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Spaces for the Future A Companion to Philosophy of Technology Joseph C. Pitt, Ashley Shew

Video Games and Ethics

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203735657.ch3 Monique Wonderly Published online on: 02 Aug 2017

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 192.168.0.15 At: 18:27 14 Oct 2017; For: 9780203735657, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203735657.ch3 games, allthreeelicitedmoral outragefromthegeneralpublic(Peckham2010). laction games thatexplicitly permit virtual rapeinclude Illusion’s PCtitles, the accusation, many have denounced the game for depicting rape (Ocala Star-Bannerdenied 1982). Twodesigner game’s the Though woman. American Native bound a with sex have to is which of object released a game forthe the Atari 2600 console called Custer’s Revenge, because controversy engendered have games their content was perceived as excessively violent or otherwiseoffensive. video In1982,Mystique of number a years, forty past the Over Morally Controversial Video Games violence. of playinggamesthat are thoughttofeature excessive or loathsome violence, including sexual aspects of this debate. Following the trend in the relevant literature, I theorists who’veengagedwiththetopic.Inwhatfollows, I their actions be morally problematic? This question has generated a great deal of debate among thetical example isn’t engagingwithanyotheractualpeople.Onwhatgrounds,then,might hypo- our in player The beings. human other involve directly not does that play game video cally objectionable. scenario morallywrong,whileotherswouldinsistthattheyhavedonenothingatallethi- who player’sthe deem would Some pain. in thiswrithe in and actions bleed, scream, to appears character human computer-controlled a of murder stabbing the simulate to order in more salient.Forexample,considertheplayerwhorepeatedlythrustscontrollerforward the concerning questions certain make also they enjoyable, ing withtheirvirtual environments. Yet, while these featuresmaymake video games more Players areincreasinglyafforded richer, morerealistic optionsforexploringandinteract- motion- sensitive controldevices,andthesophisticateddesignofexpansive‘open’ gameworlds. graphics, accelerated technologies—including gaming console and computer in in theworld. 2015). Video gamesconstituteoneofthemostthriving,pervasive,andpopularformsmedia games, andmorethanhalfofallU.S.householdsownadedicatedgamingconsole(ESA of 2015 (Gartner 2013). In the United States alone, more than 155 110 exceed to expected is value its estimates, some to according 79 approximately at valued was market game video global the 2012, In Monique Wonderly Video GamesandEthics Chapter At first glance, it is unclear whether and how there can be anything morally significant about advances impressive by fueled been has doubtless games video of appeal mass The (2006). Unsurprisingly, despite being marketed as ‘adult-themed’as marketed Unsurprisingly, being (2006). despite (2002)andRapeLay

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Downloaded By: 192.168.0.15 At: 18:27 14 Oct 2017; For: 9780203735657, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203735657.ch3 human beings(Standler2007;MediaCoalition 2007). A out gamesthat feature graphic depictions of cruelty and repetitive loathsome violence toward The GTA gamesaregenerallyconsideredultra-violent As investigativejournalistSimonParkinexplains, more disturbing is that a particular mission deemed have many what besides—but characters game nonthreatening other many of that and kill directlyaftersexinordertotakebackthefundsthattheyspentonherservices. Players could restore their health by paying to have sex with a prostitute whom they could then of apopularstrategyamongplayersGrandTheft Auto: Vice City grisly murder of victims using weapons ranging from hammers to plastic bags. The game’s The bags. sequel, plastic to hammers from ranging weapons using victims of murder grisly games isRockstarGames’ 2003release, vehicles. The 1997). Bothgamesrewarded players for runningoverpedestriansandsmashinginto other lence: (Young “morbid” and “sick,” 1976). Twenty “gross,” yearslater, controversyarosearoundtwoothergamesfeaturingvehicular vio- as game the characterizing critics some with States, United the in attention national drew figures, stick down run to vehicle small a using by points earn to is object the which in video game genre. In 1976, the Exidy arcade game, Death Race, and fewer still permit sexual violence (and if so, why) such protest and moral criticism might be might criticism moral and protest such why) so, if (and whether is established yet not have we What criticism. moral and protest public to prone are banned incertainvenues(BBCNews2014). been has each and content, objectionable morally for criticized widely been have games Both impacted gameplay: console system. Gamespot staff reviewers explained how the Wii’s motion-sensitive remote rape, ortortureagainstmerecomputer-controlled characters? murder,of acts simulate to players enable that games video playing in harm moral the is then, What, beings. human actual any injure directly cannot world, game a in character player a by performed if violence, of act heinous most the Even enough. not is offensive games these find 30 (Rockstar North 2013) also permits the virtual murder of prostitutes— of murder virtual the permits also 2013) North (Rockstar Grand Theft Auto V In characters between interaction sexual permit games video mainstream few relatively While Thus far, we have established that video games with content perceived as excessively violent Let’s considerhowethicistshaveattempted toaddressthisimportantquestion.

