Component-I (A) – Personal details: Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati. Prof. V. Sakunthalamma Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati. & Prof. Susmita Basu Majumdar Dept. of AIHC, University of Calcutta. Prof.Susmita Basu Majumdar Dept. of AIHC, University of Calcutta. Prof. Suchandra Ghosh University of Calcutta. 1 Component-I (B) – Description of module : Subject Name Indian Culture Paper Name Indian Numismatics Module Name/Title Roman Coins in India and India’s trade with the Roman Empire Module Id IC / NMST /13 Pre-requisites Economic History of Ancient India, Roman trade and Monetary system Objectives To familiarise with the Roman coins found in India, their significance, features and importance in the study of India’s Trade with Roman Empire Keywords Roman Trade / Coins / Numismatics E-text (Quadrant-I): 1. Introduction Large number of Roman coins has been found in India. These coins were issued from 2nd century BCE to 6th century CE. Thus they were imported to India as bullion for trade in Indian goods. More than 170 recorded finds (Hoards and stray finds) are reported from 130 sites. These coin finds are not evenly distributed. There are certain concentration points where these are reported in abundance. Two major concentration points are Krishna valley in Andhra Pradesh and Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu. These two places have yielded maximum number of Roman coins. 2. Numismatists and their contribution Initial Phase Collectors like Lieutenant Colonel James Tod published his memoir on Indian coins in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1827 which included large number of Greek and Roman coins which evoked interest of the European scholars. James Princep who was the Assay master of the Calcutta mint and an avid researcher, made a major contribution towards the initiation of the study of Roman coins and its collection by institutions. He presented a paper on 4th July 1833 “Ancient Roman Coins in the Cabinet of the Asiatic Society”. It was an impact of the Princep’s lecture that Asiatic Society which had around 50 Roman coins at that time. Within 3 months it purchased 350 Roman coins. Bishop Caldwell- 1851 used numismatic and other specimens to understand the pattern of trade between India and Rome. Macdowall indicated that Roman coins formed a part of much wider trade in metals and each hoard should be studied with its specific context for understanding the local regional cultural context. 3. Three phases of Influx of Roman Coins The influx of Roman coins in India was mainly as bullion. This can be roughly or broadly divided into three phases. In the initial phase mainly it was the influx of Silver coins. In the intermediate state it was mainly gold coins aureus were brought and the final phase as was copper coin and thin gold solid coin phase. 2 In the initial silver Phase: Roman silver Denarii were brought as bullion. The weight of these coins varied from 3.4- 4 gms. These were the pieces struck under the Roman republic in the 2nd -1st century BCE. These coins are very rare. Among the major republican coins finds are Kerela-1. Eyyal hoard Nedumkandam hoard Tamil Nadu: Kallakinar (Coimbatore dt.) Lakshadweep Island- 1 hoard with a gold coins aureus of 2nd century CE Later Roman Imperial silver Denarii were brought to India. Coins mainly belonging to Augustus (31 BCE-14 CE) and Tiberius (14-37 CE) have been reported from Peninsular South. These consist of two major types: C L CAESARES denarii struck between 2nd century BCE and 14 CE) and Tiberius: PONTIF MAXIM Denarii. Among the other coins were those issued by Caligula (37-41 CE), Claudius (41-54 CE) and Nero (54-68 CE). It is worth mentioning here that no silver denarii struck after the initial year of Nero are found in India. The second Phase or the Gold Coin Phase Gold coins: Aureus (7- 8 gm) were the ones which were imported and these coins include the ones issued by Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius and Nero. This was the zenith of influx. After Nero civil wars broke out in Rome for a period of two years, coins were struck without names of rulers. Gold coin hoard: Distribution The distribution pattern of these gold coin hoards can again be divided into three phases in chronological order. Major hoard of early gold coins are found equally from Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Gold coins from 2-3rd century CE are found in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Third phase-mainly from Karnataka. Only stray finds from Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have been reported. Major Roman Coin finds Present States Gold (Major sites) Silver Copper Karnataka Vadegaon Chandravalli Late Roman gold excavations (few) 1. AkkiAlur Hoards from 2. Katryal 1.Yeshwantpur 