The Origins of the Indonesian Nation: the Indonesian Revolution of 1945-49”

“The Origins of the Indonesian Nation: The Indonesian Revolution of 1945-49”

An Open Forum with

Dr. Eric Tagliacozzo

Associate Professor of History at Cornell University, Director of the Comparative Muslim Societies Program, Director of the Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, and Editor of the journal INDONESIA

March 14, 2011

On March 14th, USINDO hosted an open Tagliacozzo identified was between the forum on the origins and legacies of the war time collaborationists, such as Indonesian Revolution with Professor Sukarno and Hatta, and those who went Eric Tagliacozzo. Tagliacozzo outlined underground, Syahrir and Malaka. the prelude to the revolution, the three Another distinction was between those states of occupation, and the economic, who sought independence and those who political, and cultural effects of the sought a social revolution with revolution. independence. The third cleavage was a desire for modernization versus support Tagliacozzo began with an overview of for feudalism; many wanted the organizations of prewar Indonesian modernization but some actors, such as nationalism. Budi Utomo, a Javanese the Princes in Aceh, still supported the organization established in 1908, was the feudalism system. The final significant first concrete example of Indonesians cleavage was between those that organizing against the Dutch. Prominent supported nationalism and those that Muslim organizations also began to favored internationalism upon emerge around the same time, such as independence. These ingredients and Muhammadiyah. In 1927, Sukarno tensions were starting to mix together in founded the Indonesian National Party the lead up to the revolution. (PNI), and in 1920 the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) was formed. Tagliacozzo outlined the three stages of the Japanese occupation during World Tensions among these groups led to four War II. In 1942, the Japanese arrived prominent cleavages in the lead up to the and consolidated power quickly. From revolution. The first significant tension mid 1942 to mid 1943, their rule was

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characterized by promises of ‘Asia for mount an opposition against the Asians.’ There was hope in the air, and Europeans. Finally, the Japanese Indonesians were still uncertain if the occupation was a time of hyper- Japanese occupation was beneficial or a colonialism, and hyper-extraction; it was deleterious. The second phase of more intense than the Dutch colonialism, occupation from mid-1942 to mid-1943 and therefore caused more discontent. was the high point of Japanese power. As a result, within days of the surrender There were no more promises about of Japan, Indonesia declared independence, and the Japanese ruled independence. with a strong hand. Tagliacozzo also highlighted the The third and final period, according to economic, political, and cultural legacies Tagliacozzo, was from mid -1944 to of the Japanese occupation. The mid- 1945. As the Japanese’ position in Japanese emphasized the export the war deteriorated, the Japanese started economy of oil, rice, and palm oil in promising things again, and began to try Indonesia during occupation, which to mobilize Indonesian support by would continue to an extent after the promoting image of normalcy and revolution. development under their occupation. They also promoted the Joyo Boyo Politically, as the Japanese began to lose Prophecy, a medieval Javanese prophecy the war, ties were cut with the rest of the that predicted that a white race would world, and Indonesians felt an increasing take over Java and then a yellow race isolation that gave rise to feelings of would come to rule. unity. Also, The Japanese forced the unity of all Muslim parties, and all of the Several legacies of the Japanese non-Muslim parties, further enforcing a occupation contributed to the nascent collective identity. revolutionary movement. The Japanese institutionalized Bahasa Indonesia During occupation, these circumstances further as the unifying language and link contributed to the emergence of a between the islands which would later political elite that was charismatic and become an important seed of the passionate and began to question 300 revolution. Also, the rise of Sukarno years of colonialism. The Japanese during the occupation was significant. occupation was stunningly quick – Japan Sukarno utilized the radio to exert took over Indonesia in three short power. months when it took the Dutch three centuries to consolidate control over the The stage was also set through the colony. unification of Islamic groups under occupation. There was a forced merger This swift capture of Indonesia of all the Muslim parties and some illustrated to Indonesians that anything 57,000 of them were trained as soldiers was possible. Furthermore, mass for the use of the Japanese. When the mobilizations and rallies furthered this Japanese lost the war, these trained atmosphere of chaos and possibility. soldiers equipped with guns remained in Rapid change was also enforced by high Indonesia and were able to successfully inflation, scarcity, and privation.

