Unions implementing managerial techniques National unions are gradually adopting the sophisticated management selection and training practices of business and government but employment and promotion decisions remain essentially political

Lois S. GRAY

In sharp contrast to their counterparts at the bargaining results, comparisons are made, where possible, with the tables, labor unions have traditionally given relatively selection and training of managers in business and gov- little attention to the selection and training of their pro- ernment . fessional staff.' Results of a 1977-78 survey of national Divergent personnel practices unions and employee organizations suggest an .emerging trend bringing them more into line with established per- Selection. In business and government, selection of man- sonnel practices of business and government . College agement personnel is usually a carefully planned and graduates, long sought by other employers, find doors somewhat elaborate process based on formal criteria beginning to open in labor unions ; the recent elections and objective tests designed to screen applicants for de- of college graduates as president and secretary-treasurer sired attributes . Education and job-related training are of the AFL-CIO symbolize this change .' Formalized given heavy weight in the selection criteria . training, generally required for upward mobility in busi- National unions, however, have traditionally used a ness and government, is gaining acceptance among political staff selection process, rewarding demonstrated unions . Even more striking, some of the recently inau- leadership and loyalty at the local level .a In 1956, gurated union staff training programs resemble in con- Harold Wilensky's path-breaking study of Intellectuals tent and format those offered for management in other in Labor Unions found that the relatively few college organizations . graduates then employed by national unions functioned The literature describing and analyzing personnel pol- in narrowly defined roles. These "intellectuals" tended icies of business and government is voluminous . By con- to be viewed with suspicion by union officials and tried trast, little is known about the personnel practices of to downplay their college educations by "proclaiming labor unions.' This study, designed as a first step in fill- their faith in the superiority of the untrained man."' ing this gap, addressed several key questions: How do national unions recruit and select their representatives? Training. Business organizations invest heavily in per- What functions do these staff members perform? What sonnel training. A recent survey by the Conference qualifications are expected of them? And, how are they Board reports that most companies require their manag- trained for their responsibilities? In analyzing the survey ers to continue their professional education . In 1975, approximately 1 .3 million managers and supervisors

Lois S . Gray is associate dean and professor at the New York State were trained at a direct cost to employers of almost half School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell University . a billion dollars. As a result, in-house management MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW June 1981 a Unions Implementing Managerial Techniques

