Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2011, vol. 41, no. 1 51

A COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION (PE) DEVELOPMENT IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC, , AND THE USA – A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Petr Vlček

Faculty of Education, Masaryk Univerzity, Brno, Czech Republic

Submitted in August, 2009

BACKGROUND: After the year 1989, political, structural and economic reforms caused signifi cant changes in education in the Czech Republic, also aff ecting physical education (PE). Within the context of unifi cation and glo balization there are similar changes in progress in other countries. OBJECTIVE: The complex situation, fast changes and various pedagogical traditions complicate the creation of a systematic view of the current PE reforms. The objective of this paper is to describe the most important events in the history of PE in the Czech Republic, Germany and the USA and to explain their eff ect on the PE curriculum changes in the selected countries. The purpose of this historical analysis is to present some fundamental information about the development of PE in selected countries which will make possible further comparisons of the current reforms of physical education. METHODS: Our methodology is based on historical comparison outlining and comparing the history of the PE concepts in selected countries. RESULTS: Our results and fi ndings show the diff erences in the history of PE in the Czech Republic, Germany and the USA and the crosscultural infl uence of the countries on the development of PE concepts. Especially the from Germany infl uenced the beginnings of Czech and American PE in the 19 th century. Other gymnastic systems entered the USA later but the philosophy of pragmatism and the infl uence of the modern Olympic movement brought signifi cant changes into the American PE concept at the beginning of the 20 th century. As a consequence, the gymnastic systems have been replaced with the “sport recreational” concept. In the 20 th century the emphasis on physical educa tion changed repeatedly when confl icts between countries occurred. For example the German, Czech and American PE emphasis shifted from games and sport to physical conditioning after WWI and WWII and also after the Korean and Vietnam War in the USA. Further diff erences in PE concepts were caused by diverse political ideologies in the second half of the 20 th century. Physical education in the former Czechoslovakia was infl uenced by the Soviet philosophy. Popularity of sport in the 1960ʼs and the 1970ʼs aff ected the PE curricula in Western Germany, but later, in the 1980ʼs, sport decreased in importance. After the end of the “Cold War”, PE focussed on “life long activities,” and the infl uence of American culture was visible in the PE development in European countries. Recently, an active life style has been supported and the issue of health has become an important part of the PE curricula. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this analysis confi rm diff erent approaches to physical education concepts among these countries in terminology, roles, and goals during diff erent time periods. Our fi ndings also show that the educa tional reforms in Germany and the USA were started 10 and 20 years earlier than in the Czech Republic. Therefore, it is important to carry out further comparisons of current educational reforms that might help to reform Czech physical education.

Keywords: History, concept of physical education, the Czech Republic, Germany, the USA.

INTRODUCTION Taking these diff erences into account, we can agree with Naul (2003) who admits that it is not wholly surprising The concepts of physical education in different that diff erent and various concepts of the subject exist countries are diverse. Even their terminology is not the in terms of the curriculum. same. In the USA and in the Czech Republic as well, Throughout history the status of physical education the term physical education is used, but in Germany it has developed. In our considerations we also agree with is called “Sportunterricht,” which means something like Brettschneider (1997) and many other authors (Cazers “the teaching of sport” or “lessons in sport.” Physical & Miller, 2000; Kössel, Štumbauer, & Waic, 2004; Naul, education was retermed in the GDR in 1965, Western 2003; Siedentop, 2006) that from the late 17 th century Germany followed after 1970 (Balz & Neumann, 2005). to the mid 18 th century three systems (the German, 52 Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2011, vol. 41, no. 1

