EAS--301 Translation Study.Pdf

Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth, Pune

Chancellor : Hon. Mr. Vishwanath Palshikar

(Retd.) Chief Justice, High Court, Bombay

Vice Chancellor : Hon. Dr Deepak J. Tilak

Coordinator : Neelima Kulkarni

Course Writer : Vishnu Abhyankar

Publisher:

Registrar,

Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth

Gultekadi, Pune – 37.

Phone: 24261856/24264699

First Edition: 2016

Copies: 2000

Printer:

Kesari Press,

568, Narayan Peth Tilak Wada, Pune-30

Phone- 24459051/24459250

Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth, Pune

Translation Study (EAS 301)

Semester III: Translation Study (Theory) (EAS-301)

Semester IV: Project Writing – (Project Topics and Guidelines) (EP 401)

M.A. English (Part- II)

Translation Study (Theory) (EAS- 301)

Objectives:

• To introduce the students to the concept of translation and with the terminologies associated with translation activity. • To enable the students to supplement their basic linguistic and cultural competences with translation skills and knowledge in translation studies. • To enable the pupil to prepare written, verbal, or multimedia texts from a written, verbal, or multimedia template that fulfils the defined goal in the target language or culture. • To develop practical translation skills to a high level whilst integrating practical with professional and theoretical insights.

Syllabus:

Chapter I: Translation-Nature and Terminology

1.1 Historical perspective

1.2 Developments

1.3 Terminology

Chapter II: Scope and Importance of Translation

2.1 Theories of Translation Studies

2.3 Changing Scope of Translations

Chapter III: Translation- Art, Science or Expression

3.1 Translation as an Art

3.2 Translation as a Science

3.3 Translation as an Expression

3.4 Reconciliation

Chapter IV: Types of Translation 4.1 Dryden’s categories

4.2 Roman Jakobson’s types

4.3 Some other types of translation

Chapter V: Spoken form- translation 5.1 Spoken language

Chapter VI: Applications of Translation in Various Fields 6.1 Fields of Application Chapter VII: Appropriateness and Quality of Translation 7.1 Appropriateness and Quality of translation Chapter VIII: Process of Translation 8.1 Dolet’s five ‘principles’

8.3 Tyler’s three ‘laws’ or ‘rules’

8.4 Hillarie Belloc’s six general ‘rules’ for the translators of prose text

Chapter IX: Sources and Aids

9.1 Dictionaries, Glossaries, and Encyclopedia

Chapter X: Transliterations 10.1 Transliterations

Chapter X: Translation and Linguistics

11.1 Translation and Linguistics

Preface

Dear Students,

We are happy about the fact that we have reached important milestone while handing over to you the study material of M.A. (English) Part II. Honestly speaking, it is a challenging task to prepare the study material for post graduation course.

From the set of objectives set for redesigning of the syllabus. The objectives will be achieved through the papers assigned for Part II are here under:

U To enable the student to understand the literature and develop interest in it. U To enable the student to read and appreciate the literary text. U To acquaint the student with major trends in English literature in English literature through a detailed study of specific literary texts. U To enable the student to understand and appreciate the various forms of literature (i.e. Drama, Poetry, Fiction) U To inculcate amongst the student the values of identity, self-esteem, liberty by introducing the most richest and prosperous literature. U To explain the student the value of life, philosophy of life with the help of literature. U To inculcate interest and vision amongst the student for research in order to understand the place of research in literature. U To comprehend the directions in research in literature. U To study research methodology in order to carry out research in systematic manner.

Keeping the above objectives in mind you have studied India’s Struggle for Freedom, Political, Social and Economic Ethos in Modern India. You enjoyed and appreciated English Drama and Fiction. You have also studied linguistic analysis like phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics and stylistics in detail in the Structure of Modern English. Indian poets and their philosophy have been studied in Indian literature in English as per choice based credit system in the first year of M.A (I Semester & II Semester). In the second year of M.A (III & IV Semester) you will be studying Literary Criticism, steps and critical texts evaluation, in English Poetry (Semester III) you will be studying Traditional Poets and

in Semester IV Rebellious Poets will be studied. Indian Verses will be studied in Indian Literature in English (Semester III) and Indian Prose Works in (Semester IV). According to the rules of University Grant Commission with respect to choice based credit system for the third and fourth semester elective subjects have been introduced such as, Translation Study, Introduction to Journalism, English Language and Literature Teaching and Research Methodology. Out of these four a student has to select one subject and on the same subject a student has to write and submit a project in the IV Semester.

Dear students, marks are important, no doubt; but achieving the above stated objectives are much more important than marks.

We take this opportunity to express our sincere gratitude towards Hon. Vice Chancellor Dr. Deepak Tilak, then Hon. Dean –Faculty of Distance Education for their constant support and guidance in this regard.

We are much indebted to Prof. Vishnu Abhyankar for developing the course material. We wish you all the best luck!

Head,

The Department of Distance Education

About the Subject

Dear Students,

Last year you have studied literature. This year, keeping in mind the need of translation study in literature and in general and according to UGC norms our university has included Translation Study as an ability skill enhancement subject.

Following are the main objectives:

1. To develop interest amongst students in order to promote translation in literature. 2. To give critical yet balanced survey of select trends and contributions to translation study.

Students of M.A. part II will study basics of translation. In the third semester students will be having examination and submission of home assignment. Students are asked to refer question bank for writing university examination paper. Studying translation study at M.A. level will be beneficial for you in your career as a translator, literature translator. The subject Translation Study has got a huge importance in almost every field. Translation Study may sound little obscure but if studied properly it is the easiest one to understand.

Semester Four will be based on project that carries 100 marks. The questions are given in the book and out of 10 a student is supposed to select one question and prepare a translation project. A translation project should be of 50 to 70 pages, handwritten, spiral bound and to be submitted to the department.

Wish you all the very best luck!!!!

CONTENTS

Section I

Chapter Page Unit Number Number

01 Translation-Nature and Terminology 02 02 Translation-Scope and importance 09 03 Translation- Art, Science or Expression 14 04 Types of Translation 20 05 Spoken form- translation 25

06 Applications in different fields 28 07 Appropriateness and Quality of translation 33 08 Process of translation 38 09 Sources and aids 41 10 Transliterations 45 11 Translation and Linguistics 48 12 Translation and Forms of Literature 53 13 Translation and Structure 58 14 Translation and Meaning 61 15 Translation of Social and Cultural Subjects 65 16 Translation of Creative / Literary Works 69 17 Translation and Trade, Commerce and Banking Sector 72 18 Translation of Scientific World 75 19 Computer and Machine Translation 78 20 Translating Phrases and Idioms 82 21 Translation and Figures of Speech 85 22 Poetry Translation 89 23 Drama Translation 93 24 Translation and Styles 96 25 Translation, Interpretation and Criticism 99

26 Question Bank 101 27 Reference Books 104

Section II

Page Sr. No Name of the Contents Number

01 General Guidelines for the Project 105

02 Project wise Guidelines 106

Instructions about the Subject

Translation study is related to the study of the phenomena and theory of translation. Dr Johnson says ‘translation involves the process of change into another language, relating to sense’. By nature it is multilingual and interdisciplinary. It borrows on many languages, linguistics, communication studies, philosophy and a wide range of cultural subjects. Because of this diversity it offers a difficulty and a challenge at the same.

This paper aims at practical introduction to the field. An attempt is made to give critical yet balanced survey of select trends and contributions to translation study as an introductory course material. Students are encouraged to further exploration and take a call on translation issues. The aim is to enable the reader to develop their understanding and begin to apply the models themselves.

The Theories and models are chosen on the basis of their strong following. Exclusion of much worthy materials is due to the scope and other constrains limiting a distance mode. A comprehensive bibliography is added at the end of the book.

A major issue has been the choice of languages for the texts used in illustrative case studies. There are examples or texts from English, Hindi and Marathi. The focus is on theoretical issues.

English is not, and thus cannot convincingly be referred to as a part of our heritage. Yet is not this in itself a challenge? We have adopted English as administrative language to conduct state affairs. We use it as a medium of instruction at higher level of education. We are global citizen. We accept principle of unity in diversity in our national policy. Many of our leaders in politics and literature are not only bilingual but polyglots. As Prof. U.R. Anantamurty opined, in modern times, we need two eyes, global and local focussed at the same situation in order to get all dimensions. We have plenty of examples of great personalities who were educated in English, often taught English, wrote critical essays in English; but when it came to express their creative urge, used their native tongues. Harivansh Ray Bacchan, VindaKarandikar, A.K. Ramanujam, Dr. Raghupati Sahay a.k.a. Foraq Gorakhpuri; the list is endless. No doubt their illustrious works are enough to prove the need and importance of using multiple languages with ease and competence.

Please do not treat these study notes as the last word on the subject. These are points to ponder.

Chapter 1

Translation-Nature and Terminology

1.1 Objectives 1.2 Historical Perspective 1.3 Developments 1.4 Terminology 1.5 Check your progress 1.6 Summary

1.7Answers to check your progress

1.1 Objectives

We will discuss in broad perspective the nature of subject. We shall try to find the academic, intellectual, social, political, and cultural reasons that influenced such study since long time. We will get familiar with terminology. We explore its relation with other branches of knowledge.

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

(a) Describe the origin of translation study (b) Discuss the development of discipline (c) Use the terminology associated within

1.2 Historical Perspective

Throughout the History, written and spoken translations have played a crucial role in human communications. They provide access to important texts for scholarship and religious purposes.

The practice of translation was discussed by Cicero and Horace in the first century BCE. We observe Cicero’s made a telling comment which valid even today. He said ‘If I render word for word, the result will be sound unclothe, and if compelled by necessity I alter anything in order or wording I shall seem to have departed from the function of a translator.’ St. Jerome’s approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin affected later translation of scriptures. Translation of Bible in English, well known Authorised Version by King James II created political and religious storm. Special reference is made here to Book No.39 of Old Testament which obviously is Hebrew poetry. Enough Literary evidence is available in terms of characteristics such as accentual, discursive, reiterative and rather elaborate arrangement. The English Poetry of that age had, in contrast, compact and les repetitive and more precision. During

Reformation in the sixteenth century translation of Bible was the battle ground of conflicting ideologies in Western Europe. The practice of translation was discussed by Cicero and Horace in the first century BCE. We observe Cicero’s comment is valid even today. He said ‘If I render word for word, the result will be sound unclothe, and if compelled by necessity I alter anything in order or wording I shall seem to have departed from the function of a translator.’ St. Jerome’s approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin affected later translation of scriptures. Translation of Bible in English, well known Authorised Version by King James II created political and religious storm. Special reference is made here to Book No.39 of Old Testament which obviously is Hebrew poetry. Enough Literary evidence is available in terms of characteristics such as accentual, discursive, reiterative and rather elaborate arrangement. The English Poetry of that age had, in contrast, compact and les repetitive and more precision. During Reformation in the sixteenth century translation of Bible was the battle ground of conflicting ideologies in Western Europe.

In Ancient Vedic literature had beginning in oral tradition. Art of writing and art printing came into being much latter. Presently we use two words Bhashantar and anuvad in Marathi/Hindi as synonyms. However, it is interesting to note there in no such a word as Bhashantar in Sanskrit language. The meaning of word Anuvad according to Molsworth’s Dictonary is ‘repeating another’s speech or one’s own, tautology. Apte’s Sanskrit Dictionary says ‘Repetition, repletion by way of expiation, illustration or corroboration, explanatory repetition or reference to what is already mentioned such as paraphrase or free translation.’ In Vedic literature often, instructions are given to do certain action. These are called Vidhivakya. Anuvada are explanations of, or elaborations of Vidhivakya. The detailed notes acquire special significance while performing Yadnyas (sacrifice).

Date of creation of Vedas is debatable. It is now a day generally believed to be B.C.2500. Many treatise followed Vedas such abbreviations, criticism and interpretation. These were written in latter versions of Sanskrit. Saint Dnyaneshwar wrote criticism of Geeta in Marathi. Goswmai Tulasidas wrote Ramayan in Awadhi-Hindi. In a broader sense these may be classified as Anuvada.

If we consider Classical Sanskrit as a form different than Vedic Sanskrit; we will have to classify Sayanacharya’s Criticism as Anuvada using same language. We observe in classical Sanskrit drama come characters speak Sanskrit while others, generally those at lower social strata speak in prakrit. Even in one family they speak in different languages. In case we consider these languages as stages of development, we have to call them Anuvada. Perhaps, most Marathi speakers have stopped making difference and we accept Bhashntar has same meaning as Anuvad.

Word Anuvadis has the verb Vada in its root form, and meaning is to speak or tell. Thus we see Anuvad is much more than what ‘Bhashantar’ conveys. It is possible to translate an odl Marathi book into modern Marathi. It could also mean that Dyaneshwari is the translation of Srimad Bhagavad Geeta into Marathi. Commentaries, Criticism, retelling in new way are all called ‘Bhashantar’. It is possible that poetry is translated in prose form. In Nineteenth century Hansarajswmi wrote a commentary on Dnyaneshwari in poetic form, while Vinda Karndikar rewrote the same in modern Marathi. Hansarajswmi wants to put the philosophy in simple language so as to make it comprehensible to common Marathi man. Vinda on the other hand wants to retain poetic beauty and present it to modern man.

Ancient language Sanskrit depended largely on oral traditions. Art of writing evolved much later. In Rigveda (2.13.3) the word appeas in the sense ‘something said after.’ We have Sayanacharya’s commentary on Rigveda, and ‘ rochanadadhi ‘ (8.1.18) classical language is used. Hence it is Anuvad. In the sense of repetition also it is Anuvad. ‘Anuvad’ appears in Aitarey Brahman (2.15) Tandya Brahman (15.5.17) and Brihadar any kopanishd. Yask in Nirukta uses a term Kalanuvadpritya (12.13), also at (1.16) with the same meaning. Panini’s commentator Kayyak explains (2.4.3) Anuvad as something cognised after affirming means of cognition and restating it. Mimansa categorises of Anuvad as Bhutarthanuvad, Satyarthanuvad and Gunanuvad. Nyayasutra (2.1.62) makes distinction of sentences into Vidhi, Arthavad and Anuvad. Nyayasutra (2.1.66) does not does not make such distinction. Bhrtruhari (2.1.15), JaiminiNyayamala (1.4.6) and Kulluk Bhatt in his commentary on Manusmrti (4.124) all use the term as repetition. Examples of Sanskrit dramas are available in which certain characters, secondary in social status use Prakrit. Often we see King’s wife speaks in Prakrit with servant but she speaks in chaste Sanskrit with King and noblemen. In text both versions are available. This practice was called Chhaya (shadow). From Fourteen century onwards translations of books on Astrology, Medicine, and Ethics were made in large number. Sometimes these were called ‘Bhasha Teeka’. Here Bhasha means popular language Hindi and Teeka means Translation. In Marathi, Gujrati, Asami, Oriya, Panjabi and Telagu; tradition of translation of Sanskrit was taken up great ferver. Art 0f Printing made it possible.

In Greece, practice of translation was discussed by Cicero and Horace in the first century BCE. We observe Cicero’s made a telling comment which valid even today. He said ‘If I render word for word, the result will be sound unclothe, and if compelled by necessity I alter anything in order or wording I shall seem to have departed from the function of a translator.’ St. Jerome’s approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin affected later translation of scriptures. Translation of Bible in English, well known Authorised Version by King James II created political and religious storm. Special reference is made here to Book No.39 of Old Testament which obviously is Hebrew poetry. Enough Literary evidence is available in terms of characteristics such as accentual, discursive, reiterative and rather elaborate arrangement. The English Poetry of that age had, in contrast, compact and les repetitive and more precision. During

Reformation in the sixteenth century translation of Bible was the battle ground of conflicting ideologies in Western Europe.

1.3 Developments

From the late eighteenth century till middle of twentieth, language learning in many countries including India was dominated by what was known as the grammar-translation method. This method was applied to Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Pali, Ardhamagadhi and then to modern foreign languages. It was thought fit to teach grammatical rules and structure. These rules were both practiced and tested by the translation of a series of usually unconnected and artificially constructed sentences. This approach persists even now in many countries and contexts. This may partly explain why academia considered it to be of secondary nature. The method fell into disrepute.

Direct method or communicative approach to English gave rise to stress on student’s natural capacity to learn language. Attempts to replicate authentic learning were done with. It written form often gave preference to spoken form rather than initiating a tendency to shun the use of the student’s mother tongue.

Running parallel to this approach was that of comparative literature. In U.S.A. another area in which translation analysis method became subject of research. This was study of two languages in contrast in an attempt to general and specific differences between them.

Jean-Paul Vinay produced Stylistique compare du François et de l’anglis (1958). It examined the practice of translating between French and German.

Alfred Malblanc (1963) did the same for translation between English and German.

George Mounin examined the linguistic issues of translation.

Chomsky’s work dealt with theoretical aspect; which were initially designed to be practical manuals for Bible translator.

The study of translation as an academic subject has only really begun in past fifty years. First serious Dutch-American scholar James S. Holmes wrote a paper in 1972 which was widely accepted. Mary Snell-Hornby in first edition of her Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach, appealed that ‘the demand that translation studies should be viewed as in independent discipline. Mona Baker brought out The Encyclopedia of Translation (1997). Scholars from a wide variety of disciplines joined in. In the twenty-first century, the discipline of translation studies continues to develop from strength to strength across the globe. Over 250 university-level bodies in more than sixty countries offer graduate, post graduate courses in translation. In India, Jadabpur University, Kolkatta was the first to offer such a course, and Indira Gandhi National Open

University offers the same by distant learning mode. In addition, various translation events are held in India by Government bodies and universities. Popular publication houses are finding it to be a potentially fast growth area. For years, the practice of translation was considered to be derivative and secondary. This attitude devalued any academic study of the activity. Very often it is denied parity with other subjects.

1.4 Terminology

Let us observe the definitions of translation.

Nida: Translation consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.

Cattord: The replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language.

Foresten: Translation is the transference of the content of a text from one language into another, bearing in mind that we cannot always dissociate the content from the form.

Until second half of the twentieth century, translation theory debated over ‘liberal’, ‘free’ and ‘faithful’ translation. This distinction between ‘word-for- word’ (i.e. ‘literal) and ‘sense-for- sense’ (i.e. free) translation goes back to Cicero. The disparagement of word-for-word translation by Cicero and Horace, who, in short but famous passage from his Ars Poetica, underlines the goal of producing an aesthetically pleasing and creative text. The most famous statement of St. Jerome was as follows. “Now I not only admit but freely announce that in translating from the Greek-except of course in the case of the Holy Scriptures, where even the syntax contains a mystery- I render nr word-for-word, but sense-for sense”. This sentence is taken to be clearest expression of the ‘liberal’ and ‘free’ poles in translation.

The same type of concern seems to have occurred in other rich and ancient translation traditions such as in China and in the Arab word. Hung and Pollard discuss the history of Chinese translations of Buddhist sutras from Sanskrit (C.148-265). There was intense translation activity in the Abbasaid period (750-1250). The word-for-word method seemed to be unsuccessful and had to be revised. Two cultures were different. Arab translation became very creative in supplying instructive and explanatory commentaries and notes.

Non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church. Martin Luther’s crucially influential translation into East Middle German of the New Testament (1522) and later the Old Testament (1534) played a pivotal role in the Reformation. From that time onwards, the language of the ordinary Germans speaks clear and strong. It is easy to see how the concept of fidelity had been dismissed as literal as literal word-for-word translation by Horace. In seventeenth century fidelity really came to be identified with faithfulness to the meaning rather than the words of author. Kelly describes spirit as similarly

having two meaning: the Latin word spiritus denotes creative energy or inspiration. St. Augustine used it to mean the Holy Spirit. For St. Augustine, spirit and truth (veritas) were intervined.

John Dryden’s (1680) description of translation process had enormous impact on subsequent translation theory and practice. He reduced all translations to three categories: 1 ‘metaphrase’: ‘word-by word and line by line’ translation, which corresponds to literal translation:

1 ‘paraphrase’ : ‘translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not strictly to be followed as his sense’; this involves changing whole phrases and more or less corresponds to faithful or sense-for-sense translation; 2 ‘Imitation’: forsaking both words and sense; this corresponds to Cowley’s very free translation.

Dryden criticises translators such as Ben Jonson, who adopts metaphrase. Similarly Dryden rejects imitation, where the translator uses the ST ‘as a pattern to write as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country. In Dryden’s view imitation allows the translator to become more visible, but does the greatest wrong….to the memory and reputation of dead. Dryden thus prefers paraphrase, advising that metaphrase and imitation should be avoided.

1.5 Check your progress.

(a)Who influence Reformation by translation into native tongue?

(b) What was the prime concern of Noam Chomsky?

(d) Fill in the blanks

(i) St. Jerome’s approach to translating the ….. Septuagint Bible into …… affected later translation of scriptures.

(ii) In Greece, practice of translation was discussed by …… and …… in the first century BCE.

1.6 Summary:

Translations were made and theories about translations were proposed from Cicero and Horace’s time. Early theories dealt with translators difficulties. Merits and demerits of word-for –word and sense –for sense were discussed in many places at different times. Controversy over the

translation of the Bible was at its peak during Reformation. China, Arabia and India had gone through the same. However, Translation Study as an academic subject gained its due share only since the middle of Twentieth century. Faster means of communication and the concept of Global village have thrown open new opportunities and challenges. Dr Ganesh Devi, an eminent linguist recently opined that in next century we are destined to lose many languages. Summing up we may say:

Translator should give complete transcript of idea of an original work. The style and manner of writing should be of same character with that of original work. The translation should have all the ease of the original composition

Peter Newmark in his work ‘The theory and practice of translation’ opines that each act of translation involves some loss of the original meaning, this ‘basic loss of meaning is on a continuum between overtranslation and undertranslation.