but alsooverwhethersuchdistressinginteractionshaveanyplaceinvideogames. to tug out the victim’s teeth with pliers, has inspired debate—not only over its artistic merit the “24”-esque scene, which requires players to rotate the game controller’s sticks in order move itaccordingly. Stabbingsomeone?Jab that Wii Remote. and hands your in chair the got you’ve if as stick analog and Wiithe Remote Hold chair? now havetoactively follow onscreenmotionsthatapproximate youractions. Throwing a kills. various the during used is controller You’llthe way the is action the to hook big The Monique Wonderl , the main character is forced to work for a snuff film maker who demands the demands who maker film snuff a for work to forced is character main the Manhunt, DA einRcsa North Design/Rockstar (DMA Theft Auto Carmageddon (Interplay 1997)andGrand Manhunt 2,appeared on the market in 2007, shortly after the release of Nintendo’s Wii Grand Theft Auto Grand (GTA) series gained further notoriety when the public got wind y , violence in other forms has long been a staple of the of staple a been long has forms other in violence , Manhunt. requires theplayer’s character to engageintorture. videogames,acategoryintendedtopick

prime exemplar justified. The factthat many people (Cocker and Torres 2007) (RockstarNorth2002). of ultra-violent video (Parkin 2013) Downloaded By: 192.168.0.15 At: 18:27 14 Oct 2017; For: 9780203735657, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203735657.ch3 game suffering—e.g., cause not will actions conclusion is a bit hasty. It might be possible Schulzke’sto mind, behave Tomy cruelly 128). even where (2010: suffering”one knows or that pain one’sfeeling of capable not are characters the because ‘cruelty’games called video being in of worthy nothing is “there Schulzke, to ing edges that this suggestion is a contentious one, and Marcus Schulzke outright rejects it. Accord- playing a video game that does not involve other sentient beings. Waddington himself acknowl- dington 2007: 124). Of course, it isn’t entirely clear that one can behave cruelly in the context of of one’s duties to oneself, and he would likely regard behaving “cruelly” in a similar vein (Wad- point inturn. less likely toperformourdutiesactual people (Waddington 2007: 125).Let’s considereach us make might respect with them treat to failing beings, human to analogs are characters game violent video game, they might debase themselves by “acting cruelly.” Second, insofar as video a in indulge people when First, problematic. morally deemed be might game violent a playing which on grounds” “Kantian two identifies WaddingtonDavid games. video violent playing theorists have suggested that a Kantian argument can be used to elucidate a moral problem with Some beings. rational autonomous, other of disrespect the or persons own our of degradation 1997a: 38). As such, we shouldavoid performing actions that might constitute, or cause, the (Kant agents rational other and ourselves respect to as so act to duty moral a have we beings, reason forthinkingthatplayingthosesortsofgamesisethicallyobjectionable. or makes it significantly more difficult to satisfy—such obligations, then we have a (according to some ethicists) to ourselves. If playing excessively violent video games violates— duties to virtual characters, we do have certain moral obligations to our fellow human beings and that video possibility,games can cause former one to violate the one’s with moral duties. Though begin presumably,Let’s we have others. no moral toward violently behave to and/or duties Some havesuspectedthatplayingviolentvideogamescancauseonetoviolateone’s moral show that playing such games impacts one’s moral behavior outside of the to gaming be environment. would problematic morally are games video violent that claim the vindicate to way One Behavioral Effectsof Violent Video Games of Playing Violent Games Approaches to Assessing theMoralSignificance leading todeath(HuntandNg 2015). become dangerously dehydrated, starved, and exhausted while playing video games, sometimes self-care— for break to who—refusing players of cases also are There 2008). 2011;Brey cott (What relationships personal their even and jobs, their education, their jeopardize they that games video in Notably,immersed 2012). so burton becoming players of cases many are there activity— many that given problematic who playvideogames(violent or otherwise)tendtoinvestexcessiveamountsoftime in the especially be would This activities. worthwhile morally tive, speaking themselves inotherways. if playersdonotbehavecruelly for cruelty’s sake—but let’s set aside this possibility for a moment, and consider another. Even As Waddington explains,Kantconsideredcertain vices, suchaslyingandavarice, violations Eighteenth-century German philosopherImmanuel Kant famouslyargued thatashuman For example,onemightargue thatwhileindulginginviolentvideogamesisnotstrictly addiction—is a growing problem in some countries (Chiu et cruel, itdegradesoneselfinsofaraspreventsonefromengaging in moreproduc- often to often ­ the point of pathology. Pathological video game play—and indeed, video indeed, play—and game video Pathological pathology. of point the when engaging in video game violence, perhaps they debase they perhaps violence, game video in engaging when

