REPOR TRESUMES

ED 027 ilri EM 006 167 THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILDREN ANDADOLESCENTS. AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH AN OVERVIEW OF RESEARCHRESULTS. REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATION. BY- SCHRAMM, WILBUR UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULT.ORG REPORT NUMBER RPMC-43 PUB DATE 64 FORS PRICE MF.40.25 HC-$2.26 55P.

DESCRIPTORS- *BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE RESEARCH,EXPERIMENTS, SURVEYS, FILMS, *TELEVISION VIEWING, *LITERATUREREVIEWS, LEARNING, LEISURE TIME, *ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES,*CHILDREN, ADOLESCENTS,

THIS ANNOTATED INTERNATIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHYINCLUDES AN OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISIONAND CITES STUDIES ON EFFECTS ON LEISURE TIME, AND LEARNING' AND PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS. INFORMATION ON AVAILABILITYOF UNESCO COUPONS FOR THE PURCHASE OF THE PUBLICATIONS LISTED,AND THE DOCUMENT ITSELF, MAY BE OBTAINED FROM UNSECO, PLACECE FONTENOY, PARIS 7, FRANCE, OR FROM NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORSOF UNESCO PUBLICATIONS. COST IS $0.7:. (LH) C) t.4 as a 0 EC U) co a. a 0 (I) E E U co 43No.

Unesco EM and on of The 006187 children television effects 1-10)4d adolescents a This series of Reports and Papers on MassCommunication is issued by the Mass Communication Techniques Division of Unesco. Unless otherwisestated, the reports may reproduced in full or in part, providedcredit is given to Unesco. The following reportsand papers have so far been issued and are obtainable from NationalDistributors of Unesco Publications or fromthe Mass Communication Techniques Division, Unesco,Place de Fontenoy, Paris-7e.

REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATION Number 11 Paper for Printing (other thanNewsprint) and Writing -1929.1931 Trends. March 1954(out of print). 12 Paper for Printing and Writing -Tentative Forecastl of Demand in 1955. 1960 and 1965.April 1954 (out of print) . 13 Tentative international Bibliography ofWorks Dealing with Press Problems (1900-1932).September 1954 (out of print). 14 Catalogues of Short Films andFilmstrips - Selected List. February 1955 ($0.40;2/- (Stg.); 1 F). 15 Catalogue of French EthnographicalFilms. May 1955 (S0.40 ;2/- (Stg.);I F, 16 Television and Tele-Clubs in RuralCommunities . July 1955 ($0.40 ; 2/- (Sig.)* 0,50 F). 17 International Rules for theCataloguing of Educational, Scientific and CulturalFilms and Filmstrips. Preliminary edition, May 1956 (out of print). Filmstrips. May 1956 ($0.40; (Stg.); 1 F). 18 A Manual for Evaluators of Films and Selection made in 22 Countries. 19 List of Films Recommended forChildren and Adolescents up to 16 Years T'ollowing June 1956 (out of print). 20 Catalogue of 50 PopularScience Films. July 1956 (out of print). 21 Current Mass CommunicationResearch 1 - Bibliography of Books and Articles onMass Communication Published since 1 January 1955. December 1956 ($1; 5/-(Stg.); 2,50 F). 22 Periodicals for New Literates :Editorial Methods, June 1957 ($0.753/6 (Stg.); 1,50 F). 23 Cultural Radio Broadcasts.Some Experiences. December 1956($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 119. 24 Periodicals for New Literates. SevenCase Histories. November 1957 ($15/- (Stg.) ;3 F). 25 Adult Education Groupsand Audio-Visual Techniques. 1958 ($0.75 ; 3/6eStg.); 2F). 26 The Kinescope and AdultEducation. 1958 (S0.75; 3/6 (Stg.) ;2 F). 27 Visual Aids in FundamentalEducation and Community Development. 1959 ($0.75;3/6 (Stg.); 2,50 F). 28 Film Programmes for theYoung. 1959 (out of print). 29 Film-making on a Low Budget. 1960 (outof print). 30 Developing Mass Media in Asia. 1960 ($1.50;7/6 (Stg.); 5,25 F). 31 The Influence of the Cinema onChildren and Adolescents. An AnnotatedInternational Bibliography. 1961 ($1.50; 7/6 (Stg.); 5,25 F). 32 Film and Television in the Serviceof Opera and Ballet and of Museums. 1961(out of print). 33 Mass Media in the Developing Countries.A Unesco Report to the United Nations. 1961($0.50 ; 2/6 (Stg.); 1,75 F). 34 Fiim Production by International Co-operation.1961 ($0.50; 2/6 (Stg.) 1,75 F). 35 World Film Directory. Agencies Concernedwith Educational, Scientificand Cultural Films. 1962($1; 5/-(Stg.);3,50 F). 36 Methods of Encouraging the Production andDistribution of Short Films for TheatricalUse. 1962. ($0.50; 2/6 (Stg.); 1,75 F). 37 Developing Information Media in Africa.Press, Radio, Film, Television. 1962 ($1;5/- (Stg.); 3,50 F). 38 Social Education through Television,1963 ($0.50; 2/6 (stg.); 1,75). 1963 ($1 ; 5/- (stg.); 3,50 F). 39 The Teaching Film in Primary Education, 1963 ($0.50 ; 40 Study of the Establishment of National Centresfor Cataloguing of Films and TelevisionProgrammes , 2/6 (stg.); 1,75 F). 41 Space Communication and the Mass Media,1964 ($0.50; 2/6 (stg.); 1,75 F). 42 Screen education Teaching a criticalapproach to cinema and television 1964 ($1.00; 5/- (stg.);3,50 F.

Printed in France MC .64.XVII.43 A Printed in the Workshops of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization Place de Fontenoy, Patis-7e C' UNESCO 1964 The effects of television onchildren and adolescents

An annotated bibliography with an introductory overview of research results Prepared by The International Association for Mass Communication Research, Amsterdam Editor, Wilbur Schramm, Director, Institute for Communication Research, Stanford University, U.S.A.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT.POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL ()FREE OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY.

Unesco PREFACE

Following the publication by Unesco, in 1961,of an annotated international bibliography on "The influence of the Cinema on Children andAdolescents " (Series : Reports and Papers on Mass Communication, No. 31), it wasdecided to produce a companion volumedealing with television. It was felt that the preparation of thisbibliography might appropriately be undertaken bythe International Association for Mass CommunicationResearch, and accordingly Unesco made a contract with that internationalnon-governmental organization for this work.In turn, the IAMCR placed responsibility for editing thebibliography with one of its members, Dr. WilburSchramm. Attention should perhaps be drawn here to theForeword, which sets out the criteria under which, as agreed with IAMCR, items wereselected. In particular, this bibliography aims at restricting itself to articles orsbehavioural research, that is to saypublications in which the conclusions are based on experiment, survey orclinical study dealing with human behaviour. This is a narrower basis cf choice than wasused in the earlier bibliography onthe cinema, since it is intended to excludecommentaries, however excellent,which derive from personal opinion rather than from scientific evidence. No bibliography dealing with such arapidly-developing medium as television canpretend to be exhaustive or definitive; but it is hopedthat, despite any limitations in this respect,the present publication will serve notmerely to provide useful information butwill also stimulate others to supply relevant material which maybe of use should an edition at a laterdate be found necessary. Finally,it is pointed out that Dr.Schramm and the International Association forMass Commu- nication Research were responsible forthe selection and presentation of thematerial in this publication and that any opinions expressed arethose of the MMCR and its editor, and not necessarily those of Unesco. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword 5

What the Research Says - A Brief Overview 7 The Bibliography

I Bibliographies and Summaries 17

A.Television 17 B.Related Studies of Film 17

II Large General Studies of Children and Television 19 III Patterns of Children's Use of the Media, and Effects on their Leisure Time 22

A.Television 22 B.Related Studies of Other Media 29

IV Learning from Television and Film 31

A.Television 31 B.Related Studies of Film 33

V Psychological Effects - in General 35

A.Television 35 B.Related Studies of Other Media 36

VI Effects of Violence and Aggression 41

A.Psychological Effects 41 B.Relationship to Delinquency and Crime 45 C.Studies of Violent Content 47

VII Effects on Maladjusted and Disturbed Children 48

A.Television 48 B.Related Studies of Film 48

VIII Physical Effects 49

Periodicals mentioned in the Bibliography 51

Index of Authors and Sources 53 FOREWORD

The bibliography which follows is intended to repre- between us and the scholar who did read it. There sent all the significant behavioural research dealing may even have been some misunderstanding as to with the effect of television on children. the kind of material to be included. ..t is a difficult We have defined behavioural research as experi- undertaking, of course, to make an international ment, survey, or clinical study dealing with human. bibliography, and a much more difficult one to make behaviour. Therefore, we have not included articles an international annotated bibliography which will of criticism and commentary not based on research. be complete and accurate. We therefore solicit Many of the critical articles, of course, are rich corrections and additions from scholars in all in wisdom and insight.But in the last decade a countries who feel that such should be made. phenomenal number of persons have set down on The reader may wonder why we have included a paper their thoughts on television; and to separate number of film studies in this television bibliography. out the wise and insightful statements from the We have done so because we considered them per- others would require a set of personal judgements tinent.The experience of viewing television, of that would inevitably be questioned and could not course, differs from that of viewing films in the easily be defended. On the other hand, there is immediacy and timeliness of the experience, and little difference of opinion about the standards of in the fact that it usually takes place in the home scientific investigation. By requiring that an article rather than the theatre, and alone or in a small or a book reflect at least elementary standards of group rather than in a large audience. But on the scientific research we have been able to separate other hand there are more likenesses than differ- out the kind of knowledge about television's effect ences between the two experiences. They both on children which has been gathered and analysed appeal to the visual and auditory senses; they both systematically, which should be verifiable by display movement; much of the content of enter- replication, and which has been described so fully tainment films is like that of entertainment televi- and accurately that we can judge whether it is sion, and educational films cover the same ground possible to generalize and where. as educational television;and in fact the experi- Even in making a selection of the research, how- ences tend to merge - as, for example, when movies ever, it was necessary to make at least one personal or filmed programmes are seen on television, and judgement; whether the article was significant or when films are used, as they very often are, for trivial. Some of the work which was, by our defi- "television" research. It seems to us, therefore, nition, research, was hardly worth presenting in a that any summary of present knowledge of the bibliography of this kind. For example, a student's effect of television must take account of what has survey of the attitudes toward television of one been learned, in the last several decades, about fourth-grade class in a school in the American the effect of films. Accordingly, we have included Middle West may be a useful exercise for the some of the chief film studies and also afew studies student but is of little interest or importance else- of other media for comparison with television. where in the United States, and still less in other Finally, we have tried to represent research countries of the world. Fortunately, there have series by the last or summary publications, rather been relatively few such articles in print, and in than by listing every separate publication.Thus, deciding what is trivial, what is significant, we have for example, rather than listing each of the annual tried to err rather on the side of including too much reports of Professor Paul Witty on his television than of excluding too much. panel, we have listedthe most recent report which We have tried to find and represent all the signi- summarized the earlier ones. ficant research on the topic,but undoubtedly we It is not feasible to try to name all the individuals have missed some. If so, this is a matter of great who have been helpful in gathering these titles, but regret to us, and a deficiency which we hope will be we should like to name a few:Professor Fernand taken care of in later printings. We have done as Terrou of the University of Paris, under whose much as possible within time and budgetary limi- care, as Secretary-General of the International tations to have competent scholars search the Association for Mass Communication Research, the scholarly literaf,re of every nation which has had project began, and Professor Maarten Rooy, of the experience with television.In the case of some University of Amsterdam, under whom, as present languages, however,it has not been possible for Secretary-General of the IAMCR the project was us to read the original publications ourselves, and completed; the Centre Audio-Visuel of the Ecole there may have been incomplete understanding Normale Superieure, at St. Cloud, and especially 5 Mr. Tardy, who made the annotations of French Dr. G. Lanius, of the Institut fur Film and Bild scholarship in television; Professor M. Kafel, of at Munich; Dr. Gerhardt Maletzke, ofthe Hans the University of Warsaw, who was responsible for Bredow Institut , University of Hamburg; theauthors listing research in Poland, the Soviet Union, the of the Unesco bibliography on the effectof films German Democratic Republic and Czechcslovakia; on children, who saved usmuch time in seeking out Mr. Takeo Furu, of the Radio and Television Cul- the relevant film studies; and, mostof all, my ture Research Institute of the Japan Broadcasting colleagues in the writing of Television in the Lives Company, and Mr. Takeaki Naivo, a graduate stu- of Our Children.Professor Jack Lyle of the dent at Stanford University, who directed us to the University of California, and Professor Edwin Japanese publications; Dr. Hilde Himmelweit, of Parker, of Stanford, who collaborated with me in the London School of Economics, whose volume the preparation of the earlier bibliographywhich Television and the Child, and the included biblio- was of greet assistance inpreparing the present graphy, has put all television scholars in her debt; work.

6 WHAT THE RESEARCH SAYS - A BRIEF OVERVIEW

THE PRESENT STATE OF RESEARCH contribution to values and knowledge, its inter- action with maladjustment and mental illness - all Research on the effects of television was preceded these are immeneely complicated matters and far by two decades of research on the effects of a very from completely understood. similar medium, film. Before the first television Four large survey studies published in the last studies appeared, at the end of the 1940's, there few years - two in Europe, one in North America, were already several hundredstudies of motion one in Asia - sum up and illustrate the present pictures. Among these were the important series state of research in this field. These studies are financed by the Payne Fund at the beginning of the by Himmelweit, Oppenheim, and Vince (10) , * 1930's, and a number of studies on learning from Maletzke (11), Schramm, Lyle, and Parker (12), instructional films.It is safe to say that almost and Furu and others (9). Each of these provided every important question raised by television re- quite conclusive evidence concerning the television search - addiction, effect on leisure time, contri- behaviour, the effect of television on leisure time bution to knowledge, effect of violence, relation to patterns, and the reactions to television, of large crime and delinquency, effect on mental adjustment, and representative samples of children. By review- and so forth was previously raised and considered ing other research, by comparing children with in connexion with the movies. Thus television re- television to children without television, and by search began with a number of its chief questions extrapolating from survey data, they also gave pre-stated, tentative hypotheses ready for testing, some answers to the hard questions of effect. Yet and some useful experience with methodology. in this latter field - effect on knowledge, values, When television has come into a country, how- physical and mental health, and social behaviour - ever, it has usually gone through the whole media their answers were less confident than in matters research cycle. The first studies of its effects on of television behaviour, leisure time effects, and children have usually been descriptions of viewing reactions.These studies have gone about as far behaviour: how much time do children spend on as it is possible to go with surveymethods toward television? at what hours do they view? what pro- understanding the effects of television on children. grammes? The second question asked is the effect To go farther it will be necessary to make more of television on leisure time: what does it do to use of experimental and clinical methods,prefeT- children's playtiine? their time at home? their ably continued over a considerable time span. study time? their reading time? their use of radio There is a promising line of experimentation con- and movies? Third in order, typically, follow ques- centrating chiefly on the relation of television to tions about their reactions to television:what aggression (Maccoby, Siegel, Bandura, Lovaas, programmes do they like? what content do they Berkowitz, and others in the United States; Emery, believe? what frightens or amuses them? Finally, Thompson, and others in Australia - see Section research faces up to the really hard questions of VI-A), but surprisingly little clinical evidence is televiaion's effect on'values, knowledge, physical to be found in the literature. and mental health, and social behaviour. Even a great deal of additional research, how The first three of these levels of research have ever, would not necessarily answer these more been dealt with in a number of countries and cul- difficult questions of effect with the same sureness tures, Making allowance for cultural differences, that we expect in answers to questions about the and for different kinds and amounts of television physical world.It may be helpful to explain why available, we can predict with some confidence this is the case. what children's viewing patterns are likely to be when television becomes available, what changes television is likely to make in their schedules of WHY THESE EFFECTS ARE HARD TO STUDY leisure time, and what reactions to television they are likely to haveConcerning questions on the Effects are harder to study in humans than in thing's, fourth level, however, we are much less sure. We for one reason because we are unable or unwilling have no reason to think that television has an un- to experiment on humans as we do on things. What desirable effect on health, or that it is a sole and we do to a gramme of iron; a beaker of hydrochloric sufficient cause of asocial behaviour like delin- quency or crime. But television'srelationship * Numbers in parentheses refer to numbered titles as a contributory cause toasocial behaviour, its in the bibliography that follows. 7 acid, or a 3,000 kilocycle radio wave, is not re- differences, with some confidence, to the unique strained by any worry that we might cause it pain, experience. But in the laboratory he can control damage its personality, teach it a bad habit, or only a fragment of life. He can do very little with shame it before its peer group. Yet these consi- cumulative effects. He must be very cautious and derations are constantly before us when weexperi- conservative in specifying the conditions under which ment with children. For example, our ethicsforbid the effects he has seen in the laboratorywill be us to find out whether television producesdelin- seen in life outside thelaboratory. On the other quency by the obvious experimental methodof trying hand, if he experiments in a life situation, then he to produce delinquency by means of television. has less control over his experiment. He may be Thus many illuminating but severe experiments are working, as it were, with a contaminated test tube, ethically out of bounds when we deal with humans, or with hidden conditions. and particularly with young humans for whosewel- None of these problems is unique to television; fare we feel a special responsibility. the situation is common to studies of many kindsof Furthermore, these effects which we are so human behaviour. Ye the difficulties are suffi- greatly restricted in studying are extremely com- cient to warn us not to expect too much, too soon, plex ones. A child responds to a television pro- and too specifically, from research on theeffects gramme with his whole life . The televisionstimulus of television. enters into a nervous system where many yearsof learned responses determine how the new stimulus will be perceived and what shall be doneabout it. WHY CHILDREN WATCH TELEVISION In turn the new stimulus, if accepted, maycontri- bute to that storehouse and havesomething to do What is the appeal of television to children? For with a later response to an entirely different one thing, of course,it is popular because it is stimulus. The response to any television willbe near at hand and easy to use.When the researcher influenced to some extent by the group relationships digs into the psychological reasons beyond easy of the respondent. In other words, any of thechild's availability, he generally comes to about the same complex behaviour is likely to have a complex conclusion as Keilhacker Gal film (45), that the chief cause, and it is extremely hard todecide what part reasons for going to the cinema are, first, the any single television programme playedin causing desire to escape from everyday life, and second, it.This is particularly important because the the desire to get to know real life better. Insimilar effects of a continuing stimulus like television may vein, Himmelweit et al (10) conclude that televi- be cumulative. What sums to have no effect today sion's appeal for children consists of giving them may contribute to an effect manydays from now, a chance to be"in the know... going behind the just as countless drops of calcareous waterfalling, scenes learning about the world and about during many years, from the roof of a cave build a people. On the emotional side, television ...offers huge stalagmite. Because the causes are complex, security and reasaurance through thefamiliar we are likely to overestimatethe effect of the format and themes of many of its programmes, television programme that seems related to them; notably the fmily serials and the Westerns.It because the effects are eumulative and often re- offers cor.scant change, excitement, and suspense. mote, we may underestimate the effectof,a television It provides escape from everyday demandswith programme that seems harmless. lightheartedness, glamour, and romance, 8,7.d Noparent, teacher, or communication researcher permits the child to identify himself with different needs to be told that there are often great differ- romantic heroes". (p. 15) ences between the responses. ofdifferent children Schramm et al (12) likewise conclude that there to the same programme. A child responds withall are two main classes of reason:"first, tlie obvious its related experience and the whole G; j 3 individual reason: the passive pleasure ofbeing entertained, .pe rsonality. The elkemical in the test tubewaits pas - living a fantasy, taking part vicariously in thrill sively for the experimental substance to be added, play, identifying with exciting and attractivepeople, butthe child comes actively to television, seeking, getting away from real-life problems, andescaping selecting, disposing, reacting. What the child brings real-life boredom - in other words, all the gratifi- to television is therefore as important as whattele- cations that come from having a superlative means vision brings to the child.It is a complex inter- of entertainment in one's living room, atone's action. Command...But there is, nevertheles3, a signi- A researcher, in deciding how to study these ficant component of information which children also complicated and obscure relationships between get, usually without seeking, from television ... cause and effect, has to make a cruelchoice.If The girls say they learn something about how to he wants a controlled and "clean" experiment he wear their hair, how to walk andspeak, how to can set up a laboratory situation inwhich for a choose garments for a tall or a short or a plump limited time he can control the experiences of two girl, by observing the well-groomed creatures on groups of children. By designing theexperiment TV. They learn some details of manners and cus- so duct one group has all the experiencesof the toms Some of the boys say they learn how young otnc.r Dave one,it is possible to observe the dif- men dress in California or NewYork. Some of feret.4%,,haviours of the two groups and ascribe the them say they learn a lot by watchingthe good