1.7 Answers to check your progress

(a) Martin Luther’s translations influenced Restoration deeply.

(b) Noam Chomsky’s work dealt manly with grammar as an aid to help translators of Bible.

(c) Dryden preferred paraphrase and rejected metaphrase and imitation. d) (i) St. Jerome’s approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin affected later translation of scriptures.

(ii) In Greece, practice of translation was discussed by Cicero and Horace in the first century BCE.

Chapter 2

Scope and Importance of Translation

2.1 Objectives

2.2 Theories of Translation Studies

2.3 Changing Scope of Translations

2.4 Check your Progress

2.5 Summary

2.6 Answers to check your progress

2.1 Objective:

In this chapter we shall consider how theories and practices went ahead hand in hand to change the scope of translations. We shall note how the translator’s ideas about the nature of their work and the requirements of changing situations changed the scope of work. It was searching thoroughly new ground and bridging the gap between the vast area of stylistics, literary history, linguistics, semiotics and aesthetics. But at the same time it is necessary to remember that as a discipline it is firmly rooted in practical applications. The concept of translation has acquired a new dimension in twentieth century- particularly in dealing with New Critics, Saussure, Levi- Strauss, Chomsky, Ronald Barthes, Derrida and Foucault. We have kept them aside as in our view the depth is purely out of scope of the consideration of a distance mode of learning.

After reading this chapter you will be able to:

(i) To describe various Theories of Translations (ii) To discuss the changing Scope of Translations

2.2 Theories of Translation Studies

In his famous Preface to Ovid’s Epistle Dryden formulated three categories. Please recall the first chapter. Dryden says that for translating poetry, the translator should be a poet, should be a master of both the languages, and should comprehend the ‘spirit’ of the original writer and conform to the aesthetic laws of his own age. He compares the translator with the portrait- painter; maintain that the duty of the painter is to make his portrait resemble the original. Metaphysical poet Alexander Pope spoke of the same moderate path. His emphasis was on details of style and manner while trying to keep alive the ‘fire’ of poem. The history of

translation from the translation of the Bible from Wycliffe to the Authorised version to Dryden and Pope belies view that translation is subsidiary and derivative.

The motive to make clear the essential ‘spirit’ of a text led to a number of re-writing of earlier texts to make them suitable to contemporary criteria of language and taste. So the texts of Shakespeare were re-structured and the works of Racine were translated. Dr Johnson analysing the question of additions to text through translations, remarks that if elegance is gained, and nothing is taken away, then it is desirable and further states that ‘the purpose of the writer is to be read.’

The eighteenth century comparison of the between the text and with painter or imitator with his moral duty both to the original subject and to the receiver was well-known. But it had undergone a series of important alterations as the search to codify and describe the modes if literary creation changed. Goethe (undoubtedly the greatest German literary figure) remarks that every literature must pass through three modes of translation, although all the modes may be found taking place within the same language system at the same time. The first phase makes us familiar ‘with foreign countries on our own terms’. The second phase makes the translator absorb the sense of foreign work but reproduces it in his words. The aim of the third phase is perfect identity the text of SL and the text of TL. Performing of this phase is through the creation of a new ‘manner’ which melts the uniqueness of the original with a new form and structure. This mode regarded as the highest by Goethe.

Towards the close of the eighteenth century, Alexander Fraser Tytler published The Principles of Translation (1791). He stated three basic principles:

(i)The translation should give a complete transcript of the idea of the original work

(ii)The style and the manner writing should be of the same character with that of the original work

(iii)The translation should have all the ease of the original composition

Schlegel imagined of translation as a class of thought rather than as an activity concerned with language and literature. Emphasis on the effect of translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a change of interest away from the actual methods of translation. Moreover, two conflicting attitudes can be seen in the early part of nineteenth century. G.N. Devy observes: “while the Renaissance translations were attempts to raise the status of the translator’s culture, the Romantic translations were aimed at raising the culture status of the works translated”. During the Renaissance, in Europe, translation formed logic of relation between past and present, and between different tongues and traditions, which were divided under pressure of nationalism and religious conflicts. The role of translation had changed by the mid-seventeenth century. Denham speaks in favour of a nation that perceives translator and original writer as equal though they work in clearly distinct social and temporal context.

Matthew Arnold advises the common reader to trust the scholars, for they alone can tell whether the translation produces more or less the same impact as the original. Arnold is of the opinion that the primary duty of the translator is to focus on the text of the source language, so that he can serve that with complete commitment. With hardening of the nationalistic lines and the growth of national culture’s pride, French, English or German translator s, for instance no longer viewed translations as an elementary way of enriching their own culture. If translation was seen as an instrument, as a way of bringing the reader of the target language to the text of the source language, then the excellence of style and the ability of the translator to write were of less significance.

H.W. Longfellow added another dimension to translation by outlining the business of a translator. ‘The business of a translator is to report what the author says, not to explain what he means; that is the work of a commentator. What the author says and how he says it that is the problem of a translator. According to this point of view, the translator is consigned to the position of a technician, neither poet nor commentator, with a defined but limited task.

Contrasting with the views of Longfellow, Edward Fitzgerald stated that a text must live at all cost with a transfusion of one’s own worst life if one cannot maintain the better of the original. The work of Edward does not try to lead the reader of the target language. It tries to bring a version of the text of the source into the culture of the target language as a lining entity. The patronizing attitude demonstrates a form of ‘elitism’. According to Romantic individualistic tradition, the translator is seen as a skilful trader giving exotic wares to the discerning few.

The colonialism of Britishers created a conflict in Indian cultural priorities. This dichotomy was evident ever since Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s letter to Lord Amherst. A desire for westernization was produced. It also produced an inclination to awaken the culture of the past, much of it left behind in the natural course of time. Remember Vishnu shastri Chiplunkar called English ‘milk of tigress.’ These three inclinations-“Westernization”, “Revivalism”, and “Nationalism”- are suitably expressed in the translations of the colonial period in India. There is a difference between the medieval translations from Sanskrit and translations of the colonial period. The aim of the medieval translations was to bring back the glory and knowledge of the past and to rejuvenate the society, whereas the translations of the colonial period were reactionary. They came either as a reaction to the colonial situation which shocked the Indian pride, or as copies of the Indological translations of Sanskrit by scholars like Sir William Jones, Max Muller, Pt. Vasudeo shastri Abhyankar etc. During the freedom struggle interlingual exchange within Indian languages increased. At present it has become a status symbol for the Indian writers to translate their works into English.

2.3 Changing Scope of Translations

Traditional translation theorists divided translation into two types: literary and non-literary. In literary translation (i.e., the translation of literature) the translators were concerned with both

‘sense’ and style. But in the non-literary translation the emphasis was on sense. It was meant not to be ‘word-for-word’ translation but ‘sense-for-sense’ translation. Both offer tremendous scope at present times.

Modern age is an Age of Translations. Faster means of transport and communication has transformed the human life to the extent we call ourselves Global citizens. Information technology and boundary of Science and Technology have not only made comfortable but it seems there will be effect on all activities of man. To catch up with fast developing world it is required to know all languages responsible for this phenomenon. But this task is impossible. Translation appears to be a way out. No nation or society can keep itself isolated and still be able to participate in human development. On one hand one has to hold on to rich tradition and culture, and yet participate in human development. International relations, scientific development, Literary and Cultural participation are all possible through proper understanding and active participation in the art and science of Translations.

2.4 Check your progress

(a) Who wrote The Principles of Translation?

(b) Fill in the blank:In his famous Preface to Ovid’s Epistle ………… formulated three categories.

(d) Match the pairs

Group A Group B

Dryden German Poet

Alexander Pope Ovid’s Epistle

Wycliffe metaphysical poet

Goethe translation of Bible in English

2.5 Summary

In conclusion we say that in the second half of the twentieth century, globally translations are taken seriously-as an art, a craft and above all as necessity. The scope of translation is widening with each generation. New literary theories of Translation get modified. With revolutionary changes in means of communication, translational theories are positively and speedily responding to changed scenario. Mechanical/Electronic devices are taking up the issues with due

21 share in both hardware and software of Translation Study. Scientists, Modern mathematics in particular has willing joined hands in this development.

2.6 Answers to check your progress

(a)Alexander Fraser Tytler wrote The Principles of translation in 1791.

(b) Fill in the blanks in his famous Preface to Ovid’s Epistle Dryden formulated three categories.

(d) Group A Group B

Dryden Ovid’s Epistle

Alexander Pope metaphysical poet

Wycliffe translation of Bible

Goethe German poet

Chapter 3

Translation- Art, Science or Expression

3.1 Objectives

3.2 Translation as an Art

3.3 Translation as a Science

3.4 Translation as an Expression

3.5 Reconciliation

3.6 Check your Progress 3.7Summary

3.8 Answers to check your progress

3.1 Objectives:

After the centuries of circular debates around literal and free translation, theoreticians in the 1950s and 1960s began to attempt more systematic analyses of translation. The new debate revolved around certain key linguistic issues. The most prominent of these issues were those of meaning and equivalence. In this chapter we will introduce selected major works of the time.

After going through this chapter you will be able to describe some issues related to translation in light of appropriate theory. After reading this chapter you will be able to differentiate between the complex problems clustered round translation translating in the second category.

3.2Translation as an Art:

Theodore Savory defines translation as an ‘art’, and Eric Jacobsen defines it as a ‘craft.

Edward Fitzgerald said that a text must live at all cost with a transfusion of one’s own worst life if one cannot maintain the better of the original. The work of Edward does not try to lead the reader of the target language to the original source language; instead it tries to bring a version of the text of the source language into the culture of the target language as a living entity. His somewhat extreme opinion on the lowliness of the text of the source language shows a patronising attitude that demonstrates another form of ‘elitism’. According to Romantic individualistic tradition, the translator is seen as a skilful trader giving exotic wares to the discerning few.

Susan Basinet Mc Guire classifies the main trends of translation typology in the age of industrial capitalism and colonial expansion up to the First World War in the following words:

1 Translation as a scholar’s activity, where the pre-eminence of the SL text is assumed ‘de fact’ over any TL version

2 Translation as a means of encouraging the intelligent reader to return to the SL original 3 Translation as a means of helping the TL reader become the equal of what others called the better reader of the original, through a deliberately contrived foreignness in the TL text 4 Translation as means whereby the individual translator who sees himself like Aladdin in the vaults offers his own pragmatic choice to the TL reader 5 Translation as a means through which the translator seeks to upgrade the status of the SL text because it is perceived as being on a lower cultural level

The theory and practice of translation in the first half of the twentieth century were in continuation with the Victorian idea of translation. . Ezra Pound’s work is of great significance in the history of translation. His skill as translator was suitable match to his perceptiveness as critic and theorist.

3.3 Translation as a Science:

Russian born American structuralist Roman Jakobson describes three kinds of translation: intralingual, interlingual and intersemiotic. He goes on to examine key issues of this type of translations, notably linguistic meaning and equivalence.

The questions of meaning equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in 1960 and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida.

Nida and ‘the science of translating’: His Theory was developed from his own practical work. His Theory took concrete form in two major works in 1960s: Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and the co-authored The Theory and Practice of Translation (Nida and Taber 1969). Nida’s more systematic approach borrows theoretical concepts and terminology from semantics and pragmatics and from Noam Chomsky’s work on syntactic structure which formed the theory of generative- transformational grammar. Central to Nida’s work is the move away from the old idea that an orthographic word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word ‘acquires’ meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture.

Meaning is broken down into linguistic meaning (borrowing elements of Chomsky’s model), referential meaning (the denotative ‘dictionary’ meaning) and emotive meaning (or connotative

meaning). A series of techniques, adopted from work in Linguistics, is presented as an aid for the translator in determining the meaning of different linguistic items. Techniques to determine referential and emotive meaning is to focus on analyses of the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical field. In this, hierarchical structuring differentiates series of words according to their level or degree. Componential analysis seeks to identify and discriminate specific features of a range of related words (say relationship terms). Another technique is semantic structure analysis. In this Nida separates out visually the different meanings of spirit (‘demons’, ‘angles’, ‘gods’, ‘ghosts’, ‘ethos’, ‘alcohol’, etc.). The central idea is to encourage the trainee translator to realise that the sense of a complex semantic rem is ‘conditioned’ by its context.

In general, techniques of componential analysis are proposed as a means of clarifying ambiguities, elucidating obscured passages and identifying cultural differences. They may serve as a point of comparison between different languages and cultures.

3.4 Translation as an expression:

Robert Fry was a philosopher who held a view that art is an expression of human soul. He declares that Aesthetic emotion is an emotion about form. The simplest example is from music. Musical notes, sequence, time intervals adequately fulfill our expectations. From the beginning the idea of a Formal design or a scheme is impressed on our mind. Anything that departs violently from that design would be not merely meaningless but an outrage to our sense of order and proportion. We have then an immediate recognition of formal design, of a trend in every part towards a single unity or complete thing which we call a tune.

One accumulates a vast mass of feelings about almost all sorts of objects, persons, and ideas. For greater part of mankind the associated emotions of work of art are stronger than the purely aesthetic ones. So far does this go that they hardly notice the form, but pass at once into the world of associated emotion which that form calls up in them

To satisfy emotional pleasure in the associated ideas of images which mass of mankind feel so strongly that there arises a vast production of paintings, writings, music, etc., in which formal design is entirely sub-ordinated to excitation of emotions associated with objects. We call this popular commercial or impure art. On the other hand in each generation there are likely to be a certain number of people who have sensitiveness to purely formal relations.

Great art remains stable and unobscure because of feeling awakened are independent of time and place, because its kingdom is not of this world. Of those who have and hold a sense of significance of form it does not matter where and when was it created. 3.5 Reconciliation:

Discussing the two major impediments to the development of TS as a ‘disciplinary utopia’, Holmes mentions (a) the confusion about its proper designation, and (b) the lack of general

25 consensus about the scope and structure of the emerging discipline. He is referring here to the use of the word ‘translation’ in conjunction with words such as science, art, craft, principles, philosophy-each choice of term reflecting the attitude, point of view or the secondary fashion of the time.

According to Holmes, the second and greater impediment to the growth of TS is the lack of general agreement as to the nature of the field. A cat will be kept as a pet as long as she catches rats. Theories, with their attractive and sophisticated articulation can sway us easily, thereby undermining the autonomy of the new discipline. In addition, if a discipline has to take root and grow healthy, it has to enlarge, assimilate and reconcile the old and the new in a way similar to T. S. Eliot’s model of tradition and the individual talent. Holm’s work offers a comprehensive and critical map of the interdisciplinary terrain of translation on which we may plot the various old and new approaches.

Horst Frenz goes a step ahead to accept translation as an ‘art’ but with qualification. He urges that ‘translation is neither a creative art nor an imitative art, but stands somewhere between the two. Though translation has been described differently as an art, a craft, and a science, none of these is adequate. On the other hand, each concept expresses the personal prejudice of the person who says so. Art is creative and craft is at a lower state of beauty. In a way, craft has a “lower status occupation” of amateurishness and trickery. The critics’ opinion of translation as a purely mechanistic process springs from obsession with science. The distinction between the “creative” and “mechanical” process is not right. In fact translation is more than all these art, craft and science. It is a process of analysis, interpretation and creation which leads to a replacement of one set of linguistic resource and values for another. In the process part of the original meaning may be lost but an easily identifiable core is kept intact. It is act of adjustment and compromising exercise.

In India, we have been practicing translation for a long time without giving it such a name or style. Whatever be the language our ancestors used- quite possibly these people were numerous, and it became necessary for speakers of one language to communicate with the speakers of another. Hindu scriptures were in earlier form of Sanskrit and one may claim it to be Vedic language as a distinct entity. In earliest Sharman traditions many Agamas used oldest version which we may call Prakrit. These were foundations of latter versions of Jain and Buddhism. Eventually they branched into Ardhamagadhi and Pali. Such communications were certainly not uncommon. There was a reverential or devotional aspect associated with translation. Greatest Saints have rendered their able hand in this activity.

Looking at Indian History, during the reign of Mogul emperor Akbar, Badauni laboured four years over translating Ramayana into Persian. DaraShikoh eldest son of Shah Jahan, got the Upanishads, the Bhagavatgeeta, the Yogavashishta Ramayana rendered in Persian by a team of translators. With advent of English, the context and role of translation in India changed

drastically. Summing up we observe that Translation is such an all-pervasive and all-permeating phenomenon that we have to look into it seriously enough as an object of academic enquiry.

3.6 Check your progress

(a) Name the two most important books of Eugene Nida.

(b)Who said ‘a translation is never complete, or is so only transnationally’?

(d)Match the pairs.

Group A Group B

Eugene Nida-author of Translation typology

T.S. Eliot-author of Towards a Science of Translating

McGuire-author of Tradition and Individual Talent

Language of Jain Aagam Pali

Language of Buddist Jataka Sanskrit

Language of Holy Quran Arabic

Language of Veda Ardhamagadhi-Prakrit

(e) Fill in the blanks.

(i) According to …….. Individualistic tradition, the translator is seen as a skilful trader giving exotic wares to the discerning few.

(ii) Robert Fry was a philosopher who held a view that art is an ………. of human soul.

3.7 Summary:

Summing up we observe that Translation is such an all-pervasive and all-permeating phenomenon that we have to look into it seriously enough as an object of academic enquiry. Works of SujitMukherji, Harish Trivedi, Ganesh Devi, K. AyyapaPaniker, Aijaj Ahmad are noteworthy. One cannot ignore the goldmine that exists in the form of stray articles, prefaces, interviews and reviews in journals such as Setu, Indian Literature and Literary Criterion. It is

27 important that teachers, scholars and students give value to the work done even in absence of infrastructural facilities for publishing houses.

In conclusion, a translation is never complete, or is so only transnationally. It was A. K. Ramanujan said that a translation is never finished; only abandoned. Sujit Mukherji concludes ‘let me revert to my earlier submission about there being more craft than art to translation. The truly crafty translator will know why he translates, for whom he translates, what he should translate, how much to translate and, semi-finally, when to stop. Even after such knowledge, he may still be in need of forgiveness.

The importance of translation lies in the fact that it brings the readers, writers and critics of one nation into contact with those of others not only in the field of literature alone but in all areas of development: science and medicine, philosophy and religion, politics and law, and so on.

3.8 Answers to check your progress:

(a) Nida’s two important books are Toward a Science of Translating and The Theory and Practice of Translation.

(b)This quotation is from A.K. Ramanujan.

(d) Group A Group B

Eugene Nida-author of Towards a Science of Translating

T.S. Eliot-author of Tradition and Individual Talent

McGuire-author of Translation typology

Language of Jain Aagam Ardhamagadhi-Prakrit

Language of Buddist Jataka Pali

Language of Holy Quran Arabic

Language of Veda Sanskrit

(e) (i) According to Romantic individualistic tradition, the translator is seen as a skilful trader giving exotic wares to the discerning few.

(ii) Robert Fry was a philosopher who held a view that art is an expression of human soul.

Chapter 4

Types of Translation

4.1 Objectives

4.2 Dryden’s Categories

4.3 Roman Jakobson’s Types

4.4 Some other Types of Translation

4.5 Check your progress 4.6 Summary

4.7 Answers to check your progress

4.1 Objectives:

Classification or making categories of any set of entity obviously depend on basic criteria chosen. Since theorist differed in their approach, they proposed different kinds of translation. In this chapter we will introduce a few important ones so as to appreciate different types. By doing so will help us in differentiating between and the rationale why they differ in the first place. With changing requirements of age and cultural view-point such a consequence seems inevitable.

After reading this chapter you will be able to:

(i) Discuss the rationale for various types of translations (ii) Describe the important types of translations

4.2 Dryden’s categories of translations:

2 ‘paraphrase’: ‘translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not strictly to be followed as his sense’; this involves changing whole phrases and more or less corresponds to faithful or sense-for-sense translation;

3‘Imitation’: forsaking both words and sense; this corresponds to Cowley’s very free translation.

In the translation of literature, the translator must bear in mind the basic principles of literature. The purpose of literary is not to offer any definite answers. There is a variety of approach to study a literary text. The language of literature is metaphorical. The TL text must retain the ‘feel’ of the original SL text. According to G.E. Wellworth, in literary translation, “what is required is the re-creation of a situation or cohesive semantic block in the new language in terms of cultural setting of the language”. In literary translation, the translator decodes the motive of the SL text gets reconstructed in the TL text. In literary translation the mode of displace continues. It is considered as a method of ‘avant-garde’ writing.

The non-literary translation takes place in the realm of Physical Science, Social science, Journalism, Law etc. In these disciplines a definite question has a definite answer. Here we are concerned with the meaning and not with style. Here content gets precedence over form. Therefore while translating these subjects translator is concerned with transference of meaning.

4.3 Roman Jakobson’s types:

Translation is communication. It is to be studied both as a product and a process from the semiotic point of view. Language and culture are interlinked. No literary text can be treated in isolation from the culture to which it belongs. Literature is a product of culture. Based on this, Roman Jakobson divides translation into the following types.

Intralingual translation: It is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs in the same system.

Interlingual translation or translation proper: This is interpretation of verbal signs by means of verbal signs in some other linguistic system.

Intersemiotic translation or transmutation: This is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign system.