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31 - -

Downloaded By: 192.168.0.15 At: 18:27 14 Oct 2017; For: 9780203735657, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203735657.ch3 seem to think so. There is no shortage of cases in which an outraged public has implicated has public outraged an which in cases of shortage no is There so. think to seem reason tothinkthatplayingexcessively violentvideogamesismorallyobjectionable. good is costs—there its outweigh not do games such playing of benefits the then—assuming real world.Ifaconsequence of playingviolent video gamesisanincrease in actual violence, the in often) more violently behave to (or violently more behave to individuals causes games outside thegame environment. One might instead simply attempt to showthat playing such behavior moral one’s impact can games video violent playing that show to order respect—in or duty of notions the to Kant—or to appeal needn’t one Fortunately, persons? with dealings our in ‘hardness’ constitutes exactly what And disrespectfully? or harshly characters virtual treat to mean it questions. would difficult What raises men” with dealings his in hard “become the samequestionafterpunchingaphotograph,wewould think itmorethanalittleodd. him to say something like, “Did you see what happened when I when aplayeruseshisavatartostrikecomputer-controlled human character, wemightexpect that example, Consider,for much. as suggest them, about language our and characters, virtual upon virtual characters iscertainly notlike acting upon photographs.Ourorientations toward acting case, any In plane. actual an flying for practice of kind a constitute can airplane virtual with actual human beings—in much the same way that using flight simulation software to fly a that engagement with virtual human beings could constitute a kind of kind a constitute could beings human virtual with engagement that think to reasonable seems way,it this In fun. the of part is seems, it This, do. to being human characters appear torespond,andinmuchthesamewaythatwewouldexpect an actual live in the game world asthough they are alive. When players act upon virtual characters, those (Brey 1999: 9). While virtual characters are in fact lifeless entities, players interact with them animals nonhuman are than beings human actual to analogs realistic more be may characters logs” tohumans(Schulzke2010:128). characters lack “life and autonomy,” they are akin to photographs and at best, “superficial ana- but rather, incline one towardmistreating persons. Of course,virtual characters are not sentient creatures, plausibly might creatures nonhuman sentient toward cruelly Behaving creatures. sentient ing, liv- both are animals nonhuman and beings human because be may it plausible, is argument ship tononhumananimals and ourrelationship to virtualhumancharacters. Insofar asKant’s dington 2007:125). spectfully towardvirtualcharacters mightincline us towardmistreating actual persons (Waddisre- - otherwise or maliciously behaving so and well, as can characters virtual perhaps then humanity,of analog an considered be can animals Waddington,if to According (Kant 212). men” 1997b: with dealing his in also hard becomes animals to cruel is who “he as them treat explained that while wehavenodutiestononhumananimals, we shouldtake care in howwe argument that Waddington appeals to suggests this possibility.his this In suggests Waddingtonthat argumentto appeals Kantian others. second to The duties satisfy to difficult more it makes games such playing that inherently self-debasing. dulge in violent video games gives us little reason to think that playing violent video games is rather than adiversionfromit. The fact that a small minority of gamerspathologically overin- maintaining careers and relationships, andmany regard their gaming time as aformofself-care lematic by Kantian standards, the majority of persons who play violent video games do so while 32 Can playing violent video games dispose one toward actual violence? Some people certainly The Kantian suggestion thatdisrespectful treatment of human analogsmight cause oneto Schulzke’s argument here may be suspect. First, as some theorists have noted, virtual human relation our between analogy dubious a assumes it that is approach this of criticism One Even ifplayingviolentvideogamesdoesnotviolatedutiestooneself,onemightsuggest Importantly,prob- morally be surely would self-neglect of brand extreme this while though,

