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An Examination of the Catalyst Layer Contribution to the Disparity Between the Nernst Potential and Open Circuit Potential in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

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An Examination of the Catalyst Layer Contribution to the Disparity Between the Nernst Potential and Open Circuit Potential in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells catalysts Article An Examination of the Catalyst Layer Contribution to the Disparity between the Nernst Potential and Open Circuit Potential in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Peter Mardle 1 , Isotta Cerri 2, Toshiyuki Suzuki 3 and Ahmad El-kharouf 1,* 1 School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; [email protected] 2 Toyota Motor Europe, Hoge Wei 33, 1930 Zaventem, Belgium; [email protected] 3 Toyota Motor Corporation, Toyota City 471-8571, Japan; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-121-414-5081 Abstract: The dependency of the Nernst potential in an operating proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) on the temperature, inlet pressure and relative humidity (RH) is examined, highlighting the synergistic dependence of measured open circuit potential (OCP) on all three parameters. An alternative model of the Nernst equation is derived to more appropriately represent the PEMFC system where reactant concentration is instead considered as the activity. Ex situ gas diffusion electrode (GDE) measurements are used to examine the dependency of temperature, electrolyte concentration, catalyst surface area and composition on the measured OCP in the absence of H2 crossover. This is supported by single-cell OCP measurements, wherein RH was also investigated. This contribution provides clarity on the parameters that affect the practically measured OCP as well Citation: Mardle, P.; Cerri, I.; Suzuki, as highlighting further studies into the effects of catalyst particle surrounding environment on OCP T.; El-kharouf, A. An Examination of as a promising way of improving PEMFC performance in the low current density regime. the Catalyst Layer Contribution to the Disparity between the Nernst Potential Keywords: Nernst potential; open circuit potential; catalyst layer; OCP; OCV; PEMFC and Open Circuit Potential in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells. Catalysts 2021, 11, 965. https:// doi.org/10.3390/catal11080965 1. Introduction Academic Editors: Davide Clematis, Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) have a promising future in the energy Fabrice Mauvy and Jan Van Herle sector due to their ability to generate energy from H2 gas at low temperatures, with no harmful pollutants. However, the quantity and high cost of the precious metal Pt catalyst Received: 14 July 2021 required in order to achieve the needed power outputs from a stack have delayed the Accepted: 9 August 2021 progress of PEMFC commercialisation [1,2]. A proposed stretch target of platinum group Published: 12 August 2021 metal (PGM) content of around 0.0625 g kW−1 for a 90 kW stack needs to be met and thus the polarisation performance of membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) with ultra-low Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral catalyst loadings must be greatly improved [3]. with regard to jurisdictional claims in Figure1 shows a typical polarisation performance curve that progressively demon- published maps and institutional affil- strate activation, ohmic and mass transport losses against the cell current output, and the iations. resultant decrease in PEMFC efficiency. Mass transport losses can be reduced by consider- ing the material design and structure of the gas diffusion layer (GDL) [4,5], catalyst layer (CL) and patterning of the flow-field plates [6]. In particular, there is an ongoing focus on reducing the local O2 mass transport resistance in the ionomer thin film surrounding Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. catalyst particles which, inhibits the adoption of ultra-low catalyst loadings [7]. Internal Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. resistances are a function of the electrical conductivity of the flow-field plates, electrodes, This article is an open access article the contact resistance between them and the proton conductivity of the membrane [8]. In distributed under the terms and particular, thinner membranes result in increased proton conductivity through a shorter conditions of the Creative Commons mean free path. However, H2 crossover also becomes more prominent causing parasitic Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// currents at the cathode [9–11]. Finally, activation losses have received the greatest attention creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ in recent decades due to the large performance losses at the cathode, which translate across 4.0/). Catalysts 2021, 11, 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11080965 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/catalysts Catalysts 