training has become a major profession, accounting for union structure, (4) employer practices, (5) changes fac- the employment of 45,000 specialists .6 ing the organization, and (6) union traditions and cur- Several companies operate year-round campuses rent outlook of leadership. which rival institutions of higher education . For exam- It is logical to expect that union personnel practices ple, American Telephone and Telegraph Co. sends will vary with size of membership, because this largely 10,000 of its managers each year to its residential train- determines the resources which are available. Thus, ing center, which has an annual budget of $20 million.' larger unions are more likely to hire specialists to pro- Corporations supplement in-house training with sup- vide a wide range of services to their members, and to port for the American Management Association, whose mount their own staff training programs. Also, one educational programs annually attract more than 60,000 might predict that membership characteristics will be managers, and with numerous special courses offered by reflected in the selection and training of staff representa- colleges and universities. Moreover, the business train- tives. In particular, the weight given to formal educa- ing boom has created a whole new industry of 1,000 or tion may be expected to vary with the level of education more management consultants specializing in the field.' of the membership, with unions of professional employ- Mid-level managers, the counterparts to international ees more likely to hire college graduates and turn to representatives in labor unions, are the principal targets universities for staff training than unions which repre- of these business-sponsored training programs.' sent manual workers. However, observation of the labor The training of managers generally deals with the scene suggests that structure is the most important vari- functions of planning, organization, and control, with able in explaining differences among unions. Industrial emphasis on interpersonal skills, problem-solving, and unions which deal in national and international product goal-setting . A heavy investment in methodology has markets are characterized by a centralized structure, produced a variety of approaches to teaching, including while those which function in local labor markets tend videotapes and computer simulations. Supervised on- to be decentralized. Thus, industrial unions might be the-job training, through a planned system of job rota- expected to employ relatively larger numbers of national tion, is widely used to supplement classroom instruc- representatives to perform a wider variety of assign- tion .'° ments. With greater responsibility at the national level, In contrast, staff members of labor unions have industrial unions would also be likely to place more em- traditionally acquired their skills and knowledge in the phasis on training . "School of Hard Knocks"-in the shop, at the Other potential influences on union personnel prac- bargaining table, and on the picket line. Until recently, tices are less tangible and therefore more difficult to few alternatives have been available. Moreover, efforts assess. For example, unions may emulate the practices to fill the training void have been mainly short-lived of the employers with which they negotiate . According- and out of the mainstream of American labor union ly, unions dealing with major corporations, such as practice ." General Motors or American Telephone and Telegraph, Given the growing complexity of union-management are more likely to hire technical specialists from outside relations, how are unions responding to the obvious dis- the organization, and to provide staff training than parity in formal education and training between union unions which represent employees in small firms. Inspi- and management representatives? This is the question ration to adopt new programs may also come about as which led to our study, the first analysis of union staff a result of challenges facing the union; rapid expansion, training since the Survey of Labor Education conducted competition from rival unions, employer opposition, under the auspices of the National Institute of Labor government regulation, and economic decline may give Education more than a decade ago." impetus to training and hiring trained personnel from outside . And finally, not to be discounted are union tra- Survey results and some hypotheses ditions and the viewpoints of current leadership. Unions The survey of national unions reveals increased re- with a history of social and political involvement have cruiting of both service staff and specialists from outside traditionally emphasized education, and those headed the unions, growing union emphasis on staff training, by college graduates or self-educated "intellectuals" and emerging elements of similarity between union and might also be expected to look for and encourage these management training in content and methodology. (See attributes among staff. appendix for a description of the survey scope and method.) Recruitment and selection These are the major generalizations which emerge International representatives. While union experience re- from survey data. There are, however, differences mains the primary criterion for selection of international among unions, resulting, in part, from such factors as: representatives and organizers, approximately 3 out of (1) size of organization, (2) type of membership, (3) 10 of the surveyed unions currently hire some "outsid- ers" to perform these basic functions . Choosing interna- international representatives and organizers. However, a tional staff is normally the prerogative of national growing number recruit new staff from among the grad- officers who, under most union constitutions, have the uates of college and university labor relations programs . exclusive power to hire and fire. Most unions tend to re- Many send recruiters to the campus, following the cor- cruit negotiators and organizers exclusively within their porate practice. Some try out college students through own ranks, from among local officers or activists . Sixty on-the-job experience: Several recruit at colleges for in- percent of our respondents reported that prior mem- tern programs which provide experience for potential bership in the union and experience as a union officer staff, some merely provide short-term work experience are requirements for appointment to international repre- for college students ; and a few use this avenue directly sentative positions, with an additional 12 percent indi- for staff recruitment . cating that there are few exceptions to the prior mem- bership requirement . In total, approximately 3 out of 4 Specialists. While international representatives and orga- unions select their negotiators, administrators, and or- nizers continue to come mainly from the ranks, an in- ganizers on the basis of demonstrated qualities of lead- creasing number and variety of specialists are recruited ership within the organization . Unions tend to see from outside sources . Almost all unions (81 percent of experience as the best teacher and expect prospective our respondents) search outside for specialized talent to staff members to serve an apprenticeship at the local fill technical positions. For example, legal counsel has level. traditionally been recruited in this way . Other positions This internal method of selection for union staff is for which outsiders are most commonly employed, in longstanding and well-known." What is surprising is the order of frequency, are: research, education, pension ad- number of unions (28 percent of our respondents) ministration, legislative and political affairs, and publi- which currently do look outside the organization to fill cations. some of their openings for international representatives This outside talent search for specialists is not new. and organizers. The unions which recruit outside their Professor Wilensky attributed the trend to (1) the emer- ranks differ from others in type of membership repre- gence of multi-industry unions and (2) growing union sented, stage of organization, and record of growth . involvement with the Federal government, which gives Unions recruiting staff from outside tend to fall into rise to a need for specialized and technical knowledge. 'a two extremes based on the characteristics of their mem- What has changed is the number and variety of special- bers : (1) well-paid professional and technical, and (2) ists hired. Unions which currently look outside the relatively low-paid semi-skilled and unskilled. In the membership to fill technical positions are representative case of the former, outside recruitment is explained by of the broad spectrum of organizations in the American the fact that members are dedicated to their occupation- labor movement-industrial and craft, white-collar and al goals and are therefore reluctant to assume full-time blue-collar, and public and private sector. The eight re- union leadership roles. For the achievers in these profes- porting unions which rely solely on internal recruitment sions, assumption of union staff positions may be seen to fill technical and professional specialties are relatively as a reduction in status . In contrast, unions which rep- small organizations with limited resources. resent mainly low-skilled workers with limited formal Today, almost all unions hire some of their staff from education sometime report that it is difficult to recruit outside the membership ranks. The only variation oc- "qualified" representatives from the ranks. In both curs with respect to the numbers hired and the roles cases, officers supplement inside talent with "outsiders." performed." It has also been observed that some unions recruit "out- siders" in the initial phases of organization when pay is Training low and the work demanding and onerous. As the How do union staff representatives acquire the skills union becomes better established, full-time representa- and knowledge required to fulfill their responsibilities? tive positions are more attractive to "insiders." The survey confirms the impression that, in contrast to Rapid growth is another factor motivating outside the selection of business managers, formal training is search for personnel. For example, the outside hiring rarely a requirement for appointment to union staff and practices of public employee organizations, which con- that the "School of Hard Knocks" has been, and still stitute the principal growth sector of the American la- is, the major source of training . bor movement, reflect pressures stemming from relative The traditional trade union attitude toward staff de- inexperience in bargaining and the demands of ex- velopment was described by Lawrence Rogin and panding membership. Marjorie Rachlin in a 1968 study: Whether they recruit exclusively from within or look . . . many union leaders do not see any need for training the to outside, labor organizations do not specify or en- or education . They point out that present union leaders at force a formal education requirement for employment of all levels learned in the school of experience and on the MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW June 1981 * Unions Implementing Managerial Techniques