Monique Wonderl representations of human beings. Schulzke, for example, argues that because virtual y

punched that Lectures on Ethics practice guy?” If he uttered forengaging , Kant - Downloaded By: 192.168.0.15 At: 18:27 14 Oct 2017; For: 9780203735657, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203735657.ch3 undesirable impactonmorally significant immorally,behave to one the APAan have can play such evidencethat some provides analysis remains behavior dangerous genuinely cause unclear. can What is notable, though, is that even if play violent video game play does not directly cause game video violent which to extent the so violence, actual to behavior—translates aggressive aggression—or all Importantly,not ing tothereport: confirm a positive causal relationship between violent video game play and aggression. Accord- (APAbehavior criminal Interestingly,violent 26). however,the and 2015: APA play game did video violent between link causal a suggest to evidence insufficient is there the that concluded force task the and topic, the on available studies the of meta-analysis a conduct to force task a findings (Ferguson 2007). Recently, the American Psychological Association (APA) assembled these contradict to however,and appear studies, Other 2000). Dill and games (Anderson behavior violent video violent playing between relationship positive a suggested have studies cal there is a credible link between violent video game play and real-world violence. Some empiri games commitactualviolence,thattheynecessarilydoso violent crimes, so weshouldresist the impulse to assume that when players of violent video More tothepoint,vastmajority of people who playviolent video gamesdonotcommit video games,thisbyitselfmeansfairlylittle. As I actions allplayedviolentvideogames(Kain2013). the Washington Naval Yard Shootings. Various sourcesclaimed thattheperpetratorsofthese and Murders, Hook Sandy the VirginiaTechMassacre, the include blamed been have games and CodeyPoseyrespectively (Tuscaloosa News 2006:4B).Othertragedies for whichvideo alleging that GrandTheft Auto: Vice City in used techniques killing the and actions his between similarities adducing game, the on murder the blamed victim’spartially The death. parents to child another bludgeoned and stabbed hunt played frequently who teenager a 2004, In 378). 2008: (Brey game shooter first-person Columbine the as known be High SchoolMassacre,manywerequicktopointoutthatthepairregularlyplayedDooma to came what in thirteen) (killing people thirty than more Klebold shot Dylan and Harris Eric After crime. violent in factors causal as games video violent Psychologists and sociologists have become increasingly interested in determining whether determining in interested increasingly become have sociologists and Psychologists Of course,eveniftheaforementioned youngmurdererswerefrequentplayers ofviolent (Thorsen 2004). In 2004 and 2006, attorneys filed suits against Rockstar Games, Rockstar against suits filed attorneys 2006, and 2004 In 2004). (Thorsen Manhunt a decrease in positive outcomes such as prosocial behavior, empathy, and sensitivity to aggression. sensitivity and empathy, behavior, prosocial as such outcomes positive in decrease a as and affect and cognitions, behavior, aggressive as such outcomes negative in increase an as both manifested is effect This aggression. on effect an has use game video violent causally relevant,suchasabuseordepression. video games to teenage violence, there are other common threads which appear to be more games strictly as amatter of chance.Second, inmostcaseswhichattempt to linkviolent video violent of players be also will offenders juvenile many that probable statistically is ing to such cases as evidence for the legal or moral culpability of violent video games video violent of place, first the culpability In problematic. be may moral or legal the for evidence as cases such to ing Incidents in which video game players commit violent acts are no doubt tragic, but appeal contributed to the murderous actions of Devin Moore attitudes

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ar . gued inanearlierwork: children play violent video games, so it so games, video violent play children because ofthegames. Video GamesandEthics (Wonderly 2008:4). (APA 2015:26) Man-

