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ISSN 1027-2992 I Special Issue I N° 10 | Autumn 2016 CatsCAT in news 02

CATnews is the newsletter of the Cat Specialist Group, a component Editors: Christine & Urs Breitenmoser of the Survival Commission SSC of the International Union Co-chairs IUCN/SSC for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It is published twice a year, and is Cat Specialist Group ­available to members and the Friends of the Cat Group. KORA, Thunstrasse 31, 3074 Muri, Switzerland For joining the Friends of the Cat Group please contact Tel ++41(31) 951 90 20 Christine Breitenmoser at [email protected] Fax ++41(31) 951 90 40 Original contributions and short notes about wild cats are welcome Send contributions and observations to [email protected].

Guidelines for authors are available at www.catsg.org/catnews Cover Photo: From top left to bottom right: Caspian (K. Rudloff) This Special Issue of CATnews has been produced with support Asiatic (P. Meier) from the Wild Cat Club and Zoo Leipzig. Asiatic (ICS/DoE/CACP/ ) Design: barbara surber, werk’sdesign gmbh (M. Eslami Dehkordi) Layout: Christine Breitenmoser & Tabea Lanz Eurasian (F. Heidari) Print: Stämpfli Publikationen AG, Bern, Switzerland Pallas’s cat (F. Esfandiari) Persian (S. B. Mousavi) ISSN 1027-2992 © IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group (S. B. Mousavi) (M. R. Besmeli) (B. Farahanchi)

The designation of the geographical entities in this publication, and the representation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the IUCN concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

CATnews Special Issue 10 Autumn 2016 Faizolahi

KAVEH FAIZOLAHI1 cies by only six and five mitochondrial steps respectively. differs Tiger in Iran - historical distri- only by a single step from Amur tiger and the Caspian tiger was genetically more di- bution, causes and verse than the almost identical Amur tiger. All Amur share a haplotype that is feasibility of reintroduction derived from that of the main Caspian hap- lotype (Driscoll et al. 2009). A historical range for the extirpated Caspian tiger Panthera virgata in Iran, and It is suggested that P. t. virgata (Illiger, 1815) close to Iran border in adjacent countries, is constructed based on records extracted and P. t. altaica Temminck, 1844 should taxo- from scientific literature as well as from travel journals from to first half nomically be considered as a single subspe- of the 20th century. The records were classified into three categories of reliability, cies, as they comply with the three criteria depending on the accuracy of identification and the precision of locality. The his- of subspecific taxonomic designation: 1) a torical range is potentially open to re-introduction, and as new molecular research distinct and united geographic distribution established, Amur tiger could be used as a stock to repopulate tiger in its former throughout a continuous range, 2) a unique range from Central to the . However, Caspian tiger habitats in Iran natural history, and 3) largely concordant have changed dramatically in the last century, and the main causes of its extinction phylogenetic characters (O’Brien & Mayr are now at least as effective as before. If any potentially suitable habitat appears in 1991, Driscoll et al. 2009). The Caspian tiger feasibility studies, a long phase of preparation, beneficial to all wildlife, is needed and Amur tiger may have a recent common before reintroducing tiger to land it disappeared from more than half a century ago. ancestry and may thus be considered as syn- onymous under the prior P. t. virgata trinomi- The Caspian or Hyrcanian tiger is a usual was recently described from Malaysia (Luo et al. There is even a suggestion to consider all member