Swedish, and English) laid the foundations of sport and tury. In contrast to Cazers and Miller we would like to physical education in many countries across the world. summarize the further development in the 20 th century Naul (2003) recognises four concepts of PE (sport, and the contribution of American culture to the Euro movement, physical and health) which developed in pean development of PE. the 19 th century and are more or less predominant in Hagg (1989) names two dimensions for comparative various countries today. research: In contrast to Naul (2003), who paid attention most • horizontal – comparison of diff erent social settings ly to the western European countries, we would like to at a given time, add some more components from the Czech point of • vertical – comparison of diff erent time periods re view. Dimilarly to Naul (2003), not many Czech authors garded to fi xed questions. have paid attention to the American history of PE. We would also like to enrich Naulʼs thoughts about the his As Fig. 1 shows, we describe the development of tory of PE with some information from the USA. physical education concepts in three diff erent countries (the horizontal approach) and in diff erent time periods (the vertical approach). As the method of our research METHODS we have chosen the qualitative analysis of texts (Gavora, 2000). Švaříček and Šeďová (2007) describe the par This methodology is based on comparative physical ticular steps of this method, when historical events in education and sport which is a discipline fi rst described each country are lined up and consequently compared by Bennett (1970). In the recent years this scientifi c fi eld (Fig. 1). is gaining in popularity 1 which is visible not only due to As Germany is considered to have laid the founda the number of articles dedicated to the methodology of tions of school physical education we shall start with comparative physical education and sport (Hardman, the historical analysis of PE in this country. 2000; Kaulitz, 2001; Kudlorz, 1989; Pühse & Gerber, 2005) but also due to the growing number of compara tive studies in different areas of physical education THE DEVELOPMENT and sport 2. The International Society for Comparative OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY Physical Education and Sport (ISCPES) publishes its magazine called the Journal of Comparative Physical Johann Basedow (1723–1790) was the fi rst person Education (recently renamed International Sport Stud to have conducted as a part of education in ies). It contains eight main topics into which the articles Germany. He was the fi rst modern writer and teacher of are divided (Editorial, 2004): organized gymnastics. He is credited with founding the • Instructional theory of sport; Dessau Philanthropinum 3 and writing about the Educa • Health foundations; tion of mind and body (Cazers & Miller, 2000). • Curriculum theory of sport; Guts Muths (1759–1839), one of the originators of • Historicalphilosophical foundations; gymnastics, wrote various books including gymnastics • Physical education teacher and coach education; for girls. For example, he wrote Gymnastics for • Psychologicalsociological foundations; youth, the fi rst book on modern gymnastics, in which • Comparative sport pedagogy; he describes the use of sloping beams, climbing poles, • Nature and function of sport pedagogy. ladders and ropes along with the balancing beam and the swinging beam. Also Kaulitz (2001) divides the areas of compara Another important person in the history of Ger tive research in physical education and sport into dif man physical education who also infl uenced gymnastic ferent areas. As a basis for comparative research, she leaders in the Czech Republic (Rychtecký & Fialová, stresses the importance of historical comparison from 1993) and the USA (Cazers & Miller, 2000) was Frie an international perspective. Kaulitz reminds us of some drich Ludwig Jahn (1778–1852). He was a member of publications dedicated to this fi eld of comparative re a nineteenth century political and gymnastics move search such as “The German contribution to American ment called the “Turner” movement. He founded the physical education: A historical perspective” (Cazers “Turnverein” (a gymnastics club) and established the & Miller, 2000). In our article we were inspired by Caz fi rst public “Turnplatz” (an outdoor area for gymnastics) ers and Miller who described the German contribution in Germany in 1811. Physical education was supported to American physical education mainly in the 19 th cen 3 The Dessau Philanthropinum constituted a new kind of school. 1 Especially with English and German writing authors. Not only were the contents of the Philanthropistsʼ lessons 2 Vlček (2009b) presents a list of the most important publica wholly new, but also their methods of teaching. They believed tions dedicated to the comparative research in physical educa learning ought to be a pleasure, and possibly even playful – tion written by Czech, English and German writing authors. a principle that generated sharp criticism. Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2011, vol. 41, no. 1 53

Fig. 1 Development of the PE in the USA, Germany and the Czech lands (The picture summarizes the most important events in the PE history of the three countries. Here are what are sup posed to be, simplifi ed and transparently shown, the periods and the most important changes in PE.)