8 athletes...Children will bay of television:'The those found in England or Japan. InEngland, the news is more real when you see where ithappens," Himmelweit, Oppenheim, Vince study (10)found (p. 57-58). that ciaildren 10-11 and 13-14 yearsold averaged These same authors (12) suggest a subsidiary about 1.9 hours a day, which is a little lessthan appal of television - its social utility."For the American average for those ages.This may be example, teensg-rs find that television is a useful because less television and fewer stationchoices tool in providing an exe use for b 's and girls to en- are available in England,Maletzke (11) found that joy each other's company, or furnishing something German youth, 15 to 20 years old, averagedonly to do on dates The previous evening's television 7 to 8 hours a weak, or barely over anhour a day. programmes provide an excellent common ground It is not known whether this is a result ofless tele- of shared experiences for conversations ... This vision being available in Germany, of the age-group social use of television is not essentially different selected, or of a real difference in television'sat- from social use of an automobile or any other in- tractiveness to young people of different countries. strument that bulks large in a child's world."(p. 59) Wherever television becomes available for a Writing on "Why Do Children WatchTelevision?" number of hours a day, it dominates theleisure (91), Maccoby points out that when we say televi- time of children. Himmelweit, Oppenheim,and s-ln is interesting to a child, we make astatement Vince have suggested several principles thathelp not only about the program.-ne but also aboutthe to explain the changes television bringsabout in viewer: "If it is interesting, it strikes aresponsive leisure patterns.The activities most readily chord in him - satisfies a particular need, supplies sacrificed are those which satisfy the same needs wanted informaton, or perhaps offersrelease from as television, but lesseffectively. For example, general tension.'' (p. 240) She then turns todescrib- younger children will go lessoften to the cinema ing the different functions of fantasy fordifferent when they have television in their homes;they will individuals. This has been the trend of many psy- read fewer comic books, and read lessmagazine chological approaches to children's viewing -trying fiction; they will spend less time on radio.These to puzzle out the interaction betweendifferent kinds activities meet about the same needs astelevision. of television and different kinds of children,trying But on the other hand, the reading of newspapers to understand what it is in the personality, group and non-fiction books will hardly beaffected by relations, and stored experiences of the child that television, because these activities answer different makes him seek one kind of experiencerather than needs than does television. Similarly, theadoles- another, from television. There is no opportunity cent's movie-going will be less affectedthan will in this brief introduction to go into theseanalyses, the younger child's, because for the adolescentthe but references to them will be found in thebiblio- movies represent a valued socialexperience, graphy itself. whereas for the younger child they representtele- vision in a theatLe. For children, especially adolescents, radio comes to have a different func- TELEVISION'S EFFECT ON A tion after television comes into use; insteadof a become CHILD'S LEISURE TIME comedy, drama, variety source, it tends to a source of popularmusic. And, finally, the About one thing the research leaves us in nodoubt marginal and unorganized activities are morelikely whatsoever: when children have television available, to be replaced by television than are theorganized they make a phenomenal amount of use of it. ones, until, as Dr.Himmelweit says, there is "a Estimates from a number of countries cited in consequent reduction of leisure itself aschildren's the following bibliography indicate thatthe average lives inevitably become more crowded". These child of elementary school and highschool age are the three principles -that when television (6 to 16) devotes to television from 12 to24 hours a comes in, functionally similaractivities will be week. The studies also indicate thatelementary replaced, whereas functionally different oneswill schoolchildren spend, on the average, a little more not;that certain activities (for example,radio time viewing than do high schoolstudents. listening) will be transformed in function; and that In the United States, where the mostextensive marginal or unorganized activities will bereplaced measurements of viewing by children ofdifferent before purposive and organized ones. ages have been made,(12) it is estimated that a Children's bedtime tends to be slightly later in child of 3 is already averaging about 45minutes a television homes (17 minutes in Japan, 11 in day on television. By the time thechild is in the Canada) (9, 12). In Japan, homework time was first grade (age 5 or 6), he is spendingabout two found to be reduced about 14 minutes an evening hours a day in front of the televisionset.The when television came in; Canada found aslight, amount of time spent slowly increaseswith age and but not significant, difference inhomework time. with later bedtimes , until apeak is reached at age 12 In Canada, the children in a television townspent or 13 when the averagechild is viewing about three significantly less time playing than did the children school years (13 to 16), in a comparable town without television.In England hours a day. During the high decrease was the viewing time againdecreases to about 2 hours and Japan, however, no significant a day. This curveis consistent with other evidence noted in time devoted to social activity(10, 9). on the subject, andthe daily averages are not unlike But the impressive figure that emerges from the A NORTH AMERICAN CHILD'STELEVISION TIME (Data from 121

14% 37% 65% 82% 91% 94% 95%- 96%

AGE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

The beginnings of television use; percentageof children using it at different ages.

SAN FRANCISCO 1958-1959 ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN 1951 1-1-

15.515.617.922.820.316.5 15.819.624.123.119.318.9 12 GRADE 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 Average hours of television viewing perchild per week in two cities, by grade in school.

%of children 6th GRADE viewing 100 90 80 70 60

50 X 40 30 20 4, 10

11 7 8 9 10 1112 1 2 3 4 5 6789 10 A.M. P.M. SUNDAY VIEWING WEEKDAY VIEWING

Typical patterns of children's viewingby hour of the day. studies of television and leisure time is the enor- which critics would say are at a higher"cultural mous amount of time devoted to the medium during level". This question is by no means settled, but childhood. An average child 6 to 16 years old in the research does contain at least one interesting any of the countries where more than a few hours finding relating to it.Himmelweit and her col- of television is available and where children's view- leagues found that when only one channel was ing time has been measured in detail, can be counted available in England, and children had onlythe on to spend between 500 and 1,000 hours a year, in choice of ceasing to view, or viewing a programme front of the picture tube. This is a total of 6,000 which they did not expect to find very interesting, to 12,000 hours during the 12 school years. The they often chose to see that programme and became larger of these figures is not far different from the interested in it. Thus their tastes broaden and may amount of time an average child spends in school be raised in average level. However, when choices during those same years, taking into account are available at the same time,children tend vacations and holidays. to choose the type of programme which they have previously found interesting, and thus their tastes are hardened and narrowed. EFFECT ON TASTE Because children spend so much time on television, ",EARNING FROM TELEVISION chiefly on programmes not noted for their cultural content, critics have wondered whether television Abundant evidence has now accumulated that a good "demeans" children's taste for entertainment. The teacher can teach effectively by television.Of research does not deal in value terms like "demean", course, no one contends that all theuseful activities but it nevertheless has some interesting things to of education can be carried on by television. For say about taste. example, discussion, laboratory work, theme When children begin at an early age to watch writing, homework, are not substituted for by television, they usually begin with children's television. On the other hand, to the extent that programmes - puppets, animals, story-telling, teaching goes on by means of lecture and demon- children's songs, and so forth. Very soon, how- stration, then television has an unequalled ability ever, they discover adult programmes, and come to share the best teaching and the best demonstra- to prefer them. Above all, they prefer the more tions. More than 400 experiments in the United violent type of adult programixte, including the States, comparing classes in which these activities western, the adventure programme, and crime were carried on by television with classes inwhich drama. The result is that, even in the early they were carried on by the classroom teacher, elementary school years, they view more adult have shown that in most cases there was no differ- programmes than children's programmes. This ence in the quality of the final examinationswritten preference for adult programmes has been reported by the television and the ordinary class, and where from every country where a choice is available and there was a difference it was more often in favour where children's viewing has been studied.In the of the television class (81).Thus there is real United States the Schramm, Parker, Lyle study hope that instructional television may "enrich" (12) noted that as much as two-thirds of children's many classes, that it may furnish expert teaching viewing was of programmes in which adults make in fields where few experts are available (for up the majority of the audience. example, in the teaching of foreign languages in There is a great deal of variation in preference elementary school), that it may add a new strength for particular programmes. Even amongst child- to home and extension teaching, and that it may be ren of the same age, sex, and intelligence,there useful in some of the developing countries where will be considerable difference in choice of "favou- teachers are in short supply. rite programmes". Himmelweit, Oppenheim, and Does home television cause a student to do better Vince (10) noted that even the most popular pro- work in school? This is a hard question to answer. gramme was mentioned by no more than one-third However, the summary on tile following page will of the children at the two age-levels they studied. testify that there is little objective evidence that Children's taste patterns are fairly well struc- television helps children's school performance. On tured by age 10 or 11, and seem to be consistent the other hand, there is not much evidence that among media. That is, a child wholikes a given children's grades are poorer when television is kind of content on television will be likely to enjoy available to them. Lower grades go with heavy corresponding content in popular magazines or in viewing, but the viewing is not necessarily the basic movies. Tastes for content are related to age, sex, cause of the poor performance. The observation intelligence, and family norms and tastes. of most students of children's television behaviour The question has been raised whether children is that heavy viewing tends to be a symptom of "see what they like", or "like what they see". For stresses or frustrations or unsatisfactory human example, do they come to enjoy violent programmes relationships. The same stresses or unsatisfactory because no very attractive alternatives are available, relationships might also reduce a child's efficiency or do the more violent programmesfill so much of in school, and the frustrations of failing to do good the air time because children do not like programmes work in school might result in heavier viewing. Learninp from Television : Some of the Findings

Effect on School Performance Effect on General Knowledge and Vocabulary

GREAT BRITAIN

Brighter students among viewers fell Gain only for younger, slower children (10) behind non-viewers (10) Schoolboy viewers better than non-viewers Viewers among schoolboys did less well in test of general knowledge (56) than non-viewers (56)

CANADA

Children with TV have higher vocabularies at school entrance (12) Sixth grade children with TV know more about entertainment, less about public affairs, no difference in science (12)

JAPAN

Children with TV can read better (9) No difference (9) Lower grades go with heavy viewing (60) Parents think their children better informed (64) Most parents feel no difference ; a minority feel TV good for grades (65)

UNITED STATES

No significant difference (57,59) Children with television had higher Children and teacher think TV is vocabularies in pre-school (58) helpful in school, especially in elementary grades (12) Light viewers did better than heavy viewers in sixth and seventh grades, but IQ not controlled (70)

12 Most of the debate, however, has centred not on parts of" their favourite televisionheroes and the effect of television on school grades, .or on the heroines. Maccoby states (78), "There is reason effectiveness of instructional television, but rather to believe that children's attitudes andbeliefs can on the incidental learning which children derive from be shaped by what they see on television, andthat the two hours or more a day they spend on enter- emotions and impulses are aroused in thechild, tainmenttelevision. Does television broaden their viewer to match those portrayed by screencharac- horizons? Does it teach them skills -. desirable or ters... LP-Children also useteleviaion7 as one of undesirable? Does it give them a distorted view of the sources from which they draw materialfor the adult world? organizing and interpreting their experiences.They The general conclusion, as stated by Dr. ale° use it to prepare themselves for their future Himmeiweit recently in a manuscript statement lives as students, as marriage partnere, as mem- concerning the British film inquiry; is disappoint- bers of a professional or occupational group.I I* It ment that television does not teach children more is. clear that some of the customs and fashions than it does. "Surely a medium with such possibi- which used to be learned in the home and from the lities as television should be able to do more'', she peer group are now acquired from television.In writes. "We should by now be able to point with some cases, also, children in troublewith the law pride to a younger generation more curious, better have said that they have learned how to commit a informed, more enterprising, through having been crime from television crime dramas. Although able t.-1 offer them a window to the world. What is illegal skills like this may often be part of a child's wrong?it seems to me a devastating indictment incidental learning from television, still only afew that while the ten-year-olds still pick up some children ever make use of such skins. The soil knowledge from television, by the time they roach on which such seeds of knowledgefall determines 13 only the dull ones do se, and that the television to a large extent whether the seeds, mature.And hold becomes less the more intelligent the child... before the advent of television, children in trouble It must give even more cause for reflection to rea- often reported that they had learned criminal beha- lize that these children view almost exclusively viour from the movies, from radio, from the dime programmes designed for family and adult enter- novels, and indeed from every source of mass tainment. Is it perhaps that much of the evening media arid personal experience. entertainment is at the level of a tento,eleven-year old?" (p. 1). It was found in Canada that children in a televi- WHEN DOES TELEVISION AFFECT A CHILD'S sion town came to the first grade ofschool with OUTLOOK AND VALUES? vocabularies about a year more advanced than children in a town without television (12). Half a Television has its maximum psychological effect dozen years later, however, these differences had on children, one of the ablest writers onthe sub- disappeared, and the children with television knew ject has said, when: actually less about public affairs (although more 1. The values or viewpoints recur from programme about entertainment matters) than the children with- to programme; out television. Here, as in other studies, it was 2. The values are presented in dramatic form so found that in the early school years the bright that they evoke emotional reactions; children seem to make more use of and learn more 3. They link with the child's immediate needs and from television, whereas after age 12 or 13 the interests; slower children seem to use television more and 4The viewer tends to be uncritical of, and attached gain more from it, while the brighter ones depend to, the medium (e.g, , he has not developed more and more on print (see65). However, there "adult discount"); is also some evidence (e.g. , 70) that parents and 5. The viewer, through his friends, parents, or teachers think the level of general knowledge is immediate environment, is not already supplied increased by television. with a set of values which would provide a Studies of television content, of course, vary in standard against which to assess the views their results from country to country, but many of offered on television. (10) them point out that television brings a child face to Thus, in order to predint the effect of television face with adult problems long before he ordinarily one must know something aboutthe television and would meet them, and in some countries at least something about the child. A child with high aggres- tends to give him a view of adult life that is sion will probablymake special use of the aggressive distorted in terms of social class, desirable occu- material he finds in a television programme. Many pations, and violent ways of solving problems(see children may learn from a television crime pro- Section VI-C). To what extent this television world gramme how a holdup is committed, but only a few view becomes a child's real world view, affectshis children - for example, some who have psycho- plans and expectations and preparations, and con- pathic tendencies or have fallen under the influence trols his behaviour as an adult is not yetfully known. of a criminal gang - are likely ever to make use of There is no doubt that children imitate some of this information. For most children, television the fashions and customs they see ontelevision. They "play out" television situations, and"take the *See the important experiment by Siegel (141). 13 the possible effect of all will be a pleasing experience, arelaxation of ten- paid by researchers to problems; but to this violence. No othercorresponding effect has sions and relief from pressing The original hypothesis some children itwill be a confusing experience be- been so closely studied. was that televisionviolence might serve as a safety cause they will beunable entirely to separate the child might rid himself fantasy world of television fromthe real world. valve, by means of which a will not have vicariously of pent-up aggressions.This was the Thus the same television programme by Feshbach (131). the same effect on all children, any morethan will conclusion of an early experiment the same effect from all However, other researchers havebeen unable to the same child derive replicate that result, and a seriesof experiments programmes. have now come out with exactly theopposite result But there is one element inthe relation of child 140). Some of these to programme which seemsrather more important (see 121, 123-127, 129, 133, determining what effect the experiments are very ingenious, andthe similarity than any of the others in considerable confidence in programme has.This is the extent to which the of their results gives us their conclusions. child can identify with one or moreof the characters experiments is in a programme. Byidentification, we mean the The typical method used in such oneself so deeply to frustrate a group ofchildren so that they develop experience of being able to put aggression. Then they are shown a into a television character,feel oneself to be so a high level of feel the same emo- film or a television recordingof a drama in which like the character, that one can aggressive behaviour plays aprominent part. (In tions and experience the same events asthe charac- the ending, the type of ter is supposed to be feelingand experiencing. Thus different experiments, passing aggression, the nature of thecharacters, End other it is as though the viewer himself were elements of the story arevaried.) A similar group through the story which unfolds on thetelevision frustrated, are shown screen, and as thoughhe himself were making the of children, who have not been decisions, enduring the dangers, andwinning the the same programme.Then the members of the two groups are givenchances to express any aggres- victories which the Boreal herowins. When a child by behaviour or in thus identified himself with acharacter, he is much sion they may have - either tests of r.-crne type. Invariablythere has been a more ready to accept anidea or attitude which his experimental and the hero accepts, or to feel the frightof something that great difference between the his hero feels at control group. The children who werenot frus- threatens his hero, or the anger trated (the control group) seem no moreaggressive some dastardly deeddone to him. The emotional picture. But the experience of viewing is thusheightened, and the than they were before seeing the increased. children who were initiallyfrustrated (the experi- likelihood of influence is considerably mental group) have not reducedtheir aggression; if anything, they have built it up.They have in many cases found waysto express it. For example, TELEVISION AND DELINQUENCY shown a programme in which alarge doll was pum- effects on children are melled and pounded, the experimental grouppounded Most students of television and punched the doll as theyhad seen done in the unwilling to say, however, thatidentification or did not. incidental learning from televisionplays any large programme (125). The control group crime. The roots Of course, this experiment provesonly that the part in causing delinquency or aggressive ciigdren had learned totake out their of this criminal behaviour liefar deeper than tele- the family aggressions on the same target usedin the pro- vision; they reach into the personality, would generalize the im- experience, the peer grouprelationships of the gramme. Whether they pulse, and act aggressively towardother persons delinquent or criminal individual.At most, televi- probably depend on other condi- sion can be merely a contributorycause, and is or objects, would tions not controlledby the experimenter.But likely to affect only the childwho is already mal- reassuring, because adjusted and delinquency-prone. these results are not entirely teaching a criminal they leave little doubt that violent programmeson Television may contribute by aggression vica- skill which may be usedwhen the individual decides television do not serve to reduce trigger off an act of riously, but if anything increaseit and encourage to commit a crime. It may that children with delinquency by feeding a child'saggressive nature. its later expression. We know delinquent behaviour by im- high levels of aggression areespecially attracted Or it may encourage television. If television planting an unreal idea of theimportance of violent to violent programmes on But in any now feeds, ratherthan reduces children's aggres- behaviour in solving human problems. them hints as to how of these cases, television byitself cannot make a sive tendencies, and if it gives normal, well-adjusted child into adelinquent. This to take out aggression withfists, knives, or guns, of research and then an opportunity may come to usethose weapons is the almost unanimous conclusion at a moment when they are angry.We assume this clinical investigation. does not happen often becausesocial norms teach them not to behave in such a way.But certainly THE EFFECT OF VIOLENCE there is little to make us believethat violent reduce the likelihood of Because so much of the entertainment achild sees programmes on television on television is violent,special attention has been violence in real life.

