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Sommaire Du CHAPITRE 1 L'origine De L'agriculture

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Sommaire Du CHAPITRE 1 L'origine De L'agriculture Sommaire du CHAPITRE 1 L'origine de l'agriculture Origine de l’agriculture. 2 Quelques concepts et terminologie . 5 Historique des recherches sur l'origine de l'agriculture et l'évolution des plantes cultivées . 6 Centre A1 (Moyen-Orient; croissant fertile) . 12 Le développement agricole en Amérique. 15 Centre C1 centre méso-américain ; Mexique central . 16 Non-centre C2 ou centre sud-américain du plateau andéen . 19 Centre B1 ou Centre Chinois . 24 Le non-centre africain A2 - Centre d'agriculture africaine indigène . 26 Le non-centre du sud-est asiatique (B2) . 27 Centre nord-américain . 29 Quelques exceptions: Trois plantes d'importance alimentaire dont la domestication n'est pas reliée à un centre d'origine précis . 31 HYPOTHESES sur les causes de l’origine du développement agricole: passage de la période du paléolithique au néolithique circa. 10 000 A.P. 31 Références . 35 ANNEXE 1 La Méthode de datation du C1. 37 La microscopie électronique à balayage . 39 Références de l’annexe 1 . 40 - 1 - CHAPITRE 1 L'origine de l'agriculture ’Homme social a commencé sa lente évolution sur la terre il y a déjà plus de 4,5 millions d'années, si l'on Laccepte que les hominidés de l'Afrique de l'Est étaient socialement mieux structurés et plus orga-nisés dans leur quête de nourriture que les singes. Certains anthropologues sont plus restrictifs dans leurs critères et pla- cent l'Homme social à une date plus récente, il y a environ 2,5 millions d'années, quand Homo habilis a dévelop- pé un langage structuré conditionné par des modifications de la structure du larynx. Entre 900 000 et 400 000 années avant le présent (A.P.), les groupes humains avaient maîtrisé et uti-lisé le feu dans diverses régions du monde pour se réchauffer, pour se protéger et, peut-être, ont-t-ils aussi commencé à l'utiliser pour y cuire leurs aliments. L'Homme moderne (Homo sapiens sapiens ) fait son apparition il y a environ 100 000 ans, mais l'a- griculture, comprenant la culture des plantes et leurs modifications par ce processus ainsi que la domestication des animaux, ne fait son apparition qu'il y 10 000 ans. Si l'on se rapporte à une échelle relative correspondant à une année complète, le développement de l'agriculture par rapport à la première apparition de l'Homme social, il y a 2,5 millions d'années (ce qui équivaut à minuit et une fraction de seconde le 1er janvier), ne serait apparu que le 30 décembre vers 17h00 ( Figure 1). Des quelque 83 milliards d'humains qui se sont succédés au cours des générations depuis l'origine de l'Homme, près de 90 % ont vécu de la Calendrier de l'aventure humaine cueillette, de la chasse et de la pêche alors que, moins de 6 % se sont prévalus de l'a- 3 griculture et environ 5 % ont été impliqués 2 dans les sociétés industrielles développées o erectus Hom au cours des deux derniers siècles. La -1 250 0 -1 460 000 0 quête de nourriture par le biais de la cueil- -1 668 000 lette, de la chasse et de la pêche des 00 -1 881 000 -1 045 00 ressources naturelles, a donc été une activ- -836 000 ité qui a permis aux humains d'évoluer en -2 085 00 Juin -628 000 s Mai i l A bre i vril société pendant plus de 99,8 % de la péri- 0 Juillet b -416 000 Août a Mars 4 h -2 2 ode couverte par sa présence sur la terre. 92 000 Septem o Février Octobre -208 000 5 m Novembre 6 D'un point de vue temporel, ce mode de vie o Janvier bre 7 H Décem 1 8 a été celui qui a persisté le plus longtemps -2 500 000 ans 1998 sur la terre. Ce mode de subsistance a per- 1 1er janvier à 0 heure: apparition d'Home habilis, campement de base, premiers outils, langage articulé 2 12 mai à 9h30 : Home erectus en Afrique mis aux humains d'accumuler une expéri- 3 25 juin à 5 heures: Home erectus arrive en Europe et en Asie 4 14 décembre à midi: apparition de l'Homme de Néandertal et des Homo sapiens archaïques ence accrue sur des nombreuses 5 18 décembre à 20h30: l'Homme enterre ses morts 6 26 décembre à 22h30: apparition de l'Homme de Cro-Magnon, l'Homme invente l'Art ressources alimentaires de leur milieu et de 7 30 décembre à 17 heures: sédentarisation, élevage, agriculture 8 31 décembre à 3h: invention de la métallurgie devenir d'excellents cueilleurs, chasseurs à 10 h: invention de l'ériture et pêcheurs pour exploiter de façon effi- à 23h55: conquête de la Lune cace les nombreuses ressources offertes à eux. La survie et le bien être de ces populations dépendaient des sources de nourriture et celles-ci n'étaient pas constantes au cours des saisons, particulièrement en dehors des régions tropicales. Ceci