in Germany after defeated the German army formal gymnastic oriented PE curricula in Germany. in 1806, so the popularity of the Turnverein was use Alternative gymnastic concepts from other countries ful in opposing the French domination of Germany in were accepted at the governmental level earlier than the the 19 th century (Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, 1986). After English sports and games concept. At the end of the 19 th Napoleonʼs fall, it began to dissolve as the government century militarism started to emerge in German PE. thought the “Turners” (members of the Turnverein) The familiar ideas of Christian virtue was replaced with were too liberal. In 1818 the “Turner” organization was the ideology of the Aryan superman (Brettschneider, outlawed and Jahn was arrested. But the members re BrandlBredenbeck, & Rees, 1997). Naul (2003, p. 43) mained loyal. Some emigrated and laid foundations for points out an interesting fact: “It was only under Fascist physical education in many countries including the USA rule in the 1930ʼs that stronger support than ever before such as Fridrich Hecker, , , was given to the sports and games concept.” . In Germany, in the 1860ʼs, there was After World War II the process of sport promotion a revival of the organization, but it stayed out of politics and shaping all elements of physical education with (Brettschneider, BrandlBredenbeck, & Rees, 1997). the spirit of sport had begun in the GDR (German Adolph Spiess (1810–1858) (the founder of school Democratic Republic – East Germany) school system gymnastics) utilized the gymnastic ideas of Gutts Muths (Balz & Neumann, 2005), whereas in West Germany and Jahn in . He formalized Jahnʼs system there was a clear gap between the sport clubs and the for use in schools and helped to add physical education school physical education system. The West German to the German school curriculum. Sport Federation (DSB) and some state ministries of For many years, the presented a barrier education campaigned to bridge this gap after 1966. to the inclusion of English sports and games in the Hence, the spirit of sport superseded all former physical 54 Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2011, vol. 41, no. 1 education aims and objectives in Western and Eastern In 1925 the fi rst congress of the Czech teachers and Germany (Hardman & Naul, 2002). In both countries, school supporters took place in Prague. As a conse the term sport even replaced the term physical educa quence Tyršʼs system became a basis of PE. PE teachers tion as the subject name (Kurz, 1993). also gained an equal position with other teachers. Af Since the late 1970ʼs, the deconstruction of the ter 1925, the health importance of PE was emphasized sport concept started in West Germany. But the full and for the fi rst time it was called physical education. deconstruction of the sport model emerged in the Winter sports and walks were also added to the list of 1980ʼs, when the so called “student centred” teaching curriculum and methodical materials were distributed approaches were fostered and two alternative PE con to the teachers (Rychtecký & Fialová, 1993). cepts appeared: Funkeʼs (1983) “body education” con The concept of PE radically changed after the re cept, and the critical “Frankfurt group” (1982) concept. lease of a new curriculum in 1934. The infl uence of the The so called “alternative concepts” to sports education French and New Austrian school was visible (Kössl, became popular in Germany in the 1980ʼs and early Krátký, & Marek, 1986). More emphasis was put on ath 1990ʼs, at primary schools in particular. letic exercises, health education and competitiveness. In As a result of the educational reforms that were the period before World War II, physical education was started after the German reunifi cation in 1990 the sport under the Defence Act of Educating Citizens. This was oriented curriculum was being replaced by movement dissolved with the protectorate of Bohemia and Mora education. As Richter (2007) points out, Nordrhein via. War tasks became present in PE and the condition Westfalen is considered to be the leading state in the for physical education started to degenerate. The end of movement education approach (Ministerium für Schule, World War II left Czechoslovakian education (including Wissenschaft und Forschung des Landes Nordrhein PE) in a worsened condition than before. Westfalen, 2001), but there still remains the sport ori After the end of the war the school system was re ented curriculum in some states of the German federa newed. The events of February 1948 caused the codifi tion (Brettschneider, 2003). cation of PE and the law of comprehensive schooling was passed. Physical education was infl uenced by a Rus sian physical culture concept in which physical fi tness THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL was supposed to ensure military strength, productivity, EDUCATION IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC and nationalism (Nováček, Mužík, & Kopřivová, 2001). Sports were viewed as a way of achieving international In the 18th century physical education was not com fame. pulsory in terms of school education. However, Jakub In 1955 the fi rst worldwide Spartakiada took place Jan Ryba (1765–1815) paid attention to PE outside of and from that time on, the Spartakiada 4 became a part the school system (Novotný, 2006). of school physical education. Due to the Spartakiada In 1869 physical education became a compulsory rehearsals the tasks of school physical education were subject with two lessons a week. The curriculum during not fully carried out (Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, 1986). those times was written by Adolph Spiess according to During the 1970ʼs sport activities became dominant in the JahnEiselen system. the PE curriculum and stress was put on performance In February 1862 Miroslav Tyrš founded the Prague and competitiveness. In the 1980ʼs the so called “de Gymnastics Association later renamed Prague . sportifi cation” of Czech PE emerged. Stress was put Eight other units were founded in Bohemia and Moravia especially on a positive attitude toward physical activity in the same year. Many signifi cant Czech patriots took rather than sport. part in this movement. The fall of Communism brought a kind of vacuum to Paul Gautsche’s announcement made in 1890 was school physical education. And, eventually the instruc important for the further development of PE (Kössl, tion of PE often had a recreational content. Since the Krátký, & Marek, 1986). This announcement brought mid 1990ʼs, the situation has been improving due to the some changes to the PE curriculum (swimming, ice recent reforming process in the educational system and skating, etc. were included) and the building of new a more scientifi c curriculum. According to the newly sports grounds was encouraged. introduced educational programmes (RVP ZV, 2007) At the end of the 19 th century, the content of PE a wide variety of PE activities concerning health targets was infl uenced by some elements of the Swedish and will be used in PE classes (Mužik, 1999). French system and especially by the development of the international sport movement (Kössl & Hubička, 1983). In 1911 the new curriculum was introduced. It included optional games, athletic exercises and other simple and 4 Spartakiada (in Czech Spartakiáda) was a mass gymnastics consecutive exercises. display, which was held every fi ve years at the Strahov Stadium in Prague, when Czechoslovakia was under Communist rule. Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2011, vol. 41, no. 1 55

