Protest, Oppression and the Politics of Citizenship in Bahrain and Kuwait

CEU eTD Collection

P r o t e s t ,

Oppression Oppression In partial fulfillmentIn partial forthe oftherequirements degree a n Advisor: ProfessAdvisor: d

t Nationalism Studies Program Studies Nationalism Central EuropeanCentral University h e

P Budapest, Hungary o Krisztina Justh l Master ofMaster Arts i Submitted to t i c s 2013 or Szabolcs Pogonyi

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in Bahrain and Kuwait and in Bahrain

CEU eTD Collection mostly t of core the at the of conservation the at mani and monarchy, aimed is strategy This context. political and historical wider A u r century. the of beginning the mo naturalized has Bahrain while citizenship, of worthy population stateless its consider a p BSTRACT n ,

g h i i n s This g t o

share a history of history a share f r r i o c

m a thesis shows citizenship granting and revocation as a ruling class strategy in the in strategy class ruling a as revocation and granting citizenship shows thesis l

h t h e he uprisings against the government since these began, while in Kuwait they Kuwait in while began, these since government the against uprisings he e r

i d t a i g f f e fests itself differently in Bahrain and Kuwait. and Bahrain in differently itself fests e

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CKNOWLEDGEMENTS therefore I’d also like to thank all the staff for being patient with me when nothing went as went nothing when me with patient being for staff the all thank to like also I’d therefore opean University, especiallyopean University, myadvisor d. I also thank also I experience useful very a being up end things do to not how of lessons the Sometimes, gratitude deep my express I

my c my

olle agues at the Advanced College for Security Policy who quickly quickly who Policy Security for College Advanced the at agues to the faculty members of the Nationalism Studies Studies Nationalism the of members faculty the to Professor iii

Szabolcs Pogonyi.

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without this misfortune, I misfortune, this without

CEU eTD Collection I T A A T B C C C C NTRODUCTION ABLE OF ABLE ONCLUSIONS HAPTER HAPTER HAPTER IBLIOGRAPHY CKNOWLEDGEMENTS BSTRACT ABL Terms and Methodology Terms and framework Theoretical 3.3 Results 3.2 Kuwait 3.1 Bahrain democracy and 2.2 Governance n and 2.1 Citizenship situation geopolitical wider 1.4 The 1.3 Kuwait 1.2 Bahrain 1.1 2.2.1 The current politic current 2.2.1 The theGulf in 2.1.2 Views Islam in 2.1.1 Views E OF E

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CEU eTD Collection thought to be politically stable and not susceptible to troubles, as they have been able to use to able been have they as troubles, to susceptible not and stable politically be to thought monarchie The people. the of rebellions the by untouched remain to able be will that state of type a is there whether and rulers, overthrown of line the in I has Bahrain while citizenship, of worthy naturalized mo population stateless its consider to refused mostly they Kuwait t of core the at been have they are managinghad toor still anumerous stateless population. the in countries two the also are They maker. decision active and final the is monarchs, respective the by headed power limited, though exercise, to enabled are that parliaments have m that monarchies are Both similar. are systems “post a considered rather is Bahrain and worldwide, oil of producer important an remains Kuwait Although Kuwait. and Bahrain are wave revolutionary new neither rare to nor to region. the is unrest as though, story their of part a only is This utilities). cheap or free taxes, low very comforta wealthy, their a live to citizens enable to gas, natural and oil primarily resources, natural abundant from profits the NTRODUCTION The political role of the Shi’a communities is different in the two countries. In Bahrain, In countries. two the in different is communities Shi’a the of role political The m the touched been have that Gulf the of countries two The next?” be will „Who was question crucial a unfolded, Spring Arab the of events the As st at the of the beginning st at century. the

share a history of history a share Gulf Cooperation Council with the highest percentage of Shi’a, and both and Shi’a, of percentage highest the with Council Cooperation Gulf he uprisings against the government since these began, while in while began, these since government the against uprisings he ble life with a variety of welfare benefits (including no or no (including benefits welfare of variety a with life ble

support ing 1

ight be called constitutional in a way, as they they as way, a in constitutional called be ight

their monarchy. Kuwait has for a long time time long a for has Kuwait monarchy. their

o te rbPrin uf were Gulf Arab/Persian the of s - i” cnm nw ter state their now, economy oil” ost, in different ways, by the by ways, different in ost, –

but the ruling family, family, ruling the but CEU eTD Collection concessions forin exchange from legitimacy populations. their when and stability their for fearing governments the other, the on repression, to leads stance government unfavorable the towards an hand one on this: on influence great a has conflict a in side which directly to state the for way a is citizenship of withdrawing and granting The conflict. and citizenship Company, 2012). 1 probl to addition in dry; running revenues oil with faced is that region the in country first the is It Gulf. the of rest the in come consideration essayhowthe forthis is regimes Eastern populations. Arabia’s Sunni include will Saudi also but Shi’a, of by inhabited areas is that Province wider reach uprisings the will only not masses, wider unemploymen the if process, this along somewhere that argues Davidson programs. welfare generous their reconsider to forced be will countries more thin, wear startingto are reserves resource the present.As overtly not when even background the in fl always is that unrest to subject is and Arabia, Saudi on relying now reserves, oil its depleted largely that one first the was it as region, the of rest the futureof the projects Bahrain book his in Anderson Theoretical framework

David Anderson, David Anderson, wl eaie h stain o tee omnte epcal truh h age of angles the through especially communities these of situations the examine will I J. E. Peterson foreshadows that what happens in Bahrain will be a sign of what is not is what of sign a be will Bahrain in happens what that foreshadows Peterson E. J. David writes Spring,” Arab the against immune not are monarchies Gulf „The

engineer the voting population voting the engineer

After theSheikhs: The Coming of GulfMonarchiesthe Collapse eyeing the turmoil unfolding in the wider region can be convinced to give to convinced be can region wider the in unfolding turmoil the eyeing

Atr h Seks” i mi agmn i bsd n h ie that idea the on based is argument main His Sheikhs.” the “After

ems of sectarianism, corruption, migration and economic economic and migration corruption, sectarianism, of ems , a strategy of keeping the monarchy stable. monarchy the keeping of strategy a , 2

are tryingprevent to exactlythat.

t and social inequality reach inequality social and t 1

The important important The

Who takes Who (Hurs ickering t & t & CEU eTD Collection “ apparatus.” governing its and territory multiethnic contested a over control ethnic maximize “to is regime of kind this Bahraini cases t chose I reasons the of one is This follow. to others the for model a become might situation imbalance. Globalisation Nations: Arab and Identity oftheGulfin the States 4 of 2006),University Press, Pennsylvania 15. 3 GulfPersian 2 a but ethnocracy”) “civic as her by (termed exclusion of basis the as citizenship on focus the highlight to workers migrant norms.” same the embrace or characteristics same the exhibit not anddefinition its narrowing thus rule, they which over nation the of essence the as norms cultural and characteristics physical own their posit to elite an for tendency the “describes her, to according Ethnocracy, Kuwait. in mix unique a case this in dismissed she that arrangements two the to characteristic are that Features situation. political the describe to inadequate “autocracy” or “democracy” words have intheevolved waythey did policies citizenship Gulf the why to as reasoning scientific political give can model This religion. major single one ethnoclass, certain one by making policy all of domination dem partly but authoritarian not as seen be to wanting between tension the society, stratified ethnocracy’s an by characterized are power

indigenous Anh Nga Longva, “Neither AutocracyAnh Nga“Neither Democracy Longva, nor butEthnocracy,” in Oren Yiftachel, J.E. Peterson, “Bahrain: Reform Ahn Nga Longva describes the Kuwaiti system as an ethnocracy, as she considers the considers she as ethnocracy, an as system Kuwaiti the describes Longva Nga Ahn of aim The Gulf. the to applied be could regimes ethnocratic on model Yiftachel’s Oren 2

” If and how the Al Khalifa ruling family will be successfully able to handle the handle to able successfully be will family ruling Khalifa Al the how and If

, and they do not wish for territorial expansion territorial for wish not do they and , (London: (London: &Company,Hurst 2009),158. o examine. Ethnocracy: Landand in Identity Politics Israel/Palestine

. h Gl ctzn ae o descendants not are citizens Gulf The

kolde ta te itnusig etr cn e f various of be can feature distinguishing the that cknowledges

Promise and Reality,” in Promise andReality,”

3 cai (osiuinl oaci) tts the states, monarchic) (constitutional ocratic

excluding all those within the polity who do do politywho the within those all excluding

Political Liberalization in the –

but the methods of retaining retaining of methods the but

(I. B. (I. 2005),Tauris, 119.

f etes te ae the are they settlers, of oga oue o the on focuses Longva

re entangled in an in entangled re (Philadelphia: Monarchies and

CEU eTD Collection of government positions. government of me family ruling the and system rentier the are Gulf the in survival well. af of way usual the be to considered is it as cases, extreme in for except attention draws rarely citizenship the observations, her per As religion. or race as such nature, 8 East,”Middle 7 6 andEfficiency PoliticalLegitimacy of Systems East:Middle AConfigu 5 concepti the of time the 2001, since doubled than more measures. repression domestic war in involvement with states the exc he 2011, late in written was article the though Even states. collapsing war world, Arab the in that found he war, in participation the prevent collapse ofthe wholesystem, inthem indesperat resulting engaging perceive ruleisquestioned;absolute current asvitalto monarchfacewhentheir they rule include not is factor this but former), the of amount significant a also (Bahrain latter the of all received has Kuwait troops. of stationing the or sales, equipment, by support as such measures other example for the as though, strange is assistance military US the monarchies. of breakdown the for model their in found they factor common

This is notThis is meant causation. toimply “Does WarMakeStates? RentierismRolf Schwarz, Formation andthe in ofStates the 22. Ibid., André Bank,Thomas andAnna Richter, Sunik,“Long fairs in any state. In this thesis I will use elements of Longva’s theory to apply to Bahrain as Bahrain to apply to theory Longva’s of elements use will I thesis this In state. any in fairs

ak t l’ eprcl eerh lis ht h ms iprat atr i monarchic in factors important most the that claims research empirical al.’s et Bank n of cwr’ atce n h cnetos f eteim state rentierism, of connections the on article Schwarz’s Rolf In

European Political ScienceEuropean Political Review d in their analysis. Despite of this error, their theory shows the threat the threat the shows theory their error, this of Despite analysis. their in d

rational Comparison, 1945 Comparison,rational 5

Not having a high family involvement in decision making is the the is making decision in involvement family high a having Not

ari’ mltr sedn hs nrae sedl ad has and steadily increased has spending military Bahrain’s - making although he includes Saudi Arabia for partaking in partaking for Arabia Saudi includes he although making

4 (n.d.): 20.