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15 currents at the cathode [9–11]. Finally, activation losses have received the greatest atten- Catalysts 2021, 11, 965 tion in recent decades due to the large performance losses at the cathode, which translate2 of 15 across the entire polarisation performance curve. For simplicity, only the overpotential associated with the oxygen reduction reaction (ηORR) is considered in the majority of the reportedthe entirework. polarisationDue to the large performance activation curve. overpotential, For simplicity, great efforts only the have overpotential been made associated into the developmentwith the oxygen of more reduction active Pt reaction catalysts (ηORR and) isPt consideredfree catalysts in towards the majority the oxygen of the reported re- ductionwork. reaction Due (ORR) to the large[12]. However, activation despite overpotential, the significant great efforts advancements have been and made greater into the than 5development0-fold activity of enhancements more active Pt over catalysts commercial and Pt free Pt/C catalysts catalysts towards at 0.9 V the vs. oxygen RHE, there reduction is difficultyreaction in(ORR) translating [12]. ORR However, activity despite into reduced the significant activation advancements polarisation andin an greater MEA than environment50-fold activity[2,13]. enhancements over commercial Pt/C catalysts at 0.9 V vs. RHE, there is difficulty in translating ORR activity into reduced activation polarisation in an MEA environment [2,13]. Figure 1. Example polarisation curves demonstrating the major losses which contribute to the Figuredeviation 1. Example of thepolarisation measured curves cell potential demonstrating in comparison the major to the losses theoretical which contribute maximum to Nernst the devi- equation. ation of the measured cell potential in comparison to the theoretical maximum Nernst equation. While these efficiency losses affect the overall polarisation performance, when net Whilezero current these efficiency is being drawn losses fromaffect a the PEMFC overall at polarisation open-circuit performance, potential (OCP), when the net voltage zero currentmeasured is being should drawn be equal from to thata PEMFC defined at byopen the-circuit Nernst potential equation (OCP), (Equation the (1)):voltage measured should be equal to that defined by the Nernst equation (Equation (1)): 0 RT ENernst = E298.15 K − 0.000846(T − 298.15)RT+ ln(Q) (1) 0 nF ENernst = E298.15 K − 0.000846(T − 298.15) + ln(Q) (1) However, practically, this is not the case. One possiblenF contribution is the small However,electronic practically conductivity, this of is the not membrane the case. One known possible as short contribution circuit current is the small [14]. elec- A second troniccontribution conductivity is of that the of membrane a mixed potential known as where short differential circuit current Pt species [14]. A such second as oxides contri- at the butioncatalyst is that surfaceof a mixed with potential lower standard where differential potentials resultPt species in a such decrease as oxides of combined at the cata- cathodic lyst surfaceOCP.Zhang with lower et al. standard suggested potentials that at steadyresult in state, a decrease the Pt of surface combined can cathodic have a coverage OCP. of Zhang30% et al PtO. suggested which with that a at standard steady state, potential the Pt of surface 0.88 V vs. can normal have a hydrogen coverage electrodeof 30% PtO (NHE), whichcan with reduce a standard the overall potential cathode of 0.88 potential V vs. normal to around hydrogen 1.06 V electrode vs. NHE (NHE), at 25 ◦C can and re- 1 atm duce theO2 pressureoverall cathode [15]. A potential further decrease to around in 1.06 OCP V fromvs. NHE the theoreticallyat 25 °C and 1 calculated atm O2 pressure values was [15]. Aattributed further decrease to H2 crossover, in OCP wherebyfrom the Htheoretically2 that diffuses calculated through values the membrane was attributed oxidises to at the H2 crossovecathode,r, inducingwhereby equalH2 that current diffuses from through the ORR the to compensate.membrane oxidises The work at alsothe demonstratedcathode, ® inducinghow equal a thinner current Nafion from 112the membraneORR to compensate. suffers from The greater work Halso2 crossover demonstrated currents how and a thus ® thinnerhad Nafion measurably® 112 membrane lower OCPs suffers in comparison from greater to NafionH2 crossover117. Incurrents addition and to thus H2 crossover, had measurablyany oxidising lower OCPs species in suchcomparison as organic to Nafion impurities® 117. canIn addition contribute to toH2 acrossover, drop in OCP any by a similar mechanism [16,17]. Mixed potential, hydrogen crossover and organic contamination can therefore be collated into a broad category of oxidative currents at the cathode, labelled in this report as iox. These oxidative currents cause a local response of compensating ORR which has a corresponding over-potential according to Tafel kinetics (Equation (2)): Catalysts 2021, 11, 965 3 of 15 i + iox ηORR
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