of many lists comprised of the most al. 2004). The Iranian population of tiger be- continental tigers as one (Wilting recent mammalian , including spe- longed to the extinct subspecies P. t. virgata et al. 2015), mainly with the intention to fa- cies and subspecies such as Tasmanian (Illiger, 1815). Its type locality is Mazandaran, cilitate management. Thylacinus cynocephalus, aurochs primi- northern Iran (delimited by Harper 1940). No As Hemmer (1987) put it: “Tigers have phy- genius, quagga quagga quagga, Atlas holotype specimen of P. t. virgata exists. Other logenetically developed population differ- arctos crowtheri, etc. The Caspian common names for this subspecies include ences, but man has developed the concept 05 tiger once roamed across a wide range in Hyrcanian tiger, tiger, Persian tiger, Cen- of subspecific . Thus, conservation northern Asia and was finally wiped out from tral Asian tiger, Turkestan tiger, Transoxiana strategies must not rely primarily on such northern Iran nearly half a century ago. tiger, Occidental tiger and Mazandaran tiger. man-made concepts, but on nature’s exist- This is a literature review with the aim of de- On one hand, some authors believe that the ing population”. termining the distribution and causes for the usual taxonomic lumping of all middle Asian decline and disappearance of the Caspian tigers under the P. t. virgata subspecies may tiger. I then looked at new molecular data mask a great differentiation in co-adapted The Caspian tiger’s uncertain biogeographical which prove that the virgata (Caspian) and gene complexes between regional popula- origin and phylogenetic placement in the tiger altaica (Amur) subspecies are taxonomically tions (Hemmer 1987); on the other hand, new family tree has puzzled naturalists for over a synonymous. Using these findings, I discuss molecular results show that recognising P. t. century (Macdonald et al. 2010). Heptner & the feasibility of tiger reintroduction within virgata at a subspecific level may be not justi- Sludskii (1992) proposed that tigers colonised its former Iranian range using Amur tigers, fied. It has however been demonstrated that this area from north-west and Hemmer Panthera tigris altaica. intraspecific variation of tiger is largely clinal (1987) like Mazák (1981) suggested a route and conforms more or less with ecogeograph- from north-east Asia via . Driscoll Taxonomy ic rules such as Bergmann’s (Kitchener 1999). et al. (2009) deduced that tiger expanded in Traditionally there have been eight recog- By applying ancient DNA techniques to northern Asia through the ( nised subspecies of P. tigris (Mazák 1981), specimens, Driscoll et al. (2009) corridor) from eastern , between the of which three are now considered extinct showed that the Amur and Caspian tigers Himalayan Plateau and the Mongolian Gobi (Nowell & Jackson 1996, Jackson & Nowell are sister taxa to the , P. t. desert, first towards west into Central Asia 2008) and a new subspecies, P. t. jacksoni, corbetti, being separated from that subspe- up to , and then eastwards into the . Tiger expansion into Central Table 1. Size and cranial characters of Caspian tigers (Ognev 1962. Mazák 1981, Heptner Asia is very recent () and Caspian ti- & Sludskii 1992). ger geographical variation dates back to less Males Females than 10,000 years ago. Total length 270-295 cm 240-260 cm Caspian tiger may have been the most iso- Tail length 90-110 cm lated of all mainland tiger subspecies during Weight 170-240 kg 85-135 kg the stadials of the , “(they) were Skull length 316-369 mm 268-305 mm doubtless excluded from India by the Hindu Condylobasal length 259-308 mm 225-263 mm Koosh and the desert areas of Persia and Bal- Zygomatic width 219-254 mm 183-203 mm uchistan” (Pocock 1929). Vereshchagin (1967)