Functions of national staff Responding unions report employing 5,006 full-time international representatives, or persons with an equivalent title such as district representative or, in smaller unions, vice president. The vast majority of professional staff members in national unions are designated "inter- national" representatives, because the unions have membership in more than one country, normally the United States and Canada . Their duties are generally not set forth in written document, such as union constitutions, or in standardized job descriptions as is the prac- tice in most other organizations. International representatives, as the title implies, represent the na- tional union in relationships with local unions, with collective bargaining as their primary activity. They are also expected to be a source of information about and interpretation of union policy for the membership, and to provide national officers with continuing feedback on membership points of view. Less tangible but often more impor- tant is their political responsibility for building support and loyalty at the local level. Unions responding to our survey report that the four most common functions of international representatives are: (1) negotiating contracts, (2) handling grievances, (3) organizing, and (4) advising local unions on administrative questions. These duties are performed by staff carrying the title of international representative (or the equivalent) in almost all unions. Other reported functions associated with the title include arbi- tration (five unions), education and training (four), legislative and polit- ical activity (three), auditing (three), and community service (two). Un- ions which expect representatives to perform more diversified functions are usually industrial in structure. This is not surprising, given the greater centralization and broader scope of activities which generally characterize industrial, as compared with craft, unions. Approximately half of the surveyed unions employ full-time orga- nizers-728 in all-who do not also serve as international representa- tives. With a few exceptions, these unions are industrial in structure with large memberships. Small craft unions include organizing with other staff assignments or handle this function at the local level. Our survey, in contrast to earlier reports by the U.S. Department of Labor, indicates an upward trend in employment of staff specialists by national unions. Gus Tyler, assistant president of the International Ladies' Garment Workers Union, explains that unions have to:

"develop the equivalent of the corporate 'system' man at many levels. They also need specialists to play labor's newly enlarged role in the total society. In the me- dia age they need their own image makers ; in our politicized economy, they need their own politicians and economists ; in this time of the minority movements, they need their own savants about women, youth, the elderly, blacks, and Hispanics." (See Gus Tyler, "The University and the Labor Unions : Educating the Proletari- at," Change, February 1979, p. 35 .)

In smaller unions, the officers are expected to handle all functions with little or no specialized help, while larger organizations, like the Steelworkers and the Auto Workers, have specialized departments for legal advice, administration and negotiation of pension and welfare plans, arbitration, and a number of other services. In particular, the number of union staff employed in education, research, and public rela- tions has grown since the first Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of labor unions in 1949. (See Directory of National Unions and Employee Associa- tions, 1979, Bulletin 2079, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1980, p. 74.) whole learned well . These unionists feel that the new gener- er," and "International Affairs"). The curriculum also ation of leaders will learn as they did, by participating in features a number of specialized technical offerings, 16 union activity ." such as "Labor Journalism" and "Publications Design" This attitude or, in any case, the practice seems to be for union editors, "Audio Visual Techniques" for union changing . More than 9 out of 10 of the surveyed unions educators, and "Grantsmanship" for the growing num- reported they are involved in some form of staff train- ber of union officials who seek public and private fund- ing. The unions which do not mount their own in-house ing for demonstration and service programs. training programs have been sending staff to programs Job-related subjects, which dominate the curriculum, at the George Meany Center (AFL-CIO) or to university are offered on a more advanced level at the center than labor education programs . Only three of the surveyed is generally the case in staff training programs conduct- unions are not involved in any type of staff develop- ed in-house by national unions . For example, study of ment. The 43 unions engaged in some form of training collective bargaining at the George Meany Center in- in 1977-78 represent a substantial increase from the 25 cludes a sequence of courses on "Negotiation Tech- unions which reported such activity in the 1965-66 pe- niques," "Advanced Negotiating Techniques," "New riod." During the same interval, the number of unions Developments in Bargaining," "Pension Bargaining," conducting their own internal training programs in- "Arbitration," and "Advanced Arbitration ." The op- creased from 17 to 37. portunity for sequential study makes possible in-depth What accounts for the recent upsurge in union-spon- treatment even within the limitations of a one-week-at- sored staff training? Reasons cited by the responding a-time schedule . unions include: (1) recognized need for developing new For staff who are encouraged to continue their educa- leadership, (2) actual or anticipated changes in top lead- tion because of their experience at the center, a unique ership, (3) increased responsibilities assigned to interna- college degree program has been developed in coopera- tional staff, and (4) the growing complexity of staff tion with Antioch College. Its curriculum combines 2 roles. One union cited its experience in apprenticeship weeks per year of residential study at the center with training as an encouragement to train officers and staff mentored self-study leading to a bachelor's degree with at all levels of the organization . Respondents also point- a major in labor studies. Specifically designed for full- ed to the perceived rise in opposition to unions by em- time staff whose work schedules conflict with their col- ployers, government officials, and the public as an lege attendance, the George Meany Center-Antioch cur- incentive to strengthen the knowledge and skills of staff. riculum grants credit for experience and encourages credit transfers from local educational institutions, The George Meany Center. The leading center for union thereby facilitating progress toward a degree. Approxi- staff training in the United States is the George Meany mately 100 national union staff members are currently Center for Labor Studies, established by the AFL-CIO in enrolled in this degree program. The first diploma was 1968. Catering almost exclusively to full-time union presented by George Meany at the 1975 AFL-CIO Con- staff, the center in 1979 attracted 3,200 participants to vention. To date, 21 degrees have been awarded. a wide range of course offerings.'" Even more significant, The center also cooperates in "tailor-made" programs most (94 out of 106) of the AFL-CIO affiliates have sent in response to requests by national unions . A practice staff to the center .'9 encouraged by the center is to incorporate educational Groundwork for establishment of the center was laid sessions into staff meetings, making it possible to reach during the early 1960's in a series of Brookings Institu- larger numbers of staff and a greater variety of unions. tion seminars for national union presidents. These top Surprisingly, building trade unions are currently the officials, who had themselves participated in educational leading consumers of center educational services. This sessions, subsequently gave their backing to a year- illustrates the fact that the center has also broken round program of education for their staff members . through to organizations with little or no tradition of Housed in an attractive residential campus setting in educational activity.z° Silver Spring, Md., the center is supported by a more Despite its successful record, the center struggles with than $1 million annual appropriation from the AFL-CIO problems endemic to the history of labor education: (1) which allows courses to be offered tuition-free . Al- continuing resistance on the part of many union officials though early plans projected long-term residential pro- who do not see the value of staff training, (2) the grams, most of the course offerings are only 1 week in difficulty of attracting participants to programs which duration . Subjects include both "bread and butter" deal with broad social issues or conceptual disciplines, (Collective Bargaining and Union Administration), and (3) the limitations of a 1-week format prescribed by broader public interest topics ("Energy, Environment, staff work schedules, and (4) need for research sup- and Transportation," "Dimensions of Corporate Pow- port .21 MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW June 1981 * Unions Implementing Managerial Techniques