3, no. 3 (2011): 6. 3, no.3(2011): – y only consider financial military aid, not aid, military financial consider only y 2012,” - on of the National Action Charter. Action National the of on Term Monarchical Survival Survival TermMonarchical in the

GIGA Research Programme: GIGA Research Programme: - aig eut i wae and weaker in results making

mbers’ “monopolization” mbers’ - based differentiation based ludes Bahrain from from Bahrain ludes 6

Their coding of coding Their - omto and formation e measures. 8

In CEU eTD Collection territorial basis although being a major hub of migrations. On the other hand, she offers two two offers she hand, other the On migrations. of hub major a being although basis territorial post reached (yet?) not has development the There Gulf. the in apply to difficult is theory citizenship Western that shows that quote a is portable becomehas it rather, sinceincrease 2010, continued and spike sharp a shows it but rollercoaster, a like is Kuwait’s frame, time same the 1998),21 Press, 13 12 11 andOmanArabia for2012 for data available Emirates (No the andQatar.) 10 9 that rights the and citizenship to exclusive” access easy having from “externally foreigners preventing aspect, the on more is focus Their word. the of meaning economic the in This mean should rights. equal possess citizens all not correct: not is assumption this though, Gulf the to is needed and provide explanation. faces state the challenges same the to reacting Council, Cooperation Gulf the example for of scrutiny under are affairs domestic as but prevalent, obviously more is theory second the countries, Gulf the in contradictory; be should ideas these why clear not and challenges similar facing were path “parallel calls she what to they leading manner, same the in that responded realized countries the case, latter the In top external, an of because either region: a in converge might policies citizenship why on theories

“Military Expenditure by (2011) Country,inConstant US$M., 1988

Rogers Brubaker, Rogers Brubaker, 11. Ibid., Alexandra Maatsch, hs pad oig rn i ntcal i al uf tts wt smlr pks n Saudi in spikes similar with states, Gulf all in noticeable is trend moving upward This - down pressure ( pressure down “The citizenry of the modern state is internally inclusive,” wrote Rogers Brubaker. Rogers wrote inclusive,” internally is state modern the of citizenry “The exc of symbol a longer no is citizenship world, migratory a „In

that the Gulf States are not modern in the societal sense, although they now are are now they although sense, societal the in modern not are States Gulf the that .

in her case studies, the European Union); or because of domestic politics. politics. domestic of because or Union); European the studies, case her in 9

Citizenship inFrance andGermany andNationhood

the ofthe beginning ArabSpring. the Ethnic Citizenship Regime , exchangeable and multiple, and exchangeable ,

- 5 nationalism, and is still not separated from a a from separated not still is and nationalism,

(Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 1. 10

”

wrote Aleksandra Maatsch. Aleksandra wrote , a combinatory approach combinatory a , lusivity and permanence; and lusivity - 2012” (SIPRI, 2012). - dependencies.”

(Harvard University (Harvard

11 12

come

13 This It is It

CEU eTD Collection can be paid much l much paid be can they therefore do, citizens regulations labor strict the under fall not do they as advantageous, as as well, Iwill show. n versus Muslim as well as (sectarian religious although women, has stratification internal this on research the of Much foreigners. and nationals between societies the in boundary impassable almost an creating it, with along 17 iswhatsocial develo part seems tohave happenedwhat has there. Civil andpoliticalrights ofcitizenshipare shaky best, at and the 16 Uni(Amsterdam 15 NaherUndMittlerer Osten Informationsprojekt 14 authorit of one the them, of one as interesting development citizenship favor forapplying frameworks. legislative many through weaved are naturalization of criteria fundamental religion and ethnicity considering of minorities, of exclusion of problems countries European in found be even can but unique, not are region the in found be can that constellations citizenship the that writes pre political less even possess who workers migrant to more apply to seems idea though Beaugrand’s applied; is possible as small as citizenry the keeping of tactic a burden, a become

Michael Mann,“Ruling Michael StrategiesCitizenship,”Class and Although the Gulfwas influenced byBritishconcepts his greatly ofstate, model contradicts Parolin, Gianluca Beaugrand, “NationalityClaire &Migrations Control in the Gulf ssure power the than Arab ihe Mn’ ie semn fo a rtqe f .. asals lsi mdl of model classic Marshall’s T.H. of critique a from stemming idea Mann’s Michael World, Arab the in Citizenship Parolin’s P. Gianluca to preface the in Bauböck, Rainer economically is citizenship without stateless the keeping that asserts Beaugrand Claire versity versity 2009),10. Press, Western theories Gulfcase.to the ess and are easier to fire. to easier are and ess Citizenship inthe Kin,Arab World: andNation Religion

ht ie ifrn rln cas taeis f iiesi eit is exist citizenship of strategies class ruling different five that

Bidoo n .

ped andfirmed first.

today, not to mention the in continent’s past. The past. continent’s in the mention to not today, 14 arian monarchies, arian 6

As rent revenues lessen and welfare benefits welfare and lessen revenues rent As 47 (2006): 6.47 (2006):

Sociology

17 on

has implications that can be can that implications has

15 - Countries,” Countries,” been done on the case of case the on done been Muslim) boundaries exist boundaries Muslim)

This argument works in works argument This

21, no. 3(1987). - state

CEU eTD Collection suggest that there might be parallels between the early European development of citizenship citizenship of development European early the between parallels be might there that suggest speci the of “coherence the of mix a is monarchies for power keeping to points clue the that asserts He regimes. their of essence the is quote this and classes against each ot divide were groups interest incorporated off play rest; the repress then groups, excluded sections moderate tactics “The Kuwait. and Bahrain to applied member of Gulf the Cooperati 20 19 18 The social of result the designating also but meaning, in sectarian only easier. not are analysis designations religious makes that category a as but group, acting homogenous SaudiArabia and Qatar, United the Arab Emirates. Yemen of exception the with Peninsula, Arab the on located this in will I Gulf, Persian or Arab called Terms and examined byMann. survive did model authoritarian The system. Gulf current the and rights

It isgenerally It thought to beculturally, politically different; andeconomically nor it isa 347. Ibid., Ibid.,

fic aspects of the civic the of aspects fic divide /class The terms “Sunni,” “Shi’a” and “state and “Shi’a” “Sunni,” terms The I do not wish to take a stance in the debate whether the region in question should be should question in region the whether debate the in stance a take to wish not do I

thesis. 345. - are s based Methodology

h cutis ht sal fl udr h ubel o ti tr ae h ones the are term this of umbrella the under fall usually that countries The

not strife

always as her; and preserve a vital element of arbitrary regime avitalelement andpreserve ofarbitrary her; discretion.”

it is it - social

on Council. necessarily

the the - from now on now from political triad are unfit for the Gulf; but the theory would theory the but Gulf; the for unfit are triad political result of the colonial ruler’s “divide et impera” strategy impera” et “divide ruler’s colonial the of result

nrie i te vrdy li everyday the in ingrained less” will not be used in the meaning implying a implying meaning the in used be not will less” 7

use the designation “Gulf” and “Gulf states” states” “Gulf and “Gulf” designation the use ancien

régim - and e 20 ”

Bhan Kwi, Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain, : n modernization. and - rule: negotiate with the the with negotiate rule: , just in territories not territories in just , ves

f epe as people of Especially the the Especially 19

The 18

is – .

CEU eTD Collection state under the provisions of domestic law, regulate by specific legal norms concerning concerning norms legal acquisition and ofthis loss status.” specific by regulate law, domestic of provisions the under state particular a to person a binds that status legal “a it: defined has Maatsch Aleksandra as status, times of pol presented sometimes 21 ofa context strategywider of in be placed will politicalpurpose. This specific a for revocation grantingcitizenshipand used no the examine to frameworks legal relevant and constitutions the as well as numbers; and cases the on reports media and government on rely will I so and citizenship, of revocation and granting exception the should, they way proceedi the regular the applied becoming not are they if laws the have even Kuwait and Bahrain why that question mightarise practicalThe use. their in discrepanciescreates and is power This citizenship. granting when worthy

Maatsch, Maatsch, h rlr ae loe t eecs dsrto o bhl o woee te consider they whomever of behalf on discretion exercise to allowed are rulers The rmal insuch wayof proceeding issues. I will I legal of sense strict a in “nationality” and “citizenship” terms the use mostly will I itical crisis, itical when suchidentities are todrawonandexploit. easy Ethnic Citizenship Regimes use tools of discourse analysis to highlight specific cases where the governments the where cases specific highlight to analysis discourse of tools use

n h media the in

monarchic resiliency. monarchic

ng. States in general are hesitant to share information on the on information share to hesitant are general in States ng. 21

fr xml, nemrigs r common) are intermarriages example, (for , 3.

allotted by the respective nationality laws, nationality respective the by allotted

