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Carriers and Modulation DIGITAL TRANSMISSION of DIGITAL DATA

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Carriers and Modulation DIGITAL TRANSMISSION of DIGITAL DATA DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF Carriers and Modulation DIGITAL DATA CS442 Review… Baseband Transmission Digital transmission is the transmission of electrical Baseband Transmission pulses. Digital information is binary in nature in that it has only two possible states 1 or 0. With unipolar signaling techniques, the voltage is Sequences of bits encode data (e.g., text always positive or negative (like a dc current). characters). In bipolar signaling, the 1’s and 0’s vary from a plus Digital signals are commonly referred to as baseband signals. voltage to a minus voltage (like an ac current). In order to successfully send and receive a message, both the sender and receiver have to agree how In general, bipolar signaling experiences fewer errors often the sender can transmit data (data rate). than unipolar signaling because the signals are Data rate often called bandwidth – but there is a more distinct. different definition of bandwidth referring to the frequency range of a signal! 1 Baseband Transmission Baseband Transmission Manchester encoding is a special type of unipolar signaling in which the signal is changed from a high to low (0) or low to high (1) in the middle of the signal. • More reliable detection of transition rather than level – consider perhaps some constant amount of dc noise, transitions still detectable but dc component could throw off NRZ-L scheme – Transitions still detectable even if polarity reversed Manchester encoding is commonly used in local area networks (ethernet, token ring). ANALOG TRANSMISSION OF Manchester Encoding DIGITAL DATA Analog Transmission occurs when the signal sent over the transmission media continuously varies from one state to another in a wave-like pattern. e.g. telephone networks, originally built for human speech rather than data. Advantage for long distance communications: much less attenuation for analog carrier than digital 2 Digital Data to Analog Transmission Before we get further into Analog to Digital, we need to understand various characteristics of analog transmission. Sine Wave Periodic • Peak Amplitude (A) – maximum strength of signal Signals –volts • Frequency (f) – Rate of change of signal – Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second – Period = time for one repetition (T) –T = 1/f •Phase (φ) – Relative position in time, from 0-2*pi • General Sine wave s(t) = Asin(2πft +φ) 3 Varying Sine Waves Wavelength • Distance occupied by one cycle • Distance between two points of corresponding phase in two consecutive cycles • λ = Wavelength • Assuming signal velocity v – λ = vT – λf = v – c = 3*108 ms-1 (speed of light in free space) Addition of Frequency Domain Concepts Frequency Components • Signal usually made up of many frequencies Notes: • Components are sine (or cosine) waves 2nd freq a multiple of 1st • Can be shown (Fourier analysis) that any 1st called fundamental freq continuous signal is made up of component Others called harmonics sine waves Period of combined = • Can plot frequency domain functions Period of the fundamental Fundamental = carrier freq 4 Frequency Data Rate and Bandwidth Domain Discrete Freq Rep: • Any transmission system has a limited band of s(t) = 4 /π [sin( 2πft) +1/ 3sin( 2π (3 f )t)] frequencies Any continuous signal can • This limits the data rate that can be carried be represented as the sum of sine waves! (May need an infinite number..) • Spectrum – range of frequencies contained in signal Discrete signals result in • Absolute bandwidth Continuous, Infinite – width of spectrum Frequency Rep: • Effective bandwidth –Often just bandwidth s(t)=1 from –X/2 to X/2 – Narrow band of frequencies containing most of the energy Example of Data Rate/Bandwidth Ex(1): Sine Wave 1 Want to transmit: s(t) = 4 /π [sin( 2πft) +1/ 3sin(2π (3 f )t) + (1/ 5) sin( 2π (5 f )t)] Bandwidth=5f-f =4f Let’s say that f=1Mhz or 106 cycles/second, so T= 1microsecond If f=1Mhz, then the bandwidth = 4Mhz Let’s approximate the square wave with a few sine waves: T=1 microsecond; we can send two bits per microsecond so the data rate = 2 * 106 = 2Mbps 5 Ex(2): Sine Wave 1, Higher freq Ex(3): Sine Wave 2 s(t) = 4 /π [sin(2πft) +1/ 3sin(2π (3 f )t)] s(t) = 4 /π [sin( 2πft) +1/ 3sin(2π (3 f )t) + (1/ 5) sin( 2π (5 f )t)] Bandwidth=3f-f =2f Bandwidth=5f-f =4f If f=2Mhz, then the bandwidth = 4Mhz If f=2Mhz, then the bandwidth = 8Mhz T=0.5 microsecond; we can send two bits per 0.5 microseconds T=0.5 microsecond; we can send two bits per 0.5 microseconds or 4 bits per microsecond, so the data rate = 4 * 106 = 4Mbps or 4 bits per microsecond, so the data rate = 4 * 106 = 4Mbps Still possible to get 4Mbps with the “lower” bandwidth, but our Double the bandwidth, double the data rate! receiver must be able to discriminate from more distortion! Bandwidth / Representation Multiplexers 2000 bps Increasing bandwidth improves the B=500 Hz representation of the data • A multiplexer puts two or more simultaneous signal. transmissions on a single communications circuit. B=1000 Hz 500Hz too low to • Generally speaking, the multiplexed circuit must B=1700 Hz reproduce the signal. have the same capacity as the sum of the circuits it Want to maximize the combines. B=4000 Hz capacity of the available bandwidth. • The primary benefit of multiplexing is to save money. 