In-house training. The major constraints on internal ficers), policies (political, economic, and administrative), training activity are (1) possibilities for offering released and philosophy. Interspersed are briefings on current time to staff and (2) training expertise. Results of our developments in labor and labor-management relations. survey indicate that the decisive factor in whether inter- Major variations from or add-ons to core subject mat- national unions sponsor their own staff training pro- ter usually involve training in legislation, intergroup re- grams is size of membership, which is, of course, re- lations, and such personal skills as speaking, writing, flected in resources available. All but one of the unions and listening. Several national unions also educate some which do not conduct some form of staff training are staff as instructors. New and emerging are programs small organizations. Twenty-three of the 26 unions with designed to provide international representatives with 100,000 or more members run their own programs, skills in administrative management-planning, super- while only 3 out of 9 unions with fewer than 50,000 vising, and evaluating the results of union activities. members do so. Where resources are scarce, unions ei- ther limit training to "briefings" at staff meetings or to Collective bargaining. Almost all of the reported staff programs conducted by the George Meany Center or a training programs include some aspect of collective university . A few small unions have no staff training at bargaining . Even though this is the subject with which all. national staff members are most familiar through expe- The importance a union places on training may be rience, training programs aim to sharpen skills in tech- judged by whether participation is required. Two out of niques of negotiating contracts, handling grievances, 3 of the unions which conduct their own training pro- and presenting cases for third-party dispute settlement. grams report that staff are required to attend. However, A variety of action training methods is employed in- many qualified this response by explaining that it is not cluding role playing, case study analysis, and video always possible for employees to comply with the re- feedback. Expertise in collective bargaining is of partic- quirement . The United Brotherhood of Carpenters man- ular importance to unions which have been recently or- dates staff training in its constitution, while several ganized. For example, the Farm Workers union, which other unions require training only for new staff. recently faced the challenge of reorienting its staff from According to our respondents, staff reactions to organizing to bargaining, established a year-long train- training opportunities have been mixed. One union hint- ing program which combines classroom education with ed at a lack of incentive among staff members to attend field work. the sessions, "especially as the staff are usually overloaded with negotiations, arbitrations, grievances, Legislation and political action. Many union training or organizing . Conveniently, one or all of these seem to programs also include topics which focus on legislation occur whenever a school is scheduled." Two unions, the and political action as related to the bargaining func- Auto Workers and the Teamsters, at one time required tion. Among the most common are pension bargaining all staff members to participate in a residential training and its legal complement, the Employee Retirement In- program, but later abandoned the requirement, in part come Security Act; implications of Equal Employment due to staff resistance. At the other extreme, the Ameri- Opportunity legislation for contract negotiations ; and can Federation of Government Employees reported that health and safety issues in bargaining, within the con- training was initiated at the insistence of staff who text of the Occupational Safety and Health Act. "asked for, and were successful in obtaining a written Staff training conducted by the International Union agreement for one training program per year." of Electrical Workers affords an example of a program in which legislation, particularly affirmative action, re- Predominant themes ceives major emphasis . The Teamsters' recently inaugu- While training programs vary in form and emphasis, rated training program for national and local staff there are common themes. Almost all cover such core includes exposure to legislation of special concern to the subjects as collective bargaining, labor law, and orga- trucking industry, such as deregulation and its implica- nizing . Fifteen of the reporting unions-almost half of tions for collective bargaining ." And, as a result of the those with staff training programs-concentrate exclu- U.S. Department of Labor's New Directions grant pro- sively on core subjects relating directly to the principal gram, an increasing number of unions, in such indus- functions performed by international staff. Most com- tries as steel, textiles, oil and chemicals, auto manu- monly offered, in order of frequency, are courses on or- facturing, and building trades, offer specialized training ganizing, labor law, collective bargaining, grievance in occupational safety and health for national staff and handling, and arbitration. local union leadership. In other unions, training also normally orients staff While economics is rarely offered as a separate sub- to the organization's structure (such as the roles of ject, eight reporting unions deal with economic issues in headquarters departments, and the duties of the of- relation to bargaining and political action. For example, the Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union able from the national headquarters. Several organiza- offers perspectives on the national economy as a back- tions send all new representatives to the George Meany ground for political action questions." And, the Ladies' Center. Notable in terms of training provided for new Garment Workers Union also includes national eco- staff are the Ladies' Garment Workers Union and the nomic issues and the economic problems of the garment Communications Workers of America. industry in its curriculum for new staff." The Ladies' Garment Workers Union inaugurated the first and most comprehensive of these programs . Its Organizing the unorganized. Twenty-three unions pro- staff training institute, established in 1950, was an inno- vide their staff with instruction in ways to reach hereto- vative break from tradition, offering a year-long, full- fore unorganized or inactive workers. Recognizing that time training experience for recent or potential recruits . women and minorities have traditionally been underrep- Training included both classroom and field work. After resented in unions, particularly in leadership and acti- a few years, the format was drastically altered and re- vist roles, several unions not only train their staff in duced in length and the union's recruiting emphasis EEOC regulations but also orient them to the problems shifted from "outsiders" to "insiders." Currently the and interests of minorities and women . In the public Ladies' Garment Workers Union conducts one institute sector, where minorities have been gaining in employ- of 6-weeks' duration each year for potential or recently ment and women constitute a large percentage of the appointed staff members, to orient them to their respon- membership, two unions offer courses on special tech- sibilities, the problems of the garment industry, and rel- niques for organizing these groups . Similarly, a few evant political issues.zs unions offer courses specially designed to prepare staff Another longstanding and intensive training program members for the challenges of organizing professional for new staff is offered by the Communication Workers. and white-collar workers. In the construction industry, Like the Ladies' Garment Workers Union program, the where the percentage of unionized workers has been de- Communication Workers staff training has undergone a clining, one organization developed a course dealing number of revisions, reflecting continuing reappraisal of with outreach to young workers. training needs. In its original form, the program in- Several unions train their full-time organizing staff volved exposure to a "college type" liberal arts educa- members in such techniques as communications and tion . Parallel to the much-publicized Executive Liberal public relations skills, and legal regulations relating to Arts seminars offered by the American Telegraph and union organizing campaigns. The Organizing Depart- Telephone Co . (the Communication Workers' counter- ment of the Auto Workers, for example, conducts peri- part at the bargaining table), the union offered new staff odic training sessions designed to evaluate past ex- a 6-month residential experience on a university campus perience and devise more effective approaches to with seminars focusing on the humanities and social sci- enlisting new membership .z5 The American Federation ences. The liberal arts program was discontinued be- of State, County, and Municipal Employees has used cause the officers considered the time off the job to be the services of a nonprofit consulting organization to excessive and, more importantly, observed no relation- train organizers in the dynamics of interpersonal rela- ship between training and job performance ." tions as applied to organizing .=° The Industrial Union As an alternative, the union president decided on a Department of the AFL-CIO, in addition to conducting shift in training design which would better equip staff briefings on legal regulations, provides training in com- members for their assignments . When the training needs munity action techniques based on the Saul Alinsky of new staff were assessed, the key finding was the need model.-' to ease the transition from closely supervised work as telephone employees to independent assignments as staff Education of' new staff. Forty-four responding unions re- representatives. As a result, the union inaugurated a port some form of training for new staff members ; al- 6-week training program for new staff which empha- most all list "on-the-job training" as the main sized problem solving and interpersonal relations . Bor- component, while 27 organizations report that new em- rowing from "Management by Objectives" concepts ployees are supervised by experienced staff for the pur- used in business and government, the training sessions pose of orientation and training . The Retail Clerks stimulate participants to set specific measurable goals, (recently merged into the Food and Commercial Work- and develop plans related to their functions as orga- ers Union) is the only union which reported a planned nizers, negotiators, and administrators . A mid-term, system of job rotation, a practice common in business back-on-the-job recess is used as a testing period for and government . new concepts, the results of which are subsequently re- Thirty unions conduct classroom training programs ported and analyzed . Staff members are also trained in for orientation purposes. These programs usually focus techniques of evaluating results of planning and goal- on the union's structure, history, and resources avail- setting .'° MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW June 1981 . Unions Implementing Managerial Techniques

