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Modernity and Tradition: European and National in Bulgaria MODERNITY AND TRADITION: EUROPEAN AND NATIONAL IN BULGARIA Marko Hajdinjak, Maya Kosseva, Antonina Zhelyazkova IMIR MODERNITY AND TRADITION: EUROPEAN AND NATIONAL IN BULGARIA Marko Hajdinjak, Maya Kosseva, Antonina Zhelyazkova Project IME: Identities and Modernities in Europe: European and National Identity Construction Programmes, Politics, Culture, History and Religion International Center for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relations Sofia, 2012 This book is an outcome of the international research project IME – Identities and Modernities in Europe: European and National Identity Construction Programmes, Politics, Culture, History and Religion (2009-2012). IME was coordinated by Dr. Atsuko Ichijo from the Kingston University, UK. It involved Universities and research institutes from Bulgaria, Croatia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. The project was funded by the Seventh Framework Program of the European Commission (FP7 2007-2013) Theme: SSH-2007-5.2.1 – Histories and Identities: articulating national and European identities Funding scheme: Collaborative projects (small or medium scale focused research projects) Grant agreement no.: 215949 For more information about project IME, visit: http://fass.kingston.ac.uk/research/helen-bamber/ime © Marko Hajdinjak, author, 2012 © Maya Kosseva, author, 2012 © Antonina Zhelyazkova, author, 2012 © International Center for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relations, 2012 ISBN: 978-954-8872-70-6 CONTENTS Introduction, Marko Hajdinjak .......................7 Catching Up with the Uncatchable: European Dilemmas and Identity Construction on Bulgarian Path to Modernity, Maya Kosseva, Antonina Zhelyazkova, Marko Hajdinjak ..........13 Identity Construction through Education, State Promotion and Diaspora Policies in Bulgaria, Antonina Zhelyazkova, Maya Kosseva, Marko Hajdinjak ..........65 Living Next Door to “Europe”: Bulgarian Education between Tradition and Modernity, and between the European and National, Maya Kosseva, Marko Hajdinjak ..................... 107 Modernity, Europe and Nation, Marko Hajdinjak, Maya Kosseva .. 229 INTRODUCTION In May 2009, the International Center for Minority Studies and Inter- cultural Relations (IMIR) started to work on the international research project IME – Identities and Modernities in Europe: European and National Identity Construction Programmes, Politics, Culture, History and Religion. The project was funded by the Seventh Framework Pro- gramme of the European Commission (FP7 2007-2013). IMIR was a part of an international consortium, which included research institutes and universities from nine countries: Bulgaria, Croatia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Turkey, and the United Kingdom.1 The co- ordinator of the entire project was Dr. Atsuko Ichijo from the Kingston University, UK. The project IME studied three main aspects of the European identities: their essence; the ways in which they are formed; and in what ways they are likely to change in future. IME had a very wide geographic range and covered almost all parts of the European continent, which made it possible not just to study different European identities, but also to examine the specific ways in which they are formed and maintained in diverse social and cultural conditions. The aim of the project was to establish the commonalities between the European identities in the nine countries and to assess the possible trajectories these identities might follow through the continuing process of European integration. The research investigated the attitudes and perceptions of three groups of actors. The first one included representatives of the state and state 1 Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames; Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy (ELIAMEP), Athens; University of Helsinki, Helsinki; Sciences Po (Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques), Paris; Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities (KWI), Essen; The Institute for Ethnic and National Minority Studies at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest; International Centre for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relations (IMIR), Sofia; Bilgi University, Istanbul; University of Zagreb, Zagreb. 7 institutions, as well as officials of the EU institutions operating in the nine countries. The second group consisted of different experts and people employed in cultural institutions, the media, non-governmental organisations, representatives of religious and minority organizations, and other civil society actors. The third investigated group were the ordinary citizens. Various relevant social factors were taken into consideration during the research. They included the strength and impact of the civil society, the dominating religious tradition, and the geo-political and historical heri- tage. In order to better comprehend the complexity of the European identities, the project gave special consideration to the religious and ethnic minorities and their identity construction programmes. The results from the research conducted in Bulgaria are presented in this book. Although only three people (Marko Hajdinjak, Maya Kos- seva, Antonina Zhelyazkova) are named as the authors of the chapters included in the book, the extensive research work the book is based on was a collective endeavour. The successful realization of the project would not have been possible without Violeta Angelova and Lubomir Petkashev from IMIR, Donka Dimitrova from the Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski” and the students Hristo Hristozov and Iva Lazarova. They conducted a large number of interviews, on which the fourth chapter of this book is based. Last, but not least, the successful re- search work would not have been possible without the administrative- accounting support of Zornica Karadzhova. The research work on project IME was divided into several stages. During the first phase, we conducted an analytical overview of litera- ture on two interconnected processes – the Europeanization and the modernization of Bulgaria from 1878 to today. From the very begin- ning of its journey towards modernity as an independent contemporary country, Bulgaria has been oscillating between two extremes: (Western) Europe has been seen as either a role model, which Bulgaria has to follow unconditionally in order to develop and modernize, or as an 8 obstacle or even a threat on the path towards authentic Bulgarian mo- dernity. There were several turning points in the history of the Bulgar- ian-European relations, when the poles of this ambivalent relationship changed their place: the Berlin Congress, the First World War and the 1919 peace treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, 9 September 1944 (the com- munist coup d’état), and 10 November 1989 (the end of communist rule). Since 1989, the general desire and determination to “return to Europe” have been stronger than ever in the newer history of Bulgaria. Formally, on 1 January 2007 Bulgaria achieved its goal and completed its long journey towards modernity and Europe. This process, which lasted almost 130 years, is briefly presented and analysed in the chapter “Catching Up with the Uncatchable: European Dilemmas and Identity Construction on Bulgarian Path to Modernity.” The research work on this historical overview placed numerous ques- tions on the table. The most important were the following: does the Bulgarian society believe that Bulgaria is truly at the end of its journey; and do the Bulgarian authorities, civil society, and citizens belonging to different ethnic and religious communities recognize Bulgaria today as a modern and European country. We looked for the answers to these two questions during the fieldwork conducted from September 2009 to February 2011. The main aim of the second research phase was to examine how the Bulgarian state and the EU institutions in Bulgaria try to influence the process of identity formation – both the national and European ones. We analysed a number of political documents, laws and other legisla- tive acts, programmes and strategies of the government and various ministries, as well as public statements, speeches and interviews of Bulgarian politicians (presidents, prime ministers, ministers). Documents and press releases of the offices of European institutions in Sofia were also analysed. These sources provided us with a very good insight into how various Bulgarian governments formed their policies for formation and consolidation of the national and European identities in the coun- try. The results of our research are presented in the chapter “Identity 9 Construction through Education, State Promotion and Diaspora Policies in Bulgaria.” The chapter is divided into two parts: the first part deals with the activities of the European institutions in Bulgaria, through which they attempt to consolidate the European self-awareness of the Bulgarian citizens, while the second part is dedicated to the state strategies for formation of the national and European identities. For the purpose of the research, three very different but very interesting policy areas were selected: the state strategy for presentation of a positive image of Bulgaria abroad; the policies aimed at the Bulgarian diaspora; and the educational policies and strategies. The genuine fieldwork occurred during the third stage of the project. The fieldwork was divided into two phases. The focus of both was on education – one of the most powerful instruments states have at their disposal for influencing and changing the ways in which the citizens perceive their identities. In both
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