Cats in Iran Caspian tiger

considers it a postglacial immigrant due to was striking in Caspian tiger, where males Pocock (1929), however, points to a great vari- lack of fossil remains in the Caucasus. In- were almost two times heavier than females ation in British Museum specimens, with two deed, the nearly continuous range of the tiger (Mázak 1981; Table 1). of four Caspian tiger pelts having quite black in northern Asia (except a gap around 100˚ E) Sagittal and temporal crests, especially in stripes just as in the Indian tigers. The other is clearly evident in older maps (Mazák 1965). large males are very strong and prominent two are partly and wholly brown. “There is evidence that the tigers of the Per- (Mazak 1981). The occiput is very broad (Po- There are two Caspian tiger skins with du- so-Turkestan district are, or were, continuous cock 1929), as in Amur tigers, “which may bious origin (most probably from Golestan in their distribution with those of Mongolia” indicate a close relationship between these area) in Iran Museum (Fig. 1) (Pocock 1929). Ellerman & Morrison-Scott populations” (Kitchener 1999). and Darabad Museum of Nature and Wild- (1951), report a historical distribution in the Though the Caspian tiger was in average life (Fig. 1), both in . They seem to Ob basin and the . The his- smaller than the Amur tiger, the largest indi- conform to other descriptions of Caspian torical distribution of Amur and Caspian ti- vidual, killed on the Sumbar in Kopet-Dag on tiger pelage, as their ground colour is not so gers extended from Anatolia to the Russian 10 January, 1954 (stuffed skin in Ashkhabad pale, with a red ochre hue. Far East and this range became discontinu- Museum), with a greatest skull length of Seasonal coat colour and length dimorphism ous within the last 200 years, probably due 385 mm (Heptner & Sludskii 1992), exceeds was prominent: the winter coat was consid- to anthropogenic factors (Driscoll et al. 2009). slightly even the maximum value known for erably lighter and paler in colour and denser the Amur subspecies (skull length 383 mm; and longer, than the summer coat with a less Morphology Mazak 1981; Table 1). distinct pattern. Hair was markedly longer on The maximum known weight of Caspian ti- the head insofar as the ears projected only gers exceeds 240 kg but evidently could be Coat pattern insignificantly (Heptner & Sludski, 1992). The greater (Heptner & Sludskii 1992). There is Caspian tiger expected near the paler ground fur even in summer were thick (8 to 13 mm on not much consensus on size of the Caspian ti- colour and fewer stripes ends of the range in the back and 20 to 30 mm on the abdomen), ger. According to different authors, it was the a clinal variation that seems to be a rule for but tended to grow much longer in the win- second or the third largest tiger of all. Lydek- more northern tiger populations. However the ter (30 mm and more on the back) especially ker (1901, 1907) described it as “a small and stripes in Caspian tiger were more numerous on the nape (up to 20 to 50, and even 90 mm somewhat rough-haired variety” based on a and closer set (Pocock 1929). The ground col- long) that look like a mane, on the cheeks, mounted specimen in the British Museum. our was somewhat richer, darker red, with a on the sides of the face, and along the belly 06 Pocock (1929) stated that “there is little, if tendency to turn brown in some specimens (Pocock 1929, Ognev 1962, Heptner & Sludski any, difference in size between this tiger (Pocock 1929). The ground colour of tigers’ 1992, Mazák 1981). and the Indian subspecies”. This is in concor- pelages is usually understood as a reflection dance with Mázak (1981) while Joslin (1988) of habitat and/or humidity (Gloger’s rule), so Habitat considered it of intermediate size. the dark, more striped pelage of the Caspian Primary habitat of the Caspian tiger in Iran Body size in tigers is probably influenced by tiger is not unexpected in the dense humid included riparian and lowland forests, reed- phenotypic responses to the environment jungles of south Caspian. Nevertheless, covered coastal plains, and . Sec- (Kitchener 1999). The great size variation Heptner & Sludskii (1992) showed that Cas- ondary habitat was alpine forests on the may be a case of ecological variation result- pian tiger displayed a wide variety of striping northern slopes of the Mountains ing from temporary climatic conditions (Mayr patterns and ground colour variations. made up of dense vegetation consisting & Ashlock 1991), indicating a highly plastic Both Satunin (1914) and Pocock (1929) showed of beech, oak, hornbeam, tamarisk, pome- phenotype. Sexual size dimorphism in tigers that the stripes in some Caspian tigers were granate, boxwood, and ash trees (Blanford increases with latitude (Kitchener 1999) and not black as in the (Harper 1940). 1876, Zarudny 1891, Vuosalo 1976, Joslin

Fig. 1. Left: the tiger hide in Biodiversity Museum of Iran, Tehran, and right the tiger hide in Darabad Museum of Nature and Wildlife, Tehran, both most probably from Golestan area (Photos F. Heidari).