Personal skills. Almost half the unions with educational 3-week training program, on the theme: "Creating an programs for staff include training in such basic skills Effective Communications Climate." The purpose of the as public speaking, writing, reading, and problem solv- program was to encourage national representatives to ing, in addition to core subjects . Several of the educa- examine their roles, and to assess ways to relate to oth- tion directors interviewed indicated that, when staff ers in the organization . members were polled with respect to their training Classroom sessions were videotaped so that the par- needs, personal skills led the list. ticipants could see themselves in action . According to An interesting experiment with new approaches to the union's Education Director this nontraditional ap- developing individual skills is the staff training program proach to leadership training was selected to stimulate inaugurated by the International Union of Operating fresh thinking about employee relations in Federal agen- Engineers . In response to observed limitations of inter- cies, to cope with the need for continuous organizing in national staff members in written and oral communica- the absence of an agency or union shop, to encourage tions skills, the union contracted with a consulting firm an active outreach to women and minorities and to con- for a training design . The result was a training program front the rigidities of civil service regulations and the in "The Communications and Influence Process ." "paternalism of government administration ."" Drawing on management education experience and The National Education Association conducts a year- methodology, the Operating Engineers' program focuses round program of staff training, with strong emphasis on leadership style-"controlling," "defensive," "relin- on interpersonal relations, communications, and deci- quishing," and "developmental"-with the latter con- sion-making . Among the workshops offered are "Psy- sidered to be the ideal . Case studies are drawn from chology of Groups," and "Models for Mangement," union political activities, jurisdictional disputes, and which focus on interpersonal relations and ways to other conflict situations. Participants meet in small make decisions and motivate people, subjects which are groups with observers, where they practice oral and also popular in the training of managers in business and written communication skills and problem solving . At government . The concept of union leadership as a form the conclusion, each participant is given a take-home of management is further reflected in such workshop ti- assignment designed to reinforce training." tles as "Strike Management" and "Representation Elec- tion Management ."'`' Managerial and behavioral effectiveness. The application The Steelworkers recently opened a residential school of the behavioral sciences to related goals and prob- at Linden Hall, near Pittsburgh, which is largely devot- lems, a central theme of training for managers in busi- ed to staff training . The curriculum emphasizes "Human ness and government, is currently featured in several Sciences," including behavior and communications ." union staff training programs. Among the unions, di- A characteristic common to three of the unions verse in structure and tradition, which have incorporat- which have experimented with management training ed this type of subject matter in their staff training concepts and methodology (the National Education As- efforts are the Communications Workers, the American sociation, Communication Workers, and the American Federation of Government Employees, the Steelworkers, Federation of Government Employees) is a bargaining and the Operating Engineers (AFL-CIO), and the Na- relationship with large-scale organizations having cen- tional Education Association (unaffiliated) . Key compo- tralized personnel policies . New approaches to staff nents of the programs are borrowed from management training represent attempts to equip staff to make inde- theory and practice . While materials and illustrations pendent and analytical decisions in an environment in have been adapted to the needs and practices of unions, which rules and regulations dominate the behavior of the basic concepts are the same. In several cases, the in- employees. structors and materials suppliers have been consultants who specialized in the training of business managers . Instructor training. In many unions, international staff As noted above, training for new Communications members are expected to provide leadership training for Workers' staff members includes intensive exposure to local union officials . Several unions, therefore, conduct "Management by Objectives," a popular subject in specialized training in methods of teaching . Among managerial training programs . The training program of these are the Auto Workers, the American Federation the Operating Engineers also introduced international of State, County, and Municipal Employees, the Steel- staff to a concept of leadership styles common to a wide workers, the Hospital and Health Care Workers, and variety of management training programs . the Farm Workers. Not surprisingly, given the nature of The American Federation of Government Employees its membership, the American Federation of Teachers adapted "Transactional Analysis," based on the best- gives major emphasis to the membership training func- selling book The Games People Play'-' and widely used tion of its staff. Because teaching is a basic function of in management training, as the centerpiece of its all leadership positions, knowledge of psychology and