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These rapid changes let to the The Dutch were also trying to undermining of institutions and the consolidate their presence in strategic emergence of alternate authorities, as locations throughout Sumatra such as well as a vibrant black market. Finally, Sabang, Medan, Palambang, and mass urban migration occurred. For the Padang. first time, people were able to freely exchange ideas freely and easily in these In January 1948, the US and UN new urban centers with their new promoted peace talks which took place standardized language. These economic, on the USS Renville. Some agreements political, and cultural legacies of were reached, but the Dutch continued to occupation would help spark the resist Indonesian independence. Later revolution and survive throughout the that year, in part as a result of US 20th Century. adverse reaction to Dutch “police actions” in Indonesia, the US took a After Sukarno and Hatta declared strong stance in favor of Indonesian independence, the Europeans attempted independence: the US threatened to to re-colonize Indonesia. The first allied cancel Marshall Plan economic recovery troops to arrive were not actually Dutch, funds for the Dutch if they insisted on but British, and for the most part retaining Indonesia. This, coupled with ethnically Indian. They arrived after the the Indonesian continued resistance, Indonesian government had been forced the Dutch to capitulate. functioning for some time, and the Indonesians did not accept their return. Tagliacozzo shared two prominent Several battles ensued, many in and interpretations of the revolution. around Surabaya. Benedict Anderson argues that the Indonesian revolution is not explainable For the United States, this was time of in traditionalist Marxist modes, and that indecision. Roosevelt was torn between instead, the central thrust in promoting ideas of progressive liberation understanding the revolution is the and supporting the allies that the US had youth, the permuda. They were fought in the war with. He was also inculcated to strive for their own concerned about driving Indonesia country; the political leaders at the time toward Moscow and the communist promoted independence but cautioned bloc; he as well as Truman were well against a social revolution. Anderson aware that Indonesia had been one of the argues that these political moderates richest and most profitable colonies in reinforced a moderate political reform. the history of colonialism, would be essential to deny to the communists, and A second interpretation is that of would be important retain U.S. influence William Frederick. Frederick’s in. interpretation is revisionist and emphasizes continuity while Meanwhile, tensions between the deemphasizing the youth and the military, Islamists, secularists, extraordinariness of the time. He nationalists, and communists began to believes it was the mobilization of the rise. Sukarno tried to balance these people that produced the revolution. forces while fighting for independence.

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In closing, Tagliacozzo summarized and is what solidified the US’s three legacies of the revolutionary acceptance of Indonesian independence. period: Q: It seems to me that Bahasa Indonesia - Violence was one of the lessons as a national language was crucial to learned during the occupation, and the revolution, and that although there Chinese, wealth, and merchants became was a push for Javanese, the fact that targets. Since the revolution, there have they did not choose Javanese in the been multiple examples of ethnic 1920s is very important. Also, you have killings and targeted campaigns of hate. not mentioned the role of women in the revolution. - Another legacy was the use of Islam as a banner for the disaffected. This was A: Women were very much a part of the evident with the Darul Islam movement revolution too. However, we don’t have which lasted until 1962 and had a the names of those who rose to the top Muslim vision of Indonesia. This because they weren’t really allowed to concept continues today in some of the under the social structure. And about Islamist parties and in some of the language, many people wanted Javanese splinter cells like Jemaah Islamiah. but it is one of the most difficult languages to learn, and is of course Java- - The last lingering legacy is the centric. fragmented nature of the Indonesian army. Q: Growing up in Indonesia, we always said that three and a half years of Question and answer session: Japanese occupation was much worse that the entire period of Dutch rule. My Q: My impression is that the State question is you mentioned four factors Department was a real impediment to that set the scene for the revolution, but the US accepting Indonesian you didn’t mention the military. The independence and that it took quite a debate in the Indonesia is whether the while for them to understand the military was acting the way it was to importance of Indonesia. support a revolution or to be diplomatic? A: During the revolution, there were certainly differences of opinion in the A: I think the answer is both. It US about what to do next, and Indonesia wouldn’t have happened without both. was not the first thing on the US The US was very important, but without government’s agenda in 1945. the US eventually deciding to take the However, Indonesia was linked with side of Indonesia, it may not have domino thinking. The US felt in general happened the way it did. However, it in 1945 that it should let the European took the US a while to come around to countries go back to their former supporting Indonesia and it wavered colonies since they had endured the because it did see Europe as more hardship of Hitler’s occupation. The important at the time. But I think the Madiun Affair in 1948 is what really army is a factor that certainly became changed the US government’s thinking important. Many young Indonesians

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were trained to fight by the Japanese and even the Dutch. The Dutch army was also staffed by Indonesians.

Q: I thought there were three pieces missing from your lecture, but then you brought two of them together at the end. The first is the military, and the second is the tension between Java and the rest of Indonesia. However, it seems to me that a fascinating piece of the story and the third piece is the role of the United Nations, which you have not addressed.

A: If you ask Indonesians, they will say the Indonesian military won the revolution, and it is true that it would not have happened without the organized fighting of military on the ground. However, I would argue that it wouldn’t have happened without the diplomatic efforts on the ground either. The UN Security Council was involved in all of the US actions but on its own it was not strong enough to exert the influence that the US could.