CATnews Special Issue 10 Autumn 2016 Faizolahi

1986). Its presence has been confirmed up to 1,800 m in northern Iran (Blanford 1876). Panthera tigris virgata It was also reported to have traversed vast expanses of desert while traveling from Names: CITES: northern Iran to the eastern shores of the Babr Appendix I (Heptner & Sludskii 1992). Caspian tiger DoE List: Ecology and behaviour Head and body length: Protected (since 1957), There is little information on the natural his- 240-295 cm extinct, based on tory of Caspian tigers in Iran. In the Tail length: and fishing law Valley in , tiger territories meas- 90-110 ured 20 by 50 km2, while a male and two Weight: females were thought to have occupied an 85-240 kg area measuring only 42 km2. Their territories partially overlapped (Joslin 1988). Iranian population: Tiger mortalities due to anti-preda- 0 tory defence have been recorded in the Trans- Photo K. Rudloff Caucasus and Iran (Brandt 1856). Brown Distribution in Iran: also may cause injuries and even death Nowhere to tigers. Cubs were killed by male tigers, brown bears, and other predators. Evidence IUCN Red List: shows that tigers in the Trans-Caucasus had Extinct (2008) suffered injuries from . Wolf and Excludes P. t. altaica leopard competed against tigers for prey and Amur Tiger: Endangered (2010) habitat (Heptner & Sludskii 1992). An altitudinal migration was observed as ti- gers climbed into the mountains during spring and summer, following , ence in Iran-Caucasus border in older times and Lake Lop-nor. The range extended as far 07 and descended to lower altitudes in autumn, seems plausible. east and north as the Altai and the southern wintering in the plains (Kock 1990, Heptner Ob basin (Kirk 1969), reaching through & Sludskii 1992). Chodźko (1850, cited in Sa- Demography the Ukraine, in reed beds along the Terek and hami 2006) observed the same pattern of sea- The Iranian tiger populations of south-west Kuban , and in the Don River mouth. sonal migration in Guilan Province, northern (Talysh Mts) and south-east Caspian region Iran. Due to following migrating ungulates were supposed to act as source to sink re- Historical distribution of tiger in Iran the Caspian tiger was known as “road” or spectively in south Caucasus () For a better apprehension of tiger historical “travelling leopard” in Central Asia (Extinc- and Turkmenia Kopet-Dagh (southern Trans- range in Iran, scientific literature as well as tion Website 2010). caspica; Heptner & Sludskii 1992). It was re- travel journals from 17th century to first half ported to reproduce once every two or three of the 20th century have been searched for re- Prey years, bearing two to four cubs per litter. No ports on tiger occurrence in Iran and records While the tiger’s main prey was the wild boar particular breeding season has been docu- close to Iran border in adjacent countries (Sup- Sus scrofa, roe capreolus, mented (Joslin 1986). porting Online Material SOM Table T1 & T2). Caspian elaphus maral, In Trans-Caucasus, two litters with two cubs It should be noted that older provincial divi- vignei arkal, aureus, each have been recorded (Heptner & Sludskii sions of Iran in the period that contains most jungle cat chaus, various domestic 1992). A Caspian tiger reportedly bred and of the tiger records were different from now , including , ass, water buffalo, produced young twice in the Moscow Zoo (for example Guilan and Mazandaran applied camel and dog (Vuosalo 1976, Heptner & over a two-year period (Joslin 1988). There to much larger areas, and Golestan was not Sludskii 1992) were also preyed upon. Cat- is an image of a tigress with her two unborn considered a separate province). Hence the tle were attacked only in winter according cubs hunted by royalties in north-eastern Iran vague older references to these names may to Vereshchagin (1967). In north-east Iran, ti- around the 1920s. not refer to their modern borders. gers also preyed on goitered Gazella The tiger occurred in the northern Iran in for- subgutturosa (Brandt 1856) and in Alborz on Distribution ests and reed beds surrounding most rivers wild goat aegagrus (Kotschy 1845). The Caspian tiger occupied the most western and wetlands, from Tejen in Sarakhs along There is no record of Caspian tiger preying area of the species’ range. The distribution the border with through the on locally extinct fauna such as extended westwards to the south of the Cau- south Caspian lowlands all the way along Caucasian Alces alces caucasicus, Cau- casus and eastwards across central Asia from the border with Azerbaijan and Armenia casian wisent boasus caucasicus, aur- the Caspian, through northern Persia (Mount to Arax near Ararat. This almost 2000 km ochs Bos primigenius, or tarpan Equus ferus Elburz), northern , the , strip includes parts of 8 provinces: West within its Iranian range, though their coexist- and the Pamirs, River Ili, , Tarim Azerbaijan, East Azerbaijan, Ardabil, Guilan,