33 - - Downloaded By: 192.168.0.15 At: 18:27 14 Oct 2017; For: 9780203735657, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203735657.ch3 essarily because they directly cause immoral cause directly they because essarily nec- problematic—not be can games video violent playing that suggested have theorists Some proviolence attitudes (APA 2015: 10). Aggressive affect was marked by increased feelings of feelings increased by marked was affect(APA 10). Aggressive attitudes 2015: proviolence and dehumanization, place, hostile a being world the about thoughts included cognition sive game use are increases in aggressivecognition and aggressiveaffect. Examples of aggres- decreases insensitivitytoactualviolenceandempathy. that playingviolentvideogamesmightcauseincreasesinaggressivecognitionsandaffect, and tain of ourattitudes in morally pernicious ways. Forexample, theorists have expressed worries Psycholo to sayontheissue. violence. experiment demonstrates thatviolentvideogameexposurecancausedesensitization to real-life present “The concluded, team research The game. video nonviolent a play to assigned domly rates andgalvanic skin responseswhilewatchingfootageofrealviolence than didthoseran- assigned toplayaviolent video game, even for justtwenty minutes, hadrelatively lower heart play game and physiological desensitization. According to their research, participants who were randomly video violent between link the examine experimentally to studies first the of one ical literature on violent video games. Carnagey, Anderson, andBushman(2007) conducted moral atrocity more broadly) has become a prevalent theme in the psychological and philosoph- the followingsection, I evant) attitudes, then this also constitutes a reason to think that such play is ethically suspect. In ­hostility—often accompaniedbyinsensitivitytothedistressofothers(AP desensitization against practices such as rape, murder, or general mischief general or murder, rape, as such practices against desensitization the “moral fishiness” of playing (some kinds of) violent video games might lie “in their willing tional desensitization and playing violent video games. Thomas Nys, forexample, suggests that the military-themed instinct. natural just was It back. shooting me, faze even didn’t 2011; Engelhardtet to violentstimuli haveyieldedsimilarresults(see,forexample, Arriaga, Monteiro,andEsteves et (Carnagey it” to numb physiologically become eventually and violence the to’all similitude, it may become difficult to distinguish between real and simulated transgressions, simulated and real between distinguish to difficult become may it similitude, Waddington expresses arelated worry, suggestingthat as violent video gamesincrease in veri- (V I like felt “It enemy: an shot he that times first the of one recounts Swales Sinque Sergeant enemies. on fire to easier psychologically it make helped play game There are also first-person reports from soldiers in the field who’ve indicated that violent video desensitized and conditioned in order to become willing and proficient killers (Grossman 1998). According to Grossman, there is a natural aversion to killing one’s own kind, so troops must be David Grossman notes that the U.S. military employs violent video games to train soldiers. Colonel Lieutenant violence. actual to individuals desensitize to used be can games video lent 495). 34 argas 2006). Swales reported being an avid fan of the first-person shooter game shooter first-person the of fan avid an being reported Swales 2006). argas As noted earlier, a recent APA analysis concluded that among the effects of violent video The worry that violent video game exposure can ‘desensitize’ onetoactual violence (or If playingviolent video games does infact negatively impact one’s moral (or morally rel- A number of theorists have expressed ethical concerns about the relationship between emo- between relationship the about concerns ethical expressed have theorists Aof number Interestingly, reportsofmilitary personnel alsoprovidesomesupportfortheideathatvio-

Monique Wonderl Subsequent studies measuring violent video game players’game responses video neural violent and measuring somatic studies Subsequent