THE DEVELOPMENT Surprisingly, many Americans were not physically fi t OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE USA for military service during World War I, and there were many post war eff orts to implement physical education The beginnings of organized PE in the USA were at all levels of schooling (Massengale, John, & Swan connected with the German gymnasts (Turners), the son, 1997). During World War II, physical fi tness was activities of whom were first introduced by Charles again required of soldiers, but it was also required of Beck at the in 1826 (Lumpkin, many others, particularly women, since the war eff ort 2004). His followers were Charles Follen and Francis required manual labour. Soldiers once again lacked in Lieber (Siedentop, 2006; Vlček, 2009a). Gymnastics suffi cient physical fi tness to fulfi l requirements (Kelly clubs were founded in a number of cities including New & Melograno, 2004), so after the war, schools instituted York, Pittsburg, Baltimore, Milwaukee, Louisville, and more rigorous PE requirements, and there was a greater Chicago. After the end of the Civil War in 1865, the interest in teaching physical education. By the 1950ʼs, German Turners became very popular in the USA. In there were over 400 colleges and universities in the USA 1886 there were 231 clubs with twentyfour thousand off ering majors in physical education and there was in members across the country (Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, creasing recognition of the scientifi c foundation of PE. 1986). But the fi tness of the army in the Korean War fell Another approach to PE was introduced by Ca short of expectations again (Kelly & Melograno, 2004). tharine Beecher. Her popular Physiology and Calisthen Hence, the federal government set up the President’s ics for schools and families (1856) included chapters Council on physical fi tness, which was supposed to raise on the circulatory and other systems of the body and fi tness standards in schools across the country. provided a description of schoolroom exercises for girls Yet, the series of recessions in the 1970ʼs and the and boys (Stillwell & Willgoose, 2006). Other systems, 1980ʼs brought about cutbacks in many school pro such as the Swedish one and that of Lewis, Delsartian, grammes, including physical education (Lumpkin, Hitchcock, and Sargent, had their patrons as well. These 2004). By the end of the 1970ʼs, interest in the Presi programmes became the prominent physical education dent’s Council had waned and physical education system in the in what became known as courses began to emphasize lifetime sports (Zeigler, the “Battle of the systems” (Siedentop, 2006). How 2005). The American public spontaneously developed ever, none of these systems prevailed. Instead, a unique an intense interest in fi tness in the late 1970ʼs. School American system emerged as traditional education was programmes were dominated by curricular innovations challenged by John Dewey and his colleagues (Cazers such as: movement education, adventure education, co & Miller, 2000). Proponents of progressive education operative games, activities for girls and persons with were emphasizing the importance of play and games in disabilities. psychosocial as well as physical development (Singule, One of the most signifi cant shifts of the 1970ʼs was 1991). the Title IX amendment to the Federal education act, Nineteenth century Protestant evangelism was an which stipulated that all federally funded education other root of the belief that sports and games build programs could not discriminate on the basis of gen character (Clifford, 2001). Here, the Young Men’s der (Lumpkin, 2004). Enforcement of Title IX opened Christian Association, or YMCA, played a critical up many new opportunities for women in competitive role. The YMCA began in in 1844. The Young athletics, both at the high school and collegiate levels. Womenʼs Christian Association or YWCA was founded In a continuation of the trends of the 1980ʼs, dur in 1894. As originally conceptualized, the YMCA and ing the 1990ʼs many school districts have limited the YWCA encouraged Bible studies rather than . amount of time students spend in physical education However, when the organizations started opening chap classes or have even dropped the program in response ters in the United States and Canada, its leaders found to economic problems or concerns about a poor quality that Bible study classes did not attract as many young of the curriculum. men and women as the gymnasiums of the Swiss and Since 1983, American education has been in a pe German gymnastic clubs. Consequently, many YMCA riod of educational reforms (Kelly & Melograno, 2004; and YWCA buildings built after 1880 included weight Hendl & Vindušková, 2004; Jelínková, 1993). One rooms, gymnasiums, and swimming pools. promising step concerning the future of physical edu As a result of the popularity of the YMCA and cation was publication of the National Standards for YWCA, the philosophy of pragmatism and the modern Physical Education (NASPE, 2004). This document es Olympic movement, games, sports, and dance increas tablishes content standards for the physical education ingly replaced formal gymnastic/calisthenic systems school programme that clearly concentrates on “move at the beginning of the 20 th century (Brettschneider, ment” education emphasizing the life long physical ac BrandlBredenbeck, & Rees, 1997). tivity of the population (Dobrý & Hendl, 2006; Kelly & Melograno, 2004). 56 Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2011, vol. 41, no. 1