Cats in Iran Caspian tiger

ests on the southern coasts of the Caspian Sea. By the middle of the last century, almost tiger’s entire preferred habitat had been re- claimed for cultivation, with the result that the survivors retreated to the mountain forests, where the last recorded Caspian tiger was shot in 1959. Intense felling of forests appears to have caused the to disappear alto- gether from Iran (Misonne 1959, Lay 1967). The extirpation of Caspian Tigers in north- ern Iran was caused by the loss of critical resources including habitat, water and prey. Habitat was lost through the burning of ripar- ian vegetation, draining of wetlands and the conversion of forests into cultivation. Use of DDT in 1940s and 1950s cleared the reed- covered wetlands of malaria mosquito, as one of the most prohibiting factors for people invading tiger habitat. Tigers were forced to Fig. 2. Distribution range map of the tiger, based on historical records in Iran and close retreat to the margins of their natural habitat to the Iranian border in adjacent countries. For definitions of record types see the text in the forested mountains. Here they compet- “Historical distribution of tiger in Iran” (map produced by N. Ahmadi). ed for resources with the largest leopard sub- species - the Persian leopard Panthera pardus Mazandaran, Golestan, North Khorasan and with no conclusive records in more than 50 saxicolor - but were not able to survive and Razavi Khorasan (Fig. 2, SOM T1 & T2). The years, although dubious reports still surface. became extinct by the 1960’s. specified records of known locality, were Between 1973 and 1976 extensive efforts assigned to 3 categories based on their reli- In captivity were made by the biologists of the Iranian 08 ability, a concise version of Boshoff & Kerley There are no Caspian tigers in captivity today Department of the Environment DoE to search (2010) method: 1) accurate identification and (Kirk 1969, Nowell & Jackson 1996). A small for tigers in the forests of the Alborz Moun- precise locality (sighting or specimen); 2) ac- tame tigress, named Theresa, which had tains, but no trace or evidence was found curate identification or precise locality, but been presented to the Soviet ambassador (Joslin 1986 & 1988, Firouz 2005). not both; and 3) questionable identification in in Iran, lived from 1924 to 1942 in Moscow Tigers have proven to be an adaptable spe- imprecise locality. Zoological Garden (Heptner & Sludskii 1992). cies and live in a variety of habitats and The only other tiger in European zoos which climates across the world. Tigers have a Tiger in Persian arts and folklore was certainly originated from Persia, was the relatively high reproductive rate with short Objects in form of tigers or with tiger designs young female tiger of Hagenbeck Zoo in Ham- inter birth intervals. They are quick to fall can be found dating back as far as 3400-3000 burg, Germany, that lived there from 1955 to back into oestrus in the event of the loss of a BP (Negahban 1996; Figs. 3-5). Moreover, the 1960. This tigress, named Soraya (a female litter. They prey on a variety of species from tiger appears in some ancient Persian min- Persian name which means Pleiades, and the small to large and tigers can adapt iatures and in tribal carpet designs (Vuosalo name of the queen of Iran, 1951-1960), prob- their hunting technique based on the type of 1976, Tanavoli 1985). There are many refer- ably was the last Caspian tiger in captivity prey and habitat. However, some character- ences to tiger and its skin in Persian poetry of (Fig. 9 & SOM Figure F1). istics of the species in western Asia made it the 10th and 11th century, such as Shahnameh more susceptible to human development in (977-1010) by Ferdowsi, Garshaspnameh (ca. Causes of extinction the regions as well as to wildlife trade. 1066) by Asadi Tusi and Diwans of Farrukhi Sometime before 1911, Col. Kennion came Sistani, Manuchehri Damghani, and Qatran across only two tigers in Golestan Province Distribution pattern Tabrizi among others. Tiger has been men- and wrote in his memoirs “considering the One of the most important factors concern- tioned in some Persian bestiaries of the 12th abundance of game and the fewness of the ing the decline and extinction of the Caspian to 14th centuries, such as Ajayebnameh by tigers’ foes, it is quite a problem why the lat- tiger was its natural restricted distribution. Hamadani (1166), Farrokhnameh (Fig. 6) by ter are not more numerous in these parts” The various historical records show that the Yazdi (1184), Ajayeb Almakhluqat (Fig. 7) by (Kennion 1911, p. 246) and Pocock (1929, p. distribution of the Caspian tiger was rami- Qazvini (1280), and Manafe’e Hayavan (Fig. 8) 522) stated that “there is reason to fear that fied and associated with watercourses, river by Maraghi (1299). the race is on the wane.” basins and lake edges, embedded in a large In the 1930’s, around 80 to 100 tigers were expanse of desert environment, rendering the presumed to still survive within its Iranian species vulnerable (Heptner & Sludskii 1992, The Caspian tiger is extinct in Iran (Harrington range but subsequently these numbers de- Sunquist et al. 1999). & Darreshuri 1977, Joslin 1986, Ziaie 1996, clined (Schaller 1967, Heptner & Sludskii On the southern side of the Caspian Sea, Jackson & Nowell 2008, Karami et al. 2008) 1992). Tigers became ‘’quite rare” in the for- tigers occurred in the forested areas of