14 Now let us add another possible element to the group relationship and who has nofoundation of situation. Suppose an aggressive child regularly mental illness. For this reason, parents have been identified with a hero who himself uses violence to advised that the greatest defence they can raise solve problems. For example, French investiga- against possible ill-effects of television is to make tors (135) found that delinquent boys were very fond their children feel loved and secure at home, and of a certain film hero who "fights ... knows how to to help them to satisfactory relationships with treat women overcomes all obstacles res- friends their own age. And so far as fright is con- pects no moral code and frequently plays an ambi- cerned, parents can help their children to avoid guous role; one can never tell whether he is on the programmes that are too frightening. side of the police or the side of the gangsters". On the other hand, there are cases in the litera- Analysing the reactions of the boys they were study- ture (for example, 15?-160), which show that tele- ing, they concluded that such a mass media experi- vision or films may contribute to a case of mental ence as this is especially dangerous for juvenile illness, when the condition exists. What television delinquents or potential delinquents. Worries have will contribute depends, then, on the situation, as also been expressed about the effect on aggressive well as on television content, and the situation de- children of seeing television heroes who, although pends largely on the personality and environment on the right side of an argument, still use violence of the child. to solve interpersonal problems, and themselves Dr. Lawrence Z. Freedman, a psychiatrist, take on the punishing of the "bad guy". points out that most children in a reasonably stable An interesting study by Riley and Riley (138) environment, do not confuse the make-believe points out that a child's peer group relationships world of television with the real experiences of help to determine how he reacts to violent pro- personal and family relationships (15?). "Most grammes. The child who has unsatisfactory rela- youngsters find the immediate personal relation- tions with children his own age is often driven to a ships more compelling and rewarding than the fantasy life in which the violence and excitement of animated, pictorial substitutes'', he says. "... The the picture tube helps him to forget his own frus- intensity and psychic significance of the child's trations in real life,This is the kind of child who response to television is the reciprocalof the is more likely than others to confuse the borders satisfaction he gains in the milieu of his family, of fantasy and reality, and to make use of violence school, and friends. One would predict that the learned from television in order to win honours less intelligent, the most disturbed youngsters, from his peer group. We know that unsatisfactory and those having the poorest relationships with their home relationships are likely also to drive him to families and peers would be most likely to immerse a fantasy life with television (12). Thus a child's themselves in televiewing as escape and stimulus," home and group relationships are likely to have (p. 191-192). much to do with the influence, if any, he derives Dr. Freedman constructs a pattern of the re- from television violence. sults likely to occur when television interacts with On the whole, the weight of the evidence is behind various degrees of mental instability and malad- Berkowitz 's conclusion (126) that "the heavy dosage justment. Children with schizoid personalities, of violence in the mass media", although not a who tend to avoid intimate relationships with other major determinant of crime or delinquency, persons and to live deeply within their own day- "heightens the probability that someone in the dreams and fantasies, are likely to use television audience will behave aggressively in a later situa- as a retreat from the stresses of personal relation- tion", (p. 134). ships. Children with hysterical and dissociative tendencies, who easily identify with and imitate their models, may easily find models on television, TELEVISION AND MALADJUSTMENT but the origin of their illness is not in television. Psychopathic children, poised to rebel, may also For the reasons just suggested, one of the most find a model of rebellion on television - but the important topics in the literature of television re- model does not originate their illness. Psychotic search is the relation of television experience to a children, confused in their identifications, frigh- child's social adjustment and his mental. health. tened by the violence of their impulses, may find This has not yet been adequately examined because in a violent episode on television the trigger that of the scarcity of clinical studies, and especially brings about their own violent behaviour. Or they of long-term clinical studies,The conclusions, may, if they are psychotically suggestible , follow therefore, must be summarized in a tentative form. literally and completely the recommendations of There is ample evidence that television some- television advertisers and characters. Bit it must times frightens children, and of what kind of mate- be pointed out again that the origin of their trouble rial is most frightening (see 10).But children is not in television, but rather in their personali0 es often like fl be frightened (witness the popularity and their social relationships. of the roller-coaster 9. And, no scholar contends Does television make children passive and with- that television is likely to have a deleterious effect drawn? There is no proof that it does (but see 158), on the social adjustment or the mental healthof a although television clearly may contribute to child who enjoys a warm and solid home and peer passivity and withdrawal when there is already a schizoid tendency present. As Freedman points out, (12, 165). Even eye weariness resulting from pro- "when the automobile removed youngsters from the tracted and improper viewing can be overcome in a surveillance of their homes, we were concerned short period of rest, a Japanese study found(163). for their morals. Now television immobilizes them in the living room and we deplore theirpassivity", (p. 193). Nor is there any real evidence that SOME NEEDED RESEARCH television is good or bad for home life.It keeps children more often at home. But watching televi- This has been merely a suggestive account,and sion in a group does not seem to make for a really in no sense a complete summary, of theresearch strong group relationship; each member of the listed in the bibliography that follows'. Eventhis family reacts individually more often than as part overview, however, must have suggested someof of a group, to the television he sees. The conclu- the gaps in the research. We are now rich in sur- sion is that television is not likely either to ruin a veys, and, except where a countrywhich has not healthy home relationship or rescue an unhealthy had a large survey wants a broad picture ofthe one. And a reasonable corollary isthat the quality television behaviour of its children in order to see of a child's social -elationships is more likely to how their behaviour is different from that revealed control his use of television, than vice versa. by other such surveys, there seems less need now for surveythan for experiment. Perhaps the most obvious need is for additional close experimental PHYSICAL EFFECTS and clinical studies of the effect which a givenkind of television has on a given kind of child.It may In general, the evidence on physical effects is be a long time before close, careful studieslike negative. Television postpones average bedtimes a these answer all the effect questions, but without few minutes, but seems to decrease sleeping time such studies we shall never be able to sayclearly very little because children whohave stayed up and sharply what we are measuring andwhere our later appearto goto sleep more quickly. It is true results apply.Whenever possible these studies that there are reports in the research of children should be extended over a period of years, so that who are frightened by evening television andunable we may begin to understandthe cumulative effects to go to sleep, and of children who are sleepy in of television. school because they have stayed up late at night to Another aspect of television which deserves see a programme, but none of thestudies can find more attention than it has had inthe past,is the any evidence of widespreadfatigue or other phy- problem of how to realize the potential of the sical effect related to television. Indeed, there is medium. Early in this chapter we reported some some reason to think that standardsof behaviour disappointment with the fact that television had not set by the parents may have more to do than tele- completely fulfilled its potential as a window on vision with late bedtimes, and that if these same the world; it had not given us a generationbetter homes did not have television the children might informed, more curious, and so forth. Instead of still stay up late for other purposes. that it has merely provided the average childwith Nor is there any evidence that television, viewed two to three hours of daily entertainment.Perhaps properly, has a bad effect on children's eyesight. now we should study how to makethe non-entertain- Some specialists say that reading is as likely as ment, non-fictional programmes on television more viewing to cause eyestrain, and others say that interesting, so that they will attract their share viewing is good "exercise" for the eyes . In general of viewers and contribute their share oflearning. (see 10, p. 441), opthalmologists advise children And perhaps, too, we need to study how taste is to view television in a room where thetelevision formed, so that instead of narrowing our children's receiver is not the only source of light, and not to taste around a certain level of entertainment we sit closer than six feet from the screen, and tosit can broaden their television interestsand encourage with the screen at approximately eye level.(The them to use television when possible as awindow British opthalmologists say, "eye level or slightly on the world rather than as amomentary escape below"; the Polish say, "eye level, or a bit higher", from the stresses of growing up.

16

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I. BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND SUMMARIES

A. TELEVISION* through a set of "tervening Variables'', both personal and social 1. Bogart, Leo. The age of television; a study of viewing habits and the impact of television on American life. 2nd ed. New York, F. Ungar B. RELATEDSTUDIES OF FILM Pub. Co., 1958. 367 p. 6. Charters,Werrett W. Motion pictures and This book summarizes the growth of television in outh: New York, Macmillan, the United States, to 1957. Although now outdated 1933.66 p. by later publications, the material on television and children was the most complete summary of The summary of the Payne Fund studies, conducted research up to that time. There is a summary of in the United States in the early 1930's, on the early research on television's supposed effect on effects tf motion pictures on children and youth. children, of early studies of children'. The studies appeared in 12 volumes, in addition to and of many of the criticisms of television's content. s summary, and the volumes which have most relevance for the study of television effects are 2. Coffin, Thomas E. Television's impact on abstracted separately in the presem bibliography. society, American Psychologist, No. 10, 1955. At the time when the Payne studies were made, p. 630-641. American children 5 to 8 years old averaged just under one movie every fortnight; those aged 8 to A review of research on the impact of television 19 averaged almost exactly one movie per week. on society, the family, children, school achieve- At that time, the theme of about 30 per cent of all ment, etc. The review carries through 1954. movies was love, of 27 per cent crime, and of 15 per cent sex. Dieuzeide, Lucierme. Television et education. To sum up briefly, the findings were that movies Une bibliographie sommaire /Television and were indeed having significant effects on children education,. A summary bibliography. Prepared and they remembered a great deal. from them. by L. Dieuzeide for the Centre audio-visuel de Children's attitudes were frequently changed by Saint-Cloud. Paris, Institut pedagogique na- films, and this attitude change was often cumula- tional, 1958. Supplement, 1959. 217 p. and tive - hardly noticeable after a single exposure, 28 p. but gathering strength and depth with repeated ex- posure to pictures of a given kind.It was found An unannotated listing of the chief titles on this also that movies often roused strong emotional topic from France and other countries. Several reactions in children, and that if and until "adult pages are devoted to "the effects of television". discount" was developed the movies often "took possession" emotionally of these children. Finally, 4. Harris, Dale B. Childrenand television; an it was found that movies do influence children's annotated bibliography. Urbana, M., National behaviour, notably their play. When a group of Association of Educational Broadcasters, 1959. delinquents was studied,it was found that they 50 p. went to the movies oftener than the average for their age. But the researchers stopped short of A useful annotated bibliography. The notations blaming delinquency on movies, pointing out that on research are now outdatetl, but the summaries movies are only one strand in the experience that of opinion and advice are still useful. goes into delinquency. Furthermore, the same films may have quite different effects on different 5. Klepper Joseph T. The effects of mass com- children. `The effect, they said, is "specific for a munication. Edited by Paul F. Lazarsfeld and given child and a given movie".It is not easy to Bernard Berelson. Glencoe, Ill. , The Free draw general conclusions regarding such influence Press, 1960. 320 p. * A bibliography of 106 titles, without annotations, Reviews the major studies up to about 1959 only. will be found in Himmelweit, Oppenheim, and The central point of view is that the mass media Vince (12); an annotated bibliography of 91 titles very rarely act on a person directly, but usually will be found in Schramm, Parker, and Lyle (14) 17

.-,,,,,,,,,..ignrilioarid.kuesof601140.41.104A04444111461141.41....11111 which would be applicable for all movies and all 8. Unesco. The influence of the cinema on children children. and adolescents- an annotated international bibliography. Paris, 1961. 106 p. (Reports 7. Keilhacker, Martin. Neuere psychologische und and Papers on Mass Communication, No. 31.) padagogische Forschungsergebnisse auf dem Gebiet 'Jugendschutz und Film' (Results of re- Annotations on 491 titles, including both research cent psychological and pedagogical research on and comment. Many of these findings are applicable the protection of youth and the cinema] Jugend to television. A considerable number of these und Film, Munchen, No. 1, 1958. p. 13-30. titles are annotated in the present volume. A summary of child development theory and some film effect studies, chiefly by German and Ameri- can resea,chers.

18 LARGE GENERAL STUDIES OF CHILDREN AND TELEVISION

9. Furu. Takeo. Television and children's life: in this bibliography except as they add signifi- A before-after study. Tokyo, Japan Broadcast- cant findings to those reported in this summary ihg Corporation, Radio and Television Culture article. Research Institute, 1962. (In Japanese). 10. Himmelweit, Hilde, Oppenheim, A.N. and In a medium-size Japanese industrial city, 3,700 Vince, Pamela. Television and the child; an children in the third, fifth, and eighth grades, were empirical study of the effects Of television on selected by sampling school classes, and informa- the young. in collaboration with D. Blumenthal tion was obtained about their daily routines after and others.London, New York, 'Published school. At the time of this first survey, television for the Nuffield Foundation by the Oxford was not yet available in that city. Two years later, University Press, 1958. 522 p. after both commercial and non-commercial televi- sion had come into the city, the former third and This carefully designed research was carried out fifth-grade students were followed up, and it was with equally great care in England in 1955 'and possible to interview about 80 per cent of them. Of 1956. A total of 473 thirteen- and fourteen-yean-old these, about 30 per cent now had television in their children and 454 ten- 'and eleven- year - 'old 'children, homes. A control group, matched as well as pos- who habitually viewed television, were matched sible, was formed from the pupils whose families with groups of similar size, age, 'sex, I.Q. ,and did not yet have television. The children with tele- social class who did not v.'ewtelevision. In addition vision (the experiMental group) and those without to these comparisons between viewers and non- television (the control group) were then compared viewers, the researcher also made a study. of 376 in a number of ways. children in Norwich, before and aftertheir families It was found that fifth-grade boys with television installed television.These children kept diaries went to bed on Sunday, on the average, about 17 and answered questions.Questions were also minutes later than the control group. Home work asked of teachers, and the content of television time was reduced, onthe average, about 14 minutes programmes was analysed. a day in the same group of boys. (The difference The following summary of conclusions is was in the same direction and significant for the reprinted, with permission, for Schramm, Lyle, other groups also.) Television had replaced some and. 'Parker, Television in the -Lives of Our of the time previously spent on other media, and Children (q.'v.): home activities such as chores and playtime were Who are the early viewers? The people with also somewhat reduced in the television group as strongest need for ready-made entertainment. compared to the control group. How many hours per week do children View On the other hand, there was only a very little television? Viewers in both age-groups watched difference between the two groups in respect of 11 to 13 hours a week, more time than they pit on time devoted to social and creative activities. any other leisure activity. The increase f.n reading ability between the be- What factors reduce interest in and time s ent fore and after tests was significantly smaller for on viewing? Lower viewing goes with high Intel i- the ueventh-grade boys from the television homes. gence, with an active life, 'and with parental There was no significant difference between the example in that direction. -- girls' experimental and control groups of the same Do the children watch many grade. No noteworthy differences were found in designed for adults? Yes, many. their scores on science and social studies achieve- What kinds of programmes do children like ment tests. best? Three-quarters of the votes were for adult Paper and pencil tests in after-only comparison programmes, particularly crime thrillers. Adult failed to reveal any greater "passivity", "escapist political programmes, documentaries, and discus- tendency", or "nervous tendency" in the television sions held little appeal.Even the most popular children. programme, however, was mentioned by no more This study was made by the Radio and Television than one-third of the children. Cultural Research Institute of the Japan Broadcast- Can children's taste's be developed by seeing,. ing Company (11111C).Earlier reports on some programmes which aEt not, on the whole popular' parts of it were published in the Institute's Pionail with children?' When only one channel 'was avail- Bulletin. These partial reports will not be listed able, it was observed that children viewed and

19 came to like programmes theyordinarily would not 11. Maletzke, Gerhard. Fernsehen im Leben der have selected. Jugend LTelevision in the life ofyouth/. How is taste affected baccess (in Great Hamburg, Hans Bredow Institute, 1959. 208 p. Britain) to a second channel? Programmes with educational value or those produced especially for After summing up some of the previous literature children are most likely to suffer. on adolescents, delinquency,and television, this What constitutes television's appeal for book reports a study made from tape recordings children? Easy availability value as time filler of interviews and group discussions withHamburg ...the satisfaction of being in the know security youth.The total sample was 400, divided into and reassurance through familiar themes and for- matched groups of viewers and non-viewersof mats ... change, excitement, suspense ... escape ... television.The ages of these youth are 15 to 20, identification ... warm and friendly personall:128. and thus the results of this German studycannot To what extent is the child's outlook coloured be compared precisely to those of theHimmelweit. by what he sees on television? The values of tele- Oppenheim, and Vince study in England(where the vision make an impact if they are presented in ages were 10 to 14), or theSchramm, Lyle , Parker dramatic form, if they touch on ideas or values for study in the United States (where the ages were3 which the child is emotionally ready, and if the to 16).Yet the conclusions are in many ways child cfumotturitfor information on the same points parallel to those of both the British and the American to parents and friends. studies. What frightens children on television? Realistic These German 15 to 20-year-olds watch tele- rather than stylized violence; fictional events in vision, on the average ,between 7 and 8 hours a horror or space programmes. Viewing in the dark week.This is probably somewhat less than their or alone makes fright more likely. counterparts- in the United States (where 16-year- What types of aggression prove moat disturb- olds average between 12 and 14 hours aweek). ing to children? Guns least, daggers andsha-rp However, Germantelevisiou is on only one chawel instruments most. Danger to animals like Lassie. and many fewer hours of television areavailable Do these programmes make children aggres- in Hamburg than in an American city ofcomparable sive? No evidence was found thatthey did; but, on size. Half the German youth watch television every the other harm, there was no evidence, of beneficial night. Most of them take it lightly, responding result. even to TV news as a formof entertainment, and Doestelevision.irove a child's general know,- being rather uncritical about the source and ledge? A net gain was found only for the younger, quality of programmes. As good points about tele- duller viewers. vision they named, for example, that it carries How does television affect children's school- information, knowledge, and pictures; it entertains; work? Brighter children tended to fall behind and it brings movies into the home. As bad points, comparable children who were non-viewers, they say that television seduces one so that one What is the effect of television on leisure? spends too much time looking; that it is not good Younger viewers reduced cinema-going, and all for family life;that it is dull, and suppresses children listened less to radio after television came. both imagination and talk. Book reading was less at first, thenreturned to Dr. Maletzke could find no conclusive evidence the expected level., Entertaining at home increases that television causes juvenile delinquency, or has with television, but casual companionship some- any clear and spectacular effectwhatsoever on the what decreases. smite behaviour of youth. What is the- effect on family life?It keeps members of the family at home more , but really 12. Schramm, Wilbur, Lyle, Jack and Parker, does not bind them together. Edwin,B.Television in the lives of our Does television make children passive? The children. With a psychiatrists' comment on authors,found no evidence that it does. the effects of television by Lawrence Z. Does television make children more enterpris- Freedmann Stanford, Ca. ,Stanford Uni- ing, or stimulate them to make things, enter com- versity Press, 1961. 324 p. petitions, visit places of interest, or develop new hobbies? On the whole, they conclude, it does not. This book is based on responses (diaries, inter- What is the effect of television on night rest views, questionnaires) from 6 , 000 children, 2, 000 and eyesight? Bedtime is, on the average,about parents, and several hundred teachers in the United twenty minutes later in television homes,but the States and Canada. Samples came from large television children turn out the light more quickly cities and small towns, including two comparable and play less in bed.Defective eyesight was no communities, one with and one without television. more frequent among viewers thannon-viewers. One result of this large study was the most What type of child becomes a television addict? detailed picture yet obtained of children's televi- The au4 ors treat addiction simply as heavy view- sion habits. In the United States, about one-third ing.The Chief correlates are lower intelligence, of all children are using television with some insecurity, maladjustment, and inadequate contacts regularity by the age of 3; 80 per cent of them, and friendships. by the time they go to kindergarten; 90 per cent,

20 .1-=11110,

by the time they are in the first grade. At 3, the overwhelmingly as entertainment, escape, fantasy. average child is spending about 45 minutes a day Is a child better informed as a result of tele- on television. By the time he is in the first grade , vision? Children in a television town come to school he is spending a little over two hours a day on tele- with larger vocabularies than do children in a vision. Viewing time slowly increases until about comparable town without television. This differ- the age of 12, when it increases sharply to some- ence vanishes, however, in a few years.Thereafter, thing over three hours a day. Then viewing time heavy viewers know more about light topics (such slowly falls again, until by the end of high school as the entertainment personalitiesthey see on tele- the time is again .a little over two hours. But there vision), less about public affairs (which light viewers are great individual differences: when the average seem to learn from print), and neither more nor is two and one-half hours, some children are spend- less about subjects like science ,which they learn ing more than four hours on television, and others chiefly in school. less than 30 minutes. Television dominates the mass Does television stimulate intellectual or creative media time of American children. activity? It is more effective in stimulating Except in the very early years, there is no interest than activity. distinct boundary between adult and children's Does television make children passive? No programmes. First grade children were found to evidence is found for this. be devoting 40 per cent of their viewing time to Does it prematurely "age" children?It cer- programmes that are usually thought of as adult. tainly exposes them to adult ideas and behaviour The authors estimate that well over two-thirds of earlier. all children's viewing between the ages of 3 and 16 , Does it often frighten children? Almost every is devoted to programmes for which the majority young child, at some time, is frightened by a tele- of the audience is adult. vision experience.Findings on what frightens What children are heavy viewers? Those whose children agree with Himmelweit, Oppenheita, and parents are heavy viewers; in the first six or Vince. eight years of viewing, the brighter children; after Is television too exciting for children? The that the brighter children ti'rn away, and the slower question is discussed, but no definite answer is ones become heavier viewers; and children who found. have family troubles or unsatisfactory social rela- Does television violence teach children violence? tionships, from which they retreat to television. A child with psychopathic tendencies is likely to The authors say no infoimed person can say pick up from television a suggestion for violence. simply that "television is good or bad for children. A frustrated, aggressive child is at least aslikely For some children, under some conditions, some to have his aggression increased as to have it re- television is harmful. For other children under the leased by television, and at a later time when same conditions, or for the same children under violence is called for he may remember some of other conditions,it may be beneficial.For most the techniques he learned on television. For Most children, under most conditions, most television normal children, there is no evidence that televi- is probably neither particularly harmful nor parti- sion brings out in them violent behaviour. cularly beneficial". Much of the book is therefore Does television cause juvenile delinquency? devoted to ascertaining the critical conditions. Television can contribute but ,:an hardly be the Here are brief answers to some of the key basic cause. questions in the concluaing chapters: In the course of discussing other possible What do children think of television?It has effects, and what parents, broadcasters, and enormous prestige with them, but the brighter ones researchers can do about it,the authors several think much less of it in their teens. times point out the importance of a warm, secure What do children use television for? Partly home and of satisfactory peer-group relationships as a social tool (like an automobile, for adate). as an antidote to any potential harm that might Largely for its fantasy which lets them put aside come from television. real life problems. And also for information, for The book has 100 pages of tables, and a long its help in solving real life problems.But annotated bibliography. III. PATTERNS OF CHILDREN'S USE OFTHE MEDIA AND EFFECTS ON THEIR LEISURE TIME*

characteristics. That is, boys were morelikely A. TELEVISION than girls to make frequent useof the pictorial 13. Abrams, Mark. Child audiences fortelevision media, children of blue-collarfamilies more than in Great Britain, Journalism Quarterly,Vol. children of white-collar families,children of lower 33, No. 1, 1956. p. 35-41. I.Q. more than children of high I.Q. ,and Catholics more than Protestants.She also found that girls This survey of 1,500 children, eight to 15 years who are high-achievers (forexample, those whose old, in Great Britain, indicates thatthese children schools are better than their mentalability would prefer adult to children's programmes,and that seem to predict) are lesslikely than under- working-class children are more likely than middle- achievers to make a great deal of use of thepicto- class children to prefer adult programmes.The rial media, She found, also, that the"aggressive greatest effect of television on these children's hero" type of programme is more likely to be media habits seemed to be a reduction of radio selected in these media by boyswho are rebel- listening. There was little evidence oftelevision liously independent, have low I.Q. scores,and effect on movie-going, reading comics, and mem- are often spanked - inother words, those who are bership in clubs. Whereas working-classchildren probably highly aggressive themselves. reported they prefer television to othermedia, so middle-class children say they give highest pre- 16. Bambini e ragazzi dinanzial televisore ZKids ference among media experiences to readingbooks. in front of thetelevision7, Bolletino Doxa, 20 July 1962. p. 140-142. in children's 14. An analysis of children's interest conducted for radio drama. In: Nippon HosoKyokai,Surveys This is a report of a sample survey and experiments of school broadcasting.Tokyo, the purpose of estimating theprobable number of 1960. p. 237-254. very young children whowatched TV on an average day in the spring of 1961. The surveyresults show A study was made to discover whatfactors in pro- that a large number of the youngerchildren watched Schoolchildren the programme intended foradolescents of 17 and grammes attract children's interest. watch the of 5th and 8th grades were the subjectsof the study 18, while the latter were more likely to and 11 programmes were selected forthe test. A evening programmes for adults. group of child psychologistsnoted 26 characteristics diary and sur- or factors in each programmethat were thought to 17. Baffin, Tom G. The use of the attract the interest of children. Acomparison of vey method involving thequestionnaire tech- the item analysis with the children'spreference ni ue to determine the impact of television on for different programmes showed 18 constant schoolchildren in regard to viewing habitsand factors. To mention a few, theseincluded the story formal and informal education. Ph.D.Thesis. being based on the real lifeof the children, the Ann Arbor, Mich. , University ofMichigan, plot being written in asimple, clear way, some 1952. 318 p. (Publication No. 3578). emphasis in the context on sociability andhumour, A study of seven-day diaries kept bychildren in etc. Ann Arbor, Michigan, who had hadtelevision for 15. Bailyn, Lotte. Mass media andchildren; a six months or more in 1951.It was calculated study of exposure habits and cognitiveeffects. from the diaries that children in grades onethrough Washington, American PsychologicalAssocia- six (ages 5 through 12) averaged 18.5hours of tion, 1959. 48 p. (PsychologicalMonographs, television viewing per week, and childrenin grades Vol. 73, No. 1). seven through 12 (ages 12through 18) averaged 21 hours television per week. Miss Bailyn studied the listening,viewing, and reading habits of about 600 fifth- andsixth-grade children, and compared differences in these habits with social and psychologicaldifferences in the children. She found that the"pictorial media" - as she called television, movies, and comicbooks - *See also especially 10, p. 91-168, and313-66; seemed to attract children with many of the same 12, p. 24-97; and 9 and n, passim.