DISCUSSION Germany after World War II. For example, they brought sporting games such as basketball and volleyball to Eu In understanding the history of PE, we can notice rope (Bretschneider et al., 1997). And, after a period some similar shifts in the concept of physical education of an antiAmerican movement in the 1960ʼs (Brettsch caused by the mutual infl uence of the three countries. neider, BrandlBredenbeck, & Rees, 1997) American In the 19 th century PE in the USA and the Czech Re infl uence returned to Germany in the 1970ʼs and also public (but also in other European countries), was in came to the Czech Republic, especially after the politi fl uenced by the German gymnastic system. Later, both cal changes in 1989. This brought a new and fun intro the German system, which emphasized gymnastics with duction to sports such as outdoor activities, jogging and large apparatus, and the Swedish system, which focused aerobics, body building and other movement concepts. on light, progressive , had numerous advo All three countries have been dealing with the same cates in each country. Elements of Jahnʼs program and problems in recent decades concerning physical edu gymnastic equipment (the horizontal bar, parallel bars, cation. Many scientifi c reports have pointed out that balance beam etc.) can be seen in nearly every Czech, in spite of the extensive warnings from health organi German and American physical education programme sations, a large number of children and adolescents today. do not engage in regular physical activity (CDC, 2003; The beginning of the 20 th century was characterised Dollman, Norton, & Norton, 2005; Frömel & Bauman, by the militarization of European physical education, 2006; Hrčka & Drdácká, 1992; Naul & Brettschneider, whereas, in the USA, the English games and sport 2005; Wolf, Manson, & Coldiz, 2003). The ongoing edu movement was being introduced during the 1890ʼs. cational reforms in all three countries, which clearly sup Pragmaticism, together with the rise of the modern port health and active life style (Feingold & Fiorentino; Olympics (Guttmann, 1992; Kössl & Hubička, 1983) 2005; Richter, 2007; Vlček, 2009c), can therefore be and the popularity of the YMCA and YWCA, brought regarded as a promising reaction. sports and games into the PE curriculum in the USA. The “Sportifi cation” process of physical education sig nifi cantly infl uenced the PE curriculum in European CONCLUSION countries too, but it did not become evident until the end of World War II (Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, 1986; Practitioners and researchers in the profession of Naul, 2003). physical education need to know where it has been, how “The post war era was signifi cant in sport for peo it got there, and where it should be going. As we read ple with disabilities in America as well as in Europe” reports and articles about the perspectives of physical (Kudláček, 2006, p. 23). Especially in the USA, World education in Europe and in the USA (Frömel, 2001; War II had a tremendous impact on the development of Hardman, 2003; Hardman & Marshall, 2000; etc.), it is adapted physical education (Seaman & DePauw, 1982). not diffi cult to notice that the future of the subject and Many war veterans claimed that their disabilities could the discipline is being challenged. A careful study and not be corrected which led to the separation of correc understanding of the history and the development of tive physical therapy and adapted physical education in our subject is a prerequisite to a full understanding of 1952 (Sherrill, 1993). the overall situation. Germany and the USA have been The second half of the 20 th century brought a diff er undergoing educational reforms for a longer time than ent development in the PE concept of these three coun the Czech Republic, so