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Air Pollution, Politics, and Environmental Reform in Birmingham, Alabama J. Merritt Mckinney Doctor of Philosophy

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Air Pollution, Politics, and Environmental Reform in Birmingham, Alabama J. Merritt Mckinney Doctor of Philosophy RICE UNIVERSITY Air Pollution, Politics, and Environmental Reform in Birmingham, Alabama 1940-1971 by J. Merritt McKinney A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE Doctor of Philosophy APPROVED, THESIS COMMITTEE: . Boles, Chair am P. Hobby Professor of History Martin V. Melosi Professor of History University of Houston ~~ Assistant Professor of History Daniel Cohan Assistant Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering HOUSTON, TEXAS OCTOBER 2011 Copyright J. Merritt McKinney 2011 ABSTRACT Air Pollution, Politics, and Environmental Reform in Birmingham, Alabama, 1940-1971 by J. Merritt McKinney This dissertation contends that efforts to reduce air pollution in Birmingham, Alabama, from the 1940s through the early 1970s relied on citizens who initially resisted federal involvement but eventually realized that they needed Washington's help. These activists had much in common with clean air groups in other U.S. cities, but they were somewhat less successful because of formidable industrial opposition. In the 1940s the political power of the Alabama coal industry kept Birmingham from following the example of cities that switched to cleaner-burning fuels. The coal industry's influence on Alabama politics had waned somewhat by the late 1960s, but U.S. Steel and its allies wielded enough political power in 1969 to win passage of a weak air pollution law over one favored by activists. Throughout this period the federal government gradually increased its involvement in Alabama's air pollution politics, culminating in the late 1960s and early 1970s with the enactment of environmental laws that empowered federal officials to pressure Alabama to pass a revised 1971 air pollution law that met national standards. After the passage of this law, but before the appointment of an air pollution control board to enforce it, a federal judge temporarily shut down Birmingham-area industries at the request of the Environmental Protection Agency, the first time that the agency had used such emergency powers. Over time, grassroots activists in Birmingham came to the realization that their efforts were doomed to fail, or at least to be significantly delayed, without the aid of the federal government. For nearly twenty-five years after the enactment of the 1945 smoke ordinance, supporters of air pollution control wanted the state government to deal with the problem of air pollution, with the federal government only providing technical expertise and funding for scientific research. But with their defeat in the 1969 legislative session, when the industry-backed air pollution bill passed, clean air campaigners in Alabama realized-and publicly stated-that only pressure from Washington would force Montgomery to clean up Alabama's air. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have been fortunate enough to study history in one of the most congenial places imaginable. Everyone I have encountered in the Rice University History Department has provided support and encouragement as I pursued my graduate degree. I could not have completed this dissertation without the financial support of the history department and the Office of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies. I have received much more than financial help from the department's staff. Paula Platt, Rachel Zepeda, Anita Smith, and Lisa Tate have all cheerfully provided assistance every step of the way. The Directors of Graduate Students during my tenure at Rice, Paula Sanders, Ed Cox, and Ussama Makdisi, all encouraged my progress. I have had the good fortune of working with helpful archivists as I researched my topic in Alabama and in the National Archives. I am especially grateful to Jim Baggett and his colleagues at the Birmingham Public Library Department of Archives and Manuscripts. If Rice is one of the most congenial places to study history, than I have been doubly fortunate, because the archives in Birmingham are a wonderful place to do research. From the first day that I visited the archives while attending a meeting of the Southern Historical Association a few blocks away, Jim Baggett and the rest of the archives staff bent over backwards to help me find the materials I needed. I had similar luck during a visit to the UAB Archives. The efficiency of Tim Pennycuffmade my brief visit extremely fruitful. Staff members at the National Archives in College Park, Maryland, and the Alabama Department of Archives and History also provided much assistance. v Many professors have helped me along the way, but I want to give special thanks to my dissertation committee. Many students have had the pleasure of working with John Boles, but few have had the chance to work with him twice. I met Dr. Boles more than twenty years ago as a freshman at Rice University's Will Rice College. I can honestly say that Dr. Boles's enthusiasm for students and for his beloved Rice University has not waned and has probably increased since my undergraduate days when he served as teacher and adviser to