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al. 2007: al. 1). - Downloaded By: 192.168.0.15 At: 18:27 14 Oct 2017; For: 9780203735657, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203735657.ch3 empathy and sensitivity to violence maynonetheless negatively impact one’s character . This directly translate into immoralactions,increasedaggressiveaffect andcognitionreduced not do changes psychological such where even Second, (APA26). behavior 2015: aggressive games and criminal violence, it is satisfied that playing such games can increase some forms of video violent playing between link a establish to evidence insufficient is there that concluded notedearlier effects thepsychological the APAwhile that force behavior.Recall task in changes negative subtle, First, if real, cause could tworeasons. at least for significant be would cant aspectsofourpsychologyinpotentiallyperniciousways. signifi- morally impact does, often and can, use game video violent that suggests topic the on results are,however, quite suggestive. They indicate that the bestavailable video game play elevates aggressive attitudes or reduces empathy or sensitivity to violence. The take care in interpreting the results too strongly. They do not conclusively prove that violent with “reduced empathy and sensitivity to aggression” (APA 2015: 18, 26). Of course, one must along affect” aggressive “heightened and use game video violent between relation” consistent assuage some of these concerns. According to its report, the available research demonstrates “a Philip BreyandGarry Young haveexpressedsimilarworries(Brey2008:378; Young 2013:33). tion andmustcontendwithotherresearchthatsuggestsanoppositeconclusion(2010:133). misinterpreta- to prone both are studies such of results the that argues also He biases. research and flaws methodological by plagued often are relationship a such show to purporting studies violent video game play and reduced empathy and emotional sensitivity. Schulzke argues that question. of virtual actions are repeated, and the in-game consequences of performing the virtual acts in types specific which with player,frequency the the to available interactions of complexity and mere physical resemblance. Other contributing factors might include, for example, the richness Wonderly point to, one needn’t think that the cause of either problem would be would problem either of cause the that think needn’t one to, point Wonderly look (and feel) more realistic would likely exacerbate the potential effects that Waddington and Waddington nor Wonderly argue for this view. While the advent of virtual environments that to empathize with our fellow human beings (Schulzke 2010: 134). Importantly, though, neither again, or ones, simulated and transgressions real between distinguish to abilities our damage to sufficient is humans actual to characters virtual of resemblance physical mere the that pose virtual harming characters and harming actual human beings. between According to Schulzke, it is unreasonable to sup- analogy dubious a on rely Wonderly and Waddington by forth put ally relevant attitudes inthewayssuggested.Schulzke, for example, posits that the arguments Smith 2009;Hof role in our abilities to glean moral knowledge and to make moral assessments (e.g., important an play empathy for capacities our accounts, many on because, is This 2008). derly (Wongeneral in - judgments moral make to abilities our of dissolution the it to contribute might wrongness—but of idea the devalue to us cause merely violence—nor actual to reactivity tively impact one’s capacity for empathy, thendoingsomight not onlydecrease our emotional Weber and 2006; Funket (Mathiak faculties empathic one’s damage might games video violent of) forms Others have focused on the relationship between violent video game play and reduced empathy. 127). (Waddington2007: wrongness” of idea the “devalue to come would we result, a as and If playing violent videogamescanhavethiskindofimpact on one’s psychology, thenthis to help might force APA task the by conducted recently metareview comprehensive The between relationship a suggests that research empirical the about skeptical also is Schulzke Some theoristshavechallenged the viewthat violent video game play canimpact one’s mor In anearlier work, I

al. 2004;Bartholowet fman 2000;Slote2004).

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to 35 - Downloaded By: 192.168.0.15 At: 18:27 14 Oct 2017; For: 9780203735657, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203735657.ch3 tral to human flourishing or The normative approach to ethics broadly known as Violent Video GamesandCharacter video games can harm one’s character, but that certain reactions to particular kinds of games of kinds particular to reactions certain that but character,one’s harm can games video account oftheconditionsunder whichplayingviolentvideogamesimpedeordiminish virtue. so in very different ways (and to very different degrees). What is needed is a more informative cent victim in a stealth-based survivor horror game, if they impact one’s character at all, inno- may an do torturing and stalking and game, shooter first-person a in combatant enemy an down in terms of the particular kinds ofvirtual acts that they permit or require from players. Taking 2010: 131). (Schulzke such as games video violent to object needn’t ethicist virtue Aristotelian an even so combat,” in “exemplified being virtues virtue—some with irreconcilable is violence all not 2008: 4–5; Young 2013: 94–95). Marcus Schulzke argues that Aristotle himself suggested that and strengthofwill.Playingviolentvideogamesmightwell enhancethesevirtues(Wonderly creativity,courage, as such virtues endorsed Nietzsche 2006). Daigle 2003; (Brobjer ethicist lent videogameplaypraiseworthy. Some,forexample,considerFriedrichNietzsche avirtue virtue ethics, and it is possible that other virtue theorists would consider some instances of vio- of model only the not virtuous. is Aristotle’sbe theory actually might games video violent of character. video games does not directly violent cause immoral playing behavior, if it nevertheless even may damage that one’s is moral approach this of upshot The 94–95). 2011: 230; 2007: elbergh (Coeck- beings” human flourishing “virtuous, becoming from us prevent could games video violent empathy,playing of development the inhibiting insensitivity,”and moral “training by account, his view.On similar a endorses Coeckelbergh Mark 286). is 2001: (McCormick ment” trigger” virtual fulfill- eudaimonic reach the to individual “pull the for we harder it when make and habits wrong virtueless “reinforce do we what that suggests example, for mick, in playing such games, players practice and reinforce morally vicious habits. Matthew McCor well-being. and repetition of virtuous habits, we develop the sorts of characters that are conducive to human upbringing proper 2014). Through Kraut 2000; (Aristotle practice through cultivated are ance, of development the that posited Aristotle problematic. morally be might games video violent draw on an Aristotelian account of character development in order to explain why playing Sicart 2009a;2009b). in order to morally evaluate violent video games (McCormick 2001; Coeckelbergh 2007, 2011; might be deemed bad or wrong. Many have advocated adopting a virtue-theoretical framework ered good on that account, whereas actions that inculcate vice and thereby harm one’s character to evaluate actions. For example, actions that enhance one’s virtue or character might be consid- tion, “What kind of person should I actions weperform,butalsowithwhatkindofpeople is importantfromanethical standpoint, as morality is concerned notonlywithwhat kindof virtues—which on ­virtues—which than rather 36 Interestingly, some philosophers adopt a virtue-theoretic approach not to argue that playing This line of argument brings to the fore an important point: violent video games vary widely view.this types with certain agree playing Predictably, theorists some, all to not According because virtue to inimical is games video violent playing that argued have theorists Some As Aristotle’s theoryofvirtue is the most popular exemplar of virtue ethics, theorists often