we can gain some valuable infor tries. Life time sport activities along with other philoso mation from them, which might help to reform Czech phies (human movement, humanistics, play education, physical education. sport education, experiential and adventure education, the fitness renaissance and the wellness movement) played a role in American PE development. In Western REFERENCES Germany the importance of sport in PE curricula grew in the 1960ʼs and 1970ʼs but decreased in the 1980ʼs. Balz, E., & Neumann, P. (2005). Physical education in The Soviet federation influenced PE in the former Germany. In U. Pühse & M. Gerber (Eds.), Interna Czechoslovakia and other East European countries. 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L., & Willgoose, C. E. (2006). The physi srovnávací analýza, která popisuje a porovnává historic cal education curriculum . Long Grove, IL: Waveland ký vývoj tělesné výchovy ve vybraných zemích. Press. VÝSLEDKY: Výsledky odhalují odlišnosti v historii Švaříček, R., & Šeďová, K., et al. (2007). Kvalitativní tělesné výchovy v České republice, Spolkové republice výzkum v pedagogických vědách . Praha: Portál. Německo a Spojených státech amerických, ale také in Trávníček, M. (2006). Různost pojetí výuky tělesné terkulturní vliv zemí na vývoj koncepce tělesné výchovy. výchovy na 1. stupni ZŠ. In School and health 21. Především turnerství ovlivnilo počátky evropské a ame (pp. 561–575). Brno: Paido. rické tělesné výchovy. Později se vedle německého sys Vlček, P. (2009a). Vývoj koncepce americké školní tě tému významně prosadily i další gymnastické systémy. lesné výchovy. In Sborník referátů II. doktorandské Na počátku 20. století došlo v souvislosti s prosazující Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2011, vol. 41, no. 1 59 se pragmatickou fi losofi í ke změně v koncepci americké tělesné výchovy. Gymnastické systémy byly nahrazeny PhDr. Petr Vlček, Ph.D. sportovně rekreační koncepcí, která ovlivňuje přístupy k tělesné výchově i v současnosti, a to nejen v USA, ale i v Evropě. Ve 20. století se v USA opakovaně objevovala otázka, jak zvýšit neuspokojivou zdatnost populace, a to Masaryk University vždy v souvislosti s válečnými konfl ikty. Rozdíly v pojetí Faculty of Education tělesné výchovy v druhé polovině 20. století byly způ Poříčí 538/31 sobeny vlivem různé politické ideologie. Po ukončení studené války se tělesná výchova zaměřila na tzv. „life 603 00 Brno long activities“. V poslední době dochází k významnému Czech Republic podporování zdravotních benefi tů aktivního životního stylu, problematika zdraví se dostává do kurikula tělesné Education and previous work experience výchovy, ale znaky německé gymnastiky jsou také stále 2010 – Palacký University, Olomouc – Ph.D. patrné. 2009 – Masaryk University, Brno – PhDr. ZÁVĚRY: Výsledky potvrzují odlišnosti v koncep 2000 – University in Hradec Králové – Mgr. cích školní tělesné výchovy ve sledovaných zemích Educational stays: (v terminologii, funkcích předmětu, cílech, úkolech atd.) 2003 – King Street College, London v různých časových obdobích. Naše zjištění také ukazují 2000–2002 – Eichstaedt Universität, Germany na skutečnost, že edukační reformy v Německé spolkové First-line publications republice a Spojených státech amerických byly započaty Vlček, P., & Janík, T. (2010). Školské reformy a tvorba o 10, respektive 20 let dříve než v České republice. Ve kurikula tělesné výchovy v České republice, Spolkové lice vhodným zdrojem informací pro české školství by republice Německo a Spojených státech amerických. proto mohly být další komparace současných reforem Brno: Paido. tělesné výchovy. Mužík, V., & Vlček, P. (2010). Škola, pohyb a zdraví – výzkumné výsledky a projekty . Brno: MSD. Klíčová slova: historie, koncepce tělesné výchovy, Česká republika, Spolková republika Německo, USA.