD organization, 31–3 welcoming Song Meiling and Chiang on labor process, 57–8 Kai-shek, 227f on local government, 52–3 welcoming Zhou Enlai, 227f on nationalism, 134 n. 46 Tansman, Alan, 18 on nature of party politics, 32–4 Tao Baichuan, 1, 125 on political economy, 40–2 Tay, William, 191 on Russian Bolsheviks, 38 Taylorized modernity, 74 n. 16, 94 Pan-Asianism, 199, 200–1, 207 teachers. See education socialism and, 34 technocratic gradualism in development, 42 Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum, scout jamboree Third Worldism, 221–4 at, 100 Thoughts and Epochs (Sixiang yu shidai), 183 Three People’ s Principles, 33, 136, See also Tagore, Rabindranath, 195, 197, minsheng principle 204–6, 220 addressing totality of human life, apolitical Asianism, 203–8 39–40 call for Asia’s spiritual unity, 225, 227f catholicity of, 51 China tour, 205–7 CCP and, 132–4 Dai Jitao and, 215 Chiang Kai-shek on, 73–5 on East-West divide, 210 communists and, 58 on hollowness of anti-imperialism, 225, Dai Jitao on, 40–1, 45, 227f 54–5 on Japanese aggression, 214 pseudo-communism and, 50 Tan Yunshan and, 209, 213–14 scouting and, 89–90, 100, 102 Taiwan, 142, 153–5 spiritual mobilization, 148 anticommunism, 229–34 Sun Yat-sen on, 40–2 conservative revolution in, 229–32 supplementary chapters, 230 land reform, 231 Three People’s Principles Youth multimedia presence, 233–5 Corps, 149 Nationalists retreat to, 159 n. 4, 229 disbanded in September 1947, 109 subordination to Western capitalist Scouts of China subsumed under, 70–2, camp, 235 108, 135 total war, 231–4 spiritual mobilization, 136 youth associations, 86 Tibet, 210–12, 222 Taixu (Buddhist monk), 214–16 Ting, V. K. See Ding Wenjiang Takabatake Motoyuki, 35, 36 n. 25 total war, 114–18, 131 Takeuchi Yoshimi, 47 n. 60 nation building and, 167–8, 174 Tan Guofu, 77 Taiwan, 231–4 Tan Yunshan, 197, 205–6, 208 totalitarianism, 28, 189 academic activities, 212–13, 214–15 treaty ports. See International Settlements aesthetical unity of ideas, 224 Trump, Donald, 236–7, 239 allegiance to Communist China, 224 Tsin, Michael, 28–30, 37 at Asian Relations Conference, 221–4 Tsinghua University, 119, 156