–

xet in except CEU eTD Collection states, butalsostates, the only not of overview an give will chapter This phenomena. occurring the place to able be to countries C for internationally invest to able be to reserves, oil the of depletion the for ready become Qatar. in Cup World football 2022 upcoming the or Dhabi; Abu in museum Louvre planned the locations; Gulf various in years few last the in campuses opened un cultura a become to desire also is There region.. the in money their spend to investors compels that world the sectors. strategic or government the in whether importance, of positions in relatives of positioning the all their retain s the in victorious proved has dynasty one went; and times as the along developed have structures These council. consultative of parliament a to relegated 1 . HAPTER HAPTER 1 vriis uh s ereon Crei Mlo ad e Yr Uiest ta have that University York New and Mellon Carnegie Georgetown, as such iversities

The region Generally, Generally, amount different with monarchy; of form some are states Gulf All I

i o cus iprat o is udrtn te pcfcte o te ein n the and region the of specificities the understand first to important course of is t the then the 1

–

important historical milestones historical important A - show the processesinternational thatgoverned events recenttimes.the ofthe encompassing influence, not solely through the monarch himself but through through but himself monarch the through solely not influence, encompassing

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW HISTORICAL

- nowada l as well as an economic center: just think of for example the international the example for of think just center: economic an as well as l current regional great powers such as the Ottoman and British Empires Ottoman came andBritish the current suchas greatpowers regional ys t he Gulf states want to present a modern, cosmopolitan image to image cosmopolitan modern, a present to want states Gulf he

and current characteristics current and 9

truggles for power. These ruling families ruling These power. for truggles They need the revenu the need They

of the region and the and region the of o pwr being power of s e to e

CEU eTD Collection during the crises in the 1970’s, the abundant supplies have insured the wealth of the states. the of wealth the insured have supplies abundant the 1970’s, the in crises the during 20 the of third aid.) foreign (or revenues fuel fossil of because working actually without income steady a has citizenry the of positive image world the iscrucial. in a up Keeping populations. their of future the assure to enterprises production food in example andPolitics in Religion Bahrain 23 Liberalization Political in Persian the Gulf 22 their enabled who ones the support will status. advantageous that stratum a opportunities; and handouts st regime the comparison absolute an not and relative a in standing economic their see people the found, wealth. resource the of share own state’s the maximizing “ this do to but revenues, rent the with citizens their off buy to able be to only not is goal sole monarchs’ the that suggests Gengler Justin deficits. budget face will they years few a in policies, economic is importance to rulers the who want their toretain power. This depleted? are resources the if what future: fragile a but society, civil upkeep and governing of costs the to contribute not do people the since representation, and participation political for rights government. the by citizens the to granted automatically v and taxation no or low very include states such of Characteristics

Justin Gengler, “PoliticalJustin Segmentation andDiversification in Rentier the Arab Gulf,” W Onn T c be can Gulf countries he International Monetary Fund predicts Fund Monetary International he inckler, “Labor and Liberalization: TheDeclineoftheinckler, GCCRentier System,” in rategy is often thus to create a privileged stratum that benefits most from the the from most benefits that stratum privileged a create to thus often is rategy th n wy that way a in 22

century. Especially since the huge rise in demand and soaring oil prices prices oil soaring and demand in rise huge the since Especially century.

The fossil fuel of choice here is oil or natural gas; discovered in the fir the in discovered gas; natural or oil is here choice of fuel fossil The

alled “rentier societies alled

: “no taxation “no : guarantees the survival of the regime while at the same time time same the at while regime the of survival the guarantees , 2013.

(London: Hurst & Company, 2009),59. , no representation.” no , 10

that if the if that , ” an economic situation aneconomicsituation

A sres rm h ae have area the from surveys As ” consequence of this is the lack of lack the is this of consequence Gulf states keep up their current their up keep states Gulf

The result is not only a weak a only not is result The ery generous benefits benefits generous ery where a large part wherea large of essential essential of

st –

CEU eTD Collection become a minority becomeminority owncountry.in their a will or are indigenous the that anxiety the heightens This emphasized. are andcustoms culture cacoph the counter To traditionalism. and sentiments nationalist Arabia. Saudi lowest the Qatar, in population resident the of 90% almost for Social &Economic Research 26 Gulf 25 onestimates.based “International Migrant Stock: The2008 2010. Revision Population Database,” 24 r These started. were programs nationalization various therefore governments; over The policies. its of qu government the from wages the on dependent being and security social services. o government on costs overburdening impose and identity” national “threatens even immigration the that argues Awad Al Mouawiya perfectly. Arabic of dialect local the learn not to children citizen the caused has children of caretakers over feared the to contribute to likely less are culture, its absorb and country host the to ties develop thus negative

Mouawiya Mouawiya Al Awad, of Foreign “TheCost Laborthe in United Arab intheArabianJohn Chalcraft,“Migration Politics Peninsula,” in United NationsDepartment Affairs, ofEconomicandSocial Population Division, alified or considered too expensive to hire in the private sector, might be more supportive supportive more be might sector, private the in hire to expensive too considered or alified

(New York:Routledge, 2012), 77. In all countries a large part of the citizenry is employed in the state sector. The workers, The sector. state the in employed is citizenry the of part large a countries all In the on center often thus citizenship of liberalization the surrounding discourses The th by dominated is sector private The

aspects of foreign influence. Foreigners, being able to acquire citizenship easier and easier citizenship acquire to able being Foreigners, influence. foreign of aspects - foreignification. For example, the prevalence of foreign of prevalence the example, For foreignification. 24

Another consequence of the high rates of non of rates high the of consequence Another

- eine n oeg wr i cniee t b a het y the by threat a be to considered is work foreign on reliance 26

(2010): 4.

etnie irn lbr force labor migrant extensive e 11

f the Emirates, for example in the area of area the in example for Emirates, the f - as - employer as many are either under either are many as employer

being almost 30% in Oman and and Oman in 30% almost being - citizens is the strengthening of strengthening the is citizens Transformation ofth n o ifune, local influences, of ony household servants and servants household Emirates,” The datais –

s uh as much as Institute qie for equire e -

CEU eTD Collection state,orthe encouraging such less ties. dilemma the of part a large a having be by served better is to stability regime whether seems It questions. few a raises this economically, favorable be might nationals. be must company a in workers of percentage certain a that example 28 Center for International and Religious Studies 27 was proposal this referendum, the In elections. free like measures, democratic more introduce National the of creation the commissioned He others. among opposition Shi’a the with dialogue started free, set be to prisoners political vote, to women and return to exiles allowed He King. became appeare family ruling the of side the from inclinations trial)without tothe services, security andsuspended it. dispropo give opposition, the of eyes the in would, that security national concerning law a through push not could he that furious into entered and 1797, around in Kuwait from there moved family Khalifa Al The 1971. in independence 1.2 Bahrain

Later he passed he Later the with adecree.law Kasim Randeree, The 1990’s saw an economic crisis, topped by the uprising starting in 1994. in starting uprising the by topped crisis, economic an saw 1990’s The was Emir the years: two lasted It 1973. in held were elections parliamentary first The its until times ancient since powers different several by ruled was Bahrain

a treaty withBritaina treaty Great in1820.

Action “Workforce Nationalization in Gulf States,” the Cooperation Council

hre, o defin to Charter,

rtionate and unfair powers (such as allowing detention detention allowing as (such powers unfair and rtionate

te oiia sse o te oig er and years coming the of system political the e 12

(2012).

atr aa bn Ia l Khalifa Al ‘Isa bin Hamad after d

citizenry employed by by employed citizenry 27

Reformist

hl it While CEU eTD Collection memberships than the Sunni the than memberships electedto the l powers equal given was parliament the of house upper appointed the candidates; government such. as recognized on debate public allowing population. the of 98% over by for voted positively 31 Authoritarianism 30 29 15 the On month. cr violent forces’ prisoners. political of hundreds of release the was demand prime consolidation and a Khalifah Al Isa ibn Hamad King by enacted referendum, a in on voted Charter, Action National the of anniversary tenth The day: special Valentine’s Saint by elections independent, pro repr its of all withdrew Wefaq began, repression Wefaq.) from were those of (All elections 2010 next, the in parliamentaryseats 40 the of 18 in taking succeeded only Shi’a nominatecandidates, to c a in engaging Wefaq of despite 2006, In boycott. a on decided parties

Peterson, “Bahrain: ReformPeterson, Fred H.Lawson,“Intra wasalso by It preceded an extensive government campaign popularsupport. toencourage

h demonstrations The the on change to began Things return toconstitutional rule. h 20 eetos eutd n h’ cniae wnig or oe parliament more four winning candidates Shi’a in resulted elections 2002 The

in the beginning and beginning the in ower house.

(Stanford: Stanford Unviersity Press, 2007), Stanford 2007), Press, (Stanford: 121. Unviersity cdws n te eetes rtses return protesters’ relentless the and ackdowns Day th

of March, troops from the Gulf Cooperation Council’s Peninsula Shield Peninsula Council’s Cooperation Gulf the from troops March, of