22

40.1.11116:2. 18. Becker, Samuel and Wolfe, Glenn J. Can adults (in which 4,000 persons are interviewed personally predict children's interest in a televised pro- every day, on an aided recall method) as of the end gramme? In: Schramm, W. ed. The impact of 1960. Concludes that the average British child of educational television. Urbana, ,Uni- of five to eleven years watches television for more versity of Illinois Press, 1960. p. 195-213. than two hours a day, whereas the average child of twelve to fourteen watches television nearly one It was found that teachers, specialists in child hour and a half. The commercial television pro- education, and mothers could all predict fairly grammes (ITV) attracted at that time - October- satisfactorily what parts of a television programme December, 1960 - somewhat larger percentages would interest fifth-grade children (10 or 11 years of the children than did BBC. At any time between old), but that they could not very satisfactorily pre- 5 and 9 p.m., 50 per cent or more of children ciict the parts that would interest pre-school children between five and eleven years of age are likely to (four or five years old). Some doubt is cast on the be viewing television. About 55 per cent of children results because Becker was not able to validate twelve to fourteen view televisior, between 5 and his technique for measuring the "true" interest of 6 p.m.,but after 6 p.m. only 30 per cent of these the younger children in the programme: he had to older children are likely to be viewing. Apparently depend on observation of the children while they homework competes for their time watched it. 22. Children's viewing patterns and factors in- 19. Belson, William A. The effects of television fluencing their programme choices, Annual upon family life, Discovery, Vol. 21, No. 10, Bulletin of the Radio and Television Culture 1960. 5 p. (Research Techniques Division of Research Institute, No. 6, 1961. London School of Economics and Political Science, Reprint No. 127). In addition to material already summarized, this article reports that children who had favourable A total of 8, 200 viewers and non-viewers in England relationships with their parents tended to select a completed diary-type questionnaires for the BBC. wider variety of programme types than did children Groups were matched by Belson's technique of re- whose home relationships were unfavourable. The weighting a number of variables in terms of their same holds true for active children as compared association with the variable under study.Con- to those who are less active. clusions: Television has brought about a number of small changes in home life, but nothing sweep- 23. Clark, W.J. Of children and television. ing or spectacular. There has been an increase in Cincinnati, Ohio, Xavier University, 1951. the number of visitors to homes with television; a redistribution of the times in which a family is at On the basis of 750 questionnaires filled out by home together (in general people are more often at sixth- and seventh-grade children (11 to 13 years home in the evening, less often in morning and old) in 1950-1951, this investigator concluded that afternoon); a small reduction in the amount of things these children spent 3.7 hours a weekday on adults do for children in the home (for example, television. reading a story to a child); a very small decrease in the number of things a family did together (ex- 24. Content analysis of programmes preferred by cluding television viewing); and some substitution children, Monthly Bulletin of the Radio and of television viewing for other ways in which the Television Culture Research Institute, Vol. family entertained visitors. 10, No. 9, 1960. 20. Boesler, Pawel.Les telespectateurs et le The content of 70 programmes known to be favou- programme de la teldvision de Poznan /The rites of children was measured during one month. viewers and television programmes in Poznan7, The programmes included adventure, detective Biuletyn Telewizyjny, No. 2, 1958. p. 9. and thriller, home drama and comedy programmes. It was found that these would have brought a child Responses from 258 of 809 television owners in into contact with only two countries (japan -46 pro- Poznan to whom questionnaires had been sent led grammes, and the United States - 22 programmes). to the conclusion that children and youth constitute In the aggressive-hero type programmes, justice, about 54 per cent of the viewers of television in courage, and self-confidence were stressed, while this part of Poland. About 74 per cent of respon- the villain usually illustrated cruelty, selfishness, dents expressed themselves as highly pleased with and violence. Certain important characteristics the children's programmes. desired in everyday life,such as fairness, dili- gence, and decent manners, were practically 21. British Broadcasting Corporation. Facts and ignored in the four types of drama.In the figures about viewing and listening, in twelve aggressive-hero type dramas, good invariably charts with a commentary. London, 1961. 31p. overcame evil,but in a majority of the cases violence was the means used to overcome the Summarizes results of BBC audience survey figures evil.

23 ;ia:4Ako,#..vt,orofrAittiMie±gLWC*NwmAeltI4MSII.O.lrilMMIOMIN

28. Fager, J. and Smith, R.New views on television, 25. Cunningham and Walsh.Videotown. 1948-1957. 39-40. NewYork, Cunningham arse Walsh Pub. ,1958. National Parent Teacher, No. 46, 1951. p. 21 p. Slightly more of the parents in an uppermiddle-class suburb thought that television had notaffected the This is a summary of ten annual surveys oftelevision had. Less viewinr in the city of New Brunswick, NewJersey. At parent-child relationship than thought it than 3 per cent felt thattelevision harmed their the time of the first survey, in 1948, only1 per cent thought it ac- of the homes had television; in 1957 92.7 percent had children's school work, 20 per cent slowly to a tually helped. Most of the parentsreported that the it. Average hours of viewing increased scouting, peak in 1955, and slowly decreasedthereafter. It was children's interest in such activities as of all dramatics and music 'tad not beenlessened by tele- 3.21 hours a day in 1957. About three-fourths bad effects on sleeping children viewed on an average eveningin1957-two vision, and most reported no hours per evening on the average. Thegeneral ave- or eatinghabits,or emotionaladjustment. about two hours a day rage for children under 10 was Television and on television; children10-18 averaged 2.4 hours. As 29. Fine, B.J. and Maccoby, N. television came into Videotown, movieattendance family life; a survey of two New England commu- nities . Boston, Boston UniversitySchool of was very much reduced, as wasmagazine reading. 1952. Radio listening had fallen almost tonothing by 1951, Public Relations and Communications, but thereafter slightly increased each year.Of all 37 p. the media, onlythe newspaper has nevershown any reduction in time attributable to television. A study of children in two New Englandcommunities found that adolescentswatch less television than 26. An effect study of TV on children'sbehaviour younger children, andthat there was no significant interven- difference between viewing patternsbetween children with the difference of intelligence as an months and those ing variable, Annual Bulletin ofRadio and Tele- who had had a television set for six vision Culture ResearchInstitute, No. 6, 1961. who had had a set for two years. of 30. Geiger, Kent and Sokol, Robert.Social norms Through the data obtained from the second survey Journal of the large study, the children withhigher intelligence in television watching, American and withlowerintelligence weredivided into TV and Sociology, No. 65, 1959. p, 174-181. control groups. Analysis of variancefor the total lei- that the factor of TV acted Examining survey data they had gatheredfrom more sure time activity revealed in 1956, these more stronglythanthefactor of intelligence. TV and than 500 persons in the Boston area intelligence interacted with each other uponthe fifth- sociologists came to the conclusion thatthere is a grade childrenin respect of homework time,.Among normative quality about televisionviewing. They higher intelligence, TV groups, noted that people tended to speakof television the children with seeking, which, displayed a tendencytoward shorterhomework time, viewing as chiefly entertainment but TV groups composed of the childrenwith lower they say, more nearly fits"the value given to'im- intelligence reported longer homework time. mediate gratification in the lower orworking class than ... the time orientation andideal of deferred 27. An effect study of TV onchildren's behaviour gratification of the middleclass". Therefore, they with cultural environment as anintervening felt that middle-class people were lesslikely than variable, Annual Bulletin of theRadio and lower-class people to be proud of theirtelevision No. 7, viewing; in fact, they thought they foundevidence Television Culture Reseamt Institute, against television 1962. of a taboo in the middle class watching.This led them to speculate as tothe Home cultural environment of a largesample of conditions which might bring aboutaddiction to children was evaluated in terms ofchildren's television viewing. They sake:"(1) behaviour in- play equipment, library, study room,and other volving gratification but subject tocultural taboos equipment and furnishing. As far aspossible, is likely to lead to addiction; (2) thereis a taboo against television viewing in the middleclass but groups,rated high in cultural environment were matched with groups rated low.Fifth graders not in the working class; (3)television addicts in the low environment group werefound to would therefore be found predominantly among view more heavily than fifth gradersin the middle-class persons who are constantviewers." high group, but this difference wasnot found among seventh graders.Among theseventh 31. Graham, S. Cultural compatibilityinthe adop- graders withhighculturalenvironment, tion of television, Social Forces , No.33, 1954. thosewithtelevisionscored higher in read- p. 166-170. withouttelevision. ingteststhan'those into their Inthr fifth grade high-environmentgroup, Who are the first people to put television thosewith televisionscored higher in homes? On the basis of interviews with 150heads socialstudies tests than those withouttele- of households in New Haven, Connecticut,Graham vision. concludes they are persons whoserecreations and

24 behaviour before television were most compatible cent of the parents complained thattheir children with the behaviour television demands. The people did not come to dinner promptlywhen they were who accepted television early were more likely called to dinner from the TV set. to be movie-goers and radio-listeners ratherthan book-readers, less likely to engage in active types 35. Hart, W.A. Bioscoopbezoek door jongeren. of recreation.Early accepters were also more Een bijdrage tot de verkenning van hetvraagstuk likely to be persons of low education and low in- film enjeugd aan de hand van eenenquete, in come, for whom television offerednon-demanding opdracht van het Instituut Film enJeugd, recreation, at home, at little cost after the initial Uitgevoerd door het ISONEVOLVisits to the price of the receiving set. cinema by young people. A contributionto the stody of the problem of the cinema andyouth. 32. Gratiot-Alphanddry, ,Helene. L 'enfant et la based on a survey carried out by ISONEVO on television the child andtelevi3io7, L lecole behalf of the Instituut Film enJeug7. Rotter- des parents, No. 4, 1956. p. 14-21. dam, W.L. &J. Brusse, 1955. 45 p. This article is an attempt at a summaryof the Summary report of a questionnaire surveyby the influence on children of television. Theeffect of "Instituut Sociaal Onderzoek Nederlandse Volk" in television on the child's life,says the author, 1951-1952 among Dutch youth 14-19 years of age is to decrease the hours of sleep, toincrease the and of different socio-economic, ideological,and hours spent at home, and to cause thechild will- educational backgrounds. Covers questions on ingly to abandon some of his reading infavour of frequency of film attendance, kind of movies, eva- the television - although, of course, when thetele- luations, motivations, selection, etc. The average vision programme relates to a book, then that book frequency was once a month, the liberally educated enjoys an amazing success.The reactions of the showingthe highest frequency and orthodox Protes- child are summarized as follows: the childmakes tants the lowest. Attendance was mostly on week- a choice amongst the programmes,typically pre- ends, at first evening performances, and inwinter. fers spectacles and variety, and shows amarked Boys were more likely than girls tc go alone tothe interest in the stars and other living persons. cinema and were less dependent on parental per- mission. Oral information and critics determine 33. Gratiot-Alphanddry, Helene and Rousselet,Jean. the choice, girls being influenced mainly bystars. La television et la famille /Television and the Boys prefer detectives, westerns, war and maquis familg, L'ecole des parents, No. 3, 1961. p. 24-37. films; girls preferfilme on daily life, natureand animal films; historical films are appreciatedby In the course of a survey study of 279 Frenchfamilies, both. both rural and urban, workers and middleclass, four questions wcre asked in particular reference tochild- 36. Japan. Ministry of E "ucation.Effects of ren and television. Askedwhether, following televi- television on children, 1959, Shimbun sion programmes, they talked about the programmes No. 116, 1961. p. 4-11. with their children, two-thirds of the parentssaid "sometimes ", one-third said "often". Ninety per cent A diary study of 7,200 sixth- and ninth-grade of the parents said that they considered certain pro- students, in nine prefectures, revealed that those grammes bad for their children. Askedwhat action who viewed television more than three hours a day they took when they believed the programme wasnot also read newspapers more than the average,but suitable for children, 20 per cent said they turned off went to the movies considerably less thanthe the set, 68 per cent saidthey sentthe children away average for their age, and the sixth-gradestudents from the set, and 12 per cent said they let thechildren also listened less to radio.Sixth-grade children watch the programme anyway. Concerning theeffect who were heavy viewers had slightly higherschool of television fm children's work, several ideas were grades than light viewers.There was no such advanced. One was that suppressing the TV was some- difference in the ninth grade. times a good way to get studying done. Another was Questionnaires answered by 2,750 parents that children become more interested in theirschool who own television sets indicated that newspaper work when they find in certain scientific orhistorical reading increases with length of time television programmes references to topics they arestudying. sets have been owned. (Other studies,however, And finally, some parents noted that television isnot have shown that it also increases considerably with attractive enough to affect school work which ismoti- age up to the beginning ofadulthood.) vated by serious future plans or professionalgoals. 37. Kosel, Edmund. Jugendliche and ihre 34. Hakuhodo Advertising Company. Research Fernseheninteressen /Young people and their Division.Television - effect on children. interests in television/7 Jugend, Film, Fernsehen, Tokyo, 1956. No. 3, 1960. p. 32-44. On basis of questionnaires from 501 parentsin TV A study of 165 Munich children, by meansof homes reported, among other things, that 25 per interviews, discussion, and material writtenby 25 the children.Considerable differences were village of Siolkowizethe conclusion was reached found in their interests. Among leisure time that most children want to watchadult television activities, they said they were most interested programmes. The majorityof parents consider in sports (69 per cent), cinema (54 percent), the children's programmes of"inferior quality". television (39 per cent), and reading(38 per The integrating influence of televisionis observed cent).Their television tastes depended greatly perhaps more often in the relationsbetween on their ages.Only 37.5 per cent of them said neighbours than among the members of afamily. they watched television every day, and 50 per About five per cent of the persons interviewed cent watched occasionally. said that they bought their own receivingsets "so that the children would not run tothe neighbour's 38. Lewis, Philip. TV and teen-agers, house to see TV". However, the familieswith Educational Screen,No. 28, 1949. television sets tended to have relativelyfew children. Ten per cent of the families with setshad no p. 159-161. children, 45 per cent had only one, 18 per cent In 1949, 1,700 high school students(about 13 to two, and 27 per cent three. 18 years old) filled out a questionnaire concern- ing their television viewing habits.Average 42. Mehling, Reuben. Television's valueto the viewing time per day: 3-4 hours. American family member, Journal of Broad- casting, Vol. IV, No. 4, 1960. p. 307-313. 39. Miccoby, Eleanor E.Television: its impact on schoolchildren, PublicOpinion Quarterly, A mail questionnaire and interviews withfamilies Vol. 15, No. 3, 1951. p. 421-444. in Indiana (U.S.A.), indicated thatabout 55 per cent of high school age children, and over90 per Two groups of 311 children each, one group with, c nit of grade sc..,00lchildren, saythey would keep one group withouttelevision, were matched for television in preference to all othermedia, if age, sex, and socio-economicstatus. The time permitted to l.tep only one. A smallnumber of was 19f3 and 1951; theplace was the Boston children kept diaries for the survey. Theseshowed area.The study found that children at that time that the grade schoolchildren werespending about were substituting television fol.radio, movies, 17 hours a week with television,1.9 hours with rnd reading, for some of their play time,and newspapers, and half an hourwith radio. The high for some of the time they had previouslyspent school children, on the other hand, werespending on household tasks. Television increasedthe time 10.4 hours with television, 2.3hours with news- the family spent together, but reduced the amount papers, and 3.3 hourswith radio.College age of joint family activity of any over kind except youth were spending 9.1 hours weeklywith tele- TV-viewing. The investigator concluded that the vision, 4.4 hours with newspapers,4 hours with 'family contact brought about by television is really radio.It should be noted that these were very individual, rather than social activity,except for small samples. the fact of being in the same room withother persons. 43. Mori, Shigeru. Reference group as aninter- vening variable in the mass communication 40. Magnin, William. Les emissions pourla process, Annals of EducationalResearch, jeunesse /Programmes for youngpeople/, No. 6, 1960. Cahiers d'etudes de radiotdldvision, No. 23, TV programme preferences of 1959. p. 307-310. children and their reference group, Radio-TV Education, Vol. 16, No. 8, 1961. The author's observations lead him tothe conclu- sion that there is more differenceLltween the These papers attempted to demonstrate thehypo- reactions to television programmes of achild of thesis that the value-orientations of thereference less than six years and one of twelve years,than group to which an individualbelongs or aspires between the reactions of an adult of 20and an are in important variablein his media behaviour. adult of 60.The programmes that appeal parti- The research was undertaken among 2,793children cularly to children of six to nine years,he states, from the fourth through the ninth gradesof certain are marionettes. From 9 to12, the child is public and private schools in Hiroshima. Onthe particularly interested in romances, drama, and basis of the questionnaires and the factoranalysis comedy. After 12, the tastes of the young persons method, the pupils were divided into thosewho approach those of adults. used the peer group as a reference group andthose who did not. Pupils who shared the valuesof their 41. Markowski, Daniel. La television dansla peers were found to be much moreapt to like campagne sildsienneLTelevision in the the pleasure-oriented material in thecommercial Silesian countryside], Wies Wspolczesna, programmes (e.g. , action or violence),while the No. 5, 1960. p. 151-155. family-oriented groups were significantly more likely to be fond of reality-oriented material or Based on questionnaires and observation inthe educational films.