2. Bangalore Tamil Nadu Vellalur,Kalaiampattur, Hoards Karur and Madurai Pudukottai, Karur, Late- 1. Coimbatore From river beds Madurai,Tirunelvelli large no. of coins from Constantine Kerala Hoards Hoards 1.Kottayam 1.Eyyal 2.Trissur 2.Nedumkandam 3.Late –Valuvally 4. Puthankavu Andhra Pradesh Hoards 3 1.Akanpalle 2. Nandyal 3.Nasthulapur 4. Late: Vinukonda 5. Kudavelli Minor Roman Coin finds Present States Gold (Major sites) Silver Copper Maharashtra Adam and other Adam sites Gujarat Gold coins Few 3rd century CE Copper coins Madhya Pradesh Gold coins Chhattisgarh Gold coins Orissa Gold coins Few 3rd century CE Copper coins Uttar Pradesh Gold coins Lakshadweep Islands 1 gold aurei hoard Silver denarii with 1 gold aurei Late gold coins (2nd and 3rd century CE) Late gold coins (2nd and 3rd century CE) are reported from Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Coins of Antonius Pius (138-161 CE) and Septimius Severus (193-211 CE) are found in large numbers. After Caracalla (c.213 CE) no Roman gold is known for two centuries. After this interlude late Roman gold coins or Byzantine coins are reported mainly from Karnataka. (307-565 CE). The third or the Copper Coin and Gold Solid Phase Late Roman copper coins known as Folles these were mainly those issued in the 4th -5th century CE. Large number of such coins has been reported from Karur and Madurai in Tamil Nadu. Coins issued in the 4th century CE mainly are reported in large numbers. These are attributed to rulers like Constans, Constantius II, Theodosius, Arcadius, Honorius. Coins issued in the 5th century CE are comparatively less in number and belong to rulers Theodosius II, Marcian and Leo. Solidi hoards end with coins of Justinian I (527-565 CE). Thus the Roman coins reached South India up to 6th century CE. Clay Bullae Other than coins Roman clay bullae have been reported in early phase which even pre date the silver coins (c. 4th-3rd century BCE- 200 CE). These finds are widely distributed across north India and Deccan. Initially these bullae are found decorated with floral, geometric, animal and human motif. Later these were close imitations of the Roman coins. The purpose of the bullae with Roman coin impressions is not very clear. Bullae have been mostly reported from Deccan and North India. Most of them were copied from coins of Tiberius and have bust on the obverse and female deity seated to right on the reverse. At Kolhapur and 4 Paithan in Maharashtra, Kondapur in Andhra Pradesh terracotta moulds of bullae have been reported in Talakadu excavation in Karnataka. Imitations and their purpose Substantial amount of Roman coin imitations have been unearthed from excavations as well as explorations. These may be contemporary imitations which could have served the same purpose as the Roman original coins. Roman coins often served as models for minting coins by contemporary powers. Imitations by contemporary powers like Kushanas might be an attempt for claiming legitimacy to a certain extent as Kujula Kadphises had copied or imitated almost all the coins which were circulating in the region which was under his control. He copied the coins of Augustus. Slash marks on Roman coins Most of the Roman coins found in the Indian subcontinent has a slash mark often defacing the face of the Roman emperor. This mark was intentionally placed on the coins. The purpose of this mark is not exactly known but it could be for checking metal content. It could also be for indicating the end of the rule of the ruler whose bust occurs on the coin. Another reason could be demonetization of the present coinage by Roman authority as it was travelling outside the Roman Empire and it was thus officially declared as bullion. This could have been done after a payment and officially declaring that the currency is no more in the process of circulation. Defacing the Roman ruler by local authority in India could also be a reason for the slash mark in that case the mark has to be made in India. Base metal core and silver or gold plated Roman coins were imitated for the sake of making forged coins. Some of the coins were minted for being considered as equal to the original Roman coins which had base metal core but were silver plated or gold plated. Thus they were to be considered as gold coins or silver coins. These were local imitations or forgeries. For example gold plated Pontif Maxim type has been reported from Kondapur (Andhra Pradesh). Most common imitations are denarii of Augustus and Tiberius. Hybrid coins Several interesting gold imitations are known with combinations of obverse and reverse of two different emperors, hybrid type, for example Nero: Faustina Senior type which has on one side the coin device of Nero and as the opposed device has that of Faustina Senior’s. Such coins have also been reported from India in large numbers.