10 techniques of adult education is seen as a valuable tool grams for staff training is related to unions' tendency to for international representatives both in and out of the select staff from the ranks; once on staff, union repre- classroom . The Farm Workers union, for example, relies sentatives find it difficult, if not impossible, to take time heavily on staff as instructors. Its trainers studied both out for full-time study. content and teaching methodology at Cornell Universi- However, part-time study for union members, activ- ty's School of Industrial and Labor Relations, and are ists, and staff is growing in importance . responsible for all staff training in their union. Labor studies constitutes a major in more than 75 colleges '6 which enroll actual and potential staff mem- Outside training sources bers and provide them with a combination of work-re- Colleges and universities. Institutions of higher learning lated skills (such as collective bargaining, political play a relatively minor role in training union staff. The action, organizing, union administration, and communi- one continuing university-sponsored program for union cations), along with a broader exposure to the social staff is conducted by Harvard University. Harvard of- sciences and humanities. The contribution of labor stud- fers an annual 13-week seminar with the announced ob- ies credit and degree programs is difficult to assess be- jective of "training for executive responsibility in cause they are relatively new and their impact is likely unions ." Initiated in 1942, this seminar, while highly to be long term in nature . Full-time union staff consti- rated by participants, reaches a relatively small number tute a relatively small portion of total enrollment;" even of international union executives and staff. the George Meany Center-Antioch College labor studies Current contributions by other colleges and universi- program, designed exclusively for full-time union staff, ties include: (1) resident degree offerings which prepare has an annual enrollment of fewer than 100, a tiny frac- students for a career in labor-related fields, (2) part-time tion of the total eligible population . However, there is credit, certificate, and degree programs which enroll some evidence that graduates of these programs are union activists, including some full-time union represen- subsequently promoted to union staff positions, sug- tatives, (3) occasional staff training seminars offered in gesting a potential role of colleges and universities in cooperation with the George Meany Center or national the professionalization of the occupation . unions, and (4) conferences and workshops on special- In recent years, university labor centers have re- ized topics designed to attract union leadership. While sponded to an increasing number of staff training re- half of the responding unions reported sending national quests from national unions and the George Meany staff members to a college or university program, only Center . Preparation for arbitration, collective bargain- 11 universities with labor education centers (a minority ing, and labor legislation are dominant themes in these of the questionnaire respondents) reported conducting requested programs . Several universities have developed programs which were designed exclusively for union specializations in other subjects for which they are staff. Although this number is small in comparison with known among national unions ; for example, industrial the large scale educational service which universities engineering and employment testing at the University of provide to business and industry, the number of such Wisconsin, international affairs at Georgetown Universi- institutions directly involved in staff training has more ty, psychology of organizing at the University of Mis- than doubled since the Rogin-Rachlin survey in 1965 . souri, and instructor training at Cornell . Resident degree programs in industrial relations, a From time to time, university labor education centers major source of personnel specialists for business and initiate conferences and workshops which are promoted government, place relatively few of their graduates in on an inter-union basis and designed primarily for full- unions . For example, less than 2 percent of the gradu- time union representatives . Conferences generally deal ates of Cornell's School of Industrial and Labor Rela- with public policy issues of concern to unions ; examples tions, the largest in the field, find jobs in unions . include "Labor and International Trade," "Duty of Reports from other university industrial and labor rela- Fair Representation," and "Urban Planning ." Work- tions centers indicate a similar pattern . Again the trend shops provide training in such skills as "Preparation for is upward, but the numbers remain small. Arbitration," "Organizing," and "Legislative Lobby- There are three resident degree programs specially ing." designed for individuals aspiring to a union career; To summarize, the contribution of higher education Pennsylvania State University, Rutgers University, and to union staff training, while growing, is miniscule when the University of Massachusetts place most of their la- compared with its massive role in training business bor studies graduates in unions or union-related posi- management . tions. Nevertheless, university labor and labor relations centers, in total, supply a relatively small number of Other resources. Consultants are leading providers of staff members to international unions . As previously in- management education to business and government . In dicated, the underutilization of resident degree pro- recent years, a few of these consultants have played a