6 Multiplexed Circuit Multiplexing There are three major types of multiplexers • Frequency division multiplexers (FDM) – E.g. AM/FM Radio, Telephone • Time division multiplexers (TDM) –ISDN • Statistical time division multiplexers (STDM) – We’ll cover later (maybe) • Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) – Used in optical carriers (colors carry signals) Frequency Division Multiplexing Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) (FDM) • Frequency division multiplexers can be described as dividing the circuit “horizontally” so that many signals can travel a single communication circuit simultaneously. • The circuit is divided into a series of separate channels, each transmitting on a different frequency. • Guardbands are employed to keep one channel from leaking over into another channel. • Frequency division multiplexers are somewhat inflexible because once you determine how many channels are required, it may be difficult to add more channels without purchasing an entirely new multiplexer. 7 Time Division Multiplexing Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) (TDM) • Time division multiplexing shares a circuit among two or more terminals by having them take turns, dividing the circuit “vertically.” • Time on the circuit is allocated even when data are not transmitted, so that some capacity is wasted when a terminal is idle. • Time division multiplexing is generally more efficient and less expensive to maintain than frequency division multiplexing, because it does not need guardbands. Attenuation Transmission Impairments • Signal strength falls off with distance • Signal received may differ from signal • Depends on medium transmitted • Received signal strength: • Analog - degradation of signal quality – must be enough to be detected – must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received • Digital - bit errors without error • Caused by • Attenuation is an increasing function of – Attenuation and attenuation distortion frequency; higher frequencies suffer from more attenuation. Can distort the signal. – Delay distortion –Noise • Solution: Equalization. Boost higher frequency components. 8 Delay Distortion Noise (1) • Only in guided media • Additional signals inserted between transmitter • Propagation velocity varies with frequency and receiver •Thermal – Velocity highest near center frequency – Due to thermal agitation of electrons – Results in phase shift at different frequencies – Uniformly distributed – “Overlapping” bits – White noise • Intermodulation • Solution: Equalization – Signals that are the sum and difference of original frequencies sharing a medium Noise (2) What Causes Errors? Summary of Errors and Noise: • Crosstalk Source of Error What Causes It How to Prevent It. Line Outages Storms, Accidents – A signal from one line is picked up by another White Noise Movement of electrons Increase signal strength Impulse Noise Sudden increases in electricity Shield or move the wires • Impulse (e.g. lightning) Cross-Talk Multiplexer guardbands too small, Increase the guardbands, or – Irregular pulses or spikes or wires too close together move or shield the wires Echo Poor connections Fix the connections, or – e.g. External electromagnetic interference tune equipment Attenuation Graduate decrease in signal Use repeaters or amps – Short duration over distance Intermodulation Signals from several circuits combine Move or shield the wires – High amplitude Noise Jitter Analog signals change phase Tune equipment Harmonic Distortion Amplifier changes phase Tune equipment 9 Modulation - Digital Data, Error Prevention Analog Signal There are many ways to prevent errors: • Public telephone system • Shielding (adding insulation) – 300Hz to 3400Hz • Moving cables away from noise sources • Guardband from 0-300, 3400-4000Hz → • Changing multiplexing type (FDM TDM) – Use modem (modulator-demodulator) • Tuning transmission equipment and improving connection quality • Amplitude shift keying (ASK) • Using amplifiers and repeaters • Frequency shift keying (FSK) • Equalization • Phase shift keying (PSK) • Leasing conditioned circuits Amplitude Modulation and ASK Frequency Modulation and FSK 10 Phase Modulation and PSK Amplitude Shift Keying • Values represented by different amplitudes of carrier • Usually, one amplitude is zero – i.e. presence and absence of carrier is used • Susceptible
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