Semiotics: At the end of the nineteenth century Pierce in his study coined the term “semiotic”. Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure brought out “Course in General Linguistics” (1915). He proposed a science that he called “Semiology.” Since then semiotics and semiology have become alternative names for the systematic study of signs, as these function in all areas of human experience. The consideration of signs (conveyors of meaning) is not limited to explicit system of communication such as language, the Morse code, and traffic signs and signals, a great diversity other human activities and productions- our bodily postures and gestures, the social rituals we perform, the kinds of clothes we wear, the meals we serve, the buildings we inhabit, the objects we deal with-convey common meaning to members who participate in a particular culture, and so can be analysed as signs which function in diverse kinds signifying systems. Although the study of language (the use of specifically verbal signs) is technically regarded as only one branch of the general science of semiotics, linguistics, the highly developed science of

language, in fact has for the most part supplied basic concepts and methods that a semiotician applies to the study of other social sign-systems.

The Intralingual translation of a word uses either another more or less synonymous word or resorts to a circumlocution (or Periphrasis). And yet synonymy, as a rule is not complete equivalence. We take an example, ‘every celibate is a bachelor, but not every bachelor is a celibate’. A word or an idiomatic phrase-word, briefly a code-unit of the highest level, may be fully interpreted only by means of an equivalent combination of code units; i.e., a message referring to this code-unit: ‘every bachelor is unmarried man, and every unmarried man is a bachelor,’ or ‘every celibate is bound not to marry, and everyone who is bound not to marry is a celibate.’

But no full equivalence is possible through translation. Jacobson rightly observes: “likewise, on the level of interlingual translation, there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units, while message may serve as adequate interpretations of alien code-units or messages.” It is common knowledge that every synonymy does not produce equivalence. Jakobson states that intralingual translation resorts to code units to interpret the meaning of a single unit. So ‘perfect’ may be taken as the synonym for ‘ideal,’ similarly ‘moksha’ may be synonym for ‘mukti’ or ‘nirvan’ or ‘liberation’, but in neither case it would be complete equivalance. Simple word Roti in this sense is not a Nan or Poli or Chapati. Each unit contains with itself a set of non- transferable association and connotation. Hence Jakobson maintains that all poetic art is technically untranslatable as complete equivalence is not possible in any of his types.

4.4 Some other types of translation:

Catford makes a distinction between ‘total’ and ‘restricted’ translation which is related to the levels of language in translation. He defines ‘total’ translation as “replacement of SL grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of SL phonography/graphology by (non-equivalent) TL phonology/graphology. A restricted translation is that where the SL textual material is replaced by equivalent TL textual material at one level only. Catford further suggests another type of equivalence in translation which connects the rank in a grammatical hierarchy with the translation formed. This is called ‘rank-bound translation’; the selection of TL equivalents is made at the same rank. A ‘word-rank-bound translation is necessary for showing the difference between the SL and TL in the construction of higher rank units. The ‘rank-bound’ translation is often considered as bad translation, because it uses TL equivalents which are not proper to their position in the text of the TL, and they are not justified by the inter-changeability of the text in the SL and the TL in one and the same position. The ‘unbound’ translation’ is considered as ‘free’ translation, where equivalent shift freely up and down the rank scale. ‘Word-for-word’ translation is a ‘rank-bound’ translation. A ‘literal’ translation lies between the ‘rank-bound’ and ‘free’ translation. ‘Literal translation aims to be lexically ‘word-for word’.

G. Toury defines Pseudo translation as “texts which have been presented as translation with no corresponding source text in other language.” Pseudo translation makes in a tool for cultural planning a large or small scale, not only in the field of literature but also in culture, politics and society in general. He calls it as ‘pure and simple hoax’. Marketability is the prime motive. It was found in Turkey and certain African countries.

In recent years translators taking cue from the linguist and literary critics have extended the meaning and significance of translation by attempting at different kinds of translations, such as Phonological, Graphological, full, partial, free, literal, transliteration and transcription. These are topics to be studied by specialists and are kept out of syllabus for distance mode students.

4.5 Check your progress:

(a) Name Dryden’s categories of translations.

(b) Name Roman Jakobson’s Types of translation

(d) Match the pairs

Group A Group B

Dryden pseudo translation

Jakobson metaphrase, paraphrase, imitation

G.Toury intralingual, interlingual, intersemiotic, semiotic

(e) Fill in the blanks

(i)Catford makes a distinction between ‘……….’ and ‘…………….’ translation which is related to the levels of language in translation.

(ii) A ‘……….’ translation lies between the ‘rank-bound’ and ‘free’ translation.

4.6 Summary:

Traditional translational theorists divided translation into various types depending on respective criteria of analysis. This has changed very often. All through translator were concerned with both ‘sense’ and ‘style’. Non-literary translators’ emphasis was always on sense. The purpose for which translation is subjected to being so varied , we cannot expect a universal categorisation.

4.7 Answers to check your progress:

(a) Dryden’s categories of translation are ‘metaphrase’, ‘paraphrase’ and ‘imitation’.

(b) Roman Jakobson’s types of translation are ‘intralingual’, ‘interlingual’ and ‘intersemiotic’.

(d) Group A Group B

Dryden metaphrase, paraphrase, imitation

Jakobson intralingual, interlingual, intersemiotic, semiotic

G.Toury pseudo translation

(e) (i) ‘total’ and ‘restricted’

(ii) A ‘literal’ translation lies between the ‘rank-bound’ and ‘free’ translation.

Chapter 5

Spoken Form- Translation

5.1 Objectives 5.2 Spoken language 5.3 Check your progress 5.4 Summary 5.5 Answers to check your progress

5.1 Objectives:

In this chapter we will go through some of the special features of spoken form and how is it helpful in translations. Using sound signals to communicate was in important step in human quality of life. For a very long time in history man has used this devised and successfully developed in to the most valuable skill. Development of knowledge cannot be thought of without development of language. It took great many years to develop a system of noting it down and liberating man from the need of speaker and listener to be at one place and at the same time. Still even today one speaks to himself before putting it on a piece of paper. Vedic literature was transmitted by oral tradition for thousands of years and the practice is continued till date.

After reading this chapter you will be able to state the difference between written and spoken forms of translations.

5.2 Spoken language-

The totality of styles (both spoken and written) available to a community is known as its linguistic repertoire; and speakers learn to select from linguistic repertoire in order to fulfil various communication needs. No normal person and no normal community is limited to a single variety or code to an unchanging monotony which would preclude the possibility of indicating present insolence marked seriousness, role distance etc. by switching from one to another. It is said that language changes every twenty miles and every generation. A school teacher might be competent to command of styles needed for purposes; writing an informal letter, writing a formal report, addressing a formal meeting, telling a joke, chatting to his friends in teacher’s room and so on. Some styles in community are rather specialised, with quite clear linguistic characteristics. Most people can recognise the style of Republic Day parade commentary, a Railway station announcement, or a sermon, and are aware very early in proceedings if they are being told a joke, as opposed to some other kind of narrative or descriptive account of an event.

Linguists share primary interest in this socially conditioned aspect of speaker’s variable linguistic behaviour, had adopted many approaches to the study of communicative competence. Irony, hostility, indifference, intimacy are indicated. Some languages have grammatical systems to all speakers to mart these relationships to interlocutors in a formal way. We have forms- du

and Sie in German, tu tum aap in Hindi, tutumhi and aapan in Marathi, ninivu and tavu in Kannada – which help us taking social position in communication. The conditioning differs with time, place and occasion. Husband referred as ‘ rumalanijodejagyavarnahit’ is now history, he is no longer tumhi but a more friendly tu. European pronoun usage has marked difference with English usage. Asian languages like Japanese for example, encode their social relationship code by means of highly complicated lexical and syntactic choices.

Let us take an example from an office. The request is put up by a superior in the following words. Mr. Patil will you please do this? Patil do this. Patil have you done this? Patil how long should I wait for you to do this? And lastly, why the hell is it not done by you yet?

Laver has looked in detail at linguistic routine, those highly ritualised, formally conversational exchanges such as greetings, partings and small-talk which occur at fringes of conversation. Form and structure in different conversations are also strongly constrained by the mutual orientation of speaker and addressee on the dimensions of status and solidarity.

The most obvious difference between spoken and written language is the medium of communication (vibrations in air as opposed to marks on paper) is only superficial. There is a deep pervasive difference, not just in grammar and vocabulary, but also in the general organisation of discourse or text.

Not every text that is spoken counts as a genuine spoken language. The most interesting examples of spoken language from written language are informal, spontaneous conversation and dialogue produced during performing task. The children are first exposed to Formal conversation say on TV and planned discourses such as lectures and sermons and political speeches are closer to written language.

One must be aware that spoken language is not degenerate written language but a different system designed for different purpose. Informal spoken language has the following characteristics.

Real time, impromptu with no opportunity to edit, as against written has wider range

Subject to limitation, short term memory, audience oriented

Faster, listener must process instantly, simple syntax, simple vocabulary

Face to face communication, gesture

Pitch, amplitude, rhythm and voice quality

5.3 Check your progress: (a) What do you mean by linguistic routine? (b) What additional responsibility does the interpreter carry? (c) Fill in the blanks (i) The totality of styles (both spoken and written) available to a community is known as its linguistic ……….. . (ii) Laver has looked in detail at linguistic………, those highly ritualised, formally conversational exchanges such as greetings

(iii)Vedic literature was transmitted by … tradition.

5.4 Summary:

Role of spoken language differs considerably from that of the written. It is more difficult for a translator to understand and make use of them in translating spoken form. Applications in journalism, functioning as an interpreter assisting a VIP put across his message are critical functions. Expectations are very high. A small mistake may cost dear. It is not only grammar and clauses and phrases but the spontaneity which the translator has to carry the heavy burden of. No wonder it carries rich reward.

5.5Answers to check your progress:

(a) A linguistic routine consists of those highly ritualised, formally conversational exchanges such as greetings, partings and small-talk which occur at fringe

(b) Spoken language has constrains such as real time, impromptu with no opportunity to edit, as against written has wider range

(ii)Laver has looked in detail at linguistic routine, those highly ritualised, formally conversational exchanges such as greetings

(iii)Vedic literature was transmitted by oral tradition.

Chapter 6

Applications of Translation in Various Fields

6.1Objectives

6.2Fields of Application

6.3Check your progress

6.4 Summary

6.5 Answers to check your progress

6.1Objectives:

In this chapter we will discuss the areas of applications of translation study. Since pre-historical times translations occupied part of man’s day today life. In religious, social, political, cultural life required participation of all sections of society. Babylonian, Mesopotamian, Greco-Roman, Indian civilisations were multilingual. Relations between different countries and those within community have benefited from translation.

After reading this chapter student will be able to express scope of translation activity. You will be able to discuss the need for such translations and come to conclusion. You will be familiar with the overall importance of translations.

6.2Fields of application:

Progress and development of human knowledge would have been impossible without development of speech. Different Languages emerged out of it. Man being social animal, always wanted to know what his other counterparts are doing and thinking. The difference in languages was the greatest barrier. Probably out of this arose a desire to make effort to translate.

During Renaissance urge to regain the lost and progress was predominant. Translations from Greek and Latin were undertaken. It was not possible to have Harmony, integrity, expanding frontiers of knowledge, cultural relations, national pride, exploration and research, expansion of trade and commerce, without competence in translations. In modern times everybody learns to speak mother tongue at home. While in society one needs to communicate, and he may have to acquire a different language. Modern life requires interaction at local national and even international levels. A problem arises in this. And only solution is translation. The following spheres of life touch various aspects and translation becomes essential means of fulfillment.

Mass media and journalism cannot simply function without recourse to translations. Activities in the field of trade commerce administration judicial work research are reported and people from all walks of life are interested to know more and more of it. If an important event takes place in Kerala, man from Bengal or U.P. does not to be left out. Operations of large Companies are spread all over the world and people have interest in their operations. Apart from English Spanish Arabic French German Chinese are required for successful global activities. This cannot be possible without translation.

In courts of Law in Indian Federation the official language is still English. This is true for District courts as well. Even at lower levels of judiciary arguments judgments are passed on in English although patties to disputes are allowed to use local language.

Almost all offices of Central Government and many offices of state governments use English for communication. For direct contact with public local language is also used. A translator becomes essential functionary.

In the field of Education particularly in disciplines Science Technology Medicine and many others best sources of information like textbooks are in English. Western scholars of Indian culture History and Indian classical literature first read English translations. Many turn their eyes to other Indian sources. Translations of treatises on Yoga and Aayurveda are now available in English and German.

Science and Technology is extending its frontiers in leaps and bounds. Research and Developments in these fields are regularly translated into world’s leading languages including English Russian Japanese. It is possible because of translations are done on regular basis. If we want to participate in this field such translations are available.

In the area of communication, both for sharing information and entertainment, news agencies TV and radio networks extend co-operation and exchange programs. Many news items, Government notifications, announcements and other commercial advertisements use language of their respective states. There are exchange programs which are carried out in mutual interest. At every stage translation work is involved.

Literature contributes the largest translation work. Valuable literary works get opening on world wide scale crossing state and national boundaries. We come to know talented literary artists of national and international importance. Not only contemporary but classics from several languages are now available in local languages. Sanskrit, Pali, Latin, Greek, Arabic, Persian works find many readers in their translated form. In countries like Iran bilingual books are read by university scholars. The world is getting closer and closer with each step. For study of Comparative Literature attracts many leading scholar, everybody wants to know world literature and assert his own position. Getting English translation published has become a landmark of Bhasha writers.

Along with enrichment of literature languages also receive new impetus and nourishment, become stronger day by day. In the process of translation sometimes appropriate equivalent word is not available, target language accepts such words. There is no wonder, new words imported in this way does not make TL weak but stronger. Sanskrit words Moksha, Brahaman, Yoga have found a place in all modern European languages.

International co-operation, friendly relations with neighbour countries, apart from development of cultural exchange programs, data on weather reports and climatic conditions is shared by all countries of the world irrespective of political ideologies. Translator and interpreters play a major role in this.

In the field or religion translations were in practice since time immemorial. Bible was originally written in Hebrew, Armenian, Greek, Latin and other dialects. Every effort was done to translate and make it available all over the world. Holy Quran is in Arabic, it was believed that the sanctity would be lost if distortion is done by interpreter. However, it was accepted as a means of convenience, making it amply clear that a true Moslem should always try to read and grasp original Arabic version. Hindu scriptures were had oral tradition of passing on to next generation. Scholars would meet once in twelve years and carry out correction at joint sessions held at Kumbhamela. Shraman literature, both Jain and Buddhist, had resorted to Ardhamagadhi prakrut and Pali language respectively. However in fifth and sixth centuries when debate became order of the day for resolving philosophical issues they turned out Sanskrit translations. Occasionally we find Buddhist scriptures went out to China and Far- East to return back to Indian making rich contribution. The ideal of secular identity and “Sarvadharma samabhava” (equal respect to all religions) becomes attainable only if translation is accepted as means.

Translation acts as a bridge. Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Education, Science, Trade and Commerce, Politics and International relations and Peace are all interrelated and integrated. Each one of them related to translation. Development of various regions and nations was achieved only through interactions and exchange. Human race has developed through mutual assistance and support. War and peace both need active participation through a medium of exchange language. German poet thought of a concept of ‘world literature’ on reading translation of Kalidasa’s translated Shakuntal. Noble prize winner poet Ranindranath Tagore talked about Universal man, but at Shantiniketan taught Hindi to school children. He ensured that his poems are translated so as to reach every nook and corner. He invited painters from China and Japan to exchange sense of art with them. This was possible only through translation.

A vast country like India speaks in many tongues. National integration requires that priority is given to mutual co-operation. Hence the subject of Translation Study becomes very much important. The same arguments hold good for International relation. Unity of Man and World Peace are not mere ideas but are reachable destination. This is the call and cry of Mankind.

Case study:

Perhaps all will agree that Film is the most important medium of communication. Let us carefully consider some aspects of it with seriousness. We will review the relation between Translation and film. Dubbing, Sub-titling, Adoption and Remake are four skills adopted by accomplished film makers. Both commercial and Art film consider them as vital input. Dubbing replaces the original voice with another that attempts to match lip movements. Sub-titling superimposes on the screen the written translation of the original speech and other verbal signs such as song lyrics. In earlier days of Silent movies screen side narrators would describe the action on the screen and supply voice to actors. In Film and TV institutes this technique is still used for training purpose.

A strategy of domesticating the Foreign through transposition of culture-bound references, dialects and registers into familiar features is in fact common practice in dubbing and sub-titling. With its deep roots in culture and its interplay with image, verbal humour on screen, tests the skills of translator.

Adoption is the transfer of a text, literary or otherwise, to film; for example many adoptions have been made, based on Munshi Premchand’s classical novels. Epics, Short stories, Novels, Novellas, plays, one-act plays, as well as non-fiction books, even newspaper articles have been transform into successful films by creative Directors.

Remake creates a new version of an earlier film. A remake may be based on a film from the same or different country or different country, and created by the same or a different film maker. Overlap occurs when film adopted is remade; it is not only pardonable but a new creative arises out of it. In fact adoptions and remakes are often both seen along with sequels, cycles, series and directors cuts as a part of culture of recycling that characteristics of the film industry. For adoption to be successful in its own right, it must be so fo both knowing and unknowing audience.

Rather than a replica to be judged on the ground of fidelity to original, an adoption might be more productively thought of as an act of interpretation that inevitably registers difference from the source text and enters into dialogue with other text as it is dominated over time and space. Remake shares with adoption many features. It can be an opportunity to pay tribute to an admirable artist or an attempt to revise.

6.3Check your progress:

(a) Which single largest factor was responsible for Progress and development of human knowledge?

(b) Which language is used by Courts of Law at Higher level?

(d) What was the purpose of holding Kumbha mela?

(e)Name some genera of literature which have been successfully transformed into films.

6.4 Summary:

Since prehistoric times translations were needed by civilisations. Many ancient civilisations were multilingual. People speaking different languages need translation as a means of communication. Journalism, Public Administration, multilingual nations cannot function without skill in translation. At court of Laws for Judges Advocates and parties to dispute, translation skill is needed. In India official language by and large is English. For effective communication within all members translation is helpful. Language of higher Education happens to be English. Study of literature requires exchange of thoughts with others. International co-operation and National integration can be achieved through translational skills.

6.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a) Progress and development of human knowledge would have been impossible without development of speech.

(b) English is used by Courts of Law at Higher level.

(d) Scholars would meet once in twelve years and carry out correction at joint sessions held at Kumbha mela.

(e) Epics, Short stories, Novels, Novellas, plays as well as non-fiction books even newspaper articles have been transform into successful films by creative Directors.

Chapter 7

Appropriateness and Quality of Translation

7.1 Objectives

7.2Appropriateness and Quality of Translation

7.3 Check your progress

7.4 Summary

7.5 Answers to check your progress

7.1 Objectives:

Critics and academicians have adopted different standards according to the influences of age and temperament. We will a review of them to get familiar with them. Unlike pure and applied sciences these standards have gone through many changes.

After reading this chapter you will be able to describe these views and discuss the role of translator, expectations from readers, and their works.

7.1 Appropriateness and Quality of translation

Sujit Mukherjee says a translator takes on a grave responsibility. Sometimes his knowledge of TL is not good enough. A translator does an irreparable harm to a writer in SL by representing him or her inadequately in English translation. More English translations are being published in India than ever before. Our awareness of the need to ensure quality in translation has not heightened to the same extent. Of course, the basic question remains: Who should judge a translation? A person who can read the original or somebody who cannot? A person who can read the original may find no translation satisfactory, where as someone who cannot is likely to regard readability in English as a prime requisite. The narrow isthmus lying between these two flows shows no sign of widening.

7.2 Appropriateness and Quality of translation:

Right at the beginning we must make ourselves clear that, like physical science, there are no standards for ‘measurement of’ any art. The evaluation is always relative, subject to changes with place, time and culture. That is perhaps the reason we lean to evaluate any art at much later stage of our pursuit.

Cicero summed up the translator’s dilemma in the following words: ‘If I tender word for word, the result will sound uncouth and if I alter anything in the order or wording, I shall seem to have departed from the function of a translator’.

The basic equipment for a translator of a literary work is inwardness, mastery and hold upon both SL and TL. He should be supported by a good measure of familiarity with the culture represented by each language. When Indian translates from Indian language into English, he errs less often over items of British/Western culture and more often in our control of contemporary English. Most Indians familiar with computer use American English by default without even being aware of it. Whereas when a British or American translator tackles an Indian language text, especially modern text, he is more likely to make mistakes of cultural understanding though his grasp of the grammar and syntax of Indian language concerned may be more than adequate.

Sujit makes a distinction between ‘who wants to translate’, a translator or someone else.

Ramanujan added one more level to such a labour of love when he said, ‘one translates not just out of love, but also out of envy of the past masters’. He was a poet himself, thus entitled to envy older poets.

For whom is the translator translating? Or in other words who is the targeted audience? Many translators are focused and have an answer-not so much for the ‘English reader’, but not being certain of where else this reader may live. They address their translations primarily to other Indians who read English.

Some translators do understand and appreciate their limitation after finding, say for example Tagore’s language, far too rich and complex. Others like Chitre found Tukaram so simple and yet very complex at the same time.

In India there is a regrettable tendency among translators into English, both foreign and native, to interfere with the original text in various ways while translating, out of the earnest desire to improve upon the original. Those who translate literary works into English some-how convince themselves that they are doing a favour to the Indian language writer by presenting him through translation to a wider world.

No revision can ever match the free hand with which a translator can redo his translation or re- translate a text that has been done earlier. It may sound precarious, but translation bestows an

indefinitely long life upon a text whose original career may have terminated much earlier had it not drawn a translator’s attention. In this way a translation is never complete.

