“ANYTHING but WHITE”: EXCAVATING the STORY of NORTHEASTERN COLONOWARE a Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Grad
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“ANYTHING BUT WHITE”: EXCAVATING THE STORY OF NORTHEASTERN COLONOWARE A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by Keri J. Sansevere May 2019 Examining Committee Members: Paul Farnsworth, Advisory Chair, Department of Anthropology Patricia Hansell, Department of Anthropology Seth Bruggeman, Department of History Richard Veit, External Member, Monmouth University, Department of History and Anthropology © Copyright 2018 by Keri J. Sansevere All Rights Reserved ii ABSTRACT The study of historic-period pottery cuts across many disciplines (e.g., historical archaeology, material culture studies, American studies, art history, decorative arts, fine arts). Studies of historic pottery with provenience from the United States are largely centered on fine-bodied wares, such as porcelain, white salt-glazed stoneware, creamware, pearlware, whiteware, ironstone (or white granite), and kaolin smoking pipes. These wares share the common attribute of whiteness: white paste and painted, slipped, or printed decoration that typically incorporate the color white into its motif. Disenfranchised groups had limited direct-market access to these wares due to its high value (Miller 1980, 1991). White pottery was disproportionately consumed by White people until the nineteenth century. This dissertation examines colonoware—an earth-toned, non-white, polythetic kind of coarse earthenware. Archaeologists commonly encounter colonoware in plantation contexts and believe that colonoware was crafted by Native American, African, and African American potters between the sixteenth through nineteenth centuries (Deetz 1999; Espenshade and Kennedy 2002:210; Gerth and Kingsley 2014; Heite 2002; Madsen 2005:107). Colonoware researchers have engaged with collections and archaeologically excavated samples from the lower Middle Atlantic, American Southeast and Caribbean for over fifty years since the “discovery” of the pottery at Colonial Williamsburg—then called “Colono-Indian Ware”—by Ivor Noël Hume (1962). Comparatively less research has been conducted on colonoware with American Northeast provenience (see Catts 1988; Sansevere 2017). This dissertation “excavates” iii evidence of Northeastern colonoware that has been deeply buried—buried within obscure literature, buried by centuries of soil accrual only recently moved by compliance archaeology, and buried by the fifty-something-year-old myth that colonoware was only manufactured and used in the Lower Middle Atlantic, American Southeast and Caribbean. The lives of northern bondsmen have been largely concealed in the historical record, yet these individuals were clearly a very visible part of northern society and the examination of northern colonoware helps tell that story. The circumstances that precipitated the excavation of northern sites that contain colonoware, the individuals who chose to collect northern colonoware, and my own experience accessing northern colonoware collections shapes how knowledge of the past is made, provides perspective on the mechanisms that control access to heritage, demonstrates how bias is created in object-based research, and reveals politics at play. Lastly, I speculate that colonoware contained significant meaning for northern users between the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries and discuss the changing value of this non-white pottery in contemporaneous society . iv For women all over the world. For Cookie and Oscar, whose purrs are comforting. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I owe gratitude to many individuals whose guidance, encouragement, and generous assistance need to be acknowledged. Dr. Paul Farnsworth, my Doctoral Advisory Chair, has provided tireless support. I am grateful to him for the time he selflessly devoted to provide thoughtful feedback on earlier drafts. Conversations and feedback provided by Doctoral Advisory Committee members Dr. Patricia Hansell and Dr. Seth Bruggeman focused and strengthened the ideas presented in the pages that follow. Dr. Christie Rockwell, Director of Graduate Studies, has been a source of encouragement and inspiration during my time at Temple University. I thank them for their guidance. I have kept dear the words of wisdom, intellectual perspectives, memories, and encouragement from mentors whom I met earlier on my journey into anthropology. I am grateful to the teaching, support, and encouragement that Dr. Richard Veit, Chair of History and Anthropology at Monmouth University, has provided for over 10 years. Emeritus professor Dr. Bill Mitchell and Dr. Bill Schindler (now at Chester College) also need to be acknowledged; it was in their classes at Monmouth University that I fell in love with anthropology. Michael Gall, Principal Investigator at Richard Grubb and Associates, gave constructive feedback on several conference papers and an edited book chapter from which this dissertation germinated from; I am a better writer because of him. At Temple University, Dr. Michael Stewart and Dr. Tony Ranere were also influential along my journey. Dr. David Orr had immense impact on the kind of anthropologist I am today and broadened the perspectives I hold. His example brought vi humanity to archaeology. Dr. Orr taught me how to look at the world differently and for that I am grateful. My fieldwork at George Washington’s Ferry Farm, and the colleagues I worked with, nurtured my curiosity in Chesapeake and Tidewater material culture; it was here that I first saw colonoware. I would like to acknowledge Paul Nasca, who taught me how to dig, David Muraca, Laura Galke, and Melanie Marquis. Conversations with my dear friend Tabitha Hilliard were instrumental in laying the groundwork for some of the perspectives and ideas presented in this dissertation. Tabitha has been a true sounding board and I am thankful for her motivation, encouragement, and intellectual support. I would like to recognize the assistance of Dr. Aaron Miller, Associate Curator of Visual and Material Culture & NAGPRA Coordinator at the Mount Holyoke College Art Museum and Dr. Brooke Hunter, Associate Professor of History at Rider University and Brearley House staff. Thank you to Dr. David Grandstaff and Dr. Nicholas Davatzes of the Earth and Environmental Science Department at Temple University for assisting with X-ray Fluorescence testing. Other colleagues contributed support, encouragement, and assistance to this dissertation: Chuck Fithian,Wade Catts, Ilene Grossman-Bailey, Mary Lynne Rainey, Ian Burrow, Josh Butchko, Bill Liebeknecht, Alice Guerrant, Heidi Krofft, Jennifer Potts, Meta Janowitz, Becky White, Doug Mooney, Tom Kutys, Jed Levin, Deborah Miller, Chris Rowell, Jack Gary, Robert Hunter, Stephen Mrozowski, David DeMello, Karen Hutchins-Keim, Alex Keim, Craig Chartier, Joe Bagley, Greg Lattanzi, Rebecca Heli czer, Tony Bonifiglia, Judy Jungels , Diana Zlatanovski , Sharon Pekrul, Emily vii Murphy, Steven Pendery, Alex Martin, and many, many more. I am grateful to Temple University for providing a generous grant-in-aid to support my research. Generous technical assistance—from formatting, image editing, and general computer trouble shooting—was provided by Justin Lardiere. Justin’s insight into contemporary objects was also a source of inspiration. Thank you to the family members, especially Aunt Michele, who supported me and cheered me on. Cookie and Oscar— mommy loves you. Thank you for keeping me company while I write. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION .....................................................................................................................v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. vi LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... xiii LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xiv PREFACE ....................................................................................................................... xvii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ......................................................................................17 Defining Colonoware .............................................................................................17 A “Ware” or “Type? ..............................................................................................21 History of Literature ..............................................................................................36 Diet .........................................................................................................................42 Marked Colonoware...............................................................................................48 Manufacturing Sites ...............................................................................................52 Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................57 3. THE HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY OF NATIVE AMERICAN AND BLACK FORCED AND FREE LABORERS IN THE AMERICAN NORTHEAST ..............................................................................................................59