26 44. Nederland. Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek. 46. Nederland. Centraal Bureau voor deStatistiek . Heeft de televisie het bezoek aan vermakelijk- Leefti'd en vri 'e ti 'dsbestedin /Age and leisure heidsinstellingen behavloed? `Has television activitiesZeist, W. de Haan, 1959. 51 p. influenced the attendance at public entertain- (English summary). (Report No. 10 of Vrije mentsf, Statistische en econometrische tijdsbesteding in Nederland). onderzoekingen van het Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, No. 1,1960. p. 24-43. (English Based on an interview survey of a national sample summary). of 10,500 persons over age 12 (3,246 from 12-23) in autumn 1955 and winter 1956.Boys are more Analysis of changes in attendance of cinema theatre, interested than girls and older men in aggressive concerts, sports events and increase of TV sets and adventure entertainment (detectives , wild west between 1957 and 1958 in the Netherlands. Highly films and books). Older persons have a more serious significant influence of television on cinema attend- pattern of entertainment. ance - each new set reduced cinemaattendance by at least 20 visits a year. No suchinfluence was 47. Nederland. Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek. detected on concert and sports attendance. Radio en vrije tijdsbesteding,adio and leisure activities/.Utrecht, W. de Haan,1954. 45. Nederland. Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek. 118 p.(Report of Centraal Bureau voor de Schooljeugd en televisie, Herfst 1957.I. Statistiek). Kijkgewoonten en kijknormen; II. Invloed op schoolprestaties en belangstellingsrichting Based on an interview survey in 1953 of a national rgchoolchildren and television,Fall 1957. sample of 4,000 persons of 18 years and older. I. Viewing habits and viewing norms; II.In- Separate chapter on the younger generation (18-28 fluence on school achievement and focus of years):they are less at home, go more often to interest?. Zeist, W. de Haan, 1959. Pt. I, 123 p. ; cinema, theatre, concert or sports events; but Pt. II, 60 p. (English summary). (Reports of also have significantly higher scores for indoor Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek). activities (reading, chess, checkers, music making) than the average.Radio listening is slightly less Purpose: to gauge (1) the penetration of TV viewing frequent, however, though programme selection into leisure among Netherlands Youth; (2) amount and evaluation diverge only slightly from the of institutionalization of TV viewing in the family; average. (3) effects of TV viewing on school achievement. Subjects: two-stage probability sample (1 school, 48. Panski, Jerzy. Les enfants devant les teld- 2 classes) of 14,159 children between 12 and 15 viseurs - essai de reconnaissance /Children years, in several kinds of continued orsecondary in front of the television set - a tentative education. exploration], Polityka, No. 4, 1960. p. 5. Method: Interviews with multiple-choice questions of children and mothers. Ex post facto Analysing 2,029 responses to a mail questionnai ra , experiment with matched groups of TV and non-TV researchers at Television Warsaw concluded that children. children under 15 constituted about 45 per cent Results: 10% of children report TV set at of the Polish viewers of television.The average home, 2/3 of those without TV are regular guest number of children per set in the cities varied from viewers, 25 per cent of the TV-equipped are more 2.5 in Warsaw, to 4.7 in Wroclaw. There were or less unlimited by parental norms,40 per cent more children, on the average, intelevision homes are allowed to watch only one day aweek, 35 per in the country than in the city, and more in lower- cent have a medium amount of parental limitation. class homes than in the homes of intellectual's or Less than 10 per cent are allowed all sortsof pro- workers. grammes. The higher the educationallevel the less the average amount of TV viewing. Social class 49. Radiotelevisione Italiana.Servizio Opinioni. shows no marked association with TV viewing, when Alcune informazioni sull'ascolto dei giovani. the educational level is controlled.The olderthe Il pubblico della TV. Ascolto delle transmis- pupil the more he watches and the less the parental sioni serali e pomeridiane nelle zone del sud control. Catholic children report a higher average servite a partire dal 1957 LSome data on the of viewing than Protestants. TV viewing(entertain- listening habits of the young.The TV public. ment) had no significant effect on school achieve- The audience of the afternoon and evening tele- ment, the higher percentage of TV equipped pupils casts in those regions of the south where repeating a class probably being due to other television service started in 19517.Rome, features of the respective families. A five-point 1958. (Quaderni, No. 3). scale of relative preference for educational versus entertainment programmes showed positive corre- From the data obtained from a survey conducted in lation with amount of viewing, age, preference five regions of Italy it is possible to edthaate that of the mother; negative with mother's educational in 1:457 , at prime viewing how s , the evening pro- level, father's occupation. grammes intended for adults were watchedby at 27 ilealEai

least two-thirds of the children aged 12 to 17, and forecasts, home drama, and Japanese wrestling, by at least half of those aged 6 to 11. in that order, were the mosthighly preferred programmes. Children between 10 and15 years 50. Riley, J.W ,, Jr., Cantwell, F.V., and Ruthiger, of age preferred drama with detective,adventure, Katherine. Some observations on the social and suspicion elements. Next in order of prefer- effects of T V, Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. ence came quiz games and westerndrama. 13, No. 2, 1949. p. 223-234. 54. Ukawa, Katsumi.Effects of television on In an industrial city in the easternpart of the leisure time activities and school recordsof United States, in 1948, these investigators inter- children, Study Report of Humanities Depart- viewed the inhabitants of 278 homes with television ment or Kagawa University, No. 1, 1960. p.13. and 278 homes without it.This gave them an opportunity to examine the media habits of 1,100 Diaries kept in 1935 by fifth-grade children in persons with TV and 1,027 personswithout it. Takamatsu City showed that children with television They found that children in TV homes averaged 3 in their homes did not reduce their outdoor play- hours 7 minutes daily watching television; teen- time, their newspaper reading time but, ingeneral, agers averaged only 2 hours 33 minutes.In an reduced their time for almost all leisure activities. attempt to find out whether television reduced Another study, made before and after televi- children's participation in play and activities, it sion had come into homes, showed that boyswith was discovered that approximatelythe same per television at home fell behind non-TV boys in centage of TV-, and non-TV-children participated grades, within a year after television came in. in sports, and that nearly twice as manyof the TV children as of the others attended sports events. 55. Van Dijk, K. Radio en volksontwikkeling Sociaal culturele aspecten van de radio- 51. Seagoe, M.V. Children's televisionhabits omroep ZRadio and popular education-Socio- and preferences, Quarterly of Film, Radio cultural aspects of radiobroadcastine. and Television, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1P51. p. Dissertation, University of Groningen. Assen, 143-152. Van Gorcum, 1953. 162 p. (English summary). Concludes that children's television viewing time A discussion of the developing functions of popular increases until age 12, and that children of lower education and modern mass media and someaudi- socio-economic status view more than those of ence research methods isfollowed by results of a higher status. Notes a considerable reductionof research project.In 1951 questionnaire survey radio listening and movie going as a result of the was made of 1,100 pupilsfrom 16 to 25 years of introduction of television. age in several secondary andprofessional schools of a city and two towns in the Netherlands on the 52. Some considerations relative to children's topics of selection and appreciation of radio pro- attitudes and the extent of televiewing, grammes. Listening habits areformed vile: age. Monthly Bulletin of the Radio and Television Interests rank as follows: from quiz (moatinterest), Culture Research Institute, Vol. 10, No. 7, sports, drama, news, regional programmesand 1960. classical music (least interest). The influence of radio decreases with higher socio-economic status. In addition to some findings reported in the sum- mary article (Furu, p. 19) thisstudy notes that 56. Wetterling, Horst. Das Fernsehen in pada- fifth graders (about 10 or 11 years old) were found gogischen Aspekt; Bemerkungen zur Wirk- to be viewing television for a longer timethan samkeit, zu den Moglichkeiten und Aufgaben seventh graders, that boys viewed riore thandid eines Jugendprogramms im Fernsehen/The girls, that children's viewing tended to decrease educational aspect of television; observations one year or 18 months after television was installed, on the effectiveness, thepotentialities and the and that no correlation was found betweenintelli- tasks of television programmes for young gence and amount of viewing. people7. Munchen, Evangelischer Presse- Verband ftir Bayern, 1960. 294 p. (Schriften- 53. Survey of preference in TV programs.Tokyo, reihe der Evangelischen Akademie far Rund- Radio & Television Culture Research Institute, funk und Fernsehen, No. 9), August 1962. (Monthly report). An evaluation of German children's and youth pro- Programmes were classified into 31 categories in grammes on TV, based on a comparisonof the terms of their specific characteristics.The res- reactions of 10 urban and 19 rural children (5-10 pondents were selected among persons olderthan years) and of 10 rural and 10 urban adolescents 10 but younger than 69, from all householdswith (10-14 years), observations of 10 family heads, TV in Japan. and reactions of variable groups totalling 350 The findings of this survey, conducted in the youths. summer of 1961, showedthat news, weather With growing age the preference for television

28 over other media shifted to cinemaand books. expect a film to "grip and excitethem"; they Fiction, semi-documentary programmes and youth must feel personally involved. news were preferred to documentaries,discussions, demonstrations. Reflections on psychologicEi, edu- 60. Kobylanskij. Wiadyslaw. La presseet la cational and moral functions of youth programmes. jeunesse LThe press andyouthJ, Nowa Kultura, No. 11, 1960. p. 1-11. 57 . Witty, Paul. Televiewing by childrenand youth, Elementary English, No. 38, 1961, p. 2. A survey of Polish youth averagingbetween 16 and 17 years of age showed that these youngpeople For 11 years, Professor Witty has obtained a were more interested in humourand satire in the very large number of questionnairesin the Chicago newspaper than any other content.(Second place: area from elementary and highschool pupils, their games and recreation.Third: foreign news and teachers and parents.In each case he has asked sports).Boys were much more interested in the children about their favourite programmesand sports ,technical subjects, and politics;girls the time they spend viewing; the parents were much more in stories of culturallife, fashions, asked the same questions and in additionother stories and novels, and games andrecreation. questions relating to their attitude towardtele- The authors analysed this period as onein which vision. This is the latest annual report. the influence of the family diminishes,youth pro- In 1950, elementary schoolchildrenaveraged tests against the norms of the oldergeneration, 21 hours a week viewing television; the average and becomes more and more interested inthe world then fell again to 21 in around him and in his own individuality. Inthis rose to 24 hours in 1955, the young 1961.Professor Witty's first figure for high period, says the author, the conscience of school students is 1951 - 14 hours aweek.This is coming more and mere to be formedby press, rose to 17 hours a week in1953,fell again to radio , and television. 14 by 1961. The 11-year parade of favourite programmes Lacis, A. and Ksjlina,Detiikino Zehildren interpretation and the cinema/ Moscow, GeneralDirectorate is most interesting, and calls for of against a social background. of Social Education, People's Commissariat Instruction of the RSFSR, 1928. 85 p.

B. RELATED STUDIES OF OTHERMEDIA From the viewpoint of television, themost per- tinent material in this monographdescribes the 58. Heisler, Florence. A comparisonbetween "cinematomania", or collective infatuation with the those elementary schoolchildrenwho attend movies, observed in a study of 2,000children in moving pictures, read comic books andlisten Moscow. One of the conclusions is thatchildren to serial radio programmes to an excess ,with may be dangerously influencedby films intended those who indulge in these stctivitiesseldom or for older age levels. not at all, Journal of EducationalResearch, 62. Lyness, Paul I. The place of the massmedia No. 42, 1948. p. 182-1E0. in the lives of boys and girls, Journalism The 10 per cent of students in grades 2 to8 (ages 7 Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1952. p.43-54. through 14) who indulged least in movies,comics, and radio were compared with the 10 percent who This study was made in 1951, beforetelevision came to Des Moines, Iowa.It is based on ques- indulged the most.Tested by standardized tests, 1,418 Des no significant differences werefound between their tionnaires on the media behaviour of school achievement or their personalityadjustment. Moines children In grades three,five,seven, nine, and eleven.Radio was found to be the 69. Keilhacker, Margarete. ZweiHaupmotive des favourite medium of these children, the onethey Filmbesuchs der Ftinfzehn bis Achtzehnjahrigen would keep if they had to give up all mediaexcept LThe two main reasons for cinema attendance one. The majority namedradio as their favourite of adolescents between the ages of 15and 18/, source of news, andconsidered it more reliable Jugend, Film, Fernsehen, No. 2, 1958.14 p. than newspapers. of school- Based on written materials obtainedfrom 3,000 63. McIntosh, Douglas M. Attendance adolescents, and on other studies of the sametopic , children at the cinema. GlasgowScottish the authors conclude that the twomain reasons why Educational Film Association,, 1949.15 p. adolescents go to the cinema arethe desire to (Research Publications, No. 1). escape from everydaylife, and the desire to get class differ- to know real life better. Thesemotives ale inter- In view of recent findings about social locked, and are not to be interpreted inadult terms. ences in children's reactionsto television,it is For example, some adults who go tomovies for interesting to note in this report that films seem "escape" behave passively; they expect to be enter- to appeal more to Scottishchildren from poor tained but not involved. Children, on theother hand, homes than to those from better homes. 29 64. Radio in the children's life, Monthly Bulletin 66. Shuttleworth, F.K. and May, Mark A. The of the Radio and Television Culture Research Social conduct and attitudes of movie fans. Institute, Va. 8, Nos. 8 and 10, 1958. New York, Macmillan, 1933. 142 p. Research conducted in 1957 found that with third By comparing a large group of children who and fifth-grade students (about 9 and 11 years attended the cinema several times a week with old) the heavy listening group (3 hours or more another group who want only twice a month, the a day) tended to be higher than the low listening investigators found that the frequent movie-goers group (30 minutes or less a day) in intelligence, were emotionally less stable, less co-operative, reading ability, and scholastic achievement in poorer students in school, but were more apt social studies and science.With eighth graders to be cited by their fellows as "best friends". (14 years old), the situation was different. Here Between the two groups no difference was found in the case of boys the heavy listeners scored in honesty, obedience, or moral consciousness. lower than the medium listeners on all the tests The frequent movie-goers were more likely than mentioned above. the others to admire cowboys, popular actors Third and fifth-grade children who listened and ballet girls;to believe that socially undesi- to both serious and light programmes were higher rable conditions like alcoholism exist; to believe than either the serious or the light listeners in that good clothes are important; to object more intelligence, reading ability, and science and to parental control;and to go more often to social studies achievement.In the eighth grade, dance parties.The authors do not contend that however, the children who listened mainly to all these differences can be attributed to movie- serious programme) were better in social studies, going. A Payne Fund study. science, and English language. 67. Ward, J.C. Children and the cinema. An 65. Schramm, Wilbur, Lyle, Jack, and Parker inquiry made by the Social Survey in October Edwin B.Patterns in children's reading of 1948 for a Departmental Committee appointed newspapers, Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 37, by the Home Secretary, the Secretary of State No. 1, 1960. p. 3540. for Scotland and the Minister of Education. London, Central Office of Information, 1949. This article is a by-product of the studies which 100 p. (mimeo). resulted in Television in the lives of our children. The newspaper is the last of the media to come These investigators found, as many others have, into real use by children. Comic strip reading that the children who visit the cinema most fre- reaches its height about the fourth grade, and quently come from the lower income groups, and thereafter decreases.There is little general usually have less than average interest in other reading of the paper until about the sixth grade, activities. There are some indications that these and not much daily reading until the eighth grade. frequent movie-goers find their own lives unin- During the teen years,the importance of the news- teresting and look to films for adventure and paper rises steadily, and the brighter children, in excitement; and also that they tend to seek a particular, come to value it highly. "romantic" and unrealistic occupation.

30 ef :.1100±4f,th,

IV. LEARNING FROM TELEVISION AND FILM*

A. TELEVISION (Reproduced with authors' permission from Television in the Lives of Our Children.) 68. Barrow, Lionel C. and West ley, Bruce H. ExpliJring the news: an experiment on the rela- 70. Duggan, E.P. Children at the television set; tive effectiveness of radio and TV versions of a haLits of a group, Times Educational Supple- children's news programme.In: Schramm, ment, No. 2112, November 1955. p. 1165. W. ed. The impact of educational television. Urbana,Ill.,University of Illinois Press, The Times reports that a study of children in an 1960. p. 143-150. English boy.; school showed that non-viewers of television did better than viewers in school exami- Public schoolchildren remembered facts from the nations, but less well on general knowledge tests. television veission more significantly than from the radio version of the newscast. 71. Dunham ,Franklin.Effect of television on school achievement of children, School Life, 69, Carpenter, C.R. Approaches to promising No. 34, 1952. p. 88-89. areas in the field of instructional television. In: Institute for Communication Research. New Reports a survey of almost 1,000 sixth and teaching aids for the American classroom. seventh graders (11 to 13 year olds) in Cincinnati , Stanford, Ca., 1960. p. 73-94. Ohio, which could find no generally significant difference between school performance of children Before suggesting needed research, Carpenter sums with and without television. upthe state of research on instructional television by answering eight questions: 72. Evans, C.C. Television for the pre-school 1. Can teaching by television be done? Un- child, Elementary English, No. 32, 1955. equivocally yes. p. 541-542. 2. How ca.1 it be done?In a great variety of ways, which he proceeds to specify.One is with Mr. Evans concluded, after observing the reactions all grades and classEs. of 40 kindergarten and 22 nursery shoolchildren 3. What are the effects of teaching by tele- to television, that the most obvious effect was to vision as compared to a wide range of comparable increase their vocabularies. conventional arrangements? Generally "no signifi- cant differences" have been found. The differences 73. Greenstein, Jack. Effects of television upon plus or minus from this generalization are not worth elementary school grades, Journal of Educa- arguing about. tional Research, No. 48, 1954. p. 161-176. 4. What are the economy and cost of facilities factors? A good deal of this information is at hand. No evidence was fount that school grades of 67 5. Does the arrangement of having the"best" American sixth-grade children were affected by teachers instruct over television improve the qua- television viewing. lity of teaching? Generally yes, but even superior teachers need special help and preparation for 74. Heimann, Paul, Jorswiek , Eduard, Ledig, Hans - television. Manfred and Foerster, , Oskar. Jugeno and Fern- 6. Can television be used to provide instruction sehen /Youth and Television/.IvItinchen, to students who might not otherwise be taught? Yes, Juventa Verlag, 1958. 116 p. especially to rural students. .Can television be used to provide appropriate An analysis of education aspects of the German tele- educational programmes for dispersed adult popula- vision programme for children and youth. Methods: tions including professional groups? Yes, this has Group discussions, questionnaires and an analysis been demonstrated most impressively. of the programme contents were employed. It was 8. Can television be used to consolidate and found that the programmes for the youth contains combine educational resources of a section, state, or region? This, too, has been successfully *All the general studies listed in section II also demonstrated. treat this subject. See especially 10, p. 221-312; Alist of 36 selected titles accompanies the article. and 12,p. 75-97. 31 more informative topics than do those devoted to amount of learning, but are related to the student's entertainment. The authors interpret this fact as likelihood of taking another class by TV. positive and favourable to television. On the other (Reproduced with permission from Television in hand, in shaping the programme there is insuffi- the Lives of Our Children.) cient understanding of the psychology of the various ages. As regards the contents and formal shaping 78. Maccoby, Eleanor. The effects of television there is uncertainty;often the transmissions con- on children. In: Schramm, Wilbur, ed. The tain too much factual detail.Recommendations science of human communication, New York, are given for designing an educationally and psycho- Basic Books, 1963. p. 116-127. logically satisfying programme. Reviews late studies and concludes: "There is 75. Ishida, Yuko and Shimaoka,Hisako. Children reason to, believe that children's attitudes and be- and television. Report. Osaka, Osaka Muni- liefs can be shaped by what they see on television, cipal University,Department of Home and that emotions and impulses are aroused in the Economics, n.d. child viewer to match those portrayed by screen characters.../Children also use television7as one A questionnaire and an examination of sixth-grade of the sources from which they draw material for students' marks indicated a relation between lower organizing and interpreting their experiences. grades and heavy viewing of television. They also use it to prepare themselves for their future lives as students, as marriage partners, 76. Japan. Ministry of Education. Effect of tele- as members of a professional or occupational vision on children and young people, Survey group There can no longer be much doubt that conducted in 1958. Tokyo, 1959.27 p. (mimeo). television does constitute an important source of influence on children and as such is a legitimate Questionnaires from television-owning parents of object of public concern and public action." children at all levels from kindergarten to high school indicate that most parents feel that tele- 79. Maccoby, Eleanor E. Statement. In: U.S. Senate. vision has made no difference in their children's Committee on the Judiciary. Juvenile delinquency school achievement. However, 18 to 30 per cent (Television programmes). Hearings before a (depending on the school level) feel that their children sub-committee of the Committee on the Judici- have done better in social studies and science since ary, U.S. Senate, 84th Congress, First Session, the family got television. pursuant to Res. 62, a resolution to investigate juvenile delinquency in the United States, 6-7 77. Kumata, Hideya. A decade of teaching by tele- April 1955. Washington, U.S. Government vision. In: Schramm, W. ed. The impact of Printing Office, 1955. p. 4-23. educational television. Urbana, M.,Univer- Mrs. Maccoby told the committee there was no sity of Illinois Press, 1960. p. 176-192. doubt that children learn from television.They learn such things as what to wear, and how to act This article brings up to date Kumata's earlier on certain occasions.There is also good reason summary, An inventory of instruction television to think that under certain conditions they may learn research (Ann Arbor: Educational Television aggressive behaviour.She questioned the ideathat and Radio Centre, 1956). Lists 121 research titles a child can discharge his aggressive feelings by and sums up the present position.Kumata's viewing violence on television. "I expect...that general conclusions are as follows: we shall find," she said, "that aggressive feelings 1. The mode of presentation, TV or face- are sometimes increased rather than reduced by to-face, apparentlyhas little effect on how much aggressive scenes on television or in the mo-:tes." knowledge is retained by the audience. 2. Motivation is a prime variable in determin- 80. Schramm, Wilbur. Television in the life of the inghow much is retained. Voluntary classes usually child - implications for the school. In: Institute learn more than captive audiences. for Communication Research, New teaching aids 3. Adequate and skilful preparation of subject for the American classroom. Stanford, Ca., matter and integration into a teaching process are 1960. p. 50-70. prime factors. This may be one reason why supe- riority of TV is reported more often at elementary Drawing on field research, the author concludes than at higher levels. that home television is likely to produce students 4. Television seems to affect different intel- who come to school with larger vocabularies than ligence levels differently, but the pattern is not pre-television children, and have a wider know- quite understood as yet. ledge of their environment.These students are 5. Interaction is an important factor.If a introduced abnormally early to adult problems, television audience has talk-back facilities,this have learned something about how to learn from serves at least as a partial substitute for face- television and film, need help in finding the more to-face interaction. intellectually rewarding aspects of television. 6. Attitudes toward TV are not related to They are accustomed to smooth and exciting