CATnews Special Issue 10 Autumn 2016 Faizolahi northern Iran, where they were associated Hunting and persecution “cubs are often captured in Mazandaran and with riverine habitats, important areas for Not many tigers were killed in Iran, unlike the brought to Tehran.” There is a similar report the species and its prey. With the increas- systematic tiger eradication which took place from that “young are caught in ing human population and the advent of in Russian territory, when “large parties of traps by the people round the mountain, to be development, rivers were used as modes of sportsman and military squads actively hunt- exhibited in shows of wild beasts throughout transport for colonisation. The persecution ed wild boar and tigers with reckless aban- Persia” (Blyth 1845). of tiger and its prey increased with increas- don” (Heptner & Sludskii 1992, Sunquist et al. ing movement and activity of humans in the 1999). Nonetheless, the conflict was inevita- area (Sunquist et al. 1999). ble nearing the end, as more tigers attacked Cotton, rice and other crops grew well in the when their natural prey became rich silt along the rivers, thus the Caspian low- Prey scarce. Chodźko (1850, cited in Sahâmi 2006) land dense forests and marshes were cleared The emergence of tiger as a large-bodied, reported that every year a lot of them were for agricultural use (Sunquist et al. 1999). forest-edge predator followed the radiation killed in Guilan and Mazandaran and men- Cultivation of the reed beds led to disappear- of the cervids. Cervids are vital to the tiger’s tioned a tiger that was shot by artillery guild ance of wild boars that supported the tigers. survival in the wild. Tigers living in regions in Sarakhs at 1833. As he observed “Guilan Indeed the last tigers were recorded in the re- where high rainfall results in a naturally low highlanders are generally dexterous shoot- maining fragment of reed stands in the south- cervid and other terrestrial diver- ers. When an was killed by a tiger, they east Caspian region. Deforestation sped up sity are especially vulnerable (Sunquist et never moved the corpse, but lay in ambush on as the human population increased and more al. 1999). This was the case with the late a tall tree waiting for the tiger to come back. pastures were needed for livestock. Local in- Caspian tiger. The Caspian tiger’s former dis- The tiger seldom dies with the first shoot, so habitants carried out uncontrolled burning of tribution in Iran overlaps with distribution of it would be chased into the jungle by hunters thickets along the banks of the rivers to pro- cervids such as Maral red deer and . and their hounds” (Sahâmi 2006, translated vide new growth of grass for their livestock Red deer and wild boar formed the tiger’s into English by the author). (Habibi 2004). Apparently intense felling of prey base, with red deer being the principal The tiger’s decline has been attributed to its forests and extensive habitat destruction has item in the diet, but as deer numbers de- over-hunting in the Caucasus (Vereshchagin caused the animal to disappear altogether clined, tigers had increasingly to rely on wild 1967), Afghanistan (Habibi 2004) and also from Iran (Misonne 1959, Lay 1967). boar, which were in those days abundant on Iran (Misonne 1968). It seems that there the coastal plains. Wild boars are a resilient was not a high demand for tiger fur in north- Human-tiger conflict 09 species and can sustain high rates of culling ern Iran as according to Nikitin (1941) “the The Caspian tiger is often an emblem of with the ability to recover populations over animal’s fur is inexpensive in Guilan and we bloodthirsty cruelty in classical literature relatively short periods of time. However, purchased many kinds of them” (translation (e.g. Shakespeare in Macbeth); however, it their numbers were affected by hunting, by the author). Nevertheless, there is another seems that there was not an intense human- disease, natural disasters and in the Cas- report of shops selling tiger and panther skins tiger conflict in the area. pian region, suid diseases, floods and fires in the larger towns, such as Qom and Ker- Persian tigers were not man-eaters (Vuosalo have contributed to a high loss of individu- manshah (Bird 1891). 1976, McDougal 1978). “Man-eaters appear als (Novikov 1962, Heptner & Sludskii 1992, Direct persecution also played a critical role to have been almost non-existent among the Sunquist et al. 1999). The tiger’s disappear- in elimination of the tiger from northern Iran. Caspian race of the tiger, at least in Iran” ance from the Caspian region was therefore Cubs were caught to be exhibited in mena- (McDougal 1978). Mazandaran peasants told related to the decline in wild boar on which geries (Novikov 1962). Blanford (1876) saw Vambery (1865) that they very rarely attack it increasingly and solely relied. specimens in Tehran zoo and reported that human beings. Kennion (1911), interviewing

Fig. 3. One of a pair of golden hollow tiger Fig. 4. A silver dish depicting a tigress Fig. 5. An oval silver bowl with running ti- heads found in excavations of the ancient against a tree, 4th century. Silver, 22.8 cm in gresses on each side, 6th-7th century, Sasan- site of Marlik, near Rudbar in Guilan Prov- diameter. The Hermitage Museum, Saint ian period. Silver, niello inlay. The Metropoli- ince, 3400-3000 BP (Negahban 1996). Petersburg (S-41). tan Museum of Art, New York, Met-05679.