, protesters filled the streets in the capital of Bahrain, M Bahrain, of capital the in streets the filled protesters , hn vtn d voting Then, regime Dynamics and Uncertainty,” regime Dynamics andUncertainty,” in

the new, amended constitution, the King the constitution, amended new, the

were Islamists, although their main society, the Wefaq, and three other three Wefaq,and the mainsociety, their although Islamists, -

government candidates. -

Promise andReality,” 168. Promise

ntal peaceful; initially there was no talk of overthrowing the King’s regime. The The regime. King’s the overthrowing of talk no was there srcs ee hne t gv mr cacs o pro to chances more give to changed were istricts 14 th

of February, 2011. As many in the West enjoyed enjoyed West the in many As 2011. February, of – 13

a milestone to end the uprisings of the 1990’s the of uprisings the end to milestone a

esentatives

29 h pol were people the

nta o fliln te rms of promise the fulfilling of Instead

– violent and protests the After Debating Debating Arab

hy ee elcd n new in replaced were they

eetd n cycles in repeated forced the Charter to be to Charter the forced oee, the However, ontroversial decision decision ontroversial

vn n ao of favor in even anama. It was a was It anama. security security o one for , 31

like like

CEU eTD Collection hampered and byboycotts escalation the ofviolence. di towns it while, a For uprising. seemed the subdue to Hamad, King by plea a on Bahrain entered force InhibitDivisions Reconciliation,” 36 35 US,” 34 theMinister, and RoyalCourt commander the Defense Forces. ofthe massive Shi’a.Now crackdowns against thepowerful„triumvirate” consists ofthe Prime 33 32 in meaningfuldialogue opposition. with the ‘I reforms. of path uncertain the threading than forces. th of problem the 1970’s. the in parliament the suspending with made rulers the that mistakes the repeat not should Hamad King that between engaging with approach, moderate a advocating ones the are followers his and Khalifa Al sa fferences in opinion and address grievances on all sides were made. The progress has been has progress The made. were sides all on grievances address and opinion in fferences Reza H. Akbari and Jason “TheReza H.Akbari Stern, Triangle ofHow Internal Conflict: Bahrain’s “Bahrain: ReformPeterson, “Bahrain’sGerome RoyalFamily Taylor, byHardliners Hostile Infiltrated to Britain and toKhaledReferring bin Ali AlKhalifa,ofmasterm brother Emir the and 170. Ibid., The Independent The 2011 the During – 34

but in 2012,their numbe ht hy ucee: h dmntain bcm soai, concentrat sporadic, became demonstrations the succeeded: they that conservative branch conservative The King himself is considered a pragmatist, settling for peace and stability rather stability and peace for settling pragmatist, a considered is himself King The uig aiy s a fo uie i is iw. D views. its in united from far is family ruling

Sia isiaig o eape h clig pn f h GC military GCC the of upon calling the example for instigating Shi’a, e

, 2013. - 2013 period, attempts at forming a National Dialogue to resolve the resolve to Dialogue National a forming at attempts period, 2013 32

The now influential now The

Promis of the ruling family and the rest the and family ruling the of rs and strength increased again, andstrengthincreased rs andare ongoing.still GWU TheInstituteofMiddle EastStudies e andReality,” 181. 36 35

His son, Crown Prince Salman bin Hamad bin Hamad bin Salman Prince Crown son, His

khawalid

though feecs n opinion in ifferences . Some of the former argue former the of Some .

are known for securitizing for known are ind behind theind behind

(2012).

n smaller smaller n r great are

CEU eTD Collection enchanted enchanted to bythe stay tradingopportunities.good, peaceful con Louer century. 1.3 Kuwait 38 (Columbia 2008), Press, 46. University 37 forcespolice stateless andthe lasted between clashes and demonstrations The that. in exactly resulted government the of move means financial by protest popular preempt to attempt this from excluded obviously the for out given grants food with along dinars, of United States. the by led coalition international and by 1991 in reinstated independence the and removed 1990. in Kuwait invade and annex to on went Iraq spreading. Revolution territory the claim to tried Iraq declared, was this as soon As states.) Gulf the among first (the 1961 in 19 the In th families prominent most the among

Carl Schramm, Revolution,Carl the “After Louer,Laurence In January 2011, the Emir gave all Kuwaiti citizens around four thousand dollars worth dollars thousand four around citizens Kuwaiti all gave Emir the 2011, January In Iran inthe ofthis, Despite al The 18 the around from area the in settling started inhabitants “original” now Kuwait’s

for itself, quoting that Ottomanplacedit their provisions under rule decades ago. th

century, Kuwait came under Ottoman and then British rule, until the independence the until rule, British then and Ottoman under came Kuwait century,

- Sabah family Sabah

Transnational Shia ReligiousPolitics: andPolitical Networks inthe Gulf

siders the Kuwaitis and inherently diasporic population, who were were who population, diasporic inherently and Kuwaitis the siders started its rule in the area in 1716, with a power sharing agreement sharing power a with 1716, in area the in rule its started

- Iraq war Kuwait decided to support Iraq infear oftheIslamic Iraq tosupport Iraq warKuwaitdecided

for aroundayear. at relegated to them affairs of government and military. and government of affairs them to relegated at

Economic Reform,” 15

egh f year. a of length

37 Wall StreetWall Journal

The The inv The B , 2011. idoons aders were aders –

but this but

were

CEU eTD Collection theinto abyssof autocracy.” passage: the included that rally a at al Musallam Parliament se the as well as controversy, drew Emir the to insult any punishing repression. police increased of favor in dissent with dealing was thecase. 41 40 39 Shi the inciting followed. 2011 and 2008 1996, day. celebration national Bahrain’s on coup a attempted Front Islamic the 1981, In numbers. large in live Shi’a where places to model religious and political newfound its export to trying about shy not was Iran Revolution, Islamic the since Ever 1979. in claim its relinquishing 14 its be to Bahrain Kuwait. and Bahrain both in situation their understand 1.4 The wider ge

For example, Coates Ulrichsen, “Kuwait:CrisisKristian Political atCritical Juncture,” Chrisopher M. Davidson,“Why Will Sheikhs the Fall,” h rgoa ad eet otx o te h’ o te uf s f rca iprac to importance crucial of is Gulf the of Shi’a the of context recent and regional The of ways democratic more its abandon to seemed Kuwait even that argues Davidson

in 2009, an advisor in 2009,anadvisor Khomeinito publiclyGrand Ayatollah thatthis declared a o protest to ’a opolitical situation

province - Barrak to jail for “undermining the status of the Emir” with a speech speech a with Emir” the of status the “undermining for jail to Barrak 40 ad ht t lo iacd n tand errss gis the against terrorists trained and financed also it that and ;

Since the 1990’s, suspicions have arisen that Iran was the one the was Iran that arisen have suspicions 1990’s, the Since 41

that that

“ "We will not allow you, Your Highness, to take Kuwait take to Highness, Your you, allow not will "We

o te ieain f ari, pnoe b Tehran, by sponsored Bahrain, of Liberation the for

a sprtd rm i from separated was 16

Three alleged other coup attempts, in in attempts, coup other alleged Three

Some hold that that hold Some Foreign Policy b fre dsie f officially of despite force, by t 39

n 03 a e mda law media new a 2013, In ntencing of Member of Member of ntencing , 2013. rn tl considers still Iran BBC News

, 2012. ,

CEU eTD Collection southern borderlands close to Yemen. The Saudi Kingdom is based on an alliance of the Al the of alliance an on based is Kingdom Saudi The Yemen. to close borderlands southern own its in protesters the empower to wildfire like spread will success uprising’s any that fears It necessity. sheer of one also but principle, of matter a only recent the in u involved was Iran that proof no is there protests, 2011 the investigate to up government. Commission November ofInquiry, 23,2011), 383. 43 EuropeanCentral Journal International andSecurityStudies of 42 and fate same the awaits them they tomove.should choose that streets the taking of dreamed who others to signal clear a send to also but unrest, the of force the by surprise by taken was that government Bahraini the help to only Shie Peninsula GCC the of part as soldiers sent Arabia Saudi escalation, further prevent To there. Shi’a the of treatment the against and Bahrain in protests the for support for with Gulf the in Shi’a the supporting by status its undermine to ready is Iran that thinks It Iran. be even apostates. Islam. th and family ruling Saud nrest.

“Report ofthe “Report Bahrain Independent Commission ofInquiry” (Bahrain Independent A. Mitchell Belfer, “The Fourteenth Province: TheIrano ebr f Parliament of Member In 2012, Kuwaiti 2012, In to rival main its considers Arabia Saudi status, power regional acquire to quest the On not is on influence has it region whole the in unrest Shi’a quelling Arabia, Saudi For 43 The Wahhabi are inherently disdainful inherently are Wahhabi The

example military training, weapons and money. Iranian officials have spoken up in up spoken have officials Iranian money. and weapons training, military example 42

The Bahrain Independent Commission of Enquiry, and international body set set body international and Enquiry, of Commission Independent Bahrain The

Shi’a, including Shi’a, e Wah e pegd lot hnrd ilo dlas ot dnr t the to dinars worth dollars million hundred a almost pledged ,

h abi clerics, representing a very conservative interpretation of interpretation conservative very a representing clerics, abi

Abd al Abd 17

of the Shi’a, whom they consider deviants or deviants consider they whom Shi’a, the of

- Hamed

al - - Bahraini Conflict in Perspective,” Dasthi, a citizen of Iranian origin Iranian of citizen a Dasthi,

(n.d.). Eastern Province and on the on and Province Eastern

ld force not force ld CEU eTD Collection the Iranian threat and give the Gulf states appropriate defense cooperation capabilities. cooperation defense appropriate states Gulf the give and threat Iranian the forLebanon’s Hezbollah fightagainstthevarious the rebel factions. groups. rebel armed Sunni many from comes now that backlash the in resulting time, Al the Syria. of regime Assad Shorfa 47 2012),Routledge, 32. 46 45 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Me0it469nP4. 44 The citizenship. GCC common a of founding the and Arabia; Saudi and Bahrein with starting example health, housing, oreducation. share billion 2,5 a promised example for years Kuwait ten of period the over dollars billion ten grant to the is plan after The War. Europe World rebuilding Second encourage to efforts US the to measur aid reference financial in of plan” set “Marshall a out roll would it that decided GCC the 2011 2008. in established was market common the planned, is union monetary A economy. of field the in example for more, much became GCC the organization, cooperation itself. security state the within from comes attack that if even 2011, in deployment attack under comes state member a whenever in step to it allow militar

Mohammed al Patrick,Neil “Nationalism inthe Gulf in States,” issometimesIt referred to GulfCounterrevolutionary Council. asthe jokingly DinarKuwaiti ShiaDonateBashar to 23Million Al awi Shi’a branch of Islam. The government has been repressive to Sunnis for a long a for Sunnis to repressive been has government The Islam. of branch Shi’a awi y force is called the Peninsula Shield, and similar to the NATO’s 5 NATO’s the to similar and Shield, Peninsula the called is force y , 2012. oe hn that, than More formed initially was (GCC) Council Cooperation Gulf The