11 MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW June 1981 . Unions Implementing Managerial Techniques

role in union staff training . Several labor education pro- of business in the United States-the search for outside fessionals are periodically called on for advice, but there talent and support for personnel training . Nonetheless, is no true counterpart to management consulting in the important differences persist, reflecting the essentially labor field. Nor is there the equivalent of the American political structure of labor unions. As membership orga- Management Association and the Conference Board, in- nizations, the leadership imperative is not the market dependently organized institutions which cater to the test but responsiveness to the expressed needs and pref- educational and research needs of business. erences of the rank and file. Thus, staff selection contin- The Midwest Academy, a nonprofit organization spe- ues to rely on a record of achievement and loyalty at cializing in training community organizers, has been the local level . Political reality limits the role of "out- used by several unions for training of organizers. Union siders" as well as the emphasis which unions place on staff also participate in training sessions conducted by formal training and education. the American Arbitration Association and the Federal Fred Hoehler, Jr., executive director of the George Mediation and Conciliation Service. Meany Center, in a recent article on the "coming of To date, while there are actual or potential outside age" of labor education, pointed to its growing accep- resources, unions have relied primarily on internally tance and support by union leadership. Nonetheless, designed programs and the George Meany Center for taking account of the contrast in volume and invest- staff training. ment when compared with the training activities of business and government he concluded : "We are com- AMERICAN LABOR UNIONS are increasingly adopting ing of age, perhaps, but we still have a long trek two personnel practices which have been characteristic ahead."" F1

FOOTNOTES --

ACKNOWLEDGMENT : As graduate students at the New York State Research Council); and H. A. Clegg, A. J. Kitlick, and Rex Adams, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Walter Malakoff and Paula Trade Union Officers (Oxford, England, Basil Blackwell, 1961). For Traffis assisted the author in conducting the survey upon which this Canadian experience, see Roy J. Adams, "The Work of the Trade article is based . Malakoff is currently staff assistant to the President Union Field Officers," Reference Paper No . 77-01 (Hamilton, Ont., of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters, and Traffis is a labor edu- McMaster University, 1978). cation specialist at the University of Indiana . ' A 1951 study found that "International representatives, orga- ' In 1964, Russell Allen, a long-time labor educator and union ac- nizers, directors of organizations, line negotiators, and administrators, tivist, commented that "the cultural lag in the labor movement with made their way up the ranks by election, then appointment." See C. respect to leadership programs is frightening. No other institution in Wright Mills, "Leaders of Unions," in B. S. Hardman and Maurice F. American society is so careless of the technical and intellectual prepa- Neufeld, eds., House oj' Labor (New York, Prentice-Hall, 1951), p. 37 . ration of its staff and of the training and retraining of its leadership." Bok and Dunlop, in Labor and the American Community, reported See "The Professional in Unions and His Educational Preparation," that "Almost all unions are alike in choosing the bulk of their leaders Industrial and Labor Relations Review, October 1964, pp. 16-19. This from within the organization ." They note the recruitment of "outsid- point is also discussed by AI Nash and May Nash in Labor Unions ers" only for specialist positions as attorneys, accountants, and statis- and Labor Education, Monograph Series No . 1 (New York, University ticians. Labor Education Association, 1970); and by Lois Gray in "Training ` Harold Welinsky, Intellectuals in Labor Unions (Glencoe, III, The of Union Officials," Labor Law Journal, August 1975, pp . 472-76. Free Press, 1956), p. 273. A. H. Raskin, in "Unions Turning to the Law College for Top ' Seymour Lusterman, Education in Industry (New York, The Con- Officials," The New York Times, June 22, 1977, pp . Dl and D7, notes ference Board, Inc., 1977), pp . 6, and 11-22. that a number of recently elected international union officers were col- ' Stan Luxenberg, "Business is Big in Education, Too," The New lege graduates, including several with law degrees. An earlier survey York Times, Jan. 7, 1979, Education Supplement, p. 15 . found that only 17 percent of international union presidents, vice- presidents, and secretary-treasurers had completed college. See also ' "The Big Business of Teaching Managers," Business Week, July Abraham Friedman, "Characteristics of National and International 25, 1977, p. 106. Union Leaders," unpublished manuscript, October 1967, quoted in " "The Big Business of Teaching Managers," p. 106. Conclusions in Derek C. Bok and John T. Dunlop, Labor and the American Commu- the article are based on the records of Mantread, Inc., a company nity, (New York, Simon and Schuster, 1970), p. 181 . which acts as a clearing house for company selection of training pro- I Bok and Dunlop, in Labor and the American Community, p. 138, grams. note : "The administration of unions is a subject about which very lit- °' Lusterman, Education in Industry, pp. 86-90. tle is known. This information gap grows increasingly serious in an " Gray, "Training of Labor Union Officials," recounts the rise and era when the techniques of management have become highly sophisti- fall of various union staff training programs . cated and the importance of administration so widely understood ." ' The most recent survey of union education and training programs The authors raise a number of questions about the selection and train- was in 1965 . See Lawrence Rogin and Marjorie Rachlin, Labor Edu- ing of union leadership, emphasizing the impact of the political pro- cation in the United States, (Washington, D.C., National Institute of cess (pp. 138-88). The only published empirical study dealing with Labor Education, 1968). the functions of international union staff is an article by Myron Jo- This traditional route to union staff seph, "The Role of the Field Staff Representative," Industrial and La- appointment was described by C. Wright bor Relations Review, April 1955, pp . 353-69 . British industrial Mills in "Leaders of Unions," p. 37 . relations literature includes several studies dealing with this topic, in- " Harold Welinsky, Intellectuals in Labor Unions, p. 197. cluding William Brown and Margaret Lawson, "The Training of Implications for universities and colleges in the trend toward hir- Trade Union Officers," British Journal oj' Industrial Relations, Novem- ing "outsiders" are developed in Lois Gray, "Trends in Selection and ber 1973, pp . 431-48 (Reprint Series No . 10 of the Social Sciences Training of Union Staff--Implications for Colleges and Universities,"