Monique Wonderl action—at the forefront of moral theory. Virtue ethicists tend to focus on the ques- the theory.on moral focus of to Virtue forefront tend the ethicists action—at his conception, consist in intellectual, emotional, and social and emotional, intellectual, in consist conception, his y eudaimonia. Ethical virtues, orvirtues ofcharacter such astemper

be?” On some views, one can use elements of virtue ethics virtue ethics, puts the notion of character— are . —is cen- skills—is - - ­ Downloaded By: 192.168.0.15 At: 18:27 14 Oct 2017; For: 9780203735657, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203735657.ch3 like games video mind in has here Patridge 2011:304). (Patridge character” our of evaluations on one’s society,of has “incorrigible social meaning” and that our responses to such meanings “bear backdrop social and historical the against viewed when that, content feature games video might question remains,“Wheredo wegofromhere?” and attitudes, and they have challenged the empirical research that suggests otherwise. So the vent gamers from letting their experiences in video games bleed over into their actual behaviors have asserted that the differences between virtual and actual violence are salient enough to pre- and/or ways, pernicious morally in (3) damage or reflect poor psychologycharacter. These claims, however, have not gone uncontested. Some our of aspects certain impact (2) ronment, envi- gaming the outside behaviors immoral inspire (1) can them playing that suggested have games such of significance moral the articulate to attempting people. Theorists actual no harm matter ­characters—no such that insisted have games criticisms are unwarranted, as committing acts ofvirtual violence against computer-controlled video violent of Defenders public. outraged) morally times, perceived as excessively violent have drawn moral criticism from an indignant (and some- video games,wearenowinapositiontotakestock.Historically, videogamesfeaturing content Having rehearsedthemostprominentapproachestoassessing theethicsofplayingviolent Addressing theConcerns games (see,forexample, Young and Whitty 2012; Young 2013). ones that have inspired a great deal of controversy in the literature on ethics and violent video new, socially ‘taboo’ activities in a harmless virtual environment? These questions are difficult account? Or might such reactions represent natural, more or less, benign responses to exploring ing their character to kill or torture computer-controlled characters reflect poor character on that of violent video games more broadly. Do players who becomes excited or joyful upon employ players character.to extended clear,be less might is reasoning however,What such whether is one might think it reasonable to suspect cases, that the subject these of these responses In has a morally 2010). flawed Gooskens (Veber2004; rape becoming of depictions or virtual pornography by aroused child sexually virtual enjoying as such content, virtual of types certain to laden withsocialmeaning,e.g., nonsexual, violent video games to elicit similar reactions—in particular,all, games that are thickly not but some, expect would We32). 2013: (Patridge game the enjoy impossible—to not difficult—if more it make should) likely (and might association This youth. their of because repre- sents achild might call to mind actual child sexual assault victims who weresimilarly targeted it because simply character a assault sexually to one invites that game a that explains virtual child pedophilia might elicit reactions that someotherviolent video gamesdonot.She purport todecisively solvethedilemma, she thinksthat elements ofherviewcanexplain why tual pedophilia as equally benign for the same reason (Luck 2009)? (Luck reason same the for benign equally as pedophilia tual vir regard not we should world, actual the in one no harms it because acceptable morally is Dilemma.” In brief, the Gamer’s Dilemma asks, why, if (as many have claimed) virtual murder groups—in thiscase,womenandminorities—thatshouldprecludeenjoyment. individual, such representations wouldcall to mindactual atrocities againstunjustlytargeted not should one intuitively, but woman, enjoy representations like that(2011: 306).Inaproperlyinformedandappropriately sensitive American Native a of rape a of representation a by There In a later work,Patridge employs this notion to address what has been dubbed the “Gamer’s invites the player to be entertained be Custer’sto player Revenge.SheexplainsthatCuster’sthe invites Revenge reflect are also others who’ve suggested that one can have morally inappropriate responses poorcharacter in theplayer. StephaniePatridge,forexample, suggests thatsome how heinous or cruel those actions would be if performed in real life— real in performed if be would actions those cruel or heinous how

