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HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT AND ECOTOURISM: COMPARING PONGARA AND IVINDO NATIONAL PARKS IN GABON by SANDY STEVEN AVOMO NDONG A THESIS Presented to the Department of International Studies and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts September 2017 THESIS APPROVAL PAGE Student: Sandy Steven Avomo Ndong Title: Human-wildlife Conflict: Comparing Pongara and Ivindo National Parks in Gabon This thesis has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree in the Department of International Studies by: Galen Martin Chairperson Angela Montague Member Derrick Hindery Member and Sara D. Hodges Interim Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School Original approval signatures are on file with the University of Oregon Graduate School. Degree awarded September 2017 ii © 2017 Sandy Steven Avomo Ndong iii THESIS ABSTRACT Sandy Steven Avomo Ndong Master of Arts Department of International Studies September 2017 Title: Human-wildlife Conflict: Comparing Pongara and Ivindo National Parks in Gabon Human-wildlife conflicts around protected areas are important issues affecting conservation, especially in Africa. In Gabon, this conflict revolves around crop-raiding by protected wildlife, especially elephants. Elephants’ crop-raiding threaten livelihoods and undermines conservation efforts. Gabon is currently using monetary compensation and electric fences to address this human-elephant conflict. This thesis compares the impacts of the human-elephant conflict in Pongara and Ivindo National Parks based on their idiosyncrasy. Information was gathered through systematic review of available literature and publications, observation, and semi-structured face to face interviews with local residents, park employees, and experts from the National Park Agency. This thesis argues that the impacts of human-elephant conflict are more severe in Ivindo compared to Pongara National Park due to their specific characteristics. To effectively address this human-elephant conflict, an adaptive management strategy is needed. This adaptive management strategy should integrate conservation, livelihood security, and combine to the specific characteristics of each park. iv CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: Sandy Steven Avomo Ndong GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon, Eugene Northern Virginia Community College, Alexandria DEGREES AWARDED: Master of Arts, International Studies, 2017, University of Oregon Bachelor of Science, Business Administration, 2015, University of Oregon AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: International Tourism and Ecotourism Development Marketing and International Business Communication PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Research Intern, Travel Lane County, 2016 Graduate Employee, University of Oregon, 2015-2017 GRANTS, AWARDS, AND HONORS: Global Oregon Graduate Research Award, Global Studies Institute, 2016 v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express sincere appreciation to Omer Ntougou Ndoutoume, Executive Secretary at the Central African System of Protected Area, whose familiarity with the biodiversity conservation in Gabon was helpful during my field research. I also thank the members of my committee, Galen Martin, Angela Montague, and Derrick Hindery, for their valuable comments. My research was partially supported by the Global Studies Institute through the Global Oregon Graduate Research Award. vi For my father, who taught me the value of education, to my mother who encouraged me to get my Master’s degree, and to my husband who supported me throughout this project. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1 The Mega-Transect ................................................................................................ 1 Research Focus ...................................................................................................... 3 Research Contributions .......................................................................................... 4 Research Methods .................................................................................................. 5 Research Limitations ............................................................................................. 6 II. DISCOURSES OF CONSERVATION, PROTECTED AREAS, AND ECOTOURISM ............................................................................................. 7 Romanticism of The Wild and Conservation......................................................... 7 Conservation and National Parks ........................................................................... 10 National Parks and Ecotourism ............................................................................. 15 Ecotourism and Community Development ............................................................ 18 National Parks and the Human-wildlife Conflict .................................................. 20 III. CONSERVATION IN GABON: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES ...... 23 The Colonial Legacy .............................................................................................. 23 The Awakening: National Parks, A Political Agenda ........................................... 25 Gabon’s Conservation Policies .............................................................................. 26 Local Participation in Conservation in Gabon ....................................................... 31 The challenges for Conservation in Gabon ............................................................ 34 IV. ECOTOURISM ANALYSIS IN PONGARA AND IVINDO NATIONAL PARKS ............................................................................................. 36 Involves Travel to Natural Destinations ................................................................ 38 viii Chapter Page Minimizes Impacts ................................................................................................. 41 Builds Environmental Awareness .......................................................................... 45 Provides Direct Financial Benefits for Conservation ............................................ 47 Provides Financial Benefits and Empowerment for Local People ........................ 48 Respects Local Culture .......................................................................................... 50 Supports Human Rights and Democratic Movements ........................................... 51 V. COMPARING THE HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT IN IVINDO AND PONGARA NATIONAL PARKS……………………………………………….. 55 Human Conflicts with Wildlife in Gabon .............................................................. 56 Human-wildlife Conflict in Pongara and Ivindo ................................................... 61 Approaches to Human-wildlife Conflict in Gabon ................................................ 68 VI. CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS ...................................................... 73 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................. 76 A. MAP OF THE MEGA-TRANSECT ................................................................ 76 B. AFRICA’S LAST EDEN .................................................................................. 77 C. MAP OF GABON’S NATIONAL PARKS ...................................................... 78 D. IUCN PROTECTED AREAS CATEGORIES ................................................. 79 E. LIST OF INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON WILDLIFE ..................... 81 F. PROTECTED AREAS OF THE FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA 1954 ... 82 G. GABON: THE LAST EDEN ............................................................................ 83 H. GABON’S LAW OF THE NATIONAL PARKS (LOI #003/2007) ................ 84 I. GOLD MINING IN MINKÉBÉ NATIONAL PARK ....................................... 98 J. PONGARA LOCATION FROM LIBREVILLE .............................................. 99 ix Chapter Page K. DAMARA TERNS IN PONGARA .................................................................. 100 L. MAP OF IVINDO NATIONAL PARK ............................................................ 101 M. LIST OF BIRDS IN GABON .......................................................................... 102 N. LEATHERBACK TURTLE AT PONGARA BEACH .................................... 126 O. FOREST CONCESSIONS IN IVINDO NATIONAL PARK .......................... 127 P. OVAN-MAKOKOU ROAD ............................................................................. 128 Q. ELEPHANTS CROP-RAIDING IN GABON .................................................. 130 R. MAP OF VILLAGES IN PONGARA NATIONAL PARK ............................. 131 S. LA BAIE DES TORTUES LUTH HOTEL ...................................................... 133 T. TRADITIONAL AND MODERN NON-LETHAL TECHNIQUES ............... 134 REFERENCES CITED ................................................................................................ 136 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Figure Intensity of elephant visits in villages in Gabon ........................................ 65 xi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Table Twelve Principles of Reconstructing Conservation.....................................12 2. Table List of Protected Areas in Schmit-Soltau (2003) .........................................29 3. Table of Endangered Mammals in Gabon .............................................................60 xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Mega-Transect In
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