12 Labor Studies Journal, Spring 1980, pp . 13-24. Interview with Steve Confer, former Director of Education for Rogin and Rachlin . Labor Education in the United States. p . 55 . CWA, March 1977 . . . Ibid, pp . 84-88. From author's own review of course materials : Confer interview, AFL-CIO News, Nov. 17, 1979, p. 3. The George Meany Center March 1977 ; and discussion with John Kutstad, Director of Educa- accepts both local and international staff. tion, CWA, October 1979 . Interviews with Fred Hoehler, Jr ., Director of the George Meany Interview with Reese Hammond, Director of Education and Center, April 1977 and October 1979 . Training, IUOE, June 1977 . and author's review of course materials. Rogin and Rachlin, Labor Education in the United States, pp . 83- Eric Berne, The Games People Play (New York . Ballantine Books. 95 . Until recently, the major supporters of union education, whether Inc., 1964). for officials or rank and file, were the industrial unions . Interview with Art Katie, former Director of Eduction for AFGE ,1 Fred K . Hoehler, Jr ., "Staff Training Programs," speech before (who was responsible for introducing the program described), June the AFL-CIO Education Directors Conference, Mar. 6, 1978 . 1977, and review of course materials . " Interview with Art Katie, Director of Education . IBT, October "Interview with Carl Elvin, Organization Specialist . NEA, July 1980. 1978, and review of course materials . Interview with William Elkuss, Director of Education. ACTWU, Interview with George Butsika. former Director of Education . April 1978 . USA, AFL-CIO, April 1978 . and review of course outlines . 11 Interviews with Gus Tyler, Assistant President, ILGWU, March Interview with Art Shy, Administrator of Education Programs, . 1977 and October 1979 . UAW. March 1979  Interview with Martin Gerber, Vice President and Director of Or- Lois Gray . "Academic Degrees for Labor Studies," Monthly La- ganization, UAW. June 1980. bor Review, June 1977, p . 17, lists 47 programs . based on a 1976 sur- vey . For 1980, the American Association of Community and Junior Interview with with Larry Rogin, Educational Consultant to Colleges reported an additional 28 programs . AFSCME, March 1979 . The 1980 Luborile (Silver Spring . Md ., George Meany Center for Interview with Howard Samuel, Director of Industrial Union De- Labor Studies, 1980) . partment, AFL-CIO, May 1980 . Tyler interview, October 1979 .

APPENDIX: Survey methodology

In 1977, a questionnaire dealing with selection and craft and industrial ; and public and private sector. training of professional staff was distributed to all na- While most have a long tradition of collective tional unions affiliated with the AFL-CIO and all major bargaining, a number have only recently undertaken independent unions . (Local unions were not included .) this function . Some have been growing in membership; Forty unions responded to the questionnair° . Addition- others have experienced a decline. al information was obtained through interviews during To assess the use of outside resources for staff train- 1977-79 with 31 labor educators associated with the ing, a second questionnaire was mailed to colleges and most active union staff training programs, most of universities affiliated with the University and College whom had replied to the questionnaire . Labor Education Association, with telephone follow-up Based on BLS estimates for 1974, the 48 unions for of nonrespondents . Twenty-four of 42 institutions re- which information was eventually collected had a com- sponded to the mail survey . Additional information was bined membership of 16.4 million, or 76 percent of the obtained through personal interviews with 10 directors total membership of all national unions in the United of university labor education centers . Responding uni- States. Ranging in membership from 3,000 to over 1 .5 versities are the major centers for labor education at the million, the responding unions represent a cross-section college level, and represent the range of activity charac- of labor organizations, both AFL-CIO and independent ; teristic of this field.