- Jayousi

sa as rcie mtra ad esne spot rm rn and Iran from support personnel and material receives also Assad 44

talks are commencing about a possible merger of all GCC states, states, GCC all of merger possible a about commencing are talks , Projects,” Plan’ “‘GCC Marshall OffersFunding forBahraini Bashar al Bashar

- Assad and the most stable base of his supporters belong to belong supporters his of base stable most the and Assad 47

Transformation of theTransformation of Gulf – -

Assad in Syria o ari for Bahrain to - in 1981 in dominated opposition and opposition dominated

– , 2012,

rjcs eae t for to related projects s t a se b the by seen was it as th

to counter to article, provisions article,

(New York:

Fro s dbe a dubbed es, a mere a m - balance Al 45 46 -

Its In –

CEU eTD Collection lo provides also invasions. 2003 and 1991 the conducting successfully in crucial was Iraq to bases available of proximity cons is Iran recently More considerations. fear over as they the howev states smaller 48 rule. the of legitimating and in trust of sign a as seen is base the of upkeep The Bahrain. aid. monetary

“Gulf Leaders to Discuss“Gulf Leadersto ‘GCC Union’,”

ay ae rtczd t lx tne n o eape h hmn ihs iltos in violations rights human the example for on stance lax its criticized have Many States United The

The US stations its 5 its stations US The

osdrbe upr i fr o dfne otat, epn hpet and shipments weapon contracts, defense of form in support considerable -

dominanceSaudi Arabia. of er are reluctant to express positive views about this level of integration, of level this about views positive express to reluctant are er keep a large military presence in the Gulf because of their strategic their of because Gulf the in presence military large a keep

Fleet in Bahrain; and still retains a presence in Kuwait. It It Kuwait. in presence a retains still and Bahrain; in Fleet idered to be the primary threat in the area, but the the but area, the in threat primary the be to idered Al 19 - Jazeera

, 2012.

Al Khalifa Khalifa Al CEU eTD Collection have systems and legislations current the emerged. how and Gulf; the in be to came democracy C 50 considerSalafis Shi’a and and Sufithus Muslim. not apostates 49 views forthrough example commissioning government their influence to try to and elements Islamist incorporate to moved were they and anditsstate government) contrary to is teachings. the a of primacy the (accepting Allah than other authority an to submitting that consider Some community same the in together belonging Muslims all of Umma, of notion the supports Islam reconcilable. are law 2.1.1 2.1 Citizenship andnat HAPTER HAPTER

Patrick, “NationalismPatrick, inthe the This is general idea

Viewsin Islam The emergence of political Islam was considered a threat to monarchi to threat a considered was Islam political of emergence The membership whether on debates are There hs chapter This

–

C ONCEPTS

will describe how concepts of citizenship, nationhood, governance and governance nationhood, citizenship, of concepts how describe will

ionhood no matter which ethnicity they ethnicity which matter no N –

D but forexample someSunni fundamentalists, forexample the

Y Gulf States,” 15. S T E

M S

- s friendly Friday sermons.

in Islam and in a national community per community national a in and Islam in

are of or which territory they live on. live they territory which or of are

es for this reason, this for es CEU eTD Collection n ii mtessc a mrig ad neiac,nihri ari o i Kwi a Kuwait in nor Bahrain in neither inheritance, and marriage as such matters civil in Kuwait, the welfare benefitsnot are tomarried women.given husbands their by for cared and on dependent traditionally also to non applied been only have not policies following the although non marry to allowed not are women Muslim Islam: of teachings the with 52 Law ArabWorld inthe Kuwait,” 51 Kuw the Therefore rule. until end1861, Kuwait the of FirstWorldWar subsequent the the collapse and oftheOttoman except in specialdesignatedareas. property own to allowed not are and everything, for pay to have hand other the on citizens taxation. of lack programs, housing and healthcare education, free Gulf 2.1.2 Viewsin the Shari’a considering British the of result a atinadequate vying best, tominimize role. its also is This it. on based solely codes penal . Ibid., 145. Ibid., AnnTetreault andMary The Shari’a remains an important source of law. Such courts currently only hold power hold only currently courts Such law. of source important an remains Shari’a The sy way a in is that behavior encourages policies citizenship of approach The Bahrain and Kuwait were both were Kuwait and Bahrain inclu these Usually, benefits. of variety a with connected is Gulf the in Citizenship British JournalofMiddleBritish

(Cambri

ii ea sse ws influence was system legal aiti

Haya al

dge University Press, 1997), 1997), Press, 3. dge University

- - Mughni, Citizenship Nationalism “Gender, and in Eastern Studies periodical 52 21

part of the Ottoman Empire: Bahrain until Bahrain Empire: Ottoman the of part (1995): 73. d

n rae etn b te Ottoman the by extent greater in 51

Nathan J. Nathan J. Brown, – - Muslim husbands. They are are They husbands. Muslim

this

In many places, places, many In is why for example in in example for why is - ulm men Muslim The Rule of The Ruleof mmetrical re the re Non de - -

CEU eTD Collection legalistic manner, able to bend the institutions of libe of institutions the bend to able manner, legalistic rulers. imperial the by influenced own laws their develop to rulers local the left and foreigners, with concerned primarily were they India; in project colonial similar the with experience their on based code a implemented afterwards ci establish to aimed reforms 58 57 56 55 54 3. 53 approa new The on. later even failure a was and postponed, be to had implementation the and criticism vast in resulted code penal resulting the then, even and Bahrain; of ruler the was l Gulf the in similarities system. joint comprehensive, a in Gulf the over to were free traverse the Beduin borders. traditional know really not did hitherto that area an from states with. affiliated was one constituency local of form other or tribe centrally to promote aims. liberal used be cannot it so flawed inherently is system the thinks he why on light shedding asserts,

Brown, Parolin, 160. Ibid., 6. Ibid., 4. Ibid., Brown, Nathan J. In the 1950’s, Great Britain attempted to unite its own courts with the local ones, all all ones, local the with courts own its unite to attempted Britain Great 1950’s, the In underdeveloped. were structures administrational British, the Before Brown argues that all former colonies and protectorates had their legal systems vastly vastly systems legal their had protectorates and colonies former all that argues Brown

codified, the rules in Gulf societies were based on customs, mostly defined by the the by defined mostly customs, on based were societies Gulf in rules the codified,

with their assistance. with their The Rule of L The Ruleof Cit

izenship Kin,Religionizenship in theArabWorld: andNation The Rule of LawThe Ruleof in Arab the World

56 aw intheArabWorld egal structures. The only ruler the British actually consulted for this for consulted actually British the ruler only The structures. egal entire entire

54 region. i cut aogie hr’ ones. Shari’a alongside courts vil

Atcai rgms ae nraigy prtd n a in operated increasingly have regimes “Autocratic , 139. 22

hs s n o te esn fr h many the for reasons the of one is This ral legality to serve non serve to legality ral

(Cambridge University Press, 1997), - 53 57 state

h Biih h ruled who British The h Biih avd out carved British The , 36. -

liberal ends,” he ends,” liberal Before being being Before for example example for ch CEU eTD Collection the declarationsofthat1961the startedin independence withKuwait. long the but British, pre the in underestimated. views their of codification the coerce th resisting in Bahrain in opposition the of role the example for factors, follow. to domestic the models, authorities imperialist in lies local systems legal Gulf the the of base for the while Therefore, model a merely providing on relying softer, was 62 61 60 59 – a autonomous an of inhabitants all provisions, these With nationality. „indigenous” local, of form a was invention Ottoman faiths. other of followers for citizenship for required not was Islam to conversion meri distinguished achieving special by those or for residence provisions of years Ottoman receive five to after able possible, be also to was age Naturalization of nationality. coming their after years three until least at wait landsof empire onthe Thosewhowereborn children. onto his on based was citizenship the model

Ottoman nationality wasnotarequirement.Ottoman nationality Ibid., 75. Ibid., 74. Ibid., Parolin, P. 144 oe Napoléon Code statehood and nationality and statehood iiesi was Citizenship

Citizenship Kin, Religionin theArabWorld: andNation

Not only the legal frameworks were sought to become common by the the by common become to sought were frameworks legal the only Not

- isie te is Otmn ainlt law. nationality Ottoman first the inspired , term plan was to form a single state in the Gu the in state single a form to was plan term essentially ius sanguinis ius

rea were eligible for benefits and had duties imposed on them on imposed duties had and benefits for eligible were rea first n xenly moe lgl concept legal imposed externally an arose during Ottoman rule. rule. Ottoman during arose , the father being the one who confers the citizenship the confers who one the being father the , 62 23

. s rrt i te ra t h time, the at area the in rarity a As t. - independence period should not be be not should period independence The French mod French The

from foreign parents tofromforeign had - state 60 lf. This was subverted by subverted was This lf.

s f 89 Ottoman 1869, of As , 78. e British attempts to attempts British e ; ideas

of el, based on based el, 61

Western An other other An 59 -

CEU eTD Collection citizens, but rather a grant from the ruler to his people, therefore he is entitled to revoke it it revoke to entitled is he therefore people, his to ruler the from grant a rather but citizens, commented al Baqer society.” in people,” the of all attitudes the in of or state the wellbeing of practice the the in established not for is “Citizenship power state of use the defines that relationship states the because “dysfunctional”, inherently 66 2012. 65 64 63 patron the 2.2 Governance and democracy him mere a orher consumer, controllable andpassive. made have to comply to pressured is individual an considerations these All regulations. state interpretations religious all the to up and family of level lower the from starting to, subjected is person the control of layers multiple these in lies ideals Western with conflict in not is that citizenry desires. he whenever

Khouri, “For Arabs, a State ofAbandonment.” Arabs, aState Khouri, “For Haif “NationalismPatrick, GulfStates,”55. inthe Arabs,Rami “For aState G.Khouri, of Abandonment,”

“ that said Khalaf Abdulhadi is world Arab the in citizenship that thinks Khouri G. Rami journalist Palestinian a Zaaiter, “Bahraina Zaaiter, Of Revokes Nationality 31Opposition Members,” Mich - client system on which the regime rests. Faced with a choice of abdication or or abdication of choice a with Faced rests. regime the which on system client ael

Herb defined something he called the ‘king’s dilemma’: “Reform undermines “Reform dilemma’: ‘king’s the called he something defined Herb

- Najjar, professor a f ” 65

of proper behavior; in between there are for example tribal codes and codes tribal example for are there between in behavior; proper of

hui hns ht h ro of root the that thinks Khouri

the authorities are acting as if citizenship is not a right for for right a not is citizenship if as acting are authorities the

romBahrain.