Aurobindo is in favour of taking liberty with the original. He states that “a translator is not necessarily bound to the original he chooses. He can make his own poem out of it, if he likes, and that is what is generally done. Translation is neither “transliteration” nor “transcreation”. It has to guard against the danger of word for word literal translation as well as taking too much liberty. In the name of creation in the light of recent literary criticism which holds indeterminacy of meaning as its central concept, the art of translation has become increasingly difficult. Even then the ‘meaning’ (i.e. the overall meaning) of SL text can be rendered in TL.

In the name of creation in the light of recent Literary Criticism, indeterminacy of is held as a central concept. This makes the art of translation increasingly difficult. If each word is a sign and each sign has a signifier and signified, and again a signifier is also a signifier, then which meaning should one take in translation? Should one take the signification (linguistic code) of a word or its value into consideration for translation? Perpetual change comes out of Linguistic indeterminacy.

In Literature text is vital for it is the text that has to be rendered into another language. If literary language is metaphorical then which meaning should a translator take in translation, literary or metaphorical? A. K. Srivastava’ s of the opinion ‘it is the metaphorical metier that provokes the ambiguity even when assuming that the ‘core’ meaning is arrived at by the translator represents the temper and tone of the original faithfully.

What happens in translation? In the process ‘recording’ takes place after ‘decoding’ the SL text. Both linguistic and cultural facts shape the acts of ‘decoding’ of message of SL text into ‘encoding’. The decoding of message and meaning in SL text into encoding of message and meaning in the TL text, is what we understand by translation in our linguistic translation.

It is well, neigh impossible to expect equivalent of message of SL text in TL. The indeterminacy of words and the illusive nature of language have made the task of translation difficult then meaning (overall meaning) of SL text can be reworded into TL. Particularly jokes, humorous statements, double entenders, poetry, and drama offer great difficulties. Culture and words related to culture create a good deal of problem. Typical use of un-English ‘I am feeling cold’ instead of ‘I feel cold’; ‘I am loving her’ in place of ‘I love her are case in point. One tends to use Pradakshina, Toran, Vedika in transliterated form and offer a foot-note. Within same linguistic family the same words often are used with different meanings, e.g. Upahar means refreshment in Marathi, but in Hindi it means a gift. Word Shiksha means punishment, but in Hindi it means education. Ashuddha means incorrect in Marathi, but it means impure.

An Owl stands for wisdom in England, but in India except Bengal it is an inauspicious bad omen.

Mary Snell-Hornby: In implying a special status for ‘Literary Translation’ as against some hypothetical ‘ordinary’ middle of the road kind-the term would have to be defined, or at least given a more precise air than is possible.

Literary tends to imply a value judgement, inclusion in some cannon which, again, would be hard to delimit. For practical and strategic purpose literature is characterised by seeming to be communication without “noise”, without anything that would ever be negligible, not significant. Everything in functional (‘everything is wrong, it is not mere a matter of thing, but relations, movements, dynamism). The “message is inseparable from wording. Sound, word order, repetition, and grammatical structure- they all contribute to the same. Literature is what cannot be paraphrased “Being or not being, this isn’t the problem” won’t do quite do. Translation, however, is paraphrase; the words in which the supposedly same thing is being said are others, foreign ones. Translation is in fact more “para” than anything within the same culture.

That nothing is negligible, as was just claimed, is not a principle that could possibly survive translation. Priorities must be set. They include above all constrains of the real world which we have to be obeyed. “Correctness” normally dominates against, say, the sound or the length of the word in general.

In the remark that follow a few characteristic insolubilities will be highlighted in close ups, literary intricacies taken from the prose of James Joyce, a prose that brings all too familiar dilemma into closer focus. Even ideal lexicographical tools might be of no great assistance. But lexical entries might well help to spell out the problem. Literary Translation cannot afford to ignore it- though in point of fact it frequently has to-all information that precedes the entry of the word. In work of Literature, however, the mere fact that some dictionaries do not carry the word at all.

In Literary Translation, the first step is often laborious hunt for quotations in TL. Such frustrations are well known to every translator of modified quotation. The substitution is psychologically and sociologically right. The shift has thematic reverberations.

Literary texts are over determined. Ideally they carry no wastage, no noise, their fittingness is all- round. One result is that many diverse, partial, translations become possible, different according to preference. It does not seem that art and science of translation has made too many efforts as yet to even tabulate all various aspects considered. At a certain stage it will have to devote itself to the problem of translating movements, change, distortion, deviation-in other words, how to translate translation itself.

Hillarie Belloc’s general rules are significant for they emphasise both themes and techniques. He attributes moral responsibility to the translator but at the same times gives him the liberty to change the text to suit the needs of the TL text reader. There is no set model for the analysis of review in translation. Indeed, much work remains to be done on the subject.

Pertinent research questions which may serve as guideline are: How visible is the translator in the review? How is the translator judged by TL readers?

7.3 Check your progress:

(a) What was Cicero’s dilemma in connection with translation?

(b) What was A.K.S Rivastava’s view on ambiguity in translation?

(d)Where do Belloc’s general rules emphasise?

(e)State Cicero’s dilemma in a brief sentence.

7.4 Summary:

In spite of all the problems that threaten the authenticity of translation and quality of translations one observes; undermining translators position, desire to translate on the part of scholars and translators has shown upward trend. Translations in the midst of all the problems, continues to be rendered, is something to rejoice. Ironically enough, it is the problems that make the art of translation challenging and finally fascinating. Every Indian publisher’s lists are growing and profits attractive enough to keep the business rolling.

7.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a) Cicero summed up the translator’s dilemma in the following words: ‘If I tender word for word, the result will sound uncouth and if I alter anything in the order or wording, I shall seem to have departed from the function of a translator’.

(b) A. K. Srivastava’s of the opinion ‘it is the metaphorical meter that provokes the ambiguity even when assuming that the ‘core’ meaning is arrived at by the translator represents the temper and tone of the original faithfully.

(d) Belloc’s general rule emphasise both themes and techniques.

(e) ‘If I tender word for word, the result will sound uncouth and if I alter anything in the order or wording, I shall seem to have departed from the function of a translator’.

Chapter 8

Process of Translation

8.1 Objectives

8.2 Dolet’s Five ‘principles’ 8.3 Tyler’s Three ‘Laws’ or ‘Rules’

8.4 Hillarie Belloc’s Six General ‘Rules’ for the Translators of Prose Text

8.5 Check your progress

8.6 Summary 8.1 Objectives:

In this chapter we will survey how the process has gone through several changes during last couple of centuries. Not only the aim and objectives of literature changed but the very approach to literature also changed. Translation was an activity showing one’s love as well as command over classical language. University education imparted instruction in Greek or Latin. In India Sanskrit, Ardhamagadhi, Pali and Persian languages played that role. Society considered it a status symbol. As the horizon widened, import of art was appreciated. Religion has played a major role in spread of translations. Demand for translations encouraged translators. Reading class encouraged new attempts and experiments. This gave rise to new theories of translation. No doubt there was fast growth and improvement in translations.

After reading this chapter you will be able to discuss various principles, laws and rules of translation; and apply them in your practical life as well.

8.2 Dolet’s principles:

Etienne Dolet, in his 1540 manuscript ‘The way of translating well from one language into another’ set out five principles in order of importance as follows:

1 The translator must perfectly understand the sense and material of the original author, although he should be free to clarify obscurities.

1 The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL, so as not to lessen the majesty of the language. 2 The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings. 3 The translator should avoid Latinate and unusual forms. 4 The translator should assemble and liaise words eloquently to avoid clumsiness.

Here the concern is to reproduce the sense and to avoid word-for-word translation, but the stress on eloquence and natural TL form was rooted in the desire to reinforce the structure and independence of the new vernacular French language.

8.3 Tyler’s three ‘laws’ or ‘rules’:

In English, perhaps the first systematic study of translation after Dryden is Alexander Fraser Tyler’s ‘Essay on the principles of Translation’ (1797. Rather than Dryden’s author- oriented description, Tyler defines a ‘good translation’ in TL-reader-oriented terms to be: ‘That in which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language as to be distinctly appended, and as strongly felt, by a native of the country to which that language belongs as it is by those who speak the language of the original work.

Tyler has three general ‘laws’ or ‘rules’:

1 The translation should be a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.

2 The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.

3 The translation should have all the ease of the original composition.

Tyler’s first law ties in with Dolet’s first two principles in that it refers to the translator having a perfect knowledge of the original being competent in the subject and giving a faithful transfusion of the sense and meaning of the author. Tyler’s second law, like Dolet’s fifth principle, deals with the style of the author and involves the translator both identifying ‘the true character’ of his style and having the ability and the correct taste to recreate it in the TL. The third law talks of having all the ease of composition of SL. Tyler regards this as the most difficult task. Tyler’s suggestion was that the rank order of the law should be a means of determining decisions when a ‘sacrifice’ has to be made. Thus ease of composition would be sacrificed if necessary for manner in the interest of sense.

8.4 Hillarie Belloc’s six general rules for the translators of prose text:

1. Translator should consider the work as an integral unit and translate sections, asking himself ‘before each what the whole sense is he has to render.’ 2. The translator should render idiom by idiom ‘and idioms of their nature demand translation into another form from that of the original’. 3. The translator must render ‘intention by intention’, bearing in mind that ‘the intention of a phrase in one language may be less emphatic’. By intention Belloc.

4. Belloc warns against les faux aims, those words or structures that may appear to correspond in both SL and TL but actually do not, e.g. demander-to ask, translates wrongly as to demand. 5. He translator is advised to ‘transmute bodily’ and Belloc suggests that the essence of translating is ‘the resurrection of an alien thing in a native body.’ 6. The translator should never embellish.

8.5 Check your progress:

(a) Sates concerns of Dolet in a couple of sentences. (b) What is the most difficult task in translation according to Tyler? (c)Give highlights of Belloc’s in a couple of lines.

8.6 Summary:

Translation has come a long way from mere imitation of the original to a compound act of reading and writing simultaneously. It has emerged as a discipline in recent years. The use of translations is invaluable in the study of social and cultural environment in multilingual country like India trying to catch with Global ethos. It has proven as a major factor for development of culture all over the world. As a discipline it has attracted translators and scholars everywhere in twenty –first century. Mechanical/electronics is lending a big support in this field. This leads us to the next chapter dealing with aids and sources available at hand in present times.

8.7Answers to check your progress:

(a)Here the concern is to reproduce the sense and to avoid word-for-word translation, but the stress on eloquence and natural TL form was rooted in the desire to reinforce the structure and independence

(b)The third law talks of having all the ease of composition of SL. Tyler regards this as the most difficult task.

(c)Belloc’s points are significant for they emphasise both themes and techniques. He attributes moral responsibility to the translator but at the same time gives him the liberty to change the text to suit the needs of the TL text reader.

Chapter 9

Sources and Aids

9.1 Objective

9.2 Dictionaries, Glossaries, and Encyclopedia 9.3 Check your progress

9.4 Summary

9.5 Answers to check your progress

9.1 Objective:

In this chapter we will take a glance at various sources of information and aids available to a translator. The elaborate compilations called Dictionary, Glossary and Encyclopedia that we make use of have a long history. Use of electronics has extended their utility further. In this chapter we will take a look at current status.

After reading this chapter you will be able to discuss how a translator can make best use of these aids to achieve best result.

9.2 Dictionaries, Glossaries, and Encyclopedia:

The elaborate compilation of today has a long history. We find the roots before the Norman conquest of 7th, 8th century community. They had Latin manuscripts and in small hand they added “glosses” of difficult words, first in easier Latin and later in vernacular. After some time they started writing list of the difficult terms and their equivalent in ‘English’. The result was a glossary, called Glossarium in Latin. Custom made MSS lists which specialised in particular subject matter e.g. medical terms etc. came into being. Later ‘first letter’ order was adopted. Finally the alphabetic order came into practice by 10th century. The aim of such lists was elucidation.

Repository for children learning language and clerics was found to be very useful. Grammarian Geoffery, in 1440 brought out Promptorium Parvulorumsie Clericorum. Sir Thomas Eliot’s Latin-English Dictionary was the first compilation to note to adopt title Shorter Dictionary for Begynners in 1553. Palgrave published English-French Dictionary in 1530 including pronunciation grammar and vocabulary. Percyval’s Spanish-English Biblotheca Hispanica was published in 1591. John Flo’s Italian-English Dictionary was under the name Worlde of Wordes. Randall Cotgrave compiled a Dictionary on Shakespearean English. The first scientific Lexicographer was Dr Samuel Johnson with his now famous work in folio edition. It provided stress marks.

Theory and practice of Dictionary may be put up. It is an exercise to increase to sum up human knowledge but it has enormous practical use. It is a book that everyone can understand. Many times readers may have conflicting interesting interests. They have varied interests such as spelling pronunciation grammar and meaning of entry words. There are specific groups such as school children, advanced learners, journalists, advertisers and so on. Time, space, size, price etc. are of prime importance to compliers and publishers. A dictionary is expected to furnish Derivatives, compound- words, and idioms. A dictionary may be monolingual, bilingual, or even multilingual. We observe three categories: (a) the syntactic function of the headword (thus, verb transitive attributive adjectival), (b) example sentence and phrases, (c) indication of the kind of subjects or direct objects which can continue with given verb and prepositions which can follow verbs and nouns, and (d) etymology.

Dictionary Typography is another important consideration which can add to its utility.

In future, the encoded computer stored text of major Dictionaries constitutes a rich and versatile resource for further development.

American car hood is British bonnet and vice versa. American “Mailbox” is British “Post box”. Lexical items are not only category requiring attention: grammatical usage-especially verbal usage-varies as well. Here it is British English that tends to innovate, regularising where American English retains older forms and constructions. The UK past of “dive is “dived” as opposed to the US “dove”, but UK English also accepts “dived”. The clearest giveaway of American English is “gotten,” as in “Have you gotten my message”, and “How has she gotten it published?” The versions “Have you received my message?”, “How has she managed to get it published?” are slightly more formal.

There is one small difference in verbal agreement: collective nouns like “jury,” “team,” “staff,” and “regiment” typically take a plural verb in UK English, a singular verb in US English.

A novice of the trade of LITERARY Translation can sometimes be recognised by the basic error to which dictionary users are always prone: looking for and finding verbal equivalents which are supposed to make that further study of the whole context which should take place superfluous. Isolated word even isolated phrase these nudge through process. What translators add, in the translated text, is the general appearance, the flow of speech.

Of course dictionaries are more than useful, they are indispensible, and often are fascinating too in their variety and individuality. But language does not consist merely of words joined end to end or linked together. When we write, we are choosing what we say, one might even go so far as to claim that words in a vacuum do not exist in living, spoken language.

The literary dictionary user has to make the decision between one variant or another of expression, metaphor, simile, and idiom. And at this point only our sense of style can ultimately guide us. Things are trickier when there are differences, not just in meaning but usage. We must

resort either to our own ever-growing collection of regionalism and neo-logism which do not yet appear in any bilingual dictionary, or to specialist’s word-list and glossaries. Still we do not have enough.

The specialist dictionaries cover a wide spectrum: the idioms of young people, jail slang, dialect dictionary and many specialist glossaries of specific subjects. Synonyms offered by dictionary often merely show us general way to go, and that is useful. When we are offered two synonyms, we will sometimes hit by association upon a third possibility, one which is not to be found in dictionary yet, or at all, in this context. What Literary Translation needs is a classification of preteral phabetical phenomena compiled on the lines of the thesaurus. Large dictionaries nowadays give illustrative sentences.

The concept of thesaurus has its roots in India. King Amarsigh compiled a book titled Namalinga nushasanam. This was an attempt to put together nouns class they belong to. This book was handy and helpful not only in knowing meaning, but pots referred to it to find words meeting the requirement of rhyme and rhythm. Before the advent of new English education system, knowledge of it was mandatory for traditional schooling-known as Pathashalas. Many scholars had learnt it by heart. Lokamanya Tilak’s biographers have highlighted this. Europeans languages-French, Italian followed the suit. Now it is an accepted fact in an academic sense.

Role of the ‘Learner’s Dictionaries, Pedagogical dictionaries, play a significant role in setting up Lexicographical tiers. Volumes containing 3,000, 12,000 and 25,000 entries as against general purpose counterparts with 50,000, 100,000 and 150,000 respectively are found in today’s market. Criteria for creating Dictionary included Lexicographical principles etymology, pronunciation, synonyms, colletional and phraseological considerations.

9.3 Check your progress:

(a) Where do we find the roots of English dictionary?

(b) Who is considered as the first scientific lexicographer of English?

(d) Who compiled the first thesaurus? In which language was it brought out?

(e)What function does ‘Dictionary Typography’ serve?

(f) Who was the first scientific Lexicographer of English language?

9.4 Summary:

What so ever knowledge a translator possess, he always seeks help from various sources. Dictionaries are indispensible for him. While dealing with translations of specialised subject the meaning of terms in special sense is available only in Glossary related to that discipline.

Encyclopedia provides general broad information about almost all branches of knowledge. Contributions from eminent personalities provide information often with further links. For a non- specialist it gives satisfactory answers. Thus we may conclude that these aids are at most important to any scholar.

9.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a) We find the roots of dictionary in England before the Norman conquest of 7th, 8th century community.

(b) The first scientific Lexicographer was Dr Samuel Johnson with his now famous work in folio edition.

(d) King Amarsingh compiled the first thesaurus in Sanskrit.

(e) Dictionary Typography adds to the utility of a dictionary, in the sense it becomes easier to find a word.

(f) The first scientific Lexicographer was Dr Samuel Johnson with his now famous work in folio edition.

Chapter 10

Transliterations

10.1 Objectives

10.2 Transliteration 10. 3 Check your progress

10.4 Summary

10.5 Answers to check your progress

10.1 Objectives:

In this chapter we will discuss the practice of transliteration as an aid to serve as a medium of communication. Mahatma Gandhi felt if all Indian languages adopt Devanagari script, they will be easily understood by speakers of other languages. We experience this fact in listening to Urdu poetry which many consider as twin sister of Hindi. When we hear spoken version of a language of a neighbouring state it does not sound as strange as written. While learning about computer and its applications many depend on this technique, take advantage of participating in career development. Instead of introducing theory, we have given a living example. Students will see for themselves, how a translator can achieve a lofty goal using apparently simple technique.

After reading this chapter you will be able to practice transliteration in day to day life and apply it in various situations.

10.2 Transliteration:

Case study: A great scholar and multifaceted personality K. Ayyapa Paniker shares his experience with us. It is a model lesson for all how he achieved his goal. To feel like an insider was very necessary-almost a prerequisite for attempting something so unusual as translating Sikh scripture into Malayalam. He buried the ignorance, lived down prejudice of all kinds, grasped the religious and literary association, and crossed the barrier of language, by depending on the large hearted friendship of Sikhs. They transmitted their conviction and confidence. And yet it was not enough. He had to listen to the chanting in authentic and orthodox style, not with the intention of carrying over the original score at all, but to relive the intuition that for medieval Bhakti poetry the aural-oral dimension was integral. Listening to these chants actually resolved some of the difficulties he had encountered while going through the printed texts. The chanting style sounded familiar: it was not too far from the way medieval hymns or Kirtans were recorded in translator’s language Malayalam. But he warned himself against rendering these compositions as merely equivalent to the Malayalam Bhajans or Bhakti songs. There difference had to be maintained.

Linguistic similarities were another trap. Many of the words repeatedly used in these songs were of Sanskrit origin. While it was a help in a way, taking them for granted was fallacious. The cognate forms could not be taken to mean the same in the literary contexts of two languages. The translation of monograph along with the illustrative poems was thus completed with a reasonable satisfaction although there were still nagging problems. As an extension of the project Paniker undertook the translation of a whole book ‘Selections from Guru Nanak’ for the World Classic Retold series.

A decision was also taken to publish the original versions in the Malayalam script on the left hand page so that Malayalam readers could not only see the similarity or dissimilarity between the original and the translation, but also move on to the original after reading the Malayalam version. The translation was not intended to replace the original; it was to be used as a stepping stone only, a mediator. It was possible only between languages which are similar in many ways, especially in terms of their sound systems and vocabulary. This also helped preserve the musical structure, which was difficult to transfer to another language without loss or distortion of meaning. The text was made available in Devanagari and then transliterated in Malayalam script. It helped to keep intact the mantra-like mystical quality of the original, where the order of the syllables and the length of the vowels could be retained without any substantial change.

The opening moolamantrm was first given in Malayalam transliteration. This was immediately followed by a paraphrase in Malayalam, with the translation on the right hand page facing it. The translation had to be longer than the original because of the latter’s highly tight and profound nature. The paraphrase does not take more space than the original, but the translation had to bring out the extended meaning of the original in full. This was not felt necessary in the case of the other poems, although some concessions had to be made to suit the requirements of an apparently metrical structure natural to Malayalam.

Preference for cognate forms of words, where-ever feasible was maintained. An effort to retain the tight formal structure of the original resulted in repetition of key words. This as we know is a part of the stock diction of medieval Bhakti poetry common to most Indian languages.

10. 3 Check your progress:

(a) Name the twin sister of Hindi.

(b) Name the translator of a book ‘Selection from Guru Nanak for the World Classic Retold series.’

10.4 Summary:

There is no need to multiply examples to show that the bilingual model, that transliteration plus translation, can go a long way to eliminate or overcome the limitations of translation. If the main objective is to bring out the original text closer to the reader or the reader in the TL closer to the SL text, then this approach may be suitable. Religious scriptures brought out by popular publishing houses like Geeta press and Ramakrisna Mission have invariably followed the technique with success. However, it is obvious that this method has its limitations. It is most successful only within the same culture and between languages having the same or similar sound system and a shared vocabulary. Especially when a text is charged with mystical or religious meaning, using such methodology seems almost inevitable. The translator and translation have to keep a low profile. It is also true that this bilingual approach should not be expected to be so in case of an Indian Text translated in English or vice a versa.