Cats in Iran Caspian tiger

local hunters, concluded that “man-eating ti- This has practical implication for conserva- gers, meaning tigers that regularly preyed on tion, because a taxonomic assessment is a man in preference to game, were unknown prerequisite to any re-introduction program. in Mazandaran” (historical delimitation, in- According to re-introduction guidelines cluding Golestan Province). The local hunt- (IUCN/SSC 2013), “(individuals to be rein- ers recalled only two men killed by tigers, troduced) should preferably be of the same both of them by beasts they had wounded. subspecies or race as those which were ex- The same also affirmed specifically for Gui- tirpated” and “the source population should lan tiger that “never attack a man unless it ideally be closely related genetically to the is wounded” (Chodźko 1850). Yet, there is a original native stock and show similar eco- famous anecdote of an attack in 19th century logical characteristics (morphology, physiol- in Guilan, in which a curious tiger, caused no ogy, behaviour, habitat preference) to the casualties (Serena 1883). original sub-population”, although it advises A reputed depredation on livestock was never a cautious approach for populations that have Fig. 6. Tiger illustration in an old Persian a problem as “abundance of wild boars and long been extinct. bestiary, Farrokhnameh (1184). mountain sheep leaves no excuse for at- As Driscoll et al. (2009, 2012) suggest “one tacking livestock” (Chodźko 1850). However potential implication of the recent molecular during the final phase of their existence, it study is that former Caspian tiger habitat in became a source of conflict and led to direct Central Asia is open to reintroductions from persecution through all kinds of trapping and Amur stock.” Based on their results, Mac- poisoning. Tigers searched for in low- donald et al. (2010) consider Caspian tiger land villages in winter and visited mountain a Management Unit MU separate from the pens from May to October (Chodźko 1850). Amur population that together would form an There are no references of the use of tiger Evolutionarily Significant Unit ESU. Macdon- parts in traditional medicine of Iran. “The ani- ald et al. (2010) musing about where Caspian mal had not been surrounded by legends of tigers might be reintroduced in Iran, mention therapeutic powers, as is the case in China” the NP, Atrak valleys, 10 (Vuosalo 1976). and Miankaleh protected area. However, since its extinction, the original natural habi- Conservation measurements tats of tiger in Iran have changed consider- Tiger is protected in Iran under national legis- ably. Golestan NP, which consists mainly of lations since 1957 (Firouz 2005) and was of- secondary tiger habitat and probably never ficially declared as extinct in 1967. Once the contained a large population of tigers, could Fig. 7. of a maned tiger in an tiger’s decline had become well recognised, thus be excluded from the list. Two other po- old Persian bestiary, Ajayeb Almakhluqat laws were enacted both in Iran and the USSR tential areas have lost the larger part of their (= Marvels of Creation; 1280). giving it total protection. However, it was too original vegetation and now are very poor in late to save it in the wild (Joslin 1988). prey base. It is not known if the carrying ca- As the indigenous local tiger population in pacity of the remaining habitat is sufficient to Iran is extirpated, there remains only one support a self-sustaining population of tiger conservation measure possible within Ira- in the long run. The habitat loss as the main nian borders, which is reintroduction, with cause of the extinction of local population is the lowest score in effectiveness (Chunda- currently at a maximum. wat et al. 2008). Any tiger conservation program should en- sure a healthy stable population of cervids, Feasibility of reintroduction bovids and suids. No information is available Habitat preference is likely to correlate for maral deer and wild boar populations in strongly with taxonomy, and a good tax- northern Iran. Populations of Maral deer in onomy should be informed by evolutionary Golestan NP may not surpass 500 and prob- relationships. The molecular differences be- ably no more than 60 in any specific locality tween the extinct Caspian tiger and the ex- in Iran (Kiabi et al. 2004) which is insufficient Fig. 8. Tiger, according to an old Persian tant Amur tiger are minimal, suggesting that to sustain a healthy tiger population. No bestiary, Manafe’e Hayavan (= Benefits they belong to the same subspecies (Driscoll maral population lives in Miankaleh or Atrak of Animals; 1299). It could be read as “… et al. 2009). Indeed, the amount of genetic valleys at present. if oppose a man, even though it is hungry, variation in Caspian/Amur tigers over their The effects of a re-introduced species on does not . When bleeds, it irritates entire distribution, from the Caucasus to the an ecosystem, including competitors and and gets furious, and all the beasts would Russian Far East, is less than the amount of prey species need to be understood (IUCN be wary of it. While it falls ill, looks after variation within a single population of Bengal 1998). Using captive-bred individuals does a dog, and rejuvenates after devouring it.” or Sumatran tigers (C. Driscoll, pers. comm.). not increase the probability of success. Re-