24 „have never negot never „have

66 64

The Daily Star The h fiue o sals a ie of idea an establish to failure the iated a sensible and equitable and sensible a iated , 2012. Al - - encompassing

Monitor , 63

CEU eTD Collection 2.2.1 The current T represses.” B leader the builds, pressure revolutionary when repression Persianin the Gulf 68 Monarchies Eastern 67 unica The monarchy. constitutional of system its to according power of amount great electionsin the though,most run candidates asindependents. blocs issues. current discuss to homes private aproposedreject although law, happens ra this to allowed is chamber lower The Khalifa. Al Salman bin Khalifa independence, achieved Bahrain since person same the been has Minister Prime The family. ruling the of members t by approved and selected also are ministers The King. the by appointed is people, 40 of consisting also chamber, upper the population, the of vote political groupssocieties or h a

Mary AnnTetreault, “Kuwait:Mary Slouching Democracy?,” Towards in Herb,Michael i h s r

a p , such as Sunni and Shi’a Islamists, the Muslim Brotherhood, Brotherhood, Muslim the Islamists, Shi’a and Sunni as such , i a n h Kwii osiuin allows constitution Kuwaiti The t Kuwait, In per elected is representatives 40 of chamber lower the bicameral; is Parliament The calle just are they so formed, be to allowed not officially are parties Bahrain, In r

a s n h d o

w K s u

m w All intheFamily:Absolutism, Revolution, and o a p

he main venues of political organization are the are organization political of venues main he r i (London: Hurst & Company, 2009),124. t

e o

(SUNY Press, 1999), 15. 1999), (SUNYPress,

l a d i t r e i e t c

a a s i l l e

– systems m a

their i o - d u e t

m h function is the same. o o

w c r

a t h t 68

i e h primn, h Ntoa Asml a relatively a Assembly National the parliament, the c

y , Parties are are Parties

w b u

25 o rely. t r

s . t

i l l

a formally u t

h o he ruler, the majority of them are are them of majority the ruler, he r i

a r i outlawed, but outlawed, a Democracy in the the Democracy in Middle n

c diwaniyyas and so forth so and o n Political Liberalization s t i t u 67 t

i o T n named political political named h , events held in held events , a e l

are present are

m s y o s n t a e r m c meral h s

i e o

s d – f .

CEU eTD Collection if he loses the trust of the parliament the of trust the loses he if round. next the in chosen say no has it although cabinet, the reject can parliament The government. his of members the chooses Minister Prime the Minister; Prime a appoint can who one the a in culminates which process, questioning a initiating after super a needs it government, power into coming from law a block to allowed is parliament 70 Persianin the Gulf 69 forfunds inexchange theirvoteson issues.specific sub these numerousbetween therepresentationis ofThe clan moreore rivals, the less secured. powerof elections the to sends tribe one candidates the of number the law. the of despite held being still are they ministries example to onrule, ministers. toosick andvote newrulerproposed by the the for is he is Emir the remove can parliament the even proved, 2006 in events example for as Emir, the by dissolved cases. extreme in it suspend even or elections; new for call

Tetreault, “Kuwait:Tetreault, Slouching Democracy?,” 113. Towards Herb,Michael “Kuwait:TheObstacle of Politics,” Parliamentary Kuwait sought to abolish so abolish to sought Kuwait fami ruling The - , but citizen any for canrun candidacy. tt al state eine as sos hn o eape rbs ead oe government more demand tribes example for when shows also legiances

(London: Hurst & Company, 2009).

ly usually possesses the post of the Prime Minister and the important the and Minister Prime the of post the possesses usually ly for various reasons, sometimes unconstitutionally. sometimes reasons, various for

The Emir is required required is Emir The -

majority to do so) do to majority - called tribal primaries before the elections, but failed as failed but elections, the before primaries tribal called –

or he can choose to dismiss the parliament itself and itself parliament the dismiss to choose can he or

These are pre are These 26 to oblige to either dismiss the Prime Minister Prime the dismiss either to oblige to

, and it can oust a minister from his position his from minister a oust can it and ,

- election activities staged to reduce to staged activities election vote of confidence. The Emir is Emir The confidence. of vote

(though if it is supported by the the by supported is it if (though 69

– h primn i regularly is parliament The

f hr i n competition no is there if in Political Liberalization On the other hand, other the On

in h wl be will who CEU eTD Collection throughout theorganized country. candidates. four for vote could voter Guardian 71

Ian Black,“Kuwait SignsIan Emir’s ChangetoElection RulesStirs ofArab Spring,” h eeto lw a cagd eety bfr te 02 lcin. rvosy each Previously, elections. 2012 the before recently, changed was law election The , 2012.

Upsetting t Upsetting 27

hat order caused large street protests to be to protests street large caused order hat The CEU eTD Collection hs c this Khouri. writes power,” and authority its exercising is government the how question who citizens fellow own their of face the in panic who officials government modern civilized of norms C 72 this constitution. 1973 the in stands t is ofthe population part Arabnation andwhoseterritory is partofthegreat Arabhomeland.” cha constitution 3.1 Bahrain mentionedthe countries. make general the examine also and stateless, the marginalize be to tend that communities two with deal that cases at mostly look I governments. the of position the strengthening of aim the with used are that citizenship esn n da nationality, dual and reason HAPTER HAPTER

Khouri, “For Arabs, a State ofAbandonment.” Arabs, aState Khouri, “For in 2002. Thedetails delegatedare specific tothe nationality law. hapter from Bahrain and Kuwait will illustrate specific strategies in connection with with connection in strategies specific illustrate will Kuwait and Bahrain from hapter “ 2002 The 1973. of constitution the declares people,” Arab the are people “[Bahrain’s] all against goes that violation rights human gross a only not is citizenship „Revoking No person enjoying citizenship by origin may be deprived of it except in cases of high of cases in except it of deprived be may origin by citizenship enjoying person No

–

C ASES IN ASES gd hs asg, aig ht ari i a “ an is Bahrain that saying passage, this nged

B AHRAIN AND AHRAIN AND

ttho; t s lo ptei adcto o rsosblt by responsibility of abdication pathetic a also is it statehood;

n i acrac wt te odtos pcfe b te law the by specified conditions the with accordance in and

Only changes in wording but not in the essence were made were essence the in not but wording in changes Only K UWAIT

up of citizenship structures and provisions in provisions and structures citizenship of up 72 Islamic Arab State whose whose State Arab Islamic

The sampling of cases of cases of sampling The d -

the Shi’a and Shi’a the to to ”

CEU eTD Collection oh h fte ad h gadahr ae o e iies led. h mte cn confer can mother The identi the already. if citizenship citizens be to have grandfather the and father the both Bahraini be to needs father the Bahrain, in born is “original” and citizens. later determining for boundary the as to referred being is which date the is former The 1963. from of state.” the if lost is so It acquisition. of years five within honesty or honor to related crime a commits husband. ofloss,if the case shedivorces forbidden is which citizenship, dual on take to tries and taken. involuntarily citizenship f candidate services.”example“great for for someone, to nationality grant to decides King the if needed not is all This country. the in conduct good “of be Arabic; in fluent be to has applicant The Arabs. cannot determined.parentage be meone serves in a foreign military, aids an enemy country, or “causes harm to the security security the to harm “causes or country, enemy an aids military, foreign a in serves meone C Bahrain a as chosen be and vote can citizen naturalized a until period waiting year ten a is There of case in years 15 or years, 25 is naturalization for required residence of time The by determined either is birth at Citizenship B ahrain had a nationality law as ear as law nationality a had ahrain itizenship could only be revoked be only could itizenship or parliament.

automatically y f h fte i unknown; is father the of ty

tis iiesi fo te ecnat o toe h hd their had who those of descendants the from citizenship strips

The same thing happens to a woman who marries a foreigner a marries who woman a to happens thing same The

if it was acquired fraudulently; or in case the person the case in or fraudulently; acquired was it if

ly as 1937, but the current one is based on the one the on based is one current the but 1937, as ly 29

both –

or in case of those born on foreign soil, foreign on born those of case in or u soli ius ius sanguinis ius –

she c she

is used exclusively in case the the case in exclusively used is an regain it though even in even though it regain an and ;” and possess real estate real possess and ;” ius soli ius

–

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(London: LynnePublishers,Rienner 1999), 185. Bahrani Bahrani 30

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“Juma’at Societies Alm’arada Kadhibun[Opposition AreLiars],” 12. Ibid., A. Mitchell Belfer, “Demographic Warfare,” who He excludesthose ma not are Should“All ToStop Unite Radicals AndPutanEndtoViolence,” “Wathiqa Bahrayniya:Min Aqall AlnusufAl Shi’a [BahrainiDocum Gengler, Justin d Security Studies The pro The Mitchell after 1947 after

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census has asked a question related to the interviewee’s sect; similarly, sect; interviewee’s the to related question a asked has census - (2013): 11. Jazeera

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Alexander Smoltczyk,Alexander “Es KeineOpposition,” Gibt al Mansur “Abd al Two English Two newspaper The issue The demographic highlights the difficulties indealing a subjectwith such sensitive g to hisdata - Jalil 14% Khalil: T’yyanatAlmunasib Mn Wa Al’liyaLilshi’a 86% - Jamri, Aamal “RaySarih IlaJalala Almalik anYasil That [FrankOpinion I - language interviews with King Hamad highlight the image the monarchy the image the highlight Hamad King with interviews language