me. It was his passion for southern history that made me become a history major and, eventually, a graduate student. I was nervous going back to school ten years after I graduated, but the familiar faces of Dr. Boles and his wonderful wife, Nancy, were reassuring. I have also been fortunate to learn from Martin Melosi during my undergraduate and graduate days. Dr. Melosi was a visiting professor at Rice in the early 1990s, and his course on cities, technology, and the environment piqued my interest in the field. I appreciate his allowing me to take graduate courses at the University of Houston and look forward to seeing him at environmental history meetings for years to come. My experience with the other members of my committee, Cyrus Mody and Daniel Cohan, does not date back decades, but I truly appreciate their enthusiasm for this project. Aside from my committee, many other professors have helped this dissertation and my graduate career. Alex Lichtenstein and Kerry Ward deserve special thanks for conducting an independent study with me. Dr. Ward will surely be pleased that my completion of a field in world history, which she directed, was the main reason that I have been able to get a part-time teaching position here in the Nashville area. Many other professors at Rice and the University of Houston have helped me during these past seven vi years, including Carol Quillen, Lora Wildenthal, Allison Sneider, Kathleen Brosnan, Alex Byrd, and Becky Goetz. My life at Rice was also enriched by my work at the Papers ofJefferson Davis and the Journal ofSouthern History. Though the work was interesting, I most appreciated the rapport among those on the fifth floor of Fondren Library, including Lynda Crist, Suzanne Scott Gibbs, Pat Burgess, Evelyn Nolen, Francelle Pruitt, and Randal Hall. Though Randal's wife, Naomi, does not work at Rice, I appreciate her friendship and her hospitality during my trips to Houston. At the risk of sounding like a broken record, I feel lucky to have fine students as colleagues. I have heard horror stories of graduate students viciously competing with each other, going so far as to hide library books from other students, so I am glad to have been surrounded by such cooperative peers. I especially thank my fellow students who started in the fall of2004: Rusty Hawkins, Renee Chandler, Catherine Fitzgerald Wyatt, Luke Harlow, Tom Popelka, and David Getman. My life as a graduate student has also been enriched by many other students, including Joseph Abel, Andrew Canady, Jessica Cannon, Blake Ellis (and Shaun, of course), Ann Ziker, Wes Phelps, Gale Kenny, Rhonda Ragsdale, Katie Knowles, Alyssa Honnette, Sally Anne Schmidt, and many others I am sure I am leaving out unintentionally. Back here in Nashville, the extended Bailey family has welcomed me with open arms. It was a bit of a transition to move to a new city where I knew hardly anyone, but they have made me feel at home. Though I wish she could have lived to see me complete this dissertation, I am glad that Tom and I got the chance to live near his mother, Joanne Geny Bailey, during her final years. Vll My family has been extremely supportive throughout this long process. Most parents would not have been pleased to hear that their son was applying to grad school at age thirty-two, but my parents, Angela and Rawlins McKinney, were enthusiastic from the start. For that and for their never-wavering support throughout my life, I express my deepest gratitude. I also thank my brother, Rawlins, for his friendship and his hospitality during my many research trips to Birmingham. Finally, this project would never have been completed without the support of my partner, Tom Bailey, though at times he probably wished that the project had never been started. When we met in the summer of 2003, I am sure he had no idea what he was getting himself into, certainly not that he would be moving to Houston in the summer of 2004. Words fail me as I try to express my gratitude to him for putting up with so much as I have slogged away at my dissertation. With love and appreciation, I dedicate this dissertation to Tom. --- ---~------------------ TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION The Emergence of an Environmental Movement in the Pittsburgh of the South 1 CHAPTER ONE "A Place for Smoke": Smoke Abatement during the World War II Era 14 CHAPTER TWO Reaching the Limits of Smoke Abatement in the Postwar Era 54 CHAPTER THREE Federally Funded Research and the Beginnings of an Air Pollution Program 103 CHAPTER FOUR From Cooperation to Confrontation over a State Air Pollution Law 143 CHAPTER FIVE "The Big Mules Are in Control": The Passage of an Industry-backed State Air Pollution Law 169 CHAPTER SIX Turning to Washington to Get Montgomery to Act: Grassroots Activists Seek Help from the Federal Government 207 CHAPTER SEVEN "Like an Environmental Little Rock": Federal Officials Respond to an Air Pollution Emergency 249 EPILOGUE The Campaign for Clean Air in Birmingham Continues 283 BIBLIOGRAPHY 291 1 Introduction The Emergence of an Environmental Movement in the Pittsburgh of the South From the earliest days of Birmingham's existence until well into the twentieth century, residents of the Alabama city saw dollar signs in the smoke pouring out ofthe city's smokestacks.
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