290 Index

Twelve Letters for Youths (Gei qingnian de warlordism, 36, 49, 61–2, 68, 114 n. 1, 114 shi’er fengxin), 160, 170–2, 175–6 Warring States Group (Zhan’guo ce pai), 166–8, 183 ultranationalists, 36 Wartime Child Welfare Protection United Front, 33, See also GMD–CCP Association, 130, 132 coalition, Second United wartime service corps (zhanshi fuwu tuan), Front 106–8, 109 anarchists and communists in, 49–51 Way for Youth, The (1928), 76–7, 119, demise of, 27–8, 29 121 mass politics under, 70 Wei Ming, 102 policy, 199 welfare. See communism, minsheng radicalism of, 173 principle, socialism, Three People’s Second United Front, 131–2 Principles withdrawal from, 201 Western Hills, Beijing, 35 United States Westernism. See anticolonialism, democracy in, 121 liberalism, materialism Donald Trump, 236–7, 239 Wild Rose (Ye meigui, 1941), 168 GMD alignment with, 222 Wilson, Sandra, 114 n. 2 scouting in, 81, 82, 88–90 women. See gender roles Taiwan and, 229, 235–6 Woolley, Helen Thompson, 123 war preparation, 119 working-class politics universal harmony (datong), 50, 51, protests suppressed, 72 n. 11, 72 133, 200 real interests of the masses, 64 spiritual mobilization and, 132–4 vanguardism, 49–56 workers action, 65, 68 as efﬁcient machine, 57 work-leisure routine. See leisure activities importance of, 52–4 world revolution, 195, 227f, See also Pan- scouting and, 86 Asianism Taiwan, 232–4 Wuhan-based government, 18, 26, 68 versus spontaneity, 33–5 workers and peasants in, 65, 133 Xi’an Incident (1936), 131 violence, 206–8, 216 Xia Mianzun, 160 Visva Bharati, 208, 209, 212–14, 213 n. 49, Xia Xi, 77 See also Cheena Bhavana Xie Guoliang, 210 Vitalism (Weisheng lun), 121–2, 181, Xie Tianmin, 152–4 198, 230 Xu Zhimo, 161 Xuanzang, 211, 214 Wakeman, Frederic, 8 Wang Ban, 43 n. 48, 43, 172 Yan Jialin, 79, 102–3, 105 Wang Hui, 37, 199 Yan’an, 133 Wang Jingwei, 26, 34–5, 131, 185 Yang Kuisong, 28 economic nationalism, 12 Yasuda Yojûrô, 224–6 mass politics and, 68–9, 70, 72 Ye Chucang, 134 Wuhan government, 18 Young Companion (Liangyou Wang Xianzhao, 84 huabao), 143 Wang Youqian, 80 n. 31 Young Men’s Christian Association war mobilization, 121, See also mass (YMCA), 80 mobilization, spiritual mobilization young people changes in gender roles, 122–5 GMD views on, 109, 113f ﬁtness and, 140–3 late 1960s, 172–4 gaps in, 147–8 liberalism and, 162, 170–5, 176–8 shaping of, 125–34 spiritual mobilization, 145–6, 149–51 spiritual revolution, 114–55 taught to make aerial bombers, 194 towards a new wartime culture, 137–51 Young Soldiers (Shaonian bing), War of Resistance. See Sino–Japanese War 149–51

Index 291

youth activism. See also students Zhang Xueliang, 169, 173 as youth problem, 75–9 Zhang Zhenzhi, 201–2 character formation and, 74–6, 77, 86–7 Zhang Zhongren, 88–90, 91, 106 ideal revolutionary youth, 62 Zhang Zuolin, 58 manipulation of, 69–70 Zhanguo ce magazine, 168 reclaiming the youthful masses, 61–6 Zhou Enlai, 132, 224, 227f targeting of, 62, 67 Zhou Wenqu, 122–3, 124 Zhu Guangqian on, 173 Zhou Yang, 165 Youth Corps. See Three People’s Principles Zhou Zuoren, 160, 165–6, 191 Youth Corps Zhu Guangqian, 125, 157–60, 159 n. 4, youth movements, 72–4, See also 208 scouting aestheticization of life, 172–82 academic attainments, 91 as a liberal, 159–66 for the conservative revolution, 68, 113f GMD involvement of, 165–6 GMD and, 72–5 intellectual complicity, 165, 168–72 in Japanese-ruled Taiwan, 86, 103 on European consumers, 178–9, 187 Yu Miin-ling, 27–8 on nation’s spiritual prowess, 185–7 Yuan Shikai, 33–4, 65 support for GMD, 157–60 Yunnan Corps, 107 under Communist rule, 191 under state patronage, 183–5 Zanasi, Margherita, 6 views on dictatorship, 189–94 Zarrow, Peter, 8, 49 Zhu Guangshan (nom de plume), 171 Zhang Jingsheng, 77 Zhu Hanjie, 77–9 Zhang Junmai (Carsun Chang), 17, 132, Zhu Jiahua, 197, 224 138, 161 Zhu Ziqing, 160 Zhang Qinqiu, 77–9 Žižek, Slavoj, 42 Zhang Qun, 144 Zou Lu, 86 Zhang Taiyan, 32 Zou Taofen, 133 Zhang Xiaoliang, 88, 92–3, 98–100, Zuozhuan, on people’s livelihood, 144 105–7, 108 Zurndoffer, Harriet, 123