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Baqir Sajjad Syed, “Bahrain AgreesBaqir SajjadSyed,“Bahrain toAugment DefenceTiesPakistan,” with “TerrorismSouad Mekhennet, Has NoReligion,” The strategy is not only keeping out or removing those from the citizenry who might who citizenry the from those removing or out keeping only not is strategy The 88 Mass political naturalizations started ar started naturalizations political Mass

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halifa, the interior minister in 2006 in minister interior the halifa, r “Discrimination “Discrimination Bahrain,”In Granting Citizenship In “Wathiqa Bahrayniya Tahadd “Wathiqa Bahrayniya:Min Aqall AlnusufAl Shi’a TheShi’a [BahrainiDocument: Are Habib Toumi, Asians ‘Given in Bahrain Nationality “4,971 56 Years’,” Gengler, “FactsJustin on Ground: the Estimate AReliable ofBahrain’s Sun l y

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- Toumi, Asians‘Given BahrainNationality “4,971 in56Years’.” Louer, “BahrainZaaiter, Revokes NationalityOfMembers.” 31Opposition

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Parolin, Parolin, Louer, Habib Tra iiesi cn e rne i etariay icmtne b Eii ere i the in decree, Emiri by circumstances extraordinary in granted be can Citizenship latter the removes one, valid currently the of basis the Law, Nationality 1956 The 1948 In a are Kuwait of people “the that clear it makes also 1962 of constitution Kuwaiti The , 2002. citizenship; Transnational Transnational Shia Politics: Religious and Networks Political in the Gulf Citizenship Kin, in theArabWorld:

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Herb, “Kuwait: TheObstacleHerb, “Kuwait: ofParliamentary 141. Politics,” “Bahrain’s Shiite MuslimsTrabelsi, Dual Plan,”Cry Foulover Nationality 67. Loue Zaki Taleb, “The ActualPercentageof Is40 Shiites Kuwaiti Percent,”

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occupation of Saddam Hussein’s forces, the majority of those who decided decided who those of majority the forces, Hussein’s Saddam of occupation –

the al the - Sabahs offered them more, and until the Islamic Revolution they Revolution Islamic the until and more, them offered Sabahs

gvrmn positions. government l y a Kuwaiti Shi’a.)y aKuwaiti 115 41

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Ibid., 55. Ibid., Louer, becontradictory,Although, thetwomight not as Hus Louer, Wafa Alsay

Although not at the level of Bahrain, Kuwait’s regime also used the withdrawing of withdrawing the used also regime Kuwait’s Bahrain, of level the at not Although Kuwait left it revisionism; border Iran’s by threatened directly never was itself Kuwait 118

Transnational Transnational Shia Politics: Religious and Networks Political in the Gulf Transnational Shia Politics: Religious and Networks Political in the Gulf

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CEU eTD Collection to which oneto which desiretokeep. they as choice the given usually are affected the though uncommon, not is nationality dual possess 1990’s. regime Saddam Hussein’s forto prison asimilarcharge. insulte he London, in event 126 125 Gengler,” 124 2010. 123 122 121 t referred are who people, stateless community inKuwait. sta the of base the became latter The rejected. were more and naturalization, of offer the Bedouin and the nationals were Sunni Bedouin 200.000 around that say naturalized. estimates on, 1961 From influence.

Ibid., 142. Ibid., al Warner, Beyond:John “Questioning and Sectarianism With AnInterview inBahrain Justin CouldHabib Toumi, Holders Citizenship,” LoseKuwaiti Nationality “Dual Brown ShiiteActivist“Kuwait Strips ofCitizenship,” -

Mughni and Tetreault, Gender and “Citizenship, Politicsof the 241. QuasiStates,” The most important issue concerning citizenship in Kuwait though Kuwait in citizenship concerning issue important most The Kuwaiti the and 1960s, the in Kuwait into flowed foreigners more and more As Granting t citizens, not Although 122

, Jadaliyya Withdrawal of citizenship on grounds of authorities finding out that the individuals the that out finding authorities of grounds on citizenship of Withdrawal The Rule of LawArab The Ruleof inthe World 124 125 sle satd o eoe h mnrt, auaiain f te Aa nationals Arab other of naturalization minority, the become to started mselves

iiesi hs en sd o ekn h’, ra mrhn ad Nasserist and merchant urban Shi’a, weaken to used been has citizenship became a way to break the course of this development. this of course the break to way a became , 2013.

126

, such as Palestine, , suchas

d Aisha, the Prophet’s wife Prophet’s the Aisha, d 121

hose residents who were nationals of countries sympathetic to sympathetic countries of nationals were who residents hose

123 o as o

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in the in the teless , CEU eTD Collection f cin ht rw uh icnet rm hs aray citizens. already those bec rights no had essentially from discontent much drew that action of naturalize to attempted state Kuwaiti the 1980, Until t since discourse, Kuwaiti in present most are they though Iraq, example for as well as states Gulf most colonialist in found foreign, are They a construct. citizenship regarded and documented be to want not did Bedouins where states creating of process the of victims the 131 Iraq,” 130 TheCaseEast: ofKuwait,” 129 128 Rights Comparative Study,” 127 deeds. men sus framework, legal the Outside confessions. gain to torture of use the example, for with, operated These existence. into courts martial called and treason, collaboration. into coerced and stateles militias Iraqi Iraq, into by recruited forcibly invasion the During disputed. often is stateless the of belonging origin of places their o their midst. their in hide could Iraq from dodgers draft or refugees immigrants, illegal that fear of because privileges their withdraw to decided government the

Brown, Refugees,John H.Cushman Collaborator Charges, Fearing “1,200 Kuwaiti Flee Jr., to Helen Rizzo,Katherine DemocracyLongva, “Neither Autocracynor 122. butEthnocracy,” andMaureenBrad K.Blitz Lynch, “Statelessness Benefits the and A of Citizenship: – 131

The New YorkTimes

n al, ic te oenet tid o hf te lm t nihoig onre as countries neighboring to blame the shift to tried governments the since fault, wn (2009): 85. only some of the security forces members involved were brought to justice for their their for justice to brought were involved members forces security the of some only

The Rule of Law Arab The Ruleof inthe World

Geneva Academy ofIntern –

and the the and , 1991. Meyer, and and Meyer, RightsYousef the Ali,“Extending Political Middle in Journal of Political and Military Sociology ause they lacked any kind of legal status ever since 1986, when when 1986, since ever status legal of kind any lacked they ause

Bi doon

er siae nmes r te ihs there. highest the are numbers estimated heir ald o eli ctznhp there. citizenship reclaim to failed 44 , 163.

ational Humanitarian Law Humanitarian andHumanational

some of its stateless its of some hr wr nn before none were there pects were rounded up by armed by up rounded were pects 129

Their status was considered was status Their

130

(n.d.): 179. 128

population, a course a population, uat a ti as this saw Kuwait

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CEU eTD Collection t on aog tes aln fr es uortc ue n te einto o government of resignation the and rule autocratic less for calling others among own, its of protests with followed and bravery, their noted opposition The streets. the to marched and care, needed. not is naturalizations health of terms in country education," the and employment in residents legal and residents illegal between al Mohammed 135 Shorfa 134 133 2012),(New York:Routledge, 18. 132 populationstateless might qualify toreceiv overall the of 34.000 that mentioned also was It beneficiaries.) intended the are stateless the year per allowed con batch initial The begin. to naturalizations for allow and problem” theBidoon for resolving “foundation whichwouldbethe alaw pass exception oftwovotedto the of perseverance The them. naturalizing for process continuing the on plan detailed a up drawing finished has Residents Illegal members.

“Kuwait MP Parliamentary“Kuwaiti Committee Draws upRoadmapfor Natur “‘Naturalisation Kuwait Sovereign TellsIssue’, Is UN,” Wanda “Gender Participation Krause, and in the ArabGulf,”in issue. the handle to proposal a drafted Kuwait 2009, In Abd al Abd , 2012.

Hamed - s Pass Law to Naturalise 4,000 Stateless Bidun,” LawtoNaturalises Pass 4,000 Stateless aeb a be qoe syn tha saying quoted been has Waheeb , asked the stateless in May 2012 to stop their protests until the Parliament the until protests their stop to 2012 May in stateless the asked , (although the law refers to “foreigners,” the commentary makes it clear that that clear it makes commentary the “foreigners,” to refers law the (although

al - Dashti, a member of the the of member a Dashti, Bidoon 133

hrfr chan therefore

As the Arab the As bore

fruit , in March 2013 all members of parliament with the with parliament of members all 2013 March in , e citizenship inthe future. Spring commenced, the stateless took inspiration inspiration took stateless the commenced, Spring 45 g n te ainlt Lw o etr facilitate better to Law Nationality the ing

Central Agency for Addressing the Status of Status the Addressing for Agency Central t "There is no difference in treatment treatment in difference no is "There t Al - Shorfa BBC News 132 Transformation of theTransformation of Gulf

alizing Bidoons,” 135 n mirto officer, immigration An , 2011.

sists of 4.000 people 4.000 of sists , 2013.