32 performances on television and will expect high stan- viewers on total achievement, and particularly on dards of performance from their classroom teachers. achievement tests in arithmetic and reading. Intel- ligence and social class were not controlled, how- 61. Schramm, Wilbur. What we know about learn- ever, Light viewers had higher I. ,and came ing from instructional television.In: Educa- from families with higher socio-economic status. tional television: the next ten years. Stanford, Ca.,Institute for Communication Research, 84. Tarroni, Evelina. Problemi educativi della 1962. p. 52-76. TVgducational Inquiry conducted by the Centro Italiano Femminile , on Reviews 393 experimental comparisons of instruc- the subject of television and children. Rome, tional television with classroom teaching. In 65 per C.I.F., 1957. 44 p. cent of these experiments there was no difference in the amount of learning; in 14 per cent, the classroom The author describes a questionnaire inquiry carried students learned more, and in 21 per cent, the tele- out in northern and central Italy, among children, vision students learned more (Learning was mea- teachers, and mothers. Mothers and teachers report sured by the usual final examination for the course, an awakening of interests inthe child who watches or by standardized tests, or both.) A higher percen- television, stimulation of curiosity about new things, tage of the comparisons were favourable to television and a heightened level of general knowledge. Atten- in the elementary school than in higher schools, and tion is called to a widespread ignorance of and the results in teaching mathematics and science and indifference toward TV on the part of teachers . The social studies by television were better than the author emphasizes the power of television as an results in teaching the humanities. Language skills educational tool, and the need for children's tele- were taught more effectively than humanities, but vision programmes to take greater account of less so than science and mathematics.Student school curricula, and for teachers to learn more attitudes toward instructional television were quite about television and take greater advantage of its favourable in the early grades, but less favourable in cultural and educational values. high school, and stillless so in college. Teacher attitudes were parallel to those of students, but in general the more teachers worked with instructional B. RELATED STUDIES OF FILM television the more they liked it. 85. Albertini, Laura and Caruso, Ada P. 82. Schramm, Wilbur, Lyle, Jack, and Parker, Percezione ed interpretazione di imagini cine- Edwin B. Learning from television, Studies in matografiche neiragazziLPerception and Public Communication, No. 3, 1961. p. 86-98. interpretation of film images by childreg, Bianco e Nero, No. 10, 1949. p. 9 -27. Evidence that first-grade children in a Canadian town with television have larger vocabularies than compa- These investigators studied the reactions of 576 rable children in a Canadian town without television. children, age 8 to age 14, to one film. Among their By the time children reachthe sixth grade, however, findings, the most pertinent to television was the no such difference remains.In fact, at that level, discovery of a very large number of observational there is evidence that children in television homes errors, and the often wide discrepancy between know less about public affairs than do non-television what the children thought they had seen and what children. Television children in the sixth grade know actually occurred in the film. The authors felt that more than non-television children about entertain- the rapid succession of lictures, events, and sounds ment personalities. There is no difference in what made it difficult for the children to see and remember the two groups of children know about science. The sizes and likenesses, geometric forms, and positions implication is that children benefit from television in of persons in relation to 'mown objects, and move- certain kinds of knowledge (e .g. early knowledge of ments and attitudes. Comparing the older with the vocabulary and, later, knowledge in such matters as younger amongtheir subjects, the authors saw little entertainment which television emphasizes) , but may sign that these difficulties lessened proportionally be at a disadvantage in learning about public affairs with age . The implication is that a relatively small (which they seem to learn more often from the printed proportion of the detailed information in a picture media), and to be neither at a disadvantage nor an (and perhaps also in television?) is perceived and advantage with respect tolearning of science (which remembered sharply and accurately. they learn chiefly in school). 86. Holaday, Perry W. and Stoddard George D. 83. Scott, L.F. Television and schoo, achievement, Getting ideas from the movies. New York, Phi DeltaKappan, No. 38, 1956. p. 25-28. Macmillan, 1933t. Heavy viewers were compared with light viewers In this Payne Fund study, an effort was made to of television among 456 sixth- and seventh-grade find out how much and what kind of information children in California (11 to 13 years old). Light children remember from a film.It was found that viewers scored significantly higher than heavy children 8 years old remember 3 out of 5 facts

33 which an adult remembers after seeing a film; on the whole, the main points of the film were children 11 or 12 remember 3 out of 4 facts an adult better reproduced than directly after the children recalls;children 15 or 16 remember 9 out of 10 saw the film. Adulls given a similar test remem- facts an adult remembers. Children retain a large bered less than the children did. proportion of these for many weeks after seeing a film. Scenes of conflict,high emotion, and familiar 88. Zochbauer, Franz. Von neuen Gottern. Zur surroundings are most likely to be remembered. Problematik des Starkultes /gew gods. Pro- Children of all ages tend to accept what they see blems of film-star cults?, Jugend and Film, in a movie as "fact". Young children fail to under- No. 1, 1958.12 p. stand some of the things they see,and retain distorted or misunderstood images. Over 70 per cent of 4,000 children who responded to questionnaires in S lzburg reported that they had 87. Paulsen, Kathe. Was bleibt?Kinder besinnen in some way modelled their manners and attitudes sich auf einem Film (What remains? Children on those of a film star. Notably the stars have recall a filsq, Film-Bild-Ton, No. 7, 1957.p. 8-13. furnished standards of preference amongconsumer goods.Seventy-nine per cent of the respondents Twenty-two months after the showing of a film to said that the movies had taught them to dress better, 28 11-year-old children in Hamburg, nearly 60per and 51 per cent reported that they had learned from cent of the children reproduced the plot fully, and the movies "how to act when in love'',

34 V. PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS - IN GENERAL

A. TELEVISION* to obtain this satisfaction through fantasy in tele- vision than to obtain it through his social relation- 89. Foundation for Character Education. Televi- ships. As evidence of this she found that upper sion for children. Boston, 195/-. 56 p. middle class children who were highly restricted in their home lives (and consequently frustrated) A panel of psychologists, educators, critics, and spend more time viewing television than do children broadcasters analysed the probable effect of televi- of the same social class who are not so frustrated. sion on children, on the basis of their own experience This same result was not found in children of the and the research with which they were familiar. upper lower class. The difference was explained They could find little or no effect on eyesight or in terms of the different class norms.In the general health, on 800°1 grades, reading books, or absence of frustration, middle class children are amount of library use.The most definite effect drawn away from spending long periods watching they noted was on the child's distribution of time. television.In the lower class, however, there is Because so much time is spent watching television, a great deal of television viewing on the part.of the the child tends to reduce his playtime and the amount whole family, with or without frustration. Thus a of time he spends with other children; he is also child of this class who is frustrated in his hOrne likely to spend a larger proportion of his time at life could not readily view much more television home. The effect of television on character deve- than he normally does; nor would he gain the satis- lopment, moral behaviour, fears, and aggression, faction of rebelling against the family norm by they said, must be considered to be unknown. watching more television, because the family usually does not disapprove. 90. Lazarsfeld, Paul F. Why is so little known about the effects of television on children and 92. Parker, Everett. Parents, children, and tele- what can be done? Testimony before the vision. New York,National Council of Churches , Kefauver Committee on Juvenile Delinquency, 1954. Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 3, 1955. p. 243-251. A survey of 3, 559 homes in New Haven, Connecticut, showed that 69 per cent of parents in general ap- The dean of American communication research proved of children's programmes as they were at scholars speaks of the advantages to be gained by that time, and only 26 per cent on the whole disap- more knowledge of television and its effects, and proved of them. The percentage of disapproval was urges more co-ordination in the planning of research. higher among better educated parents and the parents He suggests four types of "unorthodox" research - of small children. experimunts in making "good" programmes rather than analysing bad ones, studies of the cumulative 93. Pearlin, Leonard I.Social and personal stress rather than the immediate effects of television, stu- and escape television viewing, Public Opinion dies of how the average family can create an atmos- Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1959. p. 255-259. phere which will compete with television, and studies of how the decisions are made to put given pro- The investigator interviewed 736 television owners grammes on the air and consequently, of the points in an industrial city in the United States, and clas- at which influence can be exerted if a change is sified them according to whether they showed more desired. than normal amount of "stress", and whether they viewed more than the usual number of "escape" 91. Maccoby, Eleanor E. Why do children watch programmes on television as compared with the television? Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 18, number °Unreality" programmes they viewed. It No. 3, 1954. p. 239-244. was found that the individuals who showed more than an average amount of stress also tended to After interviewing 379 mothers of five- and six- view a higher-than-usual proportion of escape year old children, Mrs. Maccoby concluded that a programmes. child's interest in television could be studied as a symptom of a need for vicarious satisfaction when *This topic is treated at length also in the general the child is frustrated in his attempts to achieve sa- studies listed in Section II.See especially 12, tisfaction in real life. The child often finds it easier p.57-74 and 98-168; and 11, passim.

35 94. Pool,Ithiel de So la.Free discussion and Based on questionnaires filled out by 649 persons public taste, Public Opinion Quarterly,,Vol. in Sweden, 74 per cent of whom were over 18, the 24, No. 1, 1960.p. 19-23. author concludes that 32 per cent do not read news- paper comics and 72 per cent do not read comic This was presented as testimony before the Federal books. Manual workers and their children are Communications Commission on 11 December 1959. more likely than white-collar workers and their C iting the Himmelweit finding that children in England children to be interested in comics. Heavy comic came to like "good cultural programmes" which they reading goes with frequent movie attendance. Con- would not have selected if there were a choice for cerning effects, the author says:"The effect of them, and which they tried because they had no al- comics is peripheral to the personality.The ternative, the author states that "if the situation is security or insecurity of the personality depends reciprocal, then we may guess that at times when on quite different things, and above all on the kind only poor programming is available on the air of human relations developed in the home, with people will watch it for lack of something betterto father, mother, brothers, and sisters". do, and in so doing they may develop bad taste habits.If the Himmelweit finding can be genera- lized, then when there is a choice of programme 98. Bellingroth, Friedhelm. Triebwirkung des levels people will pick programmes at their own Films auf Jugeridliche - Einftthrung in die level, and the presence of a poor programme among analytische Filmpsycholoae auf Grund experi- those available will do little or no harm, for it will mentaller Analysen kollektiver Triebprozesse not be chosen by viewers whom it would change". ini Filmerleben /Influence of the cinema on the instinctual life of young people. An intro- 95, Ten Have, T. T. and Vastenhouw, M. Groeps- duction to the analytical psychology of the esprekken overtelevisie in een zestal dorpen cinema on the basis of the experimental ana- roup discussions on television in six villages/. lysis of collective group reactions to films7. Groningen, J.B. Wolters, 1957. 166 p. (Pae- Bern-Stuttgart, Verlag Hans Huber, 1958. dagogische Monografieen, No. 7). 154 p. A 1955 pilot study, by means of group discussions , Before and after study of groups of about 110 school- of reactions to the introduction of television in six boys and students between the ages of 10 and 19 Dutch villages contains a chapter on influences on (totalling 1,105 persons seeing 10 regular story family life and educational functions. films of different kinds), by means of Szondi tests and Szondi-factural analysis, to estimate uncon- scious effects of films on fundamental drive struc- ture. B. RELATED STUDIES OF OTHER MEDIA Conclusions: Films with different action pat- tern:: have a clearly different effect on drive struc- tures. Viewers with different personalities have 96. Accra and Kumasi. Department of Social Wel-- clearly different reactions Gives a warning against fare and Community Development. Children premature generalizations on THE effects of THE and the cinema: a report of an inquiry into, filth, or THE effects of THE Western on THE young. cinema -gong amongiuveniles undertaken by the Department of Social Welfare and Commu- nity Development in Accra and Kumasi. Accra 99. Blumer, Herbert. Movies and conduct. New (Ghana), 1954. York, Macmillan, 1933. 257 p. A study of the behaviour of children between 8 and This Payne Fund volume is based on "motion pic- 16,in Accra and Kumasi, who attend the movies ture autobiographies" obtained from 1,823 young between noon and 3 p.m. ,and in order to do so Americans of high school age and up. Very large sometimes miss school, and beg or steal the money proportions of the autobiographies mentioned these for admission to the theatre. Most of these child- kinds of conduct, among others, as having resulted ren do not understand the film dialogue and thus from seeing films: experience the film only as a visual experience. 1 Re-enacting film stories,or playing the The authors feel that one of the most dangerous part of a film hero or heroine. (Re-enactment of aspects of their behaviour is that they are attend- love scenes was common among girls, and boys ing these films secretly, against the wishes of their tended to prefer scenes of fighting, shooting, cow- parents.Thus by partaking of "forbidden fruit" boy and Indian episodes, crime and pursuit.) they are building up an addiction for it. 2. Daydreaming about motion pictures and actors and actresses. (More than half of the res- 97. Allwood, Martin S. The impact of the comics pondents admitted daydreaming on topics related on a European country. Mullsjo (Sweden), In- to films.) stitutet fyra Sarnhallsforalthing Zrnstitute for 3. Imitating the clothing styles, hair styles, Social Research1956. and personal mannerisms of film stars.

36 4. Being frightened by films; (93 per cent 103. Gray, Barbara. The socialeffects of the of the children below high school age, and 61 per film, Sociological Review, Vol.42, No. 7, cent of high school students said they had had this 1950. p. 12, experience. Yet many of them like movies that frighten them). On the basis of a survey of 300children in West Bromwich, the author concludes thatthere is no evident relation between juveniledelinquency and 100. Dysinger, Wendell S. and Ruckmick, C.A. film attendance, and that films do not appearto The emotional responses of children to the decrease children's respect forparents. She motion picture situation. New York. Mac- stated, however, that the idealizedportrayal of millan, 1933. 122 p. luxury, and the representation oflove chiefly ail physical attraction endangers the senseof values Using galvanometre and pneumocardiographto indicate emotional reactions, the authors ofthis of young and immature cinema-goers. Payne Fund study studied the reactionsof 150 104. Keilhacker, Martin and Keilhacker,Margarete. children and young people to a variety of scenes Jugend und Spielfilm. Erlebnisweisenund of conflict, violence, and erotism infilm.The Einflusse LYouth and the story film.How scenes of danger, conflict,and tragedy had the young people experiencefilms and are influ- greatest effect on children 6 to 12; onteen-age enced by themj. Stuttgart, ErnstKlett children the effect was much less, and wasweak- Verlag, 1953. 128 p. est in subjects 20 or over. On the otherhand, love scenes have the greatest emotionaleffect on This is a summary volume, carrying manyof the the teen-agers, and the least effect on thechildren conclusions from the Keilhackers' longstudy of 12 and under. children and films. They describe thedifferent reactions of children at various ages andvarious 101. Funk, Alois. Film und Jugend.Eine Un- stages of sexual and socialdevelopment, how tersuchung, Ober die psychischen Wirkturen children relate a film to their own lives,the occa- des Films im Leben der JugendlichenThe sions of identification and escape, thestandards cinema and youth. An examinationof the of judgement they apply, and thedifficulties they psychological effect of the cinema on the life have with film language. The centraltheme of of young people7. Mtinchen, Ernst Reinhardt, the book is the influence of films onthe "inner 1934. 174 p. lives" of children and youth. Three questionnaires were filled out -2,625 by 105. Keilhacker, Martin, Brudny,Wolfgang, and young people 14 to 18 who wereasked about their Lammers, Paul. Kinder .sehen Filme. experiences with entertainment films;425 by (Children see films/. Munich, Ehrenwirth young adults over 18 onhow they felt the film Verlag, 1957. 168 p. had influenced them; and 235 by educatorswho of the influence of Following Keilhacker's observation thatseeing a were asked their opinions than hearing films.The chief conclusion is that a viewer's film is a much more real experience Identification with one of the leading characters a story, reading a book, orlistening to the radio, the influence the other two authors conducted researchby means is very important in determining of infra-red photographs of childrenwatching of a film. movies.- Brudny concludes that childrenof 3 to 4 102. Gerhartz-Franck, Ingrid.Ueber Gesche- years seem to experiencelittle contact with the hensgestaltungen in der Auffassung von film, and that children 5 to 7 likewiseshow com- Filmen ,lurch Kinder)Perception psycho- paratively little evidence of understanding.Child- logy applied to the comprehensionof films ren between 8 and 11,however, react actively and by childre. Leipzig, J.A. Barth,1955. with understanding, and the picturesfurnish hints 124 p. (Schriftenreihe zurEntwicklungs- as to their perceptionsand identifications. psychologie , No. 3). 106. Le Moal, P. and Faugere, M.M.Le cinema Experimental investigation on the subject,how et l'enfant /the cinema and thechill, La children from 6 to 14 years of ageexperience film sauegarde de l'enfance, Vol. 2, Nos. 15-16, performances, how much they understand andhow 1947. p. 66-77. they inwardly digest it.Films were shown to the children and they were then asked torelate the Questionnaires filled out by 1,163 childrenbetween old, only the ages of 10 and 16 revealed, amongother things, contents. With the ,:hildren 6 to 7 years cent of the a summary conception wasretained. Only at the that 51, per cent of the boys and 59 per age of 13 and 14 did aconception of the nature of girls sometimes dreamed about thefilms they saw. the event shown in the film begin todevelop, and Considerable differences were found inthe reac- tions of children from religious andthose from an understandingof the sense and structure of the the film. non-religious homes. A larger proportion of 37 children from "religious" homes than others were 110. Maccoby, Eleanor E, Wilson, William C., affected by "immoral" and violent scenes. and Burton, R.V. Differential movie-viewing behaviour of male and female viewers., 107. Leroy-Boussion, A. Etude du comportement Journal of Personality, No. 26,1958. p. dmotionnel enfantin au cours de la projection 259-267. d'un film comique /tudy of the emotional be- haviour of children during the projection of a In this experiment, eye-movements of 24 male comic Bing, Revue internationale de filmo- and 24 female college students were observed as logie, No. 5, 1954. p. 103-123. the students watched scenes of films in whi-h only the hero and heroine of the picture were on stage. This is a study of the behaviour of 222 children be- It was found that young men spent more time than tween 4 and 14 years of age, during the showing of did women watching the hero, and young women a comic film, in Marseilles.The older children spent more time than did men watching the heroine. laughed more. Boys reached the "laugh ceiling" at This appears to support the hypothesis (see Maccoby an earlier age than girls.Town children laughed and Wilson) that young people watching films or tele oftener than suburban children. Brighter children vision tend to identify with the leading character understood the film better, but the frequency o; of the same sex. laughing did not always increase with intelligence, because other characteristics of temperament and 111. Mayer, Jacob P. British cinemas and their family background also influenced the tendency to audiences;sociological studies.London, laugh. Dennis Dobson, 1948. 280 p. 108. Leroy-Boussion,_A. Le jeune spectateur et The part of this book which is most pertinent to later son entourage L The young spectator and his television research reports detailed statements entourage7 Enfance, No. 4, 1954. p. 293-316. from 60 persons (three-quarters of them under 25) about their experiences and reactions as movie- This investigator observed closely the behaviour of goers. Nearly 66 per cent reported that a film at one childin each of 222 showings of the samefilm. some time had caused them fright ornightmares. He noted about one "social" taction for approxi- A still larger percentage said that they had some- mately every eight "solitary" reactions. Only 52 times felt so involved in a film that it was like of 1,080 "social" reactions seemed to indicate a passing through a personal experience. lack of interest in the film.The others were the child trying to make contact with his friends or with 112. Perron, Roger. Essai de mise en relation de other members of the audience present in order to certains es de contenus filmi ues et des share his' enjoyment of the film or to seek reassur- reactions des spectateurs enfants.Study of ance when frightened or shocked by a scene. The the relationship between certain kinds of film investigator concludes that a child is seldom so sequences and the reactions of juvenile spec- absorbed in a film that he forgets the people watch- tators7 Paper read at the second Interna- ing the film with him. tional Congress of Filmology, Paris, 1955. 109. Maccoby, Eleanor E. and Wilson, William C. This has significance in view of the often stated Identification and observational learning from charge that children observe films and television films, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psycho- "passively".Children's motor, verbal, and non- lova Vol. 55, Na. 1, 1957. p. 76-97-. verbal amid reactions to nine different film sequences were recorded. Not only were there a Seventh grade children (about 12 or 13 years old) great many such reactions, but 60 to 80 per cent were shown a film and tested a week later on'what of the children consistently reacted the same way they remenibe red from it. It was found that the bays to the same type of film content. Many of these identified with the hero, and the girls with the he- reactions were classified as active participation ", roine, andtendedto remember somewhat better the and many others as "emotional participation". words and actions of the character with whom they On the basis of these results, it is concluded that identified.When there was a class difference in these children's reaction to the film was not passive. characters, a child tended to identify with the cha- racter who belongs to the class to which the child 113. Peterson, Ruth C. and Thurstone, Louis L. aspires - not necessarily the one to which he belongs . Motion pictures and the social attitudes of What is remembered from the character identified children. New York, Macmillan, 1933. 75 p. with, however, is affected by the relevance of his actions to the felt needs of the child. Boys remem- This is another of the Payne Fund studies. By means bered aggressive content better than girls, provided oftests before and after the showing of 13 films to that the boys' hero is the aggressor. Girls remem- 4,000 high school students, these investigators bered incidents' of boy-girl interaction better than established conclusively that movies can change boys did, if the girl's heroine was the agent of the the attitudes of children toward social issues. action. Among the strongest changes were those achieved