CATnews Special Issue 10 Autumn 2016 Faizolahi introducing a species merely because of the availability of captive stock is a decision not recommended by the IUCN (1998). Nonethe- less, the tiger is a resilient species and where conditions are favourable (sufficient cover and prey), its populations can grow rapidly (Sunquist et al. 1999). So if a reintroduction program for tigers is to be performed in any potentially suitable habitat in Iran, a long phase of preparation is to be expected. Prey base should be strengthened and vegetation should be improved. Currently, there is no tiger reintroduction pro- Fig. 9. Soraya lived in Hagenbeck Zoo from 1955 to 1960 (Photo K. Rudolff). ject in Iran, and no comprehensive feasibility study has been conducted on the potential of (C. Driscoll, pers. comm). So perhaps we are Alexander J. E. 1827. Travels from India to Eng- tiger habitats in Iran. Actually, two captive- not confined to choose between having what land; comprehending a Visit to the Burman bred Amur tigers (one male and one female) we lost and losing what we still have. The Empire and a Journey through Persia, Asia have been imported from in an effort common denominator is a secure, well-pro- Minor, European , & c. in the years to start such a program, which was suspend- tected land and the goal is not just to have 1825-26. Parbury, Allen and Co., London. ed after the male individual succumbed to a tigers, but to restore complete, working natu- 300 pp. disease recognised as glanders in Eram Zoo, ral ecosystems. No doubt that not all reintro- Anonymous. 1860. Vaqâye-ye Ettephâqiye News- Tehran. There is no political will in Iran to pro- ductions succeed, but many of them do and paper 477, Nov. 8. (In Persian) ceed further, at the present time. having tigers represented in the natural fauna Anonymous. 1862. Vaqâye-ye Ettephâqiye News- in specific areas is not a fantasy at all. paper 515, Jan. 16. (In Persian) Conclusion In conclusion, the famous quote by William Arnold A. 1877. Through Persia by Caravan. Harper A disagreement on priorities for tiger conser- Beebe seems true more than ever: “when & Brothers, New York. 491 pp. vation surfaced in 2011 when in a letter to the last individual of a race of living beings Binder H. 1887. Au Kurdistan: en Mésopotamie et Science, Driscoll et al. (2011) supported the breathes no more, another heaven and an- en Perse. M. Quantin, Paris. 453 pp. 11 restoration of populations in selected habitat other earth must pass before such a one Bird I. L. 1891. Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan. within the historic range of the extinct Caspi- can be again.” However, a conservationist John Murray. London. Vol. 1, 381 pp. an tigers as a new boold infusion to the spe- should keep in mind that “restoration is not Blanford W. T. 1876. Eastern Persia: An Account cies. Their proposition includes reintroducing about the nostalgic re-creation of a lost past, of the Journeys of the Persian Boundary zoo-bred Amur tigers with known ancestry, but about building a sustainable future” Commission, 1870-71-72, Vol. 2. The Zool- to potentially suitable habitats assessed by (Macdonald 2010). ogy and Geology. Macmillan and Co., Lon- Jungius (2010) in Central Asia among others. don. 516 pp. But then a counterpoint by Rabinowitz et al. Acknowledgement Blyth E. 1845. Rough notes on the zoology of (2011) underlined the efficiency of ‘tradition- I wish to thank Hossein Mohammadi and Marzieh Candahar and the neighbouring districts, by T. al’ approaches when properly implemented. Mousavi from Iran DoE for inviting me to contrib- Hutton with notes by E. Blyth. Journal of the “If we are considering reconstructive surgery ute to this special issue. I thank Carlos A. Driscoll, Asiatic Society of Bengal 161, 340-354. for the tiger, then let’s stop the bleeding first” WWF Chair in Conservation , Bahram H. Blyth E. 1863. Synoptical list of the species of Felis they concluded (Rabinowitz et al. 2011). Kiabi from Shahid Beheshti University, Moham- inhabiting the Indian region and the adjacent The situation in Iran is strangely similar to mad S. Farhadinia from Iranian Cheetah Society, parts of Middle Asia. Proceedings of the zoo- this debate: many species of large mam- and Gholam Hosein Yusefi from Mohitban Society logical Society of London, pp.181 -186. mals are on the IUCN Red list of threatened for reviewing the manuscript. I also wish to thank Boshoff A. F. & Kerley G. I. H. 2010. Historical species - , Persian Leopard, Ali Golshan for his help in finding some pictures mammal distribution data: How reliable are Asian Wild Ass, and Mesopotamian Fallow illustrating tigers in Iran. written records? South African Journal of Sci- Deer - and the Iranian ungulate fauna have ence 106, 26-33. been decimated during the last three dec- References Brandt J. F. 1856. Untersuchungen über die Verbre- ades. This is why many Iranian experts have Abbott K. E. 1844. Narrative of a Journey from itung des Tigers (Felis tigris) und seine Bezie- their reservations and express serious con- Tabriz along the Shores of the Caspian Sea hungen zur Menschheit. Ein Sendschreiben an cern regarding reintroduction programs. The to Tehran, 1843-1844 (ms.), Foreign Office den Herrn Baron A.v. Humboldt. Buchdr. der problem, in their view, is expending limited 60/108, London. Translation to Persian by Seif Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, money and resources for a species which is A. as Safarnameh-ye Mazandaran. Mazand- St. Petersburg, VI, ser. 8, 95 pp. globally important but not a priority in Iran. nume, 2006, retrieved from www.mazand- Brugsch H. K. 1886. 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Cats in Iran Caspian tiger

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