Al - 134

CEU eTD Collection its application would even then be open to interpretation as the citizenship laws of both both of laws citizenship the as interpretation to open be then even would application its reasons. 2004, in 3.3 Results 136 long a are naturalizations make demographic the changing quickly from aside that mean vote can citizen impacted current bythe climate andgeopolitical situatio obviously these although themselves, reforms of speed and course the determine to choosing interfere Western such refusing community, international the top the to succumb not to general in Kuwait and Bahrain that conventions; asonly countriesrights, intheGulf. two a St of Reduction the on Convention 1961 the or Persons, traditions. the keeping time same the at democracy, of norms Western to conform and light positive applyit. want to they how on leeway much have to monarchs the allowing flexibly, very built are countries l t h

“Arab Charter onHuman“Arab Charter (Arab Rights” League,1994). o u The provisions in the laws of both countries that require a waiting period before the new the period before waiting a require that countries both oflaws the in provisions The T g hs ih idct idfeec t ad non and to indifference indicate might This hy ae o sge te 94 N ovnin eaig o h Sau of Status the to relating Convention UN 1954 the signed not have They Rights Human of Charter Arab The he constitutions and interviews show that the two states try to present themselves in a in themselves present to try states two the that show interviews and constitutions he h 136

declares that no one can be deprived of his/her nationality for arbitrary or unlawful or arbitrary for nationality his/her of deprived be can one no that declares ari ad Kuwai and Bahrain

Among the individual sta individual the Among

- em taey o psil cagn eeto result election changing possibly for strategy term

hv rtfe te 96 UN 1966 the ratified have t tes, Bahrain and Kuwait have yet to ratify it ratify to yet have Kuwait and Bahrain tes,

, written in written , 46

- cetne f nentoa nrs and norms international of acceptance 1994 n.

tlsns ete, o example for either, atelessness oeat on Covenant and adopted by the Arab League Arab the by adopted and c it ter nenl affairs, internal their into nce ii and Civil - do wn pressure of pressure wn a wl. The well. as s

– -

p mass up, Stateless Stateless although P olitical

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CEU eTD Collection Bahrain did years ago. didyearsago. Bahrain Where does essentialthe differencelie? th of problem the handle to itself allowing slowly only is other Kuwait hand, the On 2013. of middle the of as escalating and prevalent still are protests Bahrain, in contrary the On rebel. openly to than regime the support to them for advantageous more the facilitate development ofstate and regime greater to a effect. loyalty, might time this during military, the in example for socialization, of process Gu 138 137 ofthegovernmentside striving that forinclusion haveand more can effect. rights apositive the on and Kuwait; in is there way the in belonging desire to Shi’a Bahraini the of side the discourses developing movements, opposition loyalty their addressing positively to Shi’a the of connection inherent the usi be to seems rather Bahrain co is power retaining in successful conflict;international its violent strife wasalways ofuniting. andinternal, instead sodivisive counter of list the from themselves removing thus loyalty, their prove could they invasion: Iraqi the was this Shi’a, cause. common a make can they whom against enemy an find to end, withamity ano tokeepthesubject withone rebellion andcivilwar,is sedition,

lf Monarchies,” lf Monarchies,” Daniel L.Byman D.Green,Daniel “TheEnigma Stability andJerrold ofPolitical Persian inthe Bodin,Jean The ruling family of Kuwait has managed to managed has Kuwait of family ruling The Byman and Green argue that one of the six strategies employed by by employed strategies six the of one that argue Green and Byman “ that wrote Bodin Jean Six Booksof CommonwealthSix the Middle EastReview ofInternational Affairs

- eie elements. regime

ng the “divide and rule” method. rule” and “divide the ng t he best way of preserving a state, and guaranteeing it against it guaranteeing and state, a preserving of way best he -

opting their potent their opting is very difficult. There is no sense of determination from from determination of sense no is There difficult. very is 47 ari dd o exp not did Bahrain , ed. 1955),207.M.J. Tooley (B. Blackwell,

convince the majority of the Shi’a that it it that Shi’a the of majority the convince ial dissidents. ial

3, no.3(1999):28.

It seems that there because of because there that seems It 138 erience such large scale scale large such erience

In the case of the Shi’a, the of case the In e stateless, something stateless, e ”

137

For the Kuwaiti the For ther, andtothis ther, monarchies

CEU eTD Collection becomes the preferred waybecomes preferred ofaction government. the by the other, an to rest the and sect one to belongs society of part significant a where Kuwait, and Bahrain In based.) class example for or political, (simply terms other in described are but conflicts the differences; religious the essentialize not do states pragmatic Such so. do to interest their in is it case the in only differences sectarian the upon draws state 140 Gulf Saudi Bahrain, Arabia and Kuwait in Comparative Perspective,” in 139 encouragejust more instability. would it military, the as such sectors sensitive in employment them allowing as such benefits, attitud political of determinant well economical because citizens the off” “buy to fails state the Bahrain, unfairness its against rebel to oil? on

Gengler, Gengler, Louer,Laurence “TheState and Sectarian Identities Persian in Gulfthe Monarchies:

(Center for andRegion International based economy rentier strong a remaining still of because unrest quell to able Kuwait Is

Laurenc The monetary hand The monetary Ethnic Conflict andPoliticalMobilization inBahrain Arab andthe Gulf e Louer writesabout“pragmatic sectarianism,” it is very convenient to take tha take to convenient very is it

- outs have there, on the contrary,onhavethe e there, outs

Gige fud n i eprcl eerh ht n h cs of case the in that research empirical his in found Geingler . 140 . e rus ht f h Kn tid o ie h Sia more Shi’a the give to tried King the if that argues He e.

al Studies,al 2012). 48 t as a characteristic in the case divide case the in characteristic a as t

ncouraged disenfranchisedstrata ncouraged describing a situation a whenthe describing Sectarian Politics inthe - -

being is not the sole the not is being or economic status economic or

may still exist still may , 336. - and -

rule 139 -

CEU eTD Collection political syste seeempirical methods to inmore this terms concrete highlightingof it instead just in history, useofcitizenship.the C 141 takecould future direction a be would for naturalization political accepting those of that also themselves. for rights more for ask to start and numbers, sheer th when) (or whether dissent. increasing ever face or power, Web. emerg the resist to able be not will and movements, protest growing the by inspired population their Seeing people. the pacifying by stability the keep to stalemates political or violence by hindered and tedious, slow, was were reform at attempt rulers Any implemented. be states to tried structures Arab democratic more and other overthrown in when anachronism an become model monarchical the superfici least at determination, the is coin the of side One Kuwait. and Bahrain extremely useful. ONCLUSIONS

Davidson, “Why Will Sheikhs the Fall.” 141 The ruling families have to choose between diminishing their own political and social and political own their diminishing between choose to have families ruling The about writing when often mind my to came that terms are ambiguity and Duplicity This thesiswas aimed explore a s to

m around Shi’a,the the anddiscourses stateless wouldand others been have

they also, despite of attempts at censorship with various methods, haven’t methods, various with censorship at attempts of despite also, they

e large masses of migrant workers will realize that there is power in their in power is there that realize will workers migrant of masses large e In theGulf,everything is in awayinterconnected; someusing kind of

ing mobilizing tool and force that is the World Wide Wide World the is that force and tool mobilizing ing

t il e n neetn dvlpet o observe to development interesting an be will It pecific methodpecific monarchic of ensuring resiliency,

Their political attitudes, and attitudes, political Their –

the rulers feel the need the feel rulers the ally, to not let not to ally,

research CEU eTD Collection inclusion andinclusion integration ofpeople. us be to continue to potential the the meaning advantageous, has citizenship politically of revocation and granting least The power. their at cement to come will is naturalized it that sure be can it unless situation forth so and education housing, for examplefree citizens enjoy, benefits other the that providedwith be to have more re end the in and Bahrain of determine whois population whole the unite this would Kuwait, with did fascinati out. play will Bahrain be in situation will it Iran, with conflict armed to comes ever it if Shi’a, s n uat a hs lyd lre oe n eemnn te oiia sau o the of status political the determining in role large a played has war Kuwait in As Naturalizat considered ion of large number of people would be of course of be would people of number large of ion

–

the state cannot afford this afford cannot state the loyal and whoisnot? ed If Iran realizes its claim on Bahrain as a province, like Iraq like province, a as Bahrain on claim its realizes Iran If

as a tool to engineer stability, not as a method to ensure ensure to method a as not stability, engineer to tool a as 50

in face of the future, bleaker economic bleaker future, the of face in

a very costly affair, as affair, costly very a ng to see how the the how see to ng - CEU eTD Collection al Al Awad, “The Mouawiya. Labor CostofForeign the in UnitedArabEmirates RezaAkbari, H.,andJasonStern.“The Triangle ofHow Internal Conflict: Bahrain’s “Abd al B Brown, Nathan J. Bodin, Jean. BradK., Lynch. Blitz, andMaureen “Statelessness Benefits the and A ofCitizenship: “Kuwait SignsBlack, Ian. Emir’sChangetoElection Rules Stirs ofArab Spring.” ——— Belfer, Mitchell A.“Demographic Warfare.” Beaugrand, MigrationsClaire. “Nationality & Control in the Gulf Countries.” Bank, André, Thomas andAnna Richter, Sunik.“Long Citizenship“Bahrain Government, Act.”Bahrain September 16,1963. “Arab Char Anderson, David. Wafa.Alsayed, “Controversy after GCCKuwait Signs Pact.” Should “All Unite ToStopRadicals And Put al al IBLIOGRAPHY - - - Mughni, AnnTetreault. Haya, andMary “Citizenship,Gender and the of Politics Quasi Jayousi, Mohammed. Plan’ “‘GCC Marshall OffersFundingfor Jamri, Aamal Mansur. “RaySarih IlaJalalaAlmalik anYasil That [FrankOpinion I Hope Will HisMajesty King].” Reach the Social & Economic Research InhibitDivisions Reconciliation.” Sunni...We HadEnoughof Discrimin Lilsunna...wakfana Tamayyiz [14% of Appointment Senior GotoShi’a and 86% Human Rights Comparative Study.” Guardian European Journ . “TheFourteenth Province: TheIrano Studies Security Informationsp andEfficiencyProgramme: Political Legitimacy of Systems East:Middle AConfigurational Comparison,1945 9f34f4,0.html. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,LEGAL,,LEGISLATION,BHR,4562d8cf2,3fb Company, 2012. Authority Affairs 2000. In States.” Shorfa - Jalil 14% Khalil: T’yyanatAlmunasib Mn Wa Al’liyaLilshi’a 86% ter onHuman ArabLeague,1994. Rights.” Six Booksof CommonwealthSix the

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