10.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a) Urdu is called the twin sister of Hindi.

(b) K. Ayappa Paniker translated a book titled ‘Selection from Guru Nanak for the World Classic Retold series.’

(c) Mahatma Gandhi felt if all Indian languages adopt Devanagari script, they will be easily understood by speakers of other languages.

Chapter 11

Translation and Linguistics

11.1 Objectives

11.2Translation and Linguistics 11.3 Check your progress

11.4Summary

11.5Answers to check your progress

11.1Objectives:

In this chapter we will explore the relation between Translation Study and Linguistics in general. Both have developed hand in hand and mutually supported each other. Anthropologist Malinkowski and J.R. Firth thought of translation as a kind of bridge-building languages. Translation without language is unthinkable. Therefore, of all arts literature is alone faced with the problem of translation for it uses different languages as its medium of expression. We do not think of translation in the field of fine art s such as music, dance, painting, architecture or sculpture where the medium is not language. Human beings communicate through language. But different peoples speak different languages in different parts of the world. India is certainly a rich store house of a variety of languages. We need translation for the purpose of communication among people of different states, races, cultures and faiths all over the country. And translation becomes a kind of bridge building.

After reading this chapter you will be able describe the typical relation between the two disciplines.

11.2 Translation and Linguistics:

Linguistics is a systematic study of the elements of language and the principles governing them their combination and organisation. Linguistics is concerned the Theory and description of language for its own sake, translation study covers the theory and description of recreating concrete text, whether literary, specialised or general. What is therefore important for TS in the usability of the method, the potential within concept? This must be both broad enough to have general validity and flexible enough to be adopted to individual- and often idiosyncratic-text. As by no means all linguistic concepts and methods are relevant to translation, it is clear that- as with any interdisciplinary work- a specific selection must be made.

Work in the field of translation cannot aim at following the course of discussion within the discipline of linguistics where these have no direct bearing on translation theory or practice.

Presupposing such limitations therefore, this study presents some concepts and methods from linguistics which has shown them to be relevant to translation.

Linguistics has undoubtedly benefitted our understanding as far as the treatment of unmarked, non-literary texts is concerned. But it proved too restricted in scope to be of much use to literary studies. Generally it is witnessed that frenetic attempts in recent years to contract text linguistics, and yet it is unable to deal with manifold complexities of literary works. It is obvious that it could not serve as a proper basis for the study of translation study.

An older term for the scientific study of the constitution and history of language was philology- a term that is still sometimes used as synonymous with linguistics. This practice prevailed in nineteenth century. Study of changes in language over a span of time has come to be called diachronic. Later, another area of study came up, and was given a name synchronic, which deals with systematic interrelations of components of a single language at a particular time.

Modern linguists commonly distinguish three aspects that together constitute the grammar. Phonology is the study of elementary speech sounds. Morphology is the study of ordering of speech sounds into the smallest meaningful groups (morphemes and words). Syntax is that sequences of words are ordered into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Structural linguistics usually of distinctions and ordering, although on successively high and more complex levels of organisation,

A fourth aspect of language sometimes included within the area of linguistics is semantics, the study of the meaning of words and of combination of words in phrases, sentences, and e union of signifier sign (a simple word) as constituted by an inseparable union of signifier (the speech sound or written marks composing the sign) and signifier (the conceptual meaning of the sign).

Relation between translation and linguistics:

Please recall three types of translations by Jakobson.

According to J.C. Catford translation is an operation performed on language, a process of substituting text in one language for a text in another language. Any theory of translation draws upon a theory of language. Language is described by linguist as a ‘pattern of behaviour’. The translation is operation performed on two languages, the source language (SL) and the target language (TL). Translation is a transfer of meaning from SL to TL. In non-literary translations meaning is the main goal. There is not much difficulty. Yet it is not easy to find equivalent Textual and Literary materials of the SL in TL. Thus in translation, decoding and recoding, destructuring and restructuring take place. Since languages differ in form and structure, translation acts as a kind of bridge-building between two languages and cultures.

Take for instance the translation of certain culture based words from one language into another language which is linguistically and culturally different. And that will show translation as a kind

58 of bridge-building languages. Many Indian food items will defy translation into English, or even another Indian Language. Oriya food item ‘Pakhal (watered rice) becomes Pej in Marathi, yet the two are not the same. Anna is cooked rice in Kannada but Anna is food in Marathi. These words are linguistic or semiotic facts.

English words like ‘student’, ‘teacher’, ‘worker’ etc. do not show any gender distinction while most Indian languages do make such a distinction. In this light, such English sentence will need more elaboration when translated. Three forms of second person ‘Tu’ ‘Tum’ and ‘Aap’, expressing reverential address is not used in English. Languages which are structurally differently create linguistic problems and need some kind of linguistic bridge-building.

All cognitive experiences and its classification is conveyable in any living language. Whenever there is deficiency, terminology may be adopted, qualified and amplified loanwords or loan- translation, neologism or semantic shifts and finally, by circumlocutions.

Polyglots and linguists say that for every word in any one language, there is not another word accurately equivalent to it in every other language. It is within common language that words in one language have dialectical variations. That means the same word means differently in two different dialects within the same language. If SL text contains passage in a dialect other than unmarked dialect, the translator may have to choose an equivalent dialect in the TL.

Register, Style and Mode are varieties of language connected with the immediate situation of utterance. Register implies a variety correlated with official and social role of the performer in a given situation. Like dialects, registers, can be explained with lesser or greater specificity; thus, while in English a general scientific register may be identified, sub-registers within this may also be differentiated. Register markers are mainly lexical and grammatical. Grammatical-statistical forms such as the high frequency of passive verbs and the low frequency of pronouns in scientific register of English are observed aplenty. During the translation process, the choice of an appropriate register in the TL is often significant. IF there is no equivalent register in TL untranslatability may occur. One of the problems of rendering scientific texts into certain languages such as Hindi and Marathi is that of register.

Style is considered in a separate chapter.

Translation equivalents must be established between the varieties as such, and the specific markers may be distinct in the text of the SL and the TL. Honorific forms pose a specific area of careful consideration. Both respect and affection may be there in the situation, but respect may not be stylistically essential for the expression in English.

A number of approaches to the theory of translation available now are not holistic. Translator, not being the original author takes upon himself the task of bridge-building between the mind of the author and the mind of the reader.

Clearly then, any theory of translation must draw upon a theory of language-a general linguistic theory.

11.3 Check your progress:

(a) Define Linguistics.

(b) What do you mean by Phonology?

(d) What opinion did Anthropologist Malinkowski and J.R. Firth hold on translation?

(e) Match the pairs.

Group A Group B

Diachronic change in language over a span of time

Phonology study of elementary speech sound

Morphology study of ordering of speech sound into the smallest meaningful group

Syntax sequence of words in a sentence, phrase etc.

11.4 Summary:

Reader of the translation belongs to, as a matter of fact, another language and may be to another culture. The author of the original work belongs to a different language and culture. This dichotomy leads to a gap between the pragmatics of the original text on the one hand and that of the translated text on the other. Thus, translation should aim at bridging the gap between the pragmatic differences as reflected in the system of the two languages concerned and more importantly to bridge the gap between the specific contexts which depend on certain linguistic, historical and socio-cultural circumstances. Translation, when succeeds in bridge-building SL and TL, reads like an original work. Perhaps that is the true test of translation.

11.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a) Linguistics is a systematic study of the elements of language and the principles governing them their combination and organisation.

(b) Phonology is the study of elementary speech sounds.

(c)Register implies a variety correlated with official and social role of the performer in a given situation.

(d) Anthropologist Malinkowski and J.R. Firth thought of translation as a kind of bridge-building languages.

(e) Match the pairs:

Group A Group B

Diachronic change in language over a span of time

Phonology study of elementary speech sound

Morphology study of ordering of speech sound into the smallest meaningful group

Syntax sequence of words in a sentence, phrase etc.

Chapter 12

Translation and Forms of Literature

12.1 Objectives

12.2Forms of literature 12.3Forms and translation

12.4 Check your progress

12.5 Summary

12.6Answers to check your progress

12.1 Objectives:

The word ‘Form’ is one of the most frequently used terms in literary criticism, but also one of the most diverse in its meaning. We will find out how it is to be taken in relation to translation. Literary history shows all forms art translatable. Every prime text is made up of a series of interconnected systems, each of which has determinable function in relation to the whole. It is task of the translator to apprehend these functions. The intricate structure, the complications of both SL and TL pose a real challenge to the translator. Many come out as victors at the end.

After reading this chapter you will be able to describe the nature and functions of various elements interacting with each other.

12.2 Forms of literature:

The word ‘Form’ is often used merely to designate a genreor literary type (“the lyrical form”, “the short story form”), or a pattern of meter, line and rhymes (“the verse form”, ”the stanza form”). Latin word “forma” was equivalent to Greek “idea” current English equivalent for “central critical concept. In this application, the formof a work is the principle that determines how a work is ordered and organised. Critics, however differ greatly in their analyses of this principle. All agree that “form” is not simply a fixed container, like a bottle, into which the “content” or “subject matter of a work is poured; but beyond this, the concept of form varies according to a critic’s particular assumptions and theoretical orientation.

Many neoclassic critics thought of form of a work as a combination of component parts, matched to each other according to the principle of decorum, or mutual fittingness. S.T. Coleridge, Romanticist, distinguished between mechanical form, which is fixed, pre-existent shape such as we impose on wet clay by a mould, and organic form, which is as Coleridge says, “is innate; it shapes as it develops itself from within, and the fullness of its development is one and the same

with the perfection of itself from within, and the fullness of its development is one and the same with the perfection of its outward form.” To Coleridge, in other words, as to other organicists in literary criticism, a good poem is like a growing plant which evolves, by an internal energy, into the organic unity that constitutes its achieved form, in which the parts are integral to and interdependent with the whole.

Many New Critics use the word structure interchangeably with “form” and regard it as primarily an equilibrium, or interaction, or ironic and paradoxical tension of diverse words and images in an organised totality of “meaning”. Chicago School developed the concept of form in Aristotle’s Poetics, and made a distinction between “form” and “structure”. The form of a literary work is (as in Greek) the ‘dynamics’, the ‘particular working’ or ‘emotional power’ that the composition is designed to effect, which functions as its ‘shaping principle.’ This formal principle controls the ‘structure’ of work. The structure is the order, emphasis, and rendering of all its components subject matter and parts into a beautiful and effective whole of determinate kind.

Poetry translation and Drama translation is treated in separate chapters, which will follow.

12.3Forms and translation:

The translator has to make a balance between maintaining close fidelity to the original and utter freedom from it. In the name of creation in the light of recent literary criticism which holds indeterminacy of meaning as its central concept, the art of translation has become increasingly difficult.

The problems of translation are greatly enhanced by linguistic indeterminacy which is the result of perpetual change. Next to it is the uncertainty of knowing the meaning of the “text” accurately. In literary translation the “text” is vital for it is the “text” that has to be rendered into another language. The indeterminacy of the text is a crucial concept in contemporary literary criticism. Ronald Barthes rightly observed “as a limiting case, an ideal text that is infinitely plural and contrasts it with the classical text, which is characterised by a limited or parsimonious plurality of sense.” The author-text-reader triangle has undergone several changes in recent times. At one end stands the text created by the author and at the other stands the reader who experiences it. The text controls the reader’s response while the reader lends his own complexion to the text. Out of the interaction between the text and the reader comes into existence the literary construct. Any description of interaction between the two (the text and the reader) must therefore incorporate both the structure of effects (the text) and that of response (the reader). Thus there are two “texts” now-one, the author’s and another reader’s. Text is not what the author thought it but what the reader sees in it. Hence the reader or the critic is the co-author and criticism is not an interpretation of the “text” but an extension of it. In such a state, what is the role of a translator and what will happen to translation? In addition to this there is the problem of the use

of language in literature. If literary language is metaphorical, then which meaning should a translator take in translation, literal or metaphorical? A new category of

What happens in translation? In the process a new category of ‘re-coding’ takes place after ‘decoding’ the SL text. Both linguistic and cultural factors shape the acts of ‘de-coding and ‘encoding’. The indeterminacy of words and the elusive nature of language have made the task of the translator difficult. Even then the ‘meaning’ (i.e. overall meaning) of the SL text can be rendered into the target language.

We turn to translator who carries the heavy responsibility on his shoulders. The translator faces writer for the latter thinks and writes in one language while the former has to make a tight-rope walking between two languages.

Language is largely cultural oriented and therefore, translators face problem of translating certain culture based words into another language with a different culture. Colloquial expressions, culture-words, slang, proverbs are difficult to translate. Equivalence of words in two languages is hard to come by. Socio-cultural matrix plays a vital role in checking the nuances of the words in both SL and TL.

‘Herculean task’ should be rendered as ‘Bhagirathprayatna’ rather than ‘herculiouskakrya’. Translator uses ‘prashala’ to translate ‘high school’ shows his inventiveness. Dr Raghuvir and Dr Madhavrao Patvardhan made valuable contribution to vocabulary in Hindi and Marathi respectively, but quite a few failed. A literal translation of some typical expressions was simply ridiculous.

Reference is made to ‘Hillarie Belloc’s six general rules for the translators of prose text’ (chapter 8).

Mc Guiere makes a pertinent comment on this. Translator needs to determine translation units. A text is a dialectical relationship with other texts and located within a specific historical context. A poet translator can more easily break the prime text down into translatable unit e. g. lines, verses, stanzas; the prose translator has a more complex task. Certainly, many novels are broken down into chapters or sections, but Barthes has shown with his methodology of five reading codes the structuring of prose text is by no means as linear as the chapter division might indicate. Yet if translator takes each sentence or a paragraph as a minimum unit and translates it without relating to the overall work, he runs the risk of ending up with a TL text, where the paragraphed content of the passage has been translated at the cost of everything else.

The way round this dilemma must once again be sought through considering the function both of text and of the devices within the text itself. Every prime text is made up of a series of interlocking systems, each of which has a determinable function in relation to the whole. It is a task of the translator to apprehend these functions.

12.3Check your progress:

Answer the following in short.

(a) How is Language oriented?

(b)What enhances the problems of translation greatly?

(d) What are the elements of every prime text?

Match the pairs

Group A Group B

Dr Madhavrao Patwardhan Contribution to Marathi vocabulary

Dr Raghuveer Contribution to Hindi vocabulary

Herculean task Bhagirathprayatna

Prashala high school

12.4Summary:

The problems of translation are many-fold but two major problems that baffle the translators are linguistic and cultural. The most elusive one is that of translation of poetry. In spite of all the problems that threaten the authenticity of translation and undermine its position, the desire to translate on the part of scholars and translators has shown an upward trend. Translation in the midst of all problems, continue to be rendered, is something one ought to rejoice. Ironically enough, it is the problems that make the art of translation challenging and fascinating.

12.5Answers to check your progress

(a)Language is largely culturally oriented.

(b) The problems of translation are greatly enhanced by linguistic indeterminacy which is the result of perpetual change.

(d) Every prime text is made up of a series of interconnected systems, each of which has determinable function in relation to the whole.

Match the pairs

Group A Group B

Dr Madhavrao Patwardhan Contribution to Marathi vocabulary

Dr Raghuveer Contribution to Hindi vocabulary

Herculean task Bhagirathprayatna

Prashala High school

Chapter 13 Translation and Structure 13.1Objective

13.2 Translation and structure

13.3 Check your progress

13.4 Summary 13.5 Answers to check your

13.1Objective:

Right at outset let us be clear that in this chapter we are discussing relation between translation and structure, and not structures and patterns of the sentence as used in any language. We have studied last year the main outlines of the anatomy of English in the paper Structural study so that expression in the language may have a firm structural basis and become, clearer and more vigorous. That is why the notion of structure is defined right at the beginning. Bloomfield’s notion of construction which is closest to the structure is not topic of study here.

13.2 Translation and Structure

Revision-Let us go through a revision quickly. A structure deals with arrangement of elements in order. The units are the smallest elements of structure, which fill the places. The greater element of structure is called group. The group has a place for a headword, a modifier and a qualifier. The headword is the essential element. The modifier (also known as pre modifier) and the qualifier (or post modifier) in a group are not essential to be filled up every time. The structural elements may be represented in the following way:

Modifier + Headword +Qualifier, or, Pre modifier + Headword +Post modifier, or MHQ

In English, the places of modifier and qualifier in the structure of group exist at the level of potential which may or may not be realised. Using the above formula we can describe the structure of group in the following way:

H Villagers work hard

MH Indian villagers work hard

HQ Villagers in USA work hard

MHQ Indian villagers in USA work hard

The modifiers and/or the qualifiers may be more than one in the group of a structure, for example: These Indian villagers in USA work hard.

In this sentence, both M and Q have more than one exponents. In such cases, it is suggested that the formula for describing groups in English should be rewritten as (M….n) H (Q…n), where ‘n’ indicates the possibility of an infinite progression.

According to systemic grammar, clauses consist of four elements: subject, predicate, compliment and adjunct. The initial letters of these terms, i. e. S, P, C, A are used as symbols to refer to the four elements of clause structure in English. For example, see the following sentences:

The girl / often / prefers /a big company. (S+A+P+A)

The girl is very beautiful. (S+P+C)

Mary / is / a woman of character. (S+P+C)

Structuralism-context and Definition

Structuralism claims intellectual linkage to the prestigious line of French rationalists from Voltaire to Jean-Paul Sartre. Its representatives in English tend to retain French terminology. Structuralists emphasise that description of any phenomenon or artefact without placement in the boarder systems that generate it is misleading if not impossible. Accordingly, they have developed analytical, systematic approaches to literary texts that avoid traditional categories like plot, character, setting, theme, tone and the like. Even more significantly, however, structuralist tend to deny the text any inherent privilege, meaning, or authority; to them the text is only asystem that poses the question of howsuch a construct of language can contain meaning for us.

Such a view denies any claim of privilege for any author, any school, any period, and any “correct” explication. The Structuralists have encouraged us to reread, rethink, and restudy all literary works and to equate them with all other cultural and social phenomena-for example, language, landscaping, architecture, kinship, marriage customs, fashion, menus, furniture, and politics.

Ferdinand de Saussure’s linguistics led to Russian Formalism, semiology or semiotics. A translator unaware of these developments is at the risk of missing soul of source.

13.3 Check your progress:

(a) Where does the origin of structuralism lie?

(a) What role, according to structuralist, does the text play?

13.4 Summary:

Structuralism has been applied to linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, folklore and mythology-in fact, to all social and cultural phenomena. Its attraction is considerable: structuralism is, at least seemingly, scientific and objective. It identifies structures, systems of relationships, which endow signs (e.g., words) or items (e.g., cloths, cars, table manners, rituals) with identities and meanings, and shows us the way we think.

13.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a) Structuralism claims intellectual linkage to the prestigious line of French rationalists- Voltaire to Jean-Paul Sartre.

(b) Structuralist tend to deny the text any inherent privilege, meaning, or authority; to them the text is only a system that poses the question of how such a construct of language can contain meaning for us.

Chapter 14

Translation and Meaning 14.1Objective

14.2Translating and meaning 14.3 Check your progress 14.4Summary 14.5Answers to check your progress

14.1 Objective:

In this chapter we discuss how the concept of meaning itself was interpreted by academics. At first appears absolutely to encounter a question ‘what is the meaning of meaning?’ A student of Translation Student must learn this with seriousness. Is it only finding a synonym? Let us proceed with due caution and find out.

After reading this chapter you will be able to discuss various meanings. You will be able to make distinction and describe the process of arriving right meaning.

14.2Translation and meaning:

The dictionary meaning of ‘meaning’ is that which is in the mind or thoughts; signification; the sense intended; and purpose.

Ezra Pound’s theory of translation underlines the precise use of words. He also lays emphasis on the rhythm, diction and word order. In his essay “How to read” Pound outlines the way in which, ‘language is charged or energised.’ The three important ways are ‘melopoeia’ (the musical property),’ phanopoeia (the visual property), and the logopeia (a complex property) which includes both the ‘direct meaning’ and the ‘play’ of words in the context.

I.R. Richards expounded his theory of translation in a paper titled, “Towards a Theory of Translation” (1953), which discussed how to compare translation to original text. Richards feels that if translators agree on their purpose, it would not be difficult to evolve the appropriate methodology. He argued that ‘the translator should not only be aware that sign (i) indicates something; but that it is also; (ii) characterises (says same thing or something new about things; (iii) realises (presents with varying degrees of vividness); (iv)values; (v) influences (desire change); (vi) connects; and (vii) purposes (attempts to persuade). Swearing as an example of his component iv, places value on something in addition to indicating something. Thus “meaning” for Richards had grown to be something very complex, having both implicit and explicit aspects (Gentzler, 1993: 16-17).

Seven years after Richards’ paper, Quine in Word and Object (1960) wanted to use translation to demonstrate the inherent complexity and lack of determined meaning in language. In the preface

to the book he says, “Language is a social art. In acquiring it we have to depend entirely on inter- subjectivity available cues as to what to say and when. Hence there is no justification for collating linguistic meaning”. In the chapter “Translation and Meaning” he outlines the nature of language which determines the process of translation. He writes:

Manuals for translating one language into another can be set up in divergent ways, all compatible with the totality of speech dispositions, yet incompatible with one another. In countless places they diverge in giving, as their respective translations of a sentence of one language, sentences of the other language which stand to each other in no plausible sort of equivalence however loose (Quine, 1960:27).