38 in attitudes toward the Chinese people by the film have undesirable effects on children. The pro- "Son of the Gods'", toward Negroes (by the film blems of identification and escape are also "Birth of a Nation"), toward 'war (by the film "All highly important in a child's use of films. Quiet on the Western Front"), and toward prevail- ing systems of punishment of criminals (by the film 116. Stuckrath, Fritz and Schottmayer, Georg. "The Criminal Code"). By measuring the effects Psychologie des Filmerlebans in Kindheit of severalfilms on common subjects, these authors und Jugend LPsychology of film experi- demonstrated a cumulative effect of films, and by ence in children andyouth. Hamburg, testing children at intervals of time up to 19 months Verlag der Schroppschen Lehrmittelanstalt, they found that attitudes produced by films were 1955. 172 p. lasting. Three age levels of film experiences are identified 114. Sicker, Albert. Kind und Film. Der Ein- in children by means of TAT tests on Hamburg flues des Filmes auf das Seelenleben des childrer. 4 to18years of age. Age 6 is about the Kindes.Eine experirnentelle Studie ureter middle point of a period in which most reactions Verwendung_ des Pigem und des Tuanima- to a film are emotional.Seeing too many films test3s LChild and film.The influence of at that time may endanger the health of emotional films on the emotional life of the child. An development because the film contents will probably experimental study, using the Pigem and not correspond tothe child's emotional level. Age Tuanima test!. Bern, Stuttgart, Verlag 12is at the middle point of a second level of expe- Hans Huber, 1956.143 p. rience. This is a time when the child is building vital relationships with his peers and with the out- A discussion of attendance and preference ratios side world in general.The child of this age is in several countries is followed by an evaluation of strongly attracted by the cinema, and may attend methods used by several effect studies (observa- either to compensate for failures and escape from tion, wiggle test, questionnaires, interviews). A conflict or to seek peer group company. At this replicable experimental design is chosen, not mere- age, suitable films can stimulate the child's vita- ly relying on observation and introspection, but lity and make for healthy personal relationships; also usingprojective tests. After some experimen- unsuitable films may contribute to anti-social tation, a before and after design with seven ques- behaviour. With the beginning of adolescence, the tions, Pigem test and Tuanima test a film on Hansel child feels a growing desire to assert his own per- and Gretel was chosen, using as control another sonality.His cinema experience now begins to film and a normal school hour. Subjects were 396 resemble that of adults. Escapism and identifica- children, aged 9 to 16, of several European nationa- tion are common. He often imitates the behaviour lities, studied by group tests in school demonstra- and adopts the ideas of film favourites. His film tion rooms. experience is closely related to his sexual and Conclusions:(1) Confirmations - The child social development. At this period the screen experiences the film in the child's world of refer- can help him to rid himself of tensions, or it may ence; its reaction is strongly emotional; it adheres contribute to increased tensions, and possibly to to the side of the Good; it does apprehena the film anti-social or criminal behaviour. as real;undesirable qualities of the child are enhanced if frequently shown in the film; the same 117. Wall, W.D. and Smith E.M. Les adoles- film is experienced differently by each child. (2) cents et le cinemaAdolescentsand the Refutations - Film as such does not enhance super- cinemg, Revue Internationale de filmoloige, ficiality;film as such does not create illusions, Vol. 2 No. 6,1951. p. 153-158. this depends on film content; film does not eli- minate "the inner eye"; film as such does not Studying the movie habits and tastes of more stimulate aggressiveness and crime.(3) Some than5,000children in Birmingham, these au- generalized propositions on strength and direction thors found that nearly half of them had seen of influences. films not suitable for their age,and that only one-fifth of all the films they had seen in the 115. Stuckrath, Fritz.Der Film als Erziehungs- test period had been passed by the censor for macht(The film as an educational force/ adolescents.The enthusiasm of these children Hamburg, Verlag der Gesellschaft der for a given film seems often to be determined Freunde des vaterlandischen Schul- und by the extent to which they can identify them- Erziehungswesens, 1953.72 p.('Zur selves with the chief characters.The scenes Hamburger Schulreform' series, No. 10). most likely to be shocking or frightening to young children are those involving violence, cruelty to Professor Stuckrath sums up his impressions de- animals,or tragedy.Asked about the influences rived from years of observing children's reactions of the cinema they observe in their friends, these to films.The strength of the emotional effect of boys and girls express the opinion that styles in films on children is emphasized, and the author clothing, and games and play patterns, are easily concludes that violent and erotic scenes may often learned from movies.

39

-1811111111111111, 118. Wetter ling, Horst. Das Fernsehen in pada- and therefore satisfies real developmental needs. gogischen Aspekt; Bemerkungen zur Wirk- For insecure, maladjusted children, however, the samkeit, zu den MOglichkeiten und Aufgaben comics may become a substitute for what they do not eines Jugendprotramms im Fernsehen LThe find in life. Thus, for some, Superman becomes educational aspect of television; observations a father-figure. Thus the comics provide"an au- on the effectiveness, the potentialities and thority and power which settles the more difficult the tasks of television programmes for young or ultimate issues, enables these children to per- peopl7. Munchen, Evangelischer Presse- form their daily tasks without too much anxiety". Verband fttr Bayern, 1960.294 p. (Schrif- If a child satisfies emotional needs with cornice, tenreihe der Evangelischen Akademie fur however, he does not readily outgrow the need. Rundfunk und Fernsehen, No. 9.) Unlike the normal child, he does not learnto stand on his own feet. For the maladjusted child,"the An evaluation of German children and youth pro- religion of comics is not easily given up, for the grammes on TV, based on a comparison of the child is frightened and no new religion beckons". reactions of 10 urban and 19 rural children (5-10 The conclusions are based on detailed interviews years) and of 10 rural and 10 urban adolescents with children of different ages,. (10-14 years), observations of 10 family heads, and reactions of variable groups totalling 350 youths. 120. Zazzo, Bianka and Zazzo, Rend. La jeunesse With growing age the preference for television et le cinema: etude expdrimentale du Centre as compared with other media shifted to cinema and international de l'enfance effectude an labora- books. Fiction, semi-documentary programmes toire de psychobiologie de l'enfance tYouth and youth-news were preferred to documentaries, and the cinema: an experimental study carried discussions, demonstrations.Reflections on psy- out by the Centre international de l'enfance e.ological, educational and moral functions of at the Laboratory for Child Psychobiolocti, youth programmes. Courrier du Centre international de l'enfance, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1958. p. 185-197. 119. Wolfe, Katherine M. and Fiske, Marjorie. Why they read the comics.In: Lazarsfeld, From the standpoint of television research, the most P.F. and Stanton, P.N. Communications pertinent parts of this report deal with attempts research, 1048-1949. New York, Harper, to analyse affective reactions broughtto the surface 4949. p. 152-179. by exposure of 900 adolescents to a selected group of films.In brief, the finding was that films do For normal children, according to these authors, bring out such reactions, and enter into the forma- comic reading is a means of ego-strengthening, tion of children's attitudes toward their parents.

40 VI. EFFECTS OF VIOLENCEAND AGGRESSION

contrasting experiences with the sameadult model. A. PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS* In one case, the modelbehaved in a number of aggressive ways toward dolls; inthe other, in a 121. Albert, Robert S. The roleof the mass toward the same media and the effect of aggressivefilm con- number of non-aggressive ways and dolls,Later, when given an opportunityto play tent upon children's aggressive responses children in each group identification choices, GeneticPsychology with the same dolls, the Monographs, No. 55, 1957. p. 221-285. imitated the behaviour of themodel, Furthermore, the children who had previouslyexperienced more of a western film, socially rewarding relationshipswith the model The author showed three versions imitate closely and at length. similar to television weserns, to220 children age were most likely to the hero However, the part of the model'sbehaviour which eight to ten.In one version of the film, readily imitated regardless won the conventionalvictory over the villain.In was aggressive was another version, the villain won, and wasnot pu- of the relation of thechildren to the model. The before either hero implication is that children willreadily imitate nished. The third version ended aggressive behaviour they see inthe mass media. or villain could win.Before and after the film, he the children. He measured the aggression level of 124. Bandura, Albert, Ross,Dorothea, and Ross, found no evidence that either thefilm in which the aggressive hero won, or the one inwhich the villain won, Sheila. Imitation of film-mediated children; on models, Journal of Abnormal andSocial decreasedthe aggressionlevel in the Psychology, Vol. 66, No. 1, 1963. p.3-11. the other hand,it did not increase the aggression Somewhat surprisingly, to any significant degree. find out whether children the version of the film inwhich the contest was not This study was de signedto would be more likely to-imitateaggressive behaviour decided did significantly decreasethe aggression similar behaviour seen on film level of the children who saw it.The effect was seen in real life than children with low or in cartoons.Grours of nursery schoolchildren greater on younger children and were exposed to the sameexamples of behaviour; I.Q.'s. one group sawthem in the experimental room, another on film, another by meansof projected 122. Attitudes of children andparents toward of these. violent scenes on TV, MonthlyBulletin of cartoons. A control group saw none Research Afterward, the children were givenopportunities the Radio and Television Culture used in the demonstra- Institute, No. 2, 1961. to play with the same toys tions.Children who had seen theaggressive aggressively By means of questionnaires and programmeanalyser behaviour played significantly more eighth-grade than children who had not seen thedemonstratiqnse studies, reactions of 200 fifth- and Children who had seen the real-lifeaggressive children and their parents weresought with respect closely than to a number of programmes .Five out of 22 examples models imitated the behaviour more that parents children who had seen the cartoon,but there was of programmes contained violent scenes imitative behaviour between the felt they did not wish theirchildren to see.The r.o difference in concerned the parents contained children who had seen the livedemonstration and scenes that most those who had seen the film,nor, did the three acts of cruelty which theyfeared the child might significantly in total imitate, or made use of weaponseasily available. experimental groups differ aggression,Indeed, the results suggest that By studying the children,however, it was found aggression that the majority were not greatlyinterested in the "exposure to humans on film portraying was the mostinfluential in eliciting and shaping scenes that worriedthe parents. Both the children The implication is that and the parents feltuncomfortable at the same aggressive behaviour". scenes. * For additional treatment, seethe general studies especially 10,p. 169-220; 123. Bandura, Albert,and Huston, Aletha C. Iden- in section II, learning, 12, 139-41, and 161-66; 11,passim. In this tification as a process of incidental separated from Journal of Abnormal and SocialPsychology, section, film studies are not 311-318. television studies, because in mostof them the Vol. 63, No. 2, 1961. p. stimulus was presented in such a way asto re- present either film or television. Two groups of pre-school.children were put through 41

+.4 very young children at least are as likelytoimitate groups of college students were shown a film in aggression seen on television or in films,as which a prize-fighter was seen absorbing a brutal aggression seen in real life. beating. Half the groups had been provoked and angered by an experimenter before seeing the film. 125. Bandura, Albert, Ross, Dorothea, and Ross, Half of them were told that the prize-fighter who Sheila A. Transmission of aggression through was being beaten was a "downright scoundrel". imitation of aggressive models,Journal of The question was whether the justification of this Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 63. , hostility would enable the students to get rid vica- No. 3, 1961. p. 575-582. riously of their hostility toward the experimented. It did not. On the contrary, it increased the amount One group of children were shown an adult hitting of overt hostility expressed toward the experimen- and kicking a "bobo doll" - a large roundeddoll ter. The implication is that when aggressive be- which has weights in its feet so that it can be used haviour is justified on film or television, it lowers as a sort of punching bag. Acomparable group of children's inhibiti ins against expressing their own children were shown adult non-aggressive behaviour. aggressions, and does not reduce those aggressions At a later time,the children were stimulated in vicariously. such a way as to irritate them mildly and bring out aggression in them. Then they were taken into a 128. Brodbeck, A.J. The mass media as a socia- room where there were a numberof attractive toys, lizing agency. A paper read to the American including the bobo doll. The children who had been Psychological Association Symposium on shown the aggressive behaviour typically imitated Children and the Mass Media, San Francisco, it; they went to the bobo doll and began hitting and 1955. kicking it.The children who had not seen the aggressive behaviour did not do this, and displayed The author of this paper considers television view- considerably less aggression generally.The im- ing as a problem-solving activity for children. He plication is that when children see aggressive believes that the effect of television programmes behaviour on television, they may imitate it when on children probably depends on the personality, their own aggression is high and when the opportu- the situation, and the particular problems of the nity is at hand. children. He advises, therefore, against believ- ing that a given kind of television will necessarily 126. Berkowitz, Leonard. Violence in the mass have a given kind of effect. For example, he re- media. In: Paris-Stanford studies in com- ports that a cowboy film had considerable impact munication. Stanford, Ca. ,Institute for on younger children, but very little on older ones - Communication Research, 1962. p. 16. who supposedly had become familiar with the typi- cal "western" plots. He reports another case in Reviews the pertinent research, including some which children's level of aggression rose greatly recent work by the author. Concludes: "The pre- after reading a comic book story in which the vil- sent analysis obviously has important social impli- lain got away with his dirty work; but these chil- cations. While it may be true that television, mo- dren's standards of right and wrong did not change vies, and comic books will excite anti-social con- at all. He suggests that "when aggression is really duct from only a relatively small number of people, successful in fantasy, it tends to remove inhibitions we can also say that the rather heavydosage of of aggression in real life; when punished in fantasy, violence in the media heightens the probability that it tends to be inhibited in real life". Unfortunately someone in the audience will behave aggressively the research to which he alludes in the paper has in a later situation. This might not be so bad if the apparently never been published. observer indulging the fantasy aggression were the only person to suffer.He had chosen to expose 129. Emery, F.E. and Martin, David. Psycholo- himself to the influence of TV, movies, and comic gical effects of the "Western" film: a study books.Unfortunately, however, the observer in television viewing. Melbourne, Depart- instigated to carry out hostile acts usually injures ment of Audio-Visual Aids, University of an innocent bystander." Melbourne, 1957. 47 p. (Studies in Mass Communication). 127. Berkowitz, Leonard and Rawlins, Edna. Effects of film violence on inhibitions against The investigators showed Western films to small subsequent aggression, Journal of Abnormal audiences of Australian children, and made various and Social Psychology, Vol. 66, No. 3, 1963. psychological measures, including the Rosenweig p. 405-412. Picture Frustration Test, before and after the films were seen. The results did not confirm the Fesh- This experiment was a test of whether seeing ag- bach hypothesis that television or film fantasy re- gressive scenes in films or television programmes leases pent-up aggression in viewers, and thus could "purge" a youth of aggressive inclinations. lowers their overall level of aggression. The in- The design was rather complicated, and will not be vestigators also came to the conclusion that child- described in detail here. Essentially comparable ren develop a perceptual defence to protect them 42 experienced from violent Subjects: 2,250 pupils of all types of school, against shock and anxiety exposed films. Especially if theyidentify with a hero who in West Germany, between 12 and 16 years, wins out and seems moredynamic and effective in 11 groups of about 150 in 1956-1957. after the action of tlie film, they seemto be able Methods: Before and after design measuring anxiety which might other- effects of three types of regular story films to avoid the stress and (aggression arousing, appeasing, ambivalent)by wise result from a violent film. means of Thurstone scales. 130. Evry, Hal, TV murder causesbad dreams, Results:Films with dominant aggression Film World, No. 8, 1952. p.247. themes enhance aggressive attitzdes, if realisti- cally and dynamically screened, andwhen they facilitate identification. Only one film,characte- More than half of 2,000 six-year-oldsin private teachers they dreamed rized by facilitated identification withharmonic and parochial schools told and appeasing action, had appeasing effects.Films about the television programmesthey watched, and dreamed about the without significant effects in either direction about a quarter of those who dominating programmes saidtheir dreams were bad. About lacked either identification clues or 59 per cent of childrenwith television in their aggression themes. frightened by TV homes said they were sometimes 133. Lovaas, 0.J. Effect of exposure tosymbolic programmes. aggression on aggressive behaviour,Child 131, Feshbach, S. The drivereducing function of Development, No. 32, 1961. p. 37-44. fantasy behaviour, Journal ofAbnormal and 1, 1955. This experinumfer showed an animated cartoon, Social Psychology, Vol. 50, No. with much aggressive material, to one groupof p. 3-12. children, and a similar cartoon without much aggres- experiment in which sive material to another group.Afterward he gave Dr. Feshbach conducted an each child a choice between two toys to playwith. half of a group of experimentalsubjects :college insulted so as to rouse One of these was an aggressivetoy; by turning students) were deliberately make one doll hit another their feelings of aggression. Thenhalf the insulted a lever the child could non-insulted group were shown on the head. The othertoy had moving doll figures group and half the thiardicrnot hit one another. The children who had pictures that encouragedthem to express their picture tended to prefer the feelings in fantasy. Thematicapperception test seen the aggressive pictures were used for this purpose.The students aggressive toy; the others, thenon-aggressive toy.The implication is that viewingaggressive who had been insulted and werethen shown the will tend fantasy pictures showed significantlyless aggres- action in films or television programmes shown the fantasy in some degree to rouse children'saggressive im- sion than those insulted but not safety pictures.The insult-fantasy groupexpressed pulses - it will not necessarily serve as a significantly less aggression towardthe experi- valve to relieve such impulses. menter who had insultedthem, than did the insult- and Selya non-fantasy group. And theinsult-fantasy group 134. Maccoby, Eleanor E. ,Levin H. , aggression in their B.M. The effect of emotionalarousal on the showed considerably more retention of aggressive and non-aggressive responses to the picturesthan did the non-insult- Psychologist, No. fantasy group.Dr. Feshbach made no claim that movie content, American these results would necessarilyapply in all cases 10, 1955. p. 359. children's The effects of emotional arousal to television viewing. But assuming that film content:a failure television viewing is fantasybehaviour, other rea- on the retention of to be called the to replicate, Journal ofAbnormal and Social ders have stated what has come 1) 373- "Feshbach hypothesis" - that the experienceof Psychology, Vol. 53, No. 3, 1956. viewing television helps childrento reduce their 374. level of aggression. These two experiments were designedto test the frustrated (and 132. Heinrich, Karl.Filmerleben, Filmwirkung, hypothesis that children who are Filmerzeihung - Der Einfluss desFilms auf hence high in aggression) beforeseeing an adven- Experimen- ture film, are more likely thannon-frustrated die Agressivitat beiJugendlichn, aggressive telle Untersuchungen und ihrelernpsycholo children to remember the violent and gischenKonsequenzen LFilm experience,film content of the film.One group of children was frustrated in a spelling contest bybeing given words effects, film education. The influenceof film for them, a con- on aggressivenessof youth, experiments and much too advanced and too hard learniniZ trol group was given easy words andtherefore not consequences for thepsychology of Both groups of children were then Berlin, Hannover, Darmstadt, H.Schroedel, so frustrated. shown a film with much violent content.Inthe first 1961. 372 p. experiment, measures taken a weeklater (using the child- Purpose: Study of direction andamount of change children in the Boston area) showed that of aggressiveness as a resultof film-exposure. ren who had beenfrustrated did indeed remember 43 more of the violent content of the film. When the 138. Riley, Matilda. W. and Riley, John W., Jr. experiment was replicated (using up-State New A sociological approach to communication York children), no significant differenceswere research.In: Schramm, W. ed. The pro- found between experimental and control groups. cess tuld effects of mass communication. Urbana, Ill., University of Illinois Press, 135. Parrot, Philippe, Spinat, P., Guitton, R. and 1954. p. 389-401. Corbal, F. Line identification heraque de l'adolescent delinquant: Eddie Constantine This study was based ona survey designed to as- /A heroic personification of juveniledelin- certain the relation of peer groupmer Lership to quency:Eddie Constantine], Reeducation, television viewing. The subjectswere 400 United No. 2, 1957. p. 23-33. States children.It was found that non-members of peer groups (children who had fewfriends) ve-re When 24 boys aged 16 to 18, under observation at more likely to view violent television programmes, the reception and observation centre at Macanan, "including Westerns, mysteries,crime, horror, were asked to write an essay on their favourite and other such adventure themes". Amongolder movie actor or actress a high proportion of them children who are beyond theage when such named Eddie Constantine.Their expressed rea- programmes are usually highly popular,the sons were that "he fights", "knows how to treat children who still had most liking for suchpro- women", and "overcomes all obstacles". Theau- grammes were the ones who were most frustrated thors analyse the apparently unconscious motives in wanting to belong to and be accepted bypeer for this preference, and conclude that this type of groups.The authors conclude: for non-members film hero is especially dangerous for juvenile de- of the peer groups, such programmes "mayform linquents because he "respects no moral code and a fantasy world into which he may escape froma frequently plays an ambiguous r8le; onecan never real world in which the standardsseem impos- tell whether he is On the side of the policeor on the sibly high". side of the gangsters". 136. Preston, M.I. Children's reactions to movie 139. Scott, L.F. Social attitudes of childrenre- horrors and radio crime, Journal of Pediatric s, vealed by response to television programmes, No. 19, 1941. p. 147-168. California Journal of Elementary Education, No. 22, 1954. p. 176-179. An emotional inventory was administered to 200 normal children, some of whom spent muchmore When 478 California schoolchildren filled outques- time than others on movie horror shows and radio tionnaires on law enforcement, it was found that: crime programmes. Among the symptoms that 60 per cent thought it was all right touse dis- increased with increasing attention to such pro- honesty in law enforcement (as televisionsome- grammes were nervousness, fears, sleeping dis- times did); turbance, eating disturbances, nail-biting, day- 12 per cent thought real-life sheriffs today dreaming, and sex- interest.. These symptoms in- are dishonest (43 per cent thought television she- creased in severity with the degree of addiction to riffs are dishonest); these types of movies and radio programmes. 79 per cent thought law enforcement officials mistreat Western bad men on television; 137. Rebeillard, Monique. Etat acturl de la re- 33 per cent thought cowboys today carry guns cherche filmologique en neuro-psychiatrie as TV cowboys do. infantilePresent state of filmological re- search in infantile neuro-psychiatryf Paris, La Productrice, 1955. 45 p. 140. Siegel, Alberta E. Film-mediated fantasy aggression and strength of aggressive drive, Finding that cinema attendance was highamong a Child Development, No. 27, 1956.p. 365-378. sample of juvenile delinquents, this researcher compared the reactions of normal and of malad- The main hypothesis for this study of 24nursery adjusted children to various films.In general, it schoolchildren was that aggression and guiltare was found that movies stimulate intelligent and lower in children after they see a filmor televi- well-adjusted children, contribute to their voca- sion programme with much aggressivecontent. bularies, and enrich their imaginations. Some The results, however, indicated that aggression children, however, are wearied and depressed by and guilt might be higher, rather than lower,after films, especially those in which they identify with seeing such a film, but the differenceswere not unhappy heroes. Using electro-encephalograms statistically significant. as well as paper-and-pencil tests, the researcher concluded that young viewers project their own 141. Siegel, Alberta E. The influence of violence personal conflicts into the conflicts shown on the in the mass media upon children's r8leexpec- screen. The techniques, however, did not permit them tations, Child Development, No. 29, 1958. to draw very specific conclusions from these results p. 35-56. 44 . Two groups of second-grade children (6 or7years 144. Zajonc, Robert. Some effects of the 'space' old) were shown different versions of a film about serials, Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 18, a taxi driver. One group saw a version inwhich No. 4, 1954. p. 367-374. the taxi driver was shown as a very aggressive person; the other, a version in which thedriver Two groups of children,10-14years old, listened was not depicted as an aggressive person.When to different versions of a radio space drama, in one they completed a story about a taxi driver, at a of which the hero was a power-seeking character, later time, the group that had seen the aggressive in the other a friendship-seeking one. Each of the driver in the film depicted a taxi driver as a more groups said overwhelmingly it would like to be like aggressive person than did the other group. The the successful character (whether he was power- implication is that the kind of adults children see oriented or affiliation-oriented). Furthermore, the on television may lead them to expect to see such children who heard the power-oriented hero also adults in real life; that is, if they become accus- concluded that power was a more desirable attri- tomed to violence among adults on television, they bute than did the children who heard the other hero. may expect considerable violence among real Although these effects may not be long lasting, still adults when they grow up. the implication is that children admire and copy behaviour they see in the media that "works". 142.Thomson, R.J. Television-Crime-Drama. Its impact on children and adolescents. B. RELATION TO DELINQUENCY AND CRIME Melbourne, F.W. Cheshire, 1959.197 p. 145. Blunter, Herbert and Hauser, Philip M. Movies, This investigator showed two crime dramas to48 delinquency, and crime. NewYork, Macmillan, intermediate (early teen-age) students in Melbourne , 1933. 233 p. Australia. Photographs taken of the audience dur- ing the films indicated that tension built up in them This Payne Fund study made use of film showings during the showing. Projective reactions to pic- to, interviews with and essays by, a number of tures obtained from them afterward, however, did delinquent boys and girls and ex-convicts. The not indicate any significant rise in aggression or conclusion of the study is that it is probable that fear. Mr. Thomson suggested that his evidence niovies influence about 10 per cent of delinquent might indicate "some sort of natural safeguard t oys and 25 per cent of delinquent girls. Thi. in- operating to protect the typical adolescent crime- tiuence is usually unconscious; and indeed many drama audience from stress effects". He found more of these young people said they were influ- no evidence "that viewing a crime film provoked enced by films than could demonstrate any such any criminal or psychopathic tendencies in the great relationship. As television researchers have also majority of viewers If there is some risk to found, the mass media serve as convenient scape- children viewingthis type of programme constantly, goats to absorb the blame for criminal behaviour. it would appear to lie rather in the direction of the The types of films which are believed to enter acquiring of certain relatively stereotyped and most often into the making of delinquent behaviour insensitivized reactions". The implication is that in boys are those which show the behaviour of cri- children who view much of this kind of programme minals, which arouse desires for wealth and power might possibly also acquire an insensitivity and and show socially unacceptable ways of attaining stereotyped reaction to violent events in real life. these goals, which glorify toughness, arouse vio- lent sexual desires, and commend careers like 143,Walters, LH., Thomas, D.E., and Acker, those of gangsters. In the case of girls, the films C.W. Enhancement of punitive behaviour by which are most likely to contribute to future delin- audio-visual displays, Science, No.136, 1962. quency are those which arouse sexual passions, p. 872-873. stimulate desire for a life of luxury and gaiety and Fourteen male hospital attendants in Toronto, Canada, at the same time suggest undesirable ways watched the knife-fight scene in the motion picture achieving those goals, incite them to flirtations Rebel Without a Cause. A control group of the same and sexual experimenting, and occupy time intheir size watched a film showing adolescents engaged in lives which would be better devoted to home and constructive activities. After seeing the films the school. members of the two groups were assigned to run a On the other hand, the investigators point out conditioning experiment which gave them the oppor- that films may have a favourable as well as an un- tunity to punish errors in the experimental subjects favourable influence in the lives of boys and girls. by admiristering electric shocks of variable inten- It depends on the film and the child. sities. The group which had watched the fight behaved in a much more punitive mannerthan did the other 146. Cressey, Paul G. and Thrasher, Frederick group, using a significantly higher level of current M. Boys, movies, and city streets. New to give shocks. The implication, say the authors, is York, Macmillan, 1933. that "exposure to audio-visual displays containing aggress.tve content can result in significantly Studying 949 boys in New York City,these investi- greater wilLagness to inflict pain". gators found a correlatiem between frequent cinema 45 attendance and delinquency. They pointed out, 149. Haines, William H. Juvenile delinquency and however, that their data do not enable them to say television, Journal of Social Therapy, No. 1, whether frequent movie-going leads to undesirable 1955. p. 192-198. behaviour,or whether bad behaviour leads to movie-going.While it may be concluded that One hundred teen-age prisoners in Chicago jails movies are not often solely responsible for delin- were interviewed concerning their histories and quency,it is, on the other hand, unlikely that their opinions as to whether television, movies, delinquents can go often to movies without being radio, and pornographic literature had anything to influenced by what they see on the screen. do with their criminal careers. Conclusion: "TV, pornography, and movies play a distinct rale in 147. An effect of TV on Children, TBS Research the creation of anti - social behaviour in susceptible Information, No. 35, November 1961. teen-agers". The National Association of Comazercial Broad- 150. Japan. League of Non-Governmental Broad- casters in Japan has been surveying the effect of casters. Effects of television on juveniles, TV on children, The first two reports %Fere pub- Shimbun Kenkyu, No. 116, 1961. P. 17-24. lished under the title of "An Effect of TV on Child- ren" and "Potentially Misbehaving Children and TV". A questionnaire survey of 461 delinquents, 14 to In the former study, dwelling areas were clas- 26 years old, in Osaka, found that fewer blamed sified as industrial, commercial, and residential, television as a cause for their delinquency than and from each type of area two junior high schools blamed movies or magazines. were selected. In addition to the six junior high Another questionnaire survey of 1,119 junior schools, 17 parochial grammar schools were high school students and potential delinquents in a selected in the areas, from which 3,000 children special school in Osaka found that the potential were added to the 3,000 students selected from the delinquents had no stronger preference than the six junior high schools, making a total of 6,000 other children for crime-thriller pregrammes. children to be surveyed, together with children from the grammar schools. These students were 151. Logan, C.S. What our` children see, Year- divided into a control group and a TV group, and book of the Institute for Education by Radio, compared by an individual matching method. 1950. p. 170-174: As to TV's effect on children's interests, the control group displayed a tendency to be a little When 314 pediatricians, sociologists, neuropsy- more interested than the TV group in such static chiatrists, and psychologists were given a series behaviour as reading books on science, composing of questions on the effects of television on child- a poem, and so forth. ren, 90 per cent of them expressed the belief that Although positive-negative tests were applied crime programmes have in some ways a harmful in order to conceptualize the relationship between effect. About 81 per cent said they thought tele- viewing behaviour and positive or negative perso- vision crime programmes contributed to children's nalities, no significant differences were found. Ir delinquency or asocial behaviour. physical activeness and social consciousness tests, findings for the former revealed no statistice dif- 152. Potentially misbehaving children and TV, ference, but findings for the latter revealed that Asahi Hoso, March 1961. ehildren in a TV group were a little more indivi- dualistic and in favour of status quo, and the ones Potentially misbehaving children and potentially in the control group wore a little less favourable well-behavedchildren,to be compared were selected to status quo and to mellorism. on the basis of a number of tests: an IQ test, whether orphans ornot, school grades, groups be- longed to, a personality test by the Dr. Ushizirna 148. Great Britain. Home Office. Report of the method, and a self-control test. A total of 1,000 departmental committee on children and the children in the second year in six-junior' high cinema. London, H.M.S.°. , 1950. schools, some of whom were juvenile delinquents, were surveycd. In this report of a committee set up in 1947 to in- The survey investigated the time they spent in vestigate the effect of cinema-going on children, viewing, their selection of programmes, viewing it is stated that out of 38,000 children under 16 behaviour, and preference in regard to progkammes who appeared before a juvenile court during a pe- Findings as to time and'selection of pro- riod of six months, only 141 cases of criminal be- grammes did not show signiftcant differences be- haviour and 112 cases of moral misbehaviour could tween the two groups. Potentially misbehaving be found in which there appeared to be a direct children tended to select comic lirogrammea a; relationship with film attendance. The committee little more often,and action said proi.h decided that criminal and amoral behaviour are grammes without complex stories, relatively sti- the results of more subtle and complex influences mulating as these programmes were. On the other than film-going hand, potentially well-behaved children tended to