obligeait les groupes humains à se déplacer à la recherche de nourriture. Tous les experts s'accordent sur le fait que les populations humaines de la période pré-agricole étaient nomades ou, dans les meilleures conditions environnementales, semi-nomades. Les populations consistaient en un nombre restreint d'individus et leurs croissances étaient con- trôlées par les ressources alimentaires des régions qu'elles occupaient. Les maladies et les épisodes de malnu- trition pendant les périodes défavorables contribuaient à réduire la taille de ces populations, parfois aidé par un contrôle intentionnel tel que l'infanticide ou l'abandon des individus blessés, malades ou plus âgés. Jusqu'à la fin du 19ème siècle, la plupart des "experts" suggéraient que ces peuples pré-agricoles étaient constam- ment affamés et à la recherche de nourriture. Implicitement, l'on considérait que ces peuples primitifs avaient - 2 - peu de possibilités pour développer des activités sociales (et culturelles) qui n'étaient pas directement reliées à leur quête alimentaire et à leur survie. L'on estimait aussi que leur alimentation était pauvre et débalancée et que les individus souffraient de carences nutritives qui réduisaient leur potentiel de survie et de développement social et culturel. Cette vision de ce que devait être la vie des populations humaines de la période pré-agricole a été profondément modifiée à la suite d'études anthropologiques effectuées sur certaines populations nomades non-agricoles qui subsistaient, encore au 20ème siècle, de la cueillette, de la chasse et de la pêche. De plus, les découvertes archéologiques récentes de sites et de grottes occupées par l'homme au cours de périodes datées entre 12 000 et au-delà de 50 000 années A.P. (avant le présent) suggèrent des activités sociales et culturelles qui sont incompatibles avec une vision restrictive et stéréotypée de la vie et du développement socioculturel des sociétés pré-agricoles du paléolithique. Les découvertes des peintures rupestres élaborées dans les grottes de Lascaux dans le sud de la France en 1942 et plus récemment, celles de Cosquer et Chauvet, suggèrent une société pré-agricole où les activités artistiques et culturelles avaient une place importante. Ces peintures sont datées de 18 000 à 34 000 années A.P. et déno- tent une sensibilité artistique qui n'aurait pu être développée par des individus d'un groupe humain contraint à répondre constamment à des besoins primaires ou étant exempts de périodes de loisirs. La présence de sta- tuettes de fertilité et des signes de rituels nécrologiques complexes tels qu'observés dans des sites d'occupation humaine remontant à 55 000 années A.P. en Europe centrale et en Asie mineure indique l'existence de groupes humains possédant des activités socioculturelles bien structurées. Bien qu'il soit impossible de connaître le nombre exact d'humains habitant la surface de la terre juste avant l'avènement de l'agriculture il y 10 000 ans, celle ci a été estimée à environ 10 millions d'habitants. Au début de l'ère chrétienne, les fermiers avaient probablement utilisé la moitié des terres agricoles des régions habitées et à l'époque de la découverte de l'Amérique la surface terrestre habitée par les peuples non-agricoles avait dimi- nué dramatiquement et était réduite aux régions trop arides, froides ou humides pour permettre l'agriculture. Vers le début du 17ème siècle, quand la population humaine eut atteint les 350 millions, les cueilleurs-chasseurs, estimés à environ 750 000 individus, occupaient encore la totalité du continent australien, la plupart de l'Ouest de l'Amérique du Nord et certaines régions de l'Amérique centrale et du sud, de l'Afrique, du sud-est de l'Asie et de l'Océanie. Au début du 20ème siècle, période à laquelle les ethnographes ont commencé à s'intéresser aux peuples "primitifs", la population mondiale atteignait les 3 milliards d'habitants et les individus vivant encore de la cueillette et de la chasse représentaient moins de 0.001% de la population, soit environ 20-30 000 individus. En 2001, il n'existe plus que quelques populations isolées dans certaines régions équatoriales de l'Amérique du Sud, du sud de l'Asie et de l'Arctique, mais celles-ci ont vu au cours des trois dernières décennies leur mode de vie fortement influencée par les populations agricoles avoisinantes qui ont envahi leur territoire suite aux pres- sions démographiques locales. Dans le cas des populations de l'Arctique (Lapons, Inuits et Eskimos) leur mode de vie a été modifié par l'action des gouvernements qui ont eu tendance à regrouper les populations nomades dans des villages et les soumettre à un mode de vie sédentaire.
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