From the perspective of reader-oriented criticism the meaning of the text is never self- formulated. The reader must act upon the textual material in order to produce meaning. WolfangIser argues that literary texts always contain ‘blanks’ which only the reader can fill. The ‘blank’ between the stanzas is unstated. The act of interpretation requires us to fill this blank. A problem for theory centres on the question of whether or not the text itself triggers the reader’s act of interpretation, or whether the reader’s own interpretative strategies impose solutions upon the problems thrown up by the text. Even with some sophistication before the growth of reader- response theory, semiotician had developed the field. Derrida’s opinion is that ‘meaning is centred on a transcendental subject (the author) and can be re-centred on another such subject (the reader).

German reception Theory:

It draws heavily on phenomenological aesthetician Roman Ingarden. He presents text as potential structure which is ‘concretised’ by the reader in relation to his extra-literary norms, values and experiences. A sort of oscillation is st up between the power of the text to control the way it is read and reader’s ‘concretisation’ of it in terms of his own experience- an experience which will itself be modified in the act of reading. ‘Meaning’, in this theory, lies in the adjustments and revisions to expectations which are brought about in the reader’s mind in the process of making sense of his dialectical relationship to the text.Iser himself does not entirely resolve the relative weight of the text’s determinacyband the reader’s experience in this relationship, although it would seem that his emphasis falls more heavily on the matter.

The words we read do not represent actual objects but human speech in fictional guise. This fictional language helps us to construct in our minds imaginary objects. The reader’s journey through the book is continuous process of such adjustments. We hold in our minds certain expectations, based on our memory of characters and events, but the expectations are continually modified, and the memories transformed as we pass through the text. What we grasp as we read is only a series of changing viewpoints, not something fixed and fully meaningful at every point. Musicologist Ashok Ranade explained the experiences of trainedand untrained listers of classical music in the same manner. That is the reason connoisseur gets the best. Pain of learning is more

than rewarded, because a ‘punishment’ of an disinterested listener is turned into a divine pleasure.

Eugene Nida, Noam Chomsky, Edwin Gentzeler, Catford, J.L.Austin have extensively written on this subject. We have come a long way from taking translation, first as ‘carry over meaning’ and then, as a linguistic activity.

14.3 Check your progress:

(a) What is the dictionary meaning of meaning?

(b) What was the topic of I.R. Richards’ paper titled, “Towards a Theory of Translation”?

(c)Who is the author ofWord and Object?

(d) On what foundation does German reception Theory rest?

(e) Match the pair:

Group A Group B

melopoeia the musical property

phanopoeia the visual property

logopeia a complex property

14.4Summary:

The theories of ‘translation and meaning’ have no single or predominant philosophical starting- point. Their propounders have considered quite different traditions and thoughts. There are few common terms or positions among them. Whatever else one may take from these theories, there is no doubt that they fundamentally challenge our traditional outlook. We cannot talk about the meaning of atext without taking into consideration their stand.

14.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a)The dictionary meaning of ‘meaning’ is that which is in the mind or thoughts; signification; the sense intended; and purpose.

(b) I.R. Richards expounded his theory of translation in a paper titled, “Towards a Theory of Translation” (1953), which discussed how to compare translation to original text.

(d) German reception Theory draws heavily on phenomenological aesthetician Roman Ingarden.

(e) Match the pair:

Group A Group B melopoeia the musical property phanopoeia the visual property logopeia a complex property

Chapter 15

Translation of Social and Cultural subjects 15.1 Objective 15.2 Translation of Social and Cultural subjects 15.3 Check your progress

15.4 Summary

15.5 Answers to check your progress

15.1 Objective:

In this chapter we will discuss the meaning of culture. The problems of translation have distinct flavour. We have realised the fact that multilingual multicultural society need not be riddled with conflicts and stressful, but it is something to celebrate.

After reading this chapter you will be able to describe the meaning, nature and scope of ‘culture’. You will also see through the religious practices, rituals, social mores and customs, festivals other ceremonies and problems of translation in cross cultural activities. You will be able to steer clear out of them and enjoy social interactions.

15.2 Translation of socio-cultural subjects:

More often it becomes work of literature within a continually shifting cultural system as classics lose their communicative function. This explains why the need so often arises to create new translation. In few cases, rarely though, publishers have specific aims and specific type of reader in mind for a translation they commission, thus making the work as “functional” as newspaper article.

According to Beaugrande’ opinion, translation is a subject considered worthy of serious academic study which gave rise to cross-cultural studies and sociolinguistics in its infinitive variability and in relation to human behaviour and perception, culture and communication. These approaches have certain prerequisites in common. They are based on a world-view which synthesises rather than separates. Secondly they do not see language as an isolated phenomenon, but relateit both to the world around and to other disciplines. Thirdly, they adhere to culture- bound differentiation rather than Universalist theories. Fourthly, they work empirically and inductively with concrete language material.

By culture we mean the attitude and values which inform a society; refinements in the manners, thoughts, tastes etc. Culture is an indicator of standard of behaviour, taste in art and crafts and those aspects of development of intellectual life of an individual a society or a nation. Aspects of social behaviour get integrated into culture. Characteristic properties of society become a part of culture. It certainly is very difficult to express such aspects in aligned language because relevance of that, past reference to that, feeling and thoughts associated, flexibility and extent vary very widely. Sometimes translators leave these matters out of their purview or some alternative like a foot-note or explanation is appended. The problems encountered by translator are given below.

Religious aspects: We consider the term as a matter concerned with faith and beliefs. Along with it are associated rituals, customs, code of conduct, eating habits, dress code and lot many other things. It is very sad thought to observe that all organised religions talk of unity and through it the division is carried further. Vast differences are prevalent on the matters like concept or reality of God’s position in human life, life after death and so on. How can words associated with them be translated? Nay, it is not possible to translate “drawning God in water as a form of prayer” (in this ritual an appeal is made to God to urge him to send badly needed rain by immersing the idol in a pool of water) “pandhari cha varkari “cannot be translated as traveller/pilgrim or a ‘Haaji’ and so on. ‘Fast’, ‘Roja’a and ‘upavas’ ‘nirjala’ do not mean the same thing, though certain measure of similarity in purpose may be felt.

Matters related to festivals: Festivals are integrated parts of culture. Translating Holi, Divali, Pongal, Ester, Id is not possible. Translating them as ‘festival of colours’, ‘festival of light’ etc. leads not only to in adequacy, but wrong impression is created on the mind of foreign and uninformed reader. Even calling ‘pongal’ a ‘makar-sankranti’ and calling it in English ‘festival of kite’ (as it is celebrated in Gujrat) is giving a wrong impression. Feelings, rituals, celebrations, are not exactly same within various states of India.

Case study: Indian Request “Passages are kindly requested not to travel on the roof” may strike the European as being a little bizarre. This was a sign in Hindi, Urdu and English on the railway station of Old Delhi, hence in a society where rooftop-riding was quite common. Perhaps it was also a method of fare –dodging however and hardly a safe mode of travel. The courteous request construction it was striking. The European expects a warning such as “Passengers are travelling on the roof top do so at their own risk” or “Roof-top-riders will be prosecuted.” The answer can be found in the cultural background of India particularly in the influence of Hindi, which favours request forms in public address. We are at a loss to find out if Indian languages lack a word for “thank-you”. Probably it is because Indians “show thank you” by gestures instead of saying it. This is a striking instance of translation as a cross-cultural event.

Sociocultural aspects:

Expressions used by all strata in urban and rural society use metaphors in day to day spoken language. One hears ‘Soneki Lanka’ meaning a prosperous country, ‘Dadhichikihaddi’ for determined hard efforts, ‘Draupadikachir’ for never ending miracle, ‘Bhismapratidnya’ ‘Ram ban’ and so on. In English we have Waterloo, Damocles’ Sword, Old Adamet. By using such terns language becomes rich and interesting. But it makes translators job difficult.

Items of daily life like garments kurta, dhoti, salvar, khadava; utensils pots and vessels; food items kheer, halava, kabab, kofte are all untranslatable.

We talk about relations much more in detail giving specific names; chacha, tau, mama,mousa are to be translated simply as uncle. Same story goes for aunt. A western woman in early thirties certainly doesn’t like to be called ‘aunty’, nor a man in his fifties being called ‘grandpa’. Indians associate maturity, love and respect with such a form of address. There appears a dignity in such forms of address. Younger generation modern are more westernised and follow different code. But there are regional variations too. Dada in Hindi is grandfather so is Nana. But in Bengal and Maharashtra Dada is simply an elder brother.

Songs sung at harvesting, fishing do not have parallel in European counterparts. Songs are sung at marriages, naming ceremony; such customs are not common elsewhere. This is pure Indian masala.

Solution- Figures of speech, festivity, celebrations are important aspects of cultural life of all SL. They make translations difficult. Translator has to put his best efforts to find alternatives. When exact replica is not possible, some alternative is to be found out. Transliteration, annotations are the last resort. The real advantage of doing this exercise is, reader is able to get an insight in new TL culture. Translator may coin a new word and enrich the TL and get appreciation from his readers. However, he must take care not to disturb the apple cart.

15.3 check your progress:

(a) Give a brief note on culture.

(b) Name two academic disciplines which have roots in Translation Study.

15.4 Summary:

Culture of a society or a country has various aspects associated with Matters related to religious practices, rituals, social behavioural norms have acquires unique language. Translator has to face this situation. Translator’s job is made difficult because of it. Most religious scriptures are in old classical languages. Modern man has lost touch with them. However, translations give him solace and helping hand. He may buy mental peace and satisfaction with translations. Translators

76 resort to different techniques and keep the ball rolling. In the process he contributes in development of target language.

15.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a) By culture we mean the attitude and values which inform a society; refinements in the manners, thoughts, tastes etc.

(b) Cross-cultural studies and sociolinguistics.

(c) Average Indian is far from being manner less; he may not say ‘thank you’ but he shows that he is courteous by gestures.

Chapter 16 Translation of Creative and Literary Work

16.1 Objectives 16.2 Greco Roman period to seventeenth century 16.3Eighteenth century onwards

16.4 Check your progress

16.5 Summary

16.6 Answers to check your progress

16.1Objectives:

With the passing of time approach of writers, critics and translators to translation has always changed. In this chapter we take a note of these changes. These changes in points of view caused changes in methods as well as contents of translations.

After reading this chapter you will be able to provide reasons for such apparent changes.

16.2 Greco Roman period to seventeenth century

Several theoreticians and translators such as Quintilian (Roman theoretician of century A.D.), Gilanfranco Folena, Roger Bacon, Dante and others have their own views of translation. For Quintilian translation was a stylistic exercise, and to Alfred translation involved the creation of a vernacular SL. Gianfranco Folena suggested that medieval translation might be described either as vertical or horizontal. By vertical translation he meant the translation into the vernacular from an SL that had a special prestige and to him horizontal translation both SL and TL had similar values. Both Roger Bacon and Dante spoke of translation in relation to moral and aesthetic criteria of works of art.

The role of translation underwent important changes after the invention of printing methods in the fifteenth century. During this time, attempts were made to form a theory of translation and the outcome was Dolet, a French humanist outlined the translation theory.

16.3 Eighteenth century onwards

The eighteenth century comparison of the translator with painter or imitator with moral duty both to the original subject and to the receiver was well-known. It underwent a series of important alterations. Goethe remarked that every literature must pass through three modes of translation.

The first phase makes us familiar with foreign countries on our own terms. The second phase makes translator absorb the sense of a foreign work but reproduces it in his words. The aim of the third phase is perfect identity between the text of the SL and the text of the TL. The performing of third phase must be through the creation of a new ‘manner’ which melts the uniqueness of the original with a new form and structure. This mode is regarded as the highest by Goethe.

The distinction made by Goethe among types of translation and stages in a hierarchy of aesthetic evaluation is a sign of a shift in attitude to translation resulting from a revaluation of the role of poetry and creativity. During the Romantic period, the ambiguous attitude of a number of major writers and translators can be seen in discussion on the nature of translation.

A.W. Schlegel said that all acts of speaking and writing are translations because the nature of communication is to decode and interpret message received, also demanded that the original form should be kept. Friedrich Schlegel imagined of translation as a class of thought rather than as an activity concerned with language or literature. Emphasis on the effect of translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a change of interest away from the actual methods of translation.

In this way two conflicting attitudes can be seen be seen in the early part of nineteenth century. One accepts translation as a class of thought, with the translator perceived as a creative genius in his own right, and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating. The other thinks of translation with its mechanical function of ‘making known’ a text or an author. The pre-eminence if imagination assumes that translation must be inspired by the higher creative force to be more than an activity of the everyday world with the loss of the original shaping spirit. Shelley regarded translation as a lower activity, as a method of filling the gaps between the inspirations.

Matthew Arnold is of the opinion that the primary duty of the translator is to focus on the text of the SL, so that he can serve that text with complete commitment.

H.W. Longfellow added another dimension to translation by outlining the business of a translator:

The business of a translator is to report what the author says, not to explain what he means; that is the work of a commentator. What an author says and how he says it, that is the problem of the translator?

The translator is consigned to the position of a technician, neither poet nor commentator, with a defined but strictly limited task. The business of the translator is to report what the author says but not what he means.

Edward Fitzgerald holds exactly opposite view. The work of Edward does not try to lead the reader of the TL to the original SL; instead it tries to bring version of the text of the SL into the culture of the TL as a living entity. This is patronising attitude and a form of ‘elitism’.

For New critics, Saussure, Levi-Strauss, Chomsky, Ronald Barthes, Derrida and Foucault no two languages function alike and that is why rendering an SL text into TL text creates problems. Since no two readings are identical, no translator can claim to have perceived the author’s meaning completely and accurately. The problem is how to get at the author’s meaning.

Structuralists believe that a work can be peeled off to express a void at centre and that makes translation difficult. Derrida and his followers pleaded an absence of meaning. They say that words carry with them no definite meaning but they are characterised by an indeterminacy of meaning. Hence, the new theories of criticism have made the act of translation difficult. However, notwithstanding these difficulties, translation continues to flourish in our time.

16.4 Check your progress

(a) What is the primary duty of the translator?

(b) Which mode is regarded as the highest by Goethe?

(c)For Structuralists, what makes translation difficult?

16.5 Summary

It is often said every writer is a product of his age. With changing times not only the taste of readers change but writers, critics also contribute to response to new conditions of life. We observed here, how this change process affected translators. We will make our observation with reference to various forms (genera) of literature as we proceed further. A general case is build up in this chapter.

16.6 Answers to check your progress

(a)Matthew Arnold is of the opinion that the primary duty of the translator is to focus on the text of the SL, so that he can serve that text with complete commitment.

(b)The performing of third phase must be through the creation of a new ‘manner’ which melts the uniqueness of the original with a new form and structure. This mode is regarded as the highest by Goethe.

(c)Structuralists believe that a work can be peeled off to express a void at centre and that makes translation difficult.

Chapter 17

Translation in Trade, Commerce and Banking Sector 17.1 Objective 17.2 Translation in Trade, Commerce and Banking sector

17.3 Check your progress

17.4 Summary

17.5 Answers to check your progress

17.1 Objective:

In this chapter we will discuss the nature and scope of translations required for effective and efficient business transactions. We will observe the special requirements of translation in a multilingual multistate nature of work in our country which conducts both global and local business. Many customers and operators in business do not use English, which still continues at national level. Local transactions are conducted in local language for the benefit of concerned parties. Any official work is bound to be acceptable for legal purpose apart from being comprehensible. This requires an appropriate treatment at all levels. Simplicity is prime consideration. Many banks, both national and co-operative resort to two language solution.

After reading this chapter you will be able to sate the nature and scope of translation work, describe requirements of translation work in commercial business and how translation work is carried by these institutions.

17.2 Translation in Trade, commerce and Banking

In modern times; trade commerce and banking form important aspects of daily life. Trade was carried out by Indian community for many centuries. Arab traveller merchants brought goods from Rome, China and many other near and far off countries. Indian spices, textiles found markets. History reveals contacts were established since Greco-Roman times. It is established that Indian contribution to global trade was as high as twenty six per cent. Perhaps that is one of the reasons why invaders were attracted.

Case- in English positive comparative and superlative of most commonly used adverb is not as per rule good, gooder and goodest but good better and best. We observe better and best are adaptations of Arabic behtar and bahist. This proves the importance of trade in language.

In modern times means of communication and transport have improved enormously. After Independence India has made progress in educating masses. Literacy figures indicate fact that

India has a large population of skilled manpower. India is emerging as super powerhouse. In all these economic activities, let it be a production of goods or services, marketing plays most dominating role. One of the important functions is advertisement and publicity. A major part of translation work involved is translation of advertisement messages in targeted places. World does not speak a single language hence translation is invariable the most sought after solution. United Nations, World Trade Organisation, European Economic Community and lot many organisations are seen working in multiple languages and hence the demand for work of translation is ever increasing.

Apart from advertisement and publicity, lot many documents related enquiry and offers, legal formalities to be complied in case of import and export, contracts, marine and general insurance, foreign exchange documents, shipping and airway bills, Invoices and Delivery notes, Packing notes, Certificates of Origin are required on regular basis. Many Government Notifications and Circulars are issued. Newsletters from Shipping Industry any International Air Traffic Association are published routinely. One has to get familiar with this literature in order to participate. Trade organisations arrange events, exhibitions and programs. International Chambers of commerce and Industrial association organise many such events. Every Industry evolves its own terminology and it meets acceptance. International Standards Organisation regularly brings out Standards to mitigate problems of Quality and Reliability.

Because of enormity of problems associated and ever changing nature of them, translation in this field is considered as difficult one. It offers great lucrative opportunity.

Abbreviations are a part of modern life. Commercial life is also part of it. Official correspondence uses them for economy and speed. Electronic and print media, Advertisements and Publicity literature, Terms related to Banking, Insurance and Transport all use abbreviations in their business. During WW II Bentley code was used both for secrecy and economy is no longer in practice.

Lack of standardisation in transliteration is posing a serious problem in translations. In trade and commerce, lack of simplicity causes great inconvenience and loss of clarity means loss of business. One comes across instances of willingly using vague language and use of fine print for evasion. Surrogate advertisements are devices to mislead gullible customers may be a smart use of language skill; it is not only unethical but out right criminal.

Solutions:

Translator has to find out an acceptable solution out of limited available at his hand. He may use abbreviations not only in SL but also TL. He may choose transliteration, giving adequate support in foot note. Finally he has a delicate balance to maintain the rigorous requirements of law, rules and regulation on one hand ease and simplicity on other hand. There is no doubt that is a difficult job, with patience and sense of co-operation and compromise one can achieve acceptable solution.

17.3 Check your progress:

(a) With which countries India had trade relations since very long time?

(b) What are India’s traditional export items?

(c)Why was use of code during WW II necessary?

17.4Summary:

Translation in the field of trade and commerce has gained importance in modern times. Advertisements, tour and travel, hospitality, insurance, banking services, mass communication, film industry and work related to UN, WTO and Trade partners requires translation work with speed accuracy and diligence. It opens window of new opportunity for aspiring young population. The problems are present but workable solutions are also available.

17.5Answers to check your progress (a) India had trade relations with Greco Roman Empire and China. (b)India’s traditional export items are spices and textiles. (c) The use of codes was due to secrecy, speed and economy.

Chapter 18

Translation in the Scientific World 18.1 Objectives

18.2 Need for translation

18.3 Typical problems and solutions

18.4 Check your progress

18.5 Summary

18.6 Answers to check your progress

18.1 Objectives:

In this chapter we will consider the need for translation work in the field of Science and Technology. We will the forms of translations. Certain typical problems appear and practitioners of translator have evolved solutions to them.

After reading this chapter you will be able to tell the need for translating scientific work, choose appropriate form, and discuss the problems and solutions offered.

18.2 Need for translation:

Present age is rightfully called an age of science and technology. Man is engaged in finding new products and processes to add comfort, and efficiency. Almost all aspects of life are affected by progress in every field of life. As a result the need and demand for translation work is ever increasing. Every developing nation is craving for qualified translators to catch up latest developments all around. It is observed that skilled translators are difficult to find. Translation workers are unable to meet this demand. In order to meet this demand every developing nation has to train people with ability to handle translation work like textbooks, Research papers and Journals which are published in a large volumes. It is absolutely mandatory for any research facility to function with efficiency to have a Documentation centre with proper assistance in translations.

The Scientific literature has three types of facts to be communicated; observations recorded confirmation and conclusions of previous observations, new inventions or theories. It is easier to translate scientific matters because the question of style does not apply in such case. Style or presentation has to be simple and straight forward conveyance of source material. But one must be careful in using scientific language because each term used is associated with specific meaning and applicable only in a unique way. Multiple meaning or interpretation may distort or

84 even nullify the facts. The whole purpose will be defeated. Perfect understanding of terms is absolutely essential factor and at most diligence and care is needed in translation work.

18.3Typical problems and Solutions:

Problem of scientific language and solutions

A major problem of translation in science is that of vocabulary. Languages of advanced countries like England USA France Germany and Russia are well developed in terms of scientific terms. These languages have also acquired a capacity to coin new terms. They do not face this problem. It is only prevalent in developing countries. Scientific temper is either lacing or is very weak because of which the problem crops up.

Ideally TL should have a word or equivalent word. Some languages have natural capacity to coin/adopt new words. In absence of it the following lines of action are resorted to. (a) Depending on nature of TL, a word is accepted in totality or a slightly modified form e.g. Academy, Udjan for Hydrogen, Natra for Nitrogen etc. (b) A world is accepted from an internationally used compilation e.g. Data. (c) A word is accepted in transliterated form. Names of many elements in Periodic table are used in this way. (d) Forming a new word, borrowing root from an ancient/classical or even modern language. Astronomer Dr JayantNaralikar uses ‘shwetbatu’ for white dwarf stars. (e) Forming a new word in agreement with TL.