a “lynchinggame”(Patridge2013:33). Video GamesandEthics 2 While Patridgedoesnot

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Downloaded By: 192.168.0.15 At: 18:27 14 Oct 2017; For: 9780203735657, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203735657.ch3 against virtual human characters will have no negative psychological impact on a sizable a on impact psychological negative no have will characters human virtual against haps equally unlikely that regularly and repeatedly simulating acts of wanton, graphic violence Theft Autowillturnapersonintomurderer,unlikely that playing anhourofGrand itisper 1 Notes playing violentvideogames. of aspects positive and negative the both account into takes that procedure decision-making a empirical studies, vigorous attempts to educate the public about the results of such studies, and steps inordertoaddressthe concerns that these theorists have raised. These stepsinclude new ness of their arguments. I games can be morally problematic, but looming questions threaten to undermine the persuasive- only totheirpotentialharms,butalsobenefitsaswell. not extend may games video violent of significance moral the 113–116).Thus, 2009b: Sicart tives in the gaming world andtheir preexisting ethical commitments (Sicart 2009a: 199–200; video games that confront them with moral dilemmas, exploiting a tension between their objec- even morally—enriching. Miguel Sicart has argued that mature players can benefit from violent allow for gaming experiences that are not only pleasurable, but also aesthetically—and perhaps ing narratives, artful imagery and musical scores, andsophisticated haptical technologies that 2010: 86;Schulzke133). Also, someviolent video gamesincorporate morally interest- hostility that might otherwise be inflicted on actual people (Brey 1999: 8; Brey 2008: 369; Nys and aggression vent to players allowing cathartic, be can games video violent of kinds some positive take into account not only the potential harms of playing violent video games, but the potential ers, legislators,andotherinterestedparties. nate it to video game players, parents of children who play video games, video game develop- Once the relevant information has been obtained, there should be vigorous attempts to dissemi- pendent organizations withthemeanstofairlyandaccurately assess thequality of theresearch. those to vulnerable inde- by review to most subject and experts are unbiased by conducted be that should studies These harms. groups specific the and harm, most the cause to tend that the impactplaying violent video gamestendstohave,theparticular features ofviolentgames as much. dren. Both common sense and a preponderance of the best empirical research available suggest of centage 38

the ethicalstatusofactionsperformed withinvirtualcommunities,seeDunn(2012). contexts, then,itisfairlyclearthat virtualactionscanhavereal-worldethicalimplications.Formore on steal from their fellow players, even where such actions are not prescribed by the game. In these gaming cannot physically injure one another, gamers can—and sometimes do—maliciously deceive, harass, and tions, andinsomecases,even(virtually) marryotherplayers.Intheseenvironments,whileindividuals transac- economic complex in engage alliances, forge friendships, establish also can they but battle, in as such games In avatars. personalized their via another one with interact can beings human actual which virtual represent games Some games. video of genres some to applied when untenable is constrained solely by the rules and objectives of the game itself. Of course, this position seems baldly appropriate objects of moral assessment. On this view, what gaming characters ought, or ought not, to do One waytosupportthelatterpositionismaintainthataplayer’ On my view, first we must acknowledge that there is real cause for concern. Whileitis concern. for cause real is there that acknowledge must we first view, my On Ethicists have identified several plausible grounds for suspecting that playing violent video violent playing that suspecting for grounds plausible several identified have Ethicists Third, when deciding whether to alter or restrict video game content, policy makers should of extent the determine better to order in studies empirical more for call should we Second,

World ofWarcraft, Monique Wonderl effects ofplayingsuchgamesaswell.Somehaveargued, forexample,thatplaying video game players who do so—especially given that many such players are chil are players such many that given so—especially do who players game video EVE Online,andTheElderScrolls , playerscannotonlychallengeoneanother y

have ar gued that as it stands, there is sufficient reason to take modest s actionswithinavideogamearenever in communities in

per - - -

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