46 select educational programmes a little more fre- leading characters were middle class, andnearly quently, and a considerable number of complex half were wealthy. Two out of five wereAmericans and intellectual action and thriller programmes. and seven out of ten unmarried. The mainbeha- As the result of an IQ and a school grade test, viour motives in the films were love (68 percent), interrelated with time, children with both extreme- fame or prestige (26 per cent), security and health ly high school grades and a high IQ tended to have (16 per cent), and money (10 per cent). The figures alonger viewingtime than other children. Children just given add to more than 100 per cent because with low school grades and with low TQ tended to some characters had more than one motive. have short viewing times. Among other children, the higher the IQ, the longer the viewing time. Among children cf equal IQ,the higher their 155. Mirams, Gordon.Drop that gun (Bas les grades, the less likely were they to spend along arme), Quarterly of Film, Radio, and time on TV. Television, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1951. p. 1-19. This is a study of crime and violence in100 feature C.STUDIES OF VIOLENT CONTENT* Mini. An average of 6.6 acts of crime or violence was found per film. Among the crimes were 168 153. Dale, Edgar. The content of motion pictures. murders or attempted murders, of which 73 took New York, Macmillan, 1935. 234 p. place in 13 Westerns. This Payne Fund study of the content of 500 feature films from each of the years 1920, 1925, and 1930 156. Whalen, Ray. Crime rnd violence on tele- makes interesting comparison with the content of vision.Ottawa, Canadian Broadcasting television as seen by children today. In those years, Corporation, 1959. love, crime, and sex were the main themes of 72 per cent of the feature films examined. Only one Content analysis finds that two United States net- out of 500 films was a children's film.Children works devoted nine-and-one-half hours weekly to who visited the theatre once a week saw an average programmes containing crime and violence asde- of one crime film per month. Of 115 crime films fined in Webster's New World Dictionary. The third shown in cinemas in Columbus, Ohio, murder tech- U.S. network carried six-and-one-half hours of niques were shown in nearly every film, attempted such programmes, and Canadian Broadcasting murder in 21, and actual murder in 45.Extra- Corporation carried five-and-one-half hours. How- marital relations, seduction, adultery, procuring, ever, since CBC is onthe air fewer hours thanthe illegitimacy, prostitution were commonly shown in U.S. networks, its percentage was proportionately Elms which dealt with sex themes. higher. The study notes that despite the coming of tele- 154. Jones, Dorothy B.Quantitative analysis of vision with this amount of violence, the number of motion picture content, Public Opinion Quar- juvenile crimes in Canada has decreased since terly, Vol. 6, No. 3, 1942. p. 411-428. 1942. This study of 100 grade A and grade B films dis- tributed in the United States in 1941 and 1942 is interesting to television scholars for the compari- *See also 10, p. 179-191, and 12, p. 139-141, sons it makes possible with the present content of for analyses of violent content in British and television.In these 16a films, 80 per cent of the American television. VII. EFFECTS ON MALADJUSTED AND DISTURBED CHILDREN

A. TELEVISION Looking at television from the viewpoint of his ex- perience as a psychiatrist, Dr. Glynn holds forth 157. Freedman, Lawrence A. Daydream in a va- some gloomy possibilities. The chief effect of the cuum tube: a psychiatrist's comment on the medium, he feels, is "passivity and dependence, in effects of television.In: Schramm, W., Lyle, multiple shapes and forms". He feels that aggres- J., and Parker, Edwin B. Television in the sion probably "is not so much inhibited by televi- lives of our children.Stanford, Ca.,Stan- sion as displaced''. He wonders what will be the ford University Press, 1961. p. 189-194. effect on children of being so constantly stimulated throughout their early years by television fantasy. Basing hia comments on clinical experience , the "Will reality match up to the television fantasy this author analyses some of the complex interrelation- generation has been nursed on?" he asks. "These ships between television and a child's behaviour. children are in a peculiar position; experience is He says that when a child spends far more than exhausted in advance... When the experience itself average time viewing television it is reasonable to comes, it is watered down, for it has already been suppose that this behaviour is symptomatic of in- half lived, but never truly felt." tolerable stress in his environment or of brewing anxiety and instability within him. Most children, he says, do not confuse the "pretend" world of B.RELATED STUDIES OF FILM television with the real world. However, some do. The author then outlines a continuum of such res- 159. Brini, A. and Redslobj. E. Les m4faits de la ponses in terms of the probable mental health of symphonie pastorale(Harmfuleffects of the the child. The schizoid, who avoids intimate rela- film "La Symphonie pastorale" 7, Annales tionships and tries to live within himself, finds in d'occulistique, No. 106, 19477 p. 104-106. television a retreat from the unbearable stresses of relationships he wants to avoid. Children with This is the case-history of a girl of 14 who became hysterical or dissociative tendencies may identify temporarily blind after seeing a film "La Symphonie too easily with television characters and assume pastorale". The diagnosis was hysteria. their habits and their fantasy adventures. Psycho- pathic children whose self-governing and self- 160. Bruel, Oluf. Psychic trauma through the censoring mechanisms are defective and whose cinema: an illustrative case, International identifications with meaningful adult figures have Journal of Sexologx, No. 7, 1953. p. 61-63. been seriously impaired, are poised to rebel and may find the television criminal a model for their A 15-year-old girl developed a phobia that inhibited rebellion. Psychotic children, confused in their her from entering a watchmaker's shop where she identifications and distressed by the violence of had recently left her father's timepiece to be re- their own impulses, may find the necessary stimu- paired. The clinician traced the origin of the pho- lus to violence in the violence of television, orthey bia to the viewing of the film, "The Hunchback of may retreat into it, or may follow exactly and lite- Notre-Dame", which had apparently had a trau- rally the recommendations they hear on television. matic effect on the girl.The film was believed to This is at the opposite end of the continuum from have aroused masochistic tendencies, which were the mentally healthy child. condemned and inhibited. The struggle oetween active and inhibitory forces developed into the 158. Glynn, Eugene David.Television and the neurosis which brought her to the therapist for American character - a psychiatrist looks at treatment. television.In: Elliott, William Y. Televi- sion's impact on American culture. East Lansing, Mich., Michigan State University Press, 1956. p. 175-182.

48 VIII. PHYSICAL EFFECTS*

163. On how to view Annual Bulletin of the 161. Henshaw, S., Miller, V.L., andMarquis, D. Research Children's sleepLim soromeil des enfants]. Radio and Television Culture New York, Macmillan, 1933. Institute, No. 11, 1959. This Payne Fund study was based on arecording The opthalmology departmentof the Keio Univer- sity medical school (Tokyo)studied the effect of of the movements during sleepof 163 children, Their finding wac ranging from 6 to 19 years of age,who were shown television viewing on the eyes. that two hours of televisionviewing under unfa- a movie between6:30 and 8:30 p.m. , and thenwent reduce the to bed at 9 p. m. The amountof movement increased vourable conditions can temporarily the ability of the eye to focus and adjust,but that the as much as 90 percent in some children on minutes to one hour's rest, night after seeing the movie, anithe effect some- eye recovers after 30 and that the effect can bemoderated very greatly times persisted for several nip;is thereafter. With conditions. some children thesleep-disturbing effect of some by viewing under favourable films tyas equal to that of drinkingtwo cups of Vision, No. 6, 1952. coffee at bedtime.Great individual differences 164. Television and the eyes, were found amongchildren in the amount of disturb- p. 9-11. ance a film could causein their sleep, and some that television films proved more disturbing thanothers. Concludes there is no evidence viewed properly, harmschildren's eyes. 162. MUller, Hans Peter.Veber die Wirkung des L on the effect of 165. Zenczewski. Lesconditions de la bonne Fernsehens auf Kindle reception du programme de latelevision television uponchildre7. Internshii: report Psychology, Karl Marx LConditions for good reception oftelevision at the Institute for programmes? Rodzina i Szkola,gamily and University, Berlin. School No. 11, 1959. p. 7. Forty-three children, aged 7through 11, from school were tested in three waysto It is recommended that thechild should be seated a day nursery directly in front of the screen at adistance six or determine whether their fatigueresulting from 90 the screen. The middle minutes of watching television was anydifferent seven times the width of time spent of the screen should be at eyelevel, or slightly from fatigue resulting from the same higher. No other light should fall onthe screen. watching still pictures. Exposureto the two kinds adjusted. Children of picttires tzok place onalternate days.Before The receiver should be well children were tested on should not eat while watchingtelevision. And it is and after exposure, the not recommended that thechild be put to bed until their ability to correlatefamiliar symbols with end of the programme numbers shown to them; on theirability to perform at least 15 minutes after the a motor skill testwith a steady hand; and ontheir he has just seen. "blur and flicker thresholds". Thefirst two tests * For comparable treatmentsof television's effect revealed no statisticallysignificant differences, the General Studies in but the third indicated thatwatching television is on a child's sleep, see more fatiguing thanlooking at photographs. Section B.

49 PERIODICALS MENTIONED IN THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Journal of Sociology.University of Journal of Social Therapy. Medical Correctional Chicago, Chicago. Association, New York. American Psychologist. American Psychological Journalism Quarterly.School of Journalism, Association, Washington, D.C. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Anna les d'oculistique. Gaston Doin et Cie, Paris. Minnesota. Annals of Educational Research. The Chugoku- Jugend Film Fernsehen.Wissenschaftlichen Shikoku Society for the Study of Education, Tokyo . Institut Mr Jugendfilmfragen, Mtinchen. Annual Bulletin of the Radio and Television Culture Jugend und Film. Mtinchen. Research Institute.Nippon Hoso Kyokai. Monthly Bulletin of the Radio and Television Cul- Tokyc ture Research Institute ,Nippon Hoso Kyokai, Asahi Hoso. Asahi Broadcasting Co. ,Osaka. Tokyo. Bianco e Nero. Edizioni dell'Ateneo, Roma. National Parent Teacher (now PTA Magazine). Bolletino Doxa. Milano. National Congress of Parents and Teachers, Biuletyn Telewizyjny. Polskie Radio e Telewizja, Chicago. Warsawa. Nowa Kultura. Polish Writers Union, Warsawa. Cahiers d'dtudes de radio-tdldvision. Radiodiffu- Phi Delta Kappan.Phi Delta Kappa, Bloomington, sion-tdldvision fransaise, Paris. Indiana. California Journal of Elementary Education. Polityka.'Praia', Warsawa. California State Department of Education, Psychological Monographs. American Psycholo- Sacramento, California. gical Association, Washington, D.C. Child Development. Society for Research in Child Public Opinion Quarterly.Princeton University, Development, Lafayette, Indiana. Princeton, New Jersey. Courrier du Centre international de Penfance, Quarterly of Film, Radio, and Television. Paris. University of California Press, Berkeley, Discovery. Mercury House, London. California. L'ecole des parents.Ecole des parents et des Radio-TV Education. Nippon Hoso Kyokai, Tokyo. educateurs, Paris. Rdeducation; Revue francaise de l'enfance ddlin- Educational Screen and Audio-Visual Guide. quante , ddficiente et en danger moral, Paris. University Microfilms, Chicago. Revue internationale de filmologie. Institut de Elementary English. National Council of Teachers filmologie de l'Universitd de Paris, Paris. of English, Champaign, Illinois. Rodzina i Szkola. Ministry of Education, Warsawa. Enfance. Paris. La sauvegarde de Penfance.Union nationale des Film Bild Ton.Institut ftir Film und Bild in associations rdgionales pour la sauvegarde de Wissenschaft und Unterricht, Seebruck am l'enfance et de Padolescence Paris. Chiemsee. Science. American Association for the Advance- Film World.Sidale Publishing Company, Los ment of Science, Washington, D.C. Angeles, California. School Life. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, Genetic Psychology Monographs. The Jonrnal D.C