Choice of words depends on using correct technical term. While discussing a problem in mathematics Number ‘one’ is expressed as ‘unity’ in difference with its use in common usage. In chemistry and physics ‘particle’, ‘atom’ and ‘molecule’ are certainly not synonyms. There is no question of choice at all.

Knowledge of subject

It is very much important for a translator to know the subject before he takes up translation. Knowledge of the subject is not a precondition when translating a literary work. Often there may not be a subject at all. In such cases it is enough to know both SL and TL. But in translation of science such knowledge is absolutely a must. Translation may fail or give erroneous result. Translators not only review their work but also refer it to third party expert for opinion. This is becoming a standard practice.

Style is the third significant factor in science translation. It is absolutely required that he maintains clarity, completeness, simplicity and freedom from any ambiguity throughout the work. Loss of clarity is greatest blunder. He must not use any fancy, imagination to satisfy his creative urge. Reader is interested on in facts, knowledge and Truth. It is not a place for a translator to show his taste, personality or literary style to attract reader’s attention or even earn popularity. Translation of science is invariably done in prose.

Use of symbol- Symbols are used with universally accepted meanings. Use of any unfamiliar symbol or new symbol should be used only with explanation. Translation of science is an exercise driven to its completion. Everything is clear, nothing is left out, and nothing is added.

18.4Check your progress:

(a) Which is the most appropriate style of scientific translation?

(b) What will happen if the translator is not familiar with the subject?

18.5 Summary:

We are living in scientific age. Demand for translation of science and technology is very high in developing countries. It is dire need for a developing country to catch up with rest of the world. Scientific literature is Information based. There is no scope of imagination and style. Every language has inherently a capacity to accept new words as well as capacity to create new words. No decoration is expected or appreciated. The success of translation is in the ability of TL to adopt itself.

18.6 Answers to check your progress:

(a) Simple and straight forward style.

(b) Failure and erroneous

Chapter 19

Computer and Machine Translation 19.1 Objectives

19.2 Origin and development of machine translation

19.3 Check your progress

19.4 Summary

19.5 Check your Answers

19.1 Objective:

Present age is called the age of computers. Translators wished to take advantage of machines, in particular, computers and reduce efforts and increase the efficiency. During war time codes like Bentley code and others was used both for defence and commercial applications. Messages from enemy had to be deciphered. All this created enough impetus to seek new avenues. In entertainment business there was tremendous scope for translation to capture new ever increasing demand. We have provided some basic information to encourage students to explore further. We believe our students are familiar with Internet.

After reading this chapter:

You will be able to describe the origin, nature and scope of mechanical translations.

19.2 Origin and development of machine translation

A patent was granted in 1933 in Soviet Union to PetrPetrovichTroyanskii. This was the first of its kind invention to utilise help of a machine to perform onerous task of translation. Soviet Union was a multilingual political entity in a hurry to integrate and catch up with West. He wanted to translate foreign technical articles and books into Russian, even without understanding the source language. However, a pre- editing of text was a necessity. He intended to offer his machine for technical. For him figures of speech were not attempted at all. A working translation of various regional into Russian so that workmen at factories mines could follow, was the sole intension. Hence he replaced word stems and endings with what he called logical symbols. He borrowed heavily grammar from Esperanto language.

Republic launched the first man-made satellite America was shocked. They attributed the success to the Education system in Soviet Union. Almost four hundred schools undertook study of Russian language. The Golden Age of MT was a period 1954-1960. However, Noam Chomsky, a great linguist from Chicago University was noteworthy discordant note. He cautioned the public with ‘machine translation’ is likely to be futile, the question of turning a masterpiece of literature written in a foreign language into a respectable translation will offer great difficulties’. It was “extreme” and “over pessimistic” to place such a goal entirely beyond the pale: granted the sufficient hardware capacity, According to W. N. Bush and A. D. Bath.

The idea of Interlingua, manipulable by a machine, resurfaced in post-world war II USA. Rockefeller Foundation and Govt. office -Office of Science and Research & Development joined hands. Dr. I. R. Richards gave a discoursing reply declined any responsibility. At a conference fourteen essays were published. Overall response was on a weak but positive note. When Soviet Republic launched the first man-made satellite America was shocked. They attributed the success to the Education system in Soviet Union. Almost four hundred schools undertook study of Russian language. The Golden Age of MT was a period 1954-1960. However, Noam Chomsky, a great linguist from Chicago University was noteworthy discordant note. He cautioned the public with ‘machine translation’ is likely to be futile, the question of turning a masterpiece of literature written in a foreign language into a respectable translation will offer great difficulties’. It was “extreme” and “over pessimistic” to place such a goal entirely beyond the pale: granted the sufficient hardware capacity, According to W. N. Bush and A. D. Bath.

Shaping the future of Mechanical translation ALPAC the conference was held. Automatic Language Processing Advisory committee was formed. There were genuine social, economic and international geo-political needs of USA, Canada and European countries. Canada adopted English to French Systrans system in 1970. An ambitious multilingual system was started. Mormon Church used it successfully by investing in translation of Bible. Since 1980 a realistic optimism prevails. In Japan, Government made heavy investment to carry out translations. They talk of Translation industry and ‘Language engineering.

Hutchson observes ‘ Here is a growing realisation that many recipient stylistic refinements are not necessary; it appears that on the whole users are more content with low quality texts than translators and post-editors

Anusaraka system an Indian paradigm

The anusaraka system makes text in one Indian language accessible in another Indian language. In anusaraka approach the l0ad is so divided between man and computer that language load is taken up by the machine and the interpretation of the text is left to man. The machine presents the image of the source text in a language close to the target language. In the image, some constructions of the source language, which do not have equivalent, spill over to the output. Some special notation is also devised. The user learns to read and understand the output after

some training. Because the Indian languages are close, the learning time output is short, expected to be of two weeks.

The output can also be post-edited by a trained user to make it grammatically correct I the target language. System can also be changed, if necessary. Thus, in this scenario, the computer can function as a human assisted translation system. Anusarakas have been built from Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, Bengali and Punjabi to Hindi and are available for use over the Internet (http//:www.iiit.net). They can be built for all Indian languages in the near future. Anybody can build such systems connecting Indian languages, using the FREE software model.

The first difficulty faced by the machine occurs at the level which we normally do not even recognise as a problem pertains to information coded in a text. To understand the idea of information and its coding, let us consider an example. In Indian languages, we have a free word order; information that relates to action (verb) to its participants (noun) is primarily expressed by means of post-positions or case endings of nouns (collectively called vibhakti of nouns). Such a relation between the action and its participant is called Karta relation. In English, on the other hand, the primary device for expressing the information is by means of word order.

This example raises an important point. A language text actually ‘codes’, or contains only partial information. A reader interprets the text by suitably supplying the missing information, he gets the intended meaning. A text is akin to a picture made up of strokes as well as gaps. A viewer fills in the missing parts appropriately and views them as a part of the picture. (A comparison of music having variations in time gap between two notes will make us realise the importance of silence in between.) If done properly, the reader gets the message intended by the writer. In any language, there is a continual tension between brevity and ambiguity. If everything was explicitly stated, the text would be ambiguous but would be long. Brevity also helps in focusing attention to relevant parts. Ambiguity thus seems to be a necessary price to be paid for information conciseness and focus.

Word analyser, Local word grouper, Mapper using Bilingual dictionaries, and word synthesiser are the important components of system. What the machine can do and what are the limitations or what is the weakness is not discussed here for obvious reasons

19.3 Check your progress:

(a) Who held the first patent on mechanical translation?

(b) Name two great scholars who had apprehension about mechanical translation.

19.4 Summary:

Word analyser, Local word grouper, Mapper using Bilingual dictionaries, and word synthesiser are the important components of mechanical translation system. What the machine can do and what are the limitations or what is the weakness is not discussed here for obvious reasons

On the one hand while machines are encouraging people to work in their language, and strengthen the various Indian languages, it will further co-operation and contribution to mutual benefits. This has implication for the three-language formula too. Students will learn to access written text in not just one additional language but all Indian languages. Written material, texts, literature, magazines, newspapers and official documents will become more Accessible. It is expected very soon. This should happen for the sake of National Integration. The right model to be followed for building the system is the ‘free software’ model, in which everybody contributes to the effort and the result is open and available to use. People who contribute to the building the system are acknowledged for their work, but nothing is hidden and nobody owns the software. This way one can begin where others have left off, and build on each other’s work, in a co- operative activity. A National People’s Co-operative projects which can be emulated in other fields.

19.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a) Petr Petrovich Troyanskii

(b) Dr I. R. Richards and Noam Chomsky

Chapter 20

Translating Phrases and Idioms 20.1 Objective 20.2 translating phrases and idioms

20.3 Check your progress

20.4 Summary

20.5 Answers to check your progress

20.1 Objective:

In this chapter we will describe the meaning, structure and functions of phrases and idioms. We will consider few suggestions in translating idioms. We will see the problems arising in translation of idioms and solutions offered.

After reading this chapter you will be able to describe the need for care to be taken in translation of idioms. You will be able to discuss the nature of problems and the solutions in translating idioms. You will be able to offer solutions.

20.2 Translating phrases and idioms:

Phrases

We see that sometimes a group of words does the work of an adjective. An Adjective Phrase is a group of words that does the work of an Adjective. Read the following examples:

Adjectives Adjective Phrases

A golden crown A crown made of gold

A blank page A page with no writing on it

Just as the work of an Adjective is often done by a group of words called Adjective Phrase, so the work of an Adverb is often done by a group of words called Adverbial phrase. Similarly, a Noun Phrase is a group of words that does the work of a Noun. Word-groups or phrases of type we mean do not include a finite verb. In English Appositional phrases, Infinitive phrases, Participial phrases, Prepositional phrases and Phrases with an initial adjective are used.

Idioms:

Idioms may be defined as expressions peculiar to a language. They play an important role in all languages. Many verbs, when followed by various prepositions, or adverbs, acquire an idiomatic sense. The student who studies selection of idioms will notice that metaphor enters largely into idiomatic phraseology. Idioms are called Muhavara in Hindi and Vakprachar in Marathi.

Problems of translation of idioms:

Idiom is a part of sentence. Word to word translation does not give the same sense. It only indicates sense that serves the purpose. Language acquires a sense of decoration and beauty. It is a difficult problem for translator. It may not be impossible, but it certainly calls special control and command over both SL and TL. The following reasons may be attributed:

(a) Mutual influence of English and Hindi

English-To be caught red handed ups and downs of life crocodile tears

Hindi- Range hath pakadejana jivankeutarchadhav magarmachhakeansu

(b) Same source

Persian –Turshangoor English-sour grapes Hindi-khatteangoor Marathi-ambatdraksh

English- to blacken someone’s face Hindi-munhakalakarana Marathi-Tond kale karane

Problem:

Sometimes the translator has to choose one idiom out of many having similar meanings. In TL idiom may be available with (a) almost similar sense (b) having identical sense (c) both word and sense are exactly same. It is most important for a translator to convey the sense rather than using word having same meaning.

In certain case TL does not have an idiom having same sense. Translator has no choice but to ignore and convey the sense.There is no idiom in punjabi to convey the Hindi ‘ chhthikadudhyadana’; translator will do with ‘naniyaddilana’ instead. English idiom ‘to rain cats and dogs’ may be translated in Hindi as Musaladharvarsha or in Marathi as musaldharpauspadane.

English- To put the cart before the horse. Hindi-Ghide kea age gadirakhana

But it would be incorrect in the following case.

English- To beat about the bush Hindi-Zadi kea as pass pitana

To find oneself in hot water apanekogarmpani me pana

Hindi-Nou do gyarhhona English-Nine and two make eleven

Panipanihona To become water water.

In certain neither word to word translation nor group sense works. Read the following, in such cases new phrases/idioms are invented. Creative translator has to make do with it.

Translator is skilled in both SL and TL. He translates ‘jisthalimekhanausimechhedkarana as ‘To cut off the hand that feeds’ or ‘ To blow off the roof that provides the shelter’.

If translator is unable to catch the correct meaning he may translate ‘ Kalkounjimmevarhoga? as ‘who will be responsible tomorrow’ which is incorrect . The correct version would be ‘who will be responsible in future?Translator has to think of an idiom as one unit and translate.

20.3 check your progress:

(a) Define adjective phrase.

(b) Give the meaning of idiom in Hindi.

20.4 Summary:

Phrase is a group of words that does the work of an Adjective. Idioms may be defined as expressions peculiar to a language. They play an important role in all languages.Idiom is a part of sentence. Word to word translation does not give the same sense. It only indicates sense that serves the purpose. Language acquires a sense of decoration and beauty. Every translator has to handle them carefully and creatively.

20.5 Answers to check your progress.

(a) An Adjective Phrase is a group of words that does the work of an Adjective.

(b) Idioms are called Muhavara in Hindi.

Chapter 21

Translation and Figures of Speech 21.1 Objective

21.2 Figures of speech

21.3 Translation and Figures of speech

21.4 Check your progress

21.5 Summary

21.6 Answers to check your progress

21.1 Objective:

In this chapter we will discuss the nature and functions of Figures of Speech. We will explore the ways and means of translating different figures of speech. We will consider the problems and probable solutions.

After reading this chapter you will be able to describe types and functions of figure. You will be able to locate the problem in translating figures of speech and find out a workable solution.

21.2 Figure of speech:

Figurative language is a conspicuous departure from what users of a language apprehend as the standard meaning of words, or else the standard order of the words, in order to achieve some special meaning or effect. Figures are sometimes described as primary poetic, but they are integral to functioning of language and indispensable to all modes of discourse. Most modern classifications and analyses are based on the treatment of figurative language by Aristotle and later classical rhetoricians. Figurative language is often divided into two classes: (1) Figures of thought or Tropes, in which words or phrases are used in a way that effects a conspicuous change in what we take to be their standard meaning. The standard meaning as opposed to its meaning in the figurative use is called the literal meaning.(2) Figures of speech or rhetorical figures, or schemes, in which the departure from standard usage is not primarily in the meaning of words, but in the order or syntactical pattern of the words. This distinction is not a sharp one, nor do all critics agree on its application.

A figure of speech is a departure from the ordinary form of expression, or the ordinary course of ideas in order to produce a greater effect. Figures of speech may be classified as under:-

1 those based on Resemblance, such as Simile, Metaphor, Personification and Apostrophe.

2 those based on contrast, such as Antithesis and Epigram.

3those based on Association, such as Metonymy and Synecdoche.

4 those depending on construction such as Climax and Anti-climax.

Student may refer to any school level grammar book for definitions and examples. We give a list below for ready reference: Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Euphemism, Antithesis, Oxymoron, Epigram, Irony, Pun, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Transferred Epithet, Litotes, Interrogation, Exclamation, Climax and Anti-climax.

An expression or comparison (sometimes termed trope- “to turn”) whose meaning is metaphorical, ironic, or rhetorical, not literal. Although the boundary between figurative and literal is often fuzzy, as in the case of dead metaphors, a figure of speech is distinguished as a semantic composite: at least two meanings are in play. On one side is the ordinary usage, on the other the divergence from it. The dualism of meaning may be due to the immediate sense of figure

21.3 Translation and Figures of Speech.

Figures of speech are called Alankar (decoration) in Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi and many other Indian languages. They contribute in making writing more attractive or beautiful. Any writing where figures of speech are used stand out in external and internal beautiful. It gives deep satisfaction to the reader. There is no doubt that the writing looks beautiful, but it makes translators job more difficult.

As example a couplet in Marathi is reproduced below:

“Devi dayavatidavadasidasachidukhdurdashadura

Papatepalavitaseparampavitretuzapayahpur”

This figure of speech may be called alliteration in English; it is termed “Anupras in Marathi.

Yamak, Anupras, Shlesh, Vyajokti, Vakrokti are some figures of speech commonly shared by Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Kannada and many other languages.

In this couplet we have sound ‘d’ in the first line and sound ‘p’ in second line repeated to create sweet sounding effect. It will not be possible to choose words and create that sonorous effect. It is possible to translate the couplet word-by-word, sense to sense, but the effect will be lost. To find a word in target having same meaning and producing same sound effect is asking for a moon.

We have a couplet in Hindi for example:

Rahimanpanirakhye, bin pani sab sun

Panigayenaubre,moti, manus, chun

Here the word ‘pani’ means glow, respect and water. WE do not find a word in English giving us all the three meaning. Figure of speech Simile and Metaphors appear to be so simple. Sant Soordas in his Bhranarageet uses bumble bee to compare a persuasive lover, but in Hindi he also stands for a husband. According to Indian tradition Meenakshi and Harinakshi mean a woman with fish eyes and a woman with deer eyes. The question of translating into English or any modern European language does not arise. Many times object or an animal name may even be same but cultural associations differ widely. Owl in symbol of wisdom in English, it is outright inauspicious in Indian languages. In Hindi ‘Ullu’ is a senseless person.

21.4 Check your progress:

(a) Define trope.

(b) What do you mean by literal meaning?

(d) Give the meaning of Meenakshi and Harinakshi in English.

21.5 Summary:

Ever since Plato, and up through contemporary theories of literature, figures of speech have been considered essential constituents of literary language. Plato considered literature a mode of falsehood and singled out the ‘turns’ of figurative language away from proper meaning as literature’s fundamental wrongdoing. Renaissance rhetorician compiled exhaustive taxonomies of tropes and ironies for use in the training of orators and writers, while twentieth century critics, such as I.R. Richards, detailed the working of metaphor as central to poetic meaning. Interpretation of literature is always, at least in part, the delineation of figures of speech, and the first technique student must master is discerning where and how language becomes figurative

Figures of speech are like jewellery pieces. They add beauty to language. Every language has in its store house chest of drawers full of them. But suits and Indian taste may not be of much use to others. As the adage goes a man’s food is another man’s poison. A translator familiar with both cultures and language may not find it easy.

21.6 Answers to check your progress:

(a) Figures of thought or Tropes, in which words or phrases are used in a way that effects a conspicuous change in what we take to be their standard meaning.

(b) The standard meaning as opposed to its meaning in the figurative use is called the literal meaning.

(c)Figures of speech or rhetorical figures, or schemes,

(d) Meenakshi is a woman with fish eyes,Harinakshi is a woman with deer eyes

Chapter 22

Poetry Translation

22.1 Objectives 22.2 Poetry translation

22.3 Check your progress

22.4 Summary

22.5 Answers to check your progress

22.1 Objectives:

Translation of literature poses a good deal of problems for translator. Literary translation involves not only the transference of meaning but a host of associations are charged with meaning. They need to be translated from SL to TL. The basic loss of meaning is one continuum between under translation and over translation. In this chapter we give some information on the problems of poetry translation.

After reading this chapter student will be able to discuss such issue and find out the causes thereof.

22.2 On poetry translation:

K. R. S. Iyengar: Poetry by its very nature is untranslatable idea. But poetry is the idea touched with the magic of phrases and music.

Ba.Bha.Borkar, an eminent Konkani and Marathi poet and a translator, says a translator can give intimation of poet’s sovereign utterance. A good translation can create trust. A good translation can stimulate.

Aurobindo stickily keeps to manner and turns of original. He values the spirit, sense and integrity to suit the new language.

Let us note the critical comments of Mathew Arnold on translations of Copper and Newman. Mathew Arnold first observes that Homer is rapid in movement, plain in words and style, in ideas and noble in his manner. He gives plenty of illustrative examples in support of his observations. Then on Copper’s translation he says ‘it is ill’ because it has slow prose and fantasy is used. On Newman he adds ‘it renders me ill because of its old arduous words and ignoble manner. In this way Mathew has made his criteria on translation clear.

Robert Frost: Poetry is what is lost in translation, but critics say that poetry is lost in every act of creation. Thus the function of deconstruction is not to deconstruct a text but to demonstrate how the text has deconstructed itself. Derida’s view was ‘the text has some patterns of language that has been faithfully adhered to by the author.

The most difficult thing in poetry is to find equivalent words of literary echo in the target Language. The barrier to meaning is not simply cultural, even those sharing the same language may not the allusions correctly. Does every Marathi speaking man get a correct meaning of ‘Sadashivpeth’.

Secondly the problem of language is not easy to overcome. Ornamental words (rhetoric) based on lyricism are almost impossible to translate. Saint Poets use language with such powers of magic and devotion that results in instilling readers’ mind a divine and perhaps mystic presence. Lyrical poetry is full of words having too many referential allusions. Some others are more or less ritualistic, with an incantatory tone. Some earlier poets especially resorted to strict, musical verse, appear to be slow and formal but their sounds of words seem to dig into mind and meander in deep layers of imagination. Poem is a clever and concise is the construction of this verse form. Poet has woven the sounds a compact verse form of each line, conveying its sensual, emotional and even mystic flavour. How does one translate it into a foreign medium such as English? To render gems like these into English would be futile exercise, which would only harm the poetry in original Indian language, like an act of desecration one can’t pardon.

In a poem sound, rhythm, words, images, symbols, etc. are not present together, but they also act on one another. That is why reading poetry is itself an act of creative interpretation. Rendering a poem into another language becomes an act of creative transportation as Jakobson would make us believe.

The greatest problem in translating a poem from a distant past is the significance of poem and its context has changed.

Nida provides a model. Many tried it with variations of their own. Most models focus on decoding of SL or the product of TL. Comparison is often made with notional ideal translation, with ensuing of unavoidable and subjective value judgement.

Somewhat more useful approach is to compare several translations of the same poet, not in order to make value judgement but to examine strategy. On semantic level, a poem carries some message or statement about real world or author’s reaction to it. This is core. Message is implicit, connotative rather than explicit and denotative, giving rise to multiple interpretations.

Poetry is first an act of reading. There is no single way though there is an informed way. Poet’s intention is rarely obvious. A stylistic analysis is prerequisite. If readers expect to find in a translation those particular characteristics that mark the text as belonging to a particular poet. This involves close attention to matters of style. Some scholars consider poetic translation

successful only if style has been conveyed with content. Whether translator has done verse-to verse translation or used prose, he has used it only as a medium. Holems identifies four strategies:

1 Memetic-where original form is retained

2 Analogical-Where culturally corresponding forms is used

3 Organic-Where semantic matter is allowed to take on its own unique poetic shape as the translation develops

3 Deviant or extraneous- Where form adopted is in no way implicate in either form or content of the original

Poetry does not only function in terms of content and aesthetic form. It is intended to arose sentiments and produce emotional effect. This pragmatic dimension of poetry is the most difficult to account for in translating poetry.

22.3 Check your progress:

(a} According to Borkar what can a good translation achieve?

(b) What does Jakobson say about reading poetry?

22.4 Summary:

Translation of poetry is the most difficult mode of translation. This is because it abounds in figures of speech such as similes, metaphors, irony, paradox etc. and unprecedented phonological, syntactical and semantic patterns such as rhyming alliteration, versification, morphological parallelism, syntactic parallelism and above all syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between words. The view that it is impossible to translate poetry recognises that it is impossible to account for all factors involved and to convey all the features of language in a language and form accepted to TL culture and tradition. However from the sobering acceptance of the difference involved and ofthe enormity of the task comes a search strategies whereby as much as possible of original poetry may be saved.

Two basic approaches arise out of this. One is pragmatic and the other theoretical, respective followed by translators and linguists. Translators tend to write of specific problems encounter in translating a particular poet and of solution they arrived at. But they rarely keep a record or notes of choices they have made in the process. What is stressed here is the need for constant reworking, reassessment of translation. The translator of poetry should remember that he is to ‘translate’ a piece of poetry, not to ‘rewrite’ or ‘produce an interpretation’ of it, render it.

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22.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a) Borkar said good translation can stimulate.

(b) Reading poetry is itself an act of creative interpretation.

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Chapter 23

Drama Translation 23.1 Objectives

23.2 Drama translation

23.3 Check your progress

23.4 Summary

23.5Answers to check your progress

23.1 Objectives:

In this chapter we will notice the peculiarities of drama translation. As we are aware that form of literature Drama differs from other forms in that it is to be performed on stage. Of course we may at times read the text of drama for various reasons. A director visualises the acts and scenes with a vision to give it his own interpretation. An actor reads it to catch the intricacies of supporting directions received, and plan a response accordingly. Drama being a team work everybody wants to put his best in order to make it reach perfection.

After reading this chapter you will be able to describe the problems of drama translation and offer solutions to it.

23.2 Drama translation:

Translation of dramatic text poses a different problem. Dialogues in dialects of a language that is far removed from the target language are very difficult to translate. Apart from language, the thought-content of a dramatic text situated in one culture poses serious problems for the translator. For example, it is difficult to translate Shakespeare or Shaw into any Indian language because of the linguistic and cultural differences. How does one translate the magical words of Shakespeare, “Foul is Fair and Fair is Foul” or “The rest is silence” etc. into Marathi which is so near and yet so far from English?

A dramatic text exhibits its full meaning only in its performance. It is said the task o Director is to ‘translate into another language’ a text of which he has a prime duty to remain ‘faithful’. This position is based on the concept of semantic equivalence between the written text and its performance, only the ‘mode of expression will changed, the form of content of the expression will remain identical when transferred from a system of test-signs to a system of performance- signs’ (including background music),’

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The problem of performability is further complicated by changing concepts of performance. At the time of Shakespeare young boys were acting as heroines and Dramatis introduced the technique of disguise according to which the heroine went in search of hero into forest. Nowadays can a director/dramatist think of such a technique in theatre? Absurd dramatists pose another kind of problem for the translator. The dialogues and the performance create special problems for the translator and the Director. How does one translate the dialogues of Lucky and Pozzo or Estrgon and Vladimir of Becket’s Waiting for Godotinto Marathi?

Thus the dialogues, performance including stage-craft and stage property create problems for the translator. The colloquial and conversational language, intonation and accent including dialogue delivery make dramatic text difficult. Of course the same drama was performed in its French translation one month ahead of original English version.

Some observations on drama and translation:

Play is originally written in a dialect. Translator finds a suitable dialect in target language. His choice at times may invoke inappropriate set of social association. Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee and Eugene O’Neil used slang and abusive language. Often there were topical allusions. Near home, Dada Kondke’s folk dramas and T.P. Kailasam’s Kannada drama also had to be presented on stage in adaptation forms. For translator has to take care while choosing target language. T.S. Eliot in his ‘Murder in the Cathedral’ has used variety of prose and poetry. This poses a typical problem.

Prof. Prakashchandra Deshpande was teaching Shakespeare’s Hamlet at University of Nairobi. To his surprise he found that his students, quite competent in English language, were somehow not able to appreciate the core issue. Perhaps the socio-cultural difference was so wide that he withdrew the drama from curriculum. Even within more closely related western European community; there is still risk of concepts being either misrepresented or not fully comprehended. Harold Pinter’s drama “The Caretaker” was translated in French language and performed in France. It is interesting to note the French reacted negatively to ‘Davies’, the tramp drinking tea. In France people believed tea is taken only by genteel ladies. Earlier, Voltaire’s French translation of Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar had to omit two and half acts with Caesar’s death as the end of the drama. French audience still upheld classical Unities of action, time and place. Part dealing with Brutus and conspirators could not be included. In English teaching/learning we still debate the point-Caesar dead is more dominating than Caesar alive. Sometimes adoptions suit the taste of target language audience. Russian dramatist Chekov’s drama Platonov was adopted by Michael Frayn as ‘Wild Honey. This was received warmly by English speakers. Peter Brooks presented Indian Epic Mahabharat with international cast. It runs on stage for nine hours and has three intervals. It met with a grand success all over.

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23.3 Check your progress:

(a) Why is it difficult to translate Shakespeare or Shaw?

(b) A dramatic text exhibits its full meaning only in its performance.

23.4 Summary:

The way round this dilemma must once again be sought through considering the function both of the text and of the devices within the framework of drama. Every text is made up of a series of interlocking systems, each of which has a determinable function in relation to the whole, and it is the task of the translator to approach these functions. When going gets tough, the tough get going. We have seen very successful translations of Becket, Ionesco, Tagore, GirishKarnad in recent times.

23.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a) It is difficult to translate Shakespeare or Shaw into any Indian language because of the linguistic and cultural differences.

(b) A dramatic text exhibits its full meaning only in its performance.

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Chapter 24

Translation and Style 24.1 Objectives

24.2 Translation and style

24.3 Check your progress

24.4 Summary

24.5 Answers to check your progress

24.1 Objectives:

In this chapter we will try to clarify what is meant by ‘style’ in study of literature. We will bring to your notice what is the relation between translation and style.

After reading this chapter you will be able to describe the relation and importance of style.

24.2 Translation and style:

Style has been traditionally been defined as the manner of linguistic expression in prose or verse- as how speakers or writers say whatever it is that they say. The style specific to a particular work or writer, or else distinctive of a type of writing, has been analysed in such terms as the rhetorical situation and aim; characteristic diction, or choice of words; types of sentences structure and syntax; and the density and kinds of figurative language.

Style is the sum of diction, imagery, syntax, grammar, punctuation, and figurative language. A stylistic analysis of a writer’s text, or a collection, for example, would detail the clipped, decorative sentences, extensive dialogue, simple diction, lack of subordinate conjunctions, infrequent metaphors, and so on.

A stylistic analysis might focus on the flat prosody and repetitive diction of the passage, and then be extended comparatively to other works and so on. In emphasising the verbal features of literature, stylistics treats style as more or less distinct from content, while admitting that neither exists entirely without the other. Poetic diction is a style, as is Stream-of-consciousness narration. In some stylistic criticism, style is treated as ornamentation- a kind of organic extension of thoughts, etc.-an approach typical of Romantic conception of literature. The first raises question of decorum, the second questions of subjectivity. Style rhetorically understood invokes the concept “high” and “low”, “correct” and “incorrect”, relating sentence structure, diction, and figures of speech to the subject matter and the aims of the author. Style subjectively

105 understood invokes terms such as “Renaissance” and “Miltonic”, relating stylistic features to one or more recognised authors.

We observe that there are two viewpoints. One held by Geoffrey H. Leech may be called as monoist perspective. It assumes the elaboration of form inevitably brings an elaboration of meaning.

Michael N. Short is a dualist. According to it manner and matter or expression and content are independent of each other. Eventually the dualist perspective became more popular.

A distinction is made between ‘stylistic analyses’ from the ‘study of styles’.

Study of style involves the consistent and statistically significant regularity of occurrence in text of certain items and structures, among those offered by the language as a whole and can be done without any consideration of meaning.

Stylistic analyses, on the other hand is concerned with semantics of a text and involves the study of why the text is shaped in its particular way given certain extra linguistic factors that restrict the writer’s freedom of choice.

Boase-Bier argues that literary texts are read differently from non-literary because the emphasis is not only on the content but also on the form of expression. She distinguishes between primary meaning, determined by, lexis or syntax and a second order meaning, or a “weakly implied meaning” where the choice can be exercised by the author/translator. Weakly implied meanings place the burden of meaning making on the reader or translator. She proposes the use of ‘translator’s meaning’ for the extended meaning which goes beyond what can be assigned to the text or a passage on the basis of semantics. Translating primary meaning requires background cultural and linguistic knowledge, while implied meaning requires a particular stylistic sensitivity.

Dualistic approach has the advantage of allowing us to easily define the object of analysis by leaving sense aside and focusing on stylistic variants with different stylistic values. However, this approach implies that it is possible to write in a neutral style. How can we judge what is “default choice”? Further is it possible to have “no style”? , the choice of such form instead of others is still a linguistic choice, and as such can be fruitfully examined in stylistics.

The monoist’s perspective on style denies the possibility of paraphrase and translation, understood as the expression of the same content in different words. This, however, assumes a very naïve understanding of translation as equivalence. It also assumes a rather rigid understanding of meaning, which has been replaced in most stylistic work by the more nuanced understanding of meaning espoused by pluralistic view of style whereby various strands of meaning are distinguished according to the functions performed by language (e.g. ideational, interpersonal, textual, etc.). According to this model, the language system is a network of

106 interrelated options deriving from all the various functions of language, which define as a whole the resources for what the speaker wants to say.

24.3 Check your progress:

(a) Define the term style.

(b) What do you mean by Stylistic analyses?

(c)What do you mean by Study of style?

24.4 Summary:

The problems of translation are many –fold but two major problems that baffle the translators are linguistic and cultural. Translation in the midst of all the problems continues to be rendered is something to celebrate. Ironically enough, it is the problems that make the art of translation challenging and finally fascinating. This reminds me of the now famous answer of James Mallory the last unsuccessful Everester who emphatically said “I wish to climb Everest because it is there”.

24.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a) Style is the sum of diction, imagery, syntax, grammar, punctuation, and figurative language.

(b)Stylistic analyses, on the other hand is concerned with semantics of a text and involves the study of why the text is shaped in its particular way given certain extra linguistic factors that restrict the writer’s freedom of choice.

(c) Study of style involves the consistent and statistically significant regularity of occurrence in text of certain items and structures, among those offered by the language as a whole and can be done without any consideration of meaning.

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Chapter 25

Translation, Interpretation and Criticism

25.1 Objectives 25.2 Translation, Interpretation and criticism

25.3 Check your progress

25.4 Summary

25.5 Answers to check your progress

25.1Objectives:

In this chapter we take an overview of relation between Interpretation and criticism in the field of translation study. Critics differ widely. Our efforts will be directed to describe the same and generate a dialogue rather than a conflict. Over a period of time genera, styles have changed. We will not venture to apply a uniform measuring scale but shall endeavour to get insight into the situation. After reading this chapter you will be able to discuss the reasons for variations in interpretations and appreciate their diversion and multiplicity.

25.2 Translation, Interpretation and style:

When the explorations of the literary critic lead into areas more properly belonging to the historian of ideas and cultures, translations offer excellent specimen cases. Because the translators feel a strong pressure to make his importation acceptable to his audience and because with notable exceptions he is rarely one of the great innovators in literature, his style and language often reflect with great clarity the tastes and critical standards of a given literary public. In translation we may often catch a writer and his readers “off guards,” see them unconsciously remaking accepted ideas about the nature of literature or the state or the good manners. Since successful translation depends on a double awareness of cultural context in which the original was produced and of context into which it is to be “projected”; it will often reveal strikingly the likeness and difference between two cultures. Chapman offer illuminating text for comparing mobility of mind and manners in Heroic Greece and Elizabethan England. Recall Shakespearean Julius Caesar here and confirm how the Greek noblemen look English noblemen of Queen Elizabeth’s court.

In the narrow sense, to interpret a work of literature is to specify the meaning of its language by analysis, paraphrase, and commentary. Usually such interpretation focuses on especially obscure, ambiguous, or figurative passage. In a broader sense, to interpret o work of literature is to make clear the artistic feature and purport in the overall work of which language serves as the medium.

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Interpretation in this sense includes the analysis of such matters as the work’s genre, component elements, structure, theme, and effects.

The term hermeneutics originally designated the formulation of principles of interpretation that apply specifically to Bible; the principles incorporated both the rules governing a valid reading of the biblical text, and exegesis, or commentary on the application of the meaning expressed in the text. Since the nineteenth century, however, “hermeneutics” has come to designate the theory of interpretation in general- that is, a formulation of the principles and methods involved in getting at the meaning of all written texts, including legal, historical and literary, as well as biblical

The understanding of a verbal text consists in “in the interpretation of works, works in which the texture of inner life comes fully to expression”. And in literature above all, “the inner life of man finds its complex, exhaustive, and objectively intelligible expression”.

A radical departure from the traditional author-oriented views of a determinate intended meaning occurs in a number of structural and poststructural theories. According to Nietzsche, Marx and Freud, the hermeneutics of suspicion in that they approach a text as a veiled or mystified set of representation, whose real meaning, or subtext, needs to be deciphered by the knowing reader.

25.3 Check your progress:

(a) What did the term hermeneutics originally designate?

(b) In what do we take the term “hermeneutics” presently?

25.4 Summary:

The level of such criticism is today still frequently very low. In many countries still quite uninfluenced by development within field of Translation Study. Doubtless the activities of translation interpretation and evaluation will always elude the grasp of objective analysis to some extent, and so continue to reflect the intuitive and impressionistic attitudes and stances of the critic. But close contact between translation scholars and translator critics could do a great deal reduce the intuitive elements to a more acceptable level.

25.5 Answers to check your progress:

(a)The term hermeneutics originally designated the formulation of principles of interpretation that apply specifically to Bible.

(b)The term “hermeneutics” has come to designate the theory of interpretation in general.

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Question Bank for Semester III:

Long Answers

Q 1-Describe the origin and development of translation through European historical perspective.

Q 2-Explain the origin and development of translation through ages with reference to India.

Q 3-Discuss various definitions of translation.

Q 4-How did Dryden describe the process of translation? Which category he preferred most?

Q 5- Write down the highlights of A.F. Tytler’s Three Basic Principles.

Q 6- Explain the opinion of Dryden and his contemporaries of Neo-classical age.

Q 7- Describe the contribution of Schlegel and Mathew Arnold in terms of their criticism on earlier translations.

Q 8- Is translation an Art? Is it a Science? Or is it an Expression?

Q 9- Do you agree with Roman Jakobson’s statement ‘translation is a science’.

Q 10- A. K. Ramanujansays ‘ translation is never complete.’ Examine the statement.

Q 11- Discuss the special features of spoken language.

Q 12-Explain the importance of translation of spoken language.

Q 13-Discuss various fields of application of translation study and their functions in respective fields.

Q 14- Write an essay on ‘Translation and Film production’.

Q 15- Give the highlights of Mary Hornby’s work on ‘Literary Translation’.

Q 16- Explain salient features of Dolet’s Principle in light of his age.

Q 17 -Write a note on Hillarie Bellock’s ‘Six general rules for the translators of prose text.

Q 18- Write a note on ‘Dictionaries and Glossaries’ in English language with reference to their historical order.

Q 19-“ K. Ayyapa Paniker’s translation of ‘Selections from Guru Nanak’ evolved an ideal method of translating religious scriptures.” Do you agree?

Q 20- What qualifications/qualities are essential for a translator?

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Q 21- What does Hillarie Belloc’s rule deal with?

Q 22- What is the relation between Form /genre of literature and translation?

Q 23- Explain the term ‘Form of literature’. How is it related to Translation Study?

Q 24- Write an essay on Structure and Translation.

Q 25- Write an essay on Translation and meaning.

Q 26- What are the problems in translating Social and Cultural subjects?

Q 27- Write a note on translation and creative literary work.

Q 28- Why is translation important in Trade and Commerce?

Q 29- Discuss the problems associated with translations in Trade and Commerce.

Q 30- Explain the scope and importance of translations in Scientific world.

Q 31- Write an essay on Machine Translation.

Q 32- Discuss the problems in translating phrases and idioms while translating.

Q 33- Explain the term Figures of Speech. What problems are faced by a translator in handling figures of speech?

Q 34- ‘Poetry translation is most difficult.’ Do you agree?

Q 35- Write an essay on Drama Translation.

Q 36- Explain the term ‘style’ in detail. Discuss the relation between style and translation.

Q 37- Explain the term ‘hermeneutics’. Write an essay on translation Interpretation and criticism

Write short notes on the following:

1-Contrast between H.W. Longfellow and Edward Fitzgerald

2-Translation as an Art

3- Translation as a Science

4- Translation as an Expression

5-Sujit Mukherjee’s views on translation

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6- Aurobindo on Poetry translation

7-Thessarus

8- Publishing works in translated form

9- Use of transliteration technique

10- Study of Diachronic

11- Study of Syntax

12- Style, stylistic analyses and study of styles

13- Robert on Poetry translation

14- Aurobindo on poetry translation

15- K. R. S. Iyengar on poetry translation

16- Plato on poetry

17- Anusarak system

18- Mathew Arnold on translation

19- Ezra Pound and translation

20- Hermeneutics.

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Reference Books:

1. Companion to Translation Studies- by-Bernmann, Sandra and Potter, Catherine 2. Critical Studies in Translation Studies-by-Baker, Mona 3. Descriptive Translation and Beyond -by-Toury, Gideon 4. Handbook of Translation Studies-by- Das Bijykumar 5. On Translation –by Brower, Reuben A 6. Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach-by- Shnell Hornby, Mary 7. Translation Study Reader-by- Veneti Lawrence 8. Roultedge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies-by-Baker, Mona 9. Anuvad Vidnyan (in Hindi)-by BholnathTivari 10. Bhashantar Mimamsa (in Marathi)-by Dr.Kalyan Kale 11. Introducing Translation Studies, Theories and Application-by Jeremy Munday

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Semester IV Section II

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR THE PROJECT

Dear Students, for many courses, the tasks like project and assignments are compulsory as per UGC norms.

Students, in assignments you work on question- answers and activities, similarly the structure of projects too is same. The project will carry 100 marks and this itself glorifies its importance. Therefore the scope of projects is larger than that of assignments and other activities. Students are expected to do extra or additional reading other than their syllabus. The projects are an indispensable and compulsory part of your curriculum.

It is mandatory for subject Translation Study (EAS 401) to send Xeroxed copies of source text along with your subject matter. Type written or computer generated answers will not be accepted; only handwritten answers are to be submitted.

With this guidance, list of the subjects for the project is attached. Students should write the project in readable handwriting, make an individual file for it and submit it as per the submission dates provided to them.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE PROJECT

Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth, Pune

M.A. (English)

Project writing

Name of the Subject:

Academic Year:

Name of the Project:

Name of the Student:

P.R.N Number:

Name of the Guide:

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Contents:

Introduction: In this part, the student should explain why he/ she has chosen particular subject for the project.

Main Project:

Conclusion:

List of the Reference Books:

TILAK MAHARASHTRA VIDYAPEETH, PUNE

MASTER OF ARTS (M.A.) ENGLISH

PROJECT ACTIVITY

INSTRUCTIONS: Students must submit the source text along with translation project.

NOTE: Attempt any one of the following project assignments.

A project should be of 50-70 pages (single sided). Each project has 100 marks.

1. Translate any Marathi/Hindi children’s drama into English. State the problems you have faced while translating.

2. Translate any one short story from Marathi/ Hindi into English. What was the objective of translation? What is the importance of translation?

3. Choose any five poems of Marathi or Hindi and translate them into English. What problems did you face?

4. Translate any one original Marathi or Hindi one-act play into English.

5. Translate any one act of a multi act drama in Marathi/Hindi into English.

6. Translate any newspaper article of Marathi or Hindi into English. Matter should be at least 20 pages. (On Economic or Political topics)

7. Translate any general topic essay having 20 pages matter of Marathi/Hindi into English. Topic should relate to the social life.

8. Translate any journalistic article of Marathi/Hindi, about 20 pages into English.

9. Translate any travel and Tourism matter or Historical essay of Marathi/Hindi into English. Minimum 20 pages matter is essential.

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10. Translate any Science, Technology or Agriculture related 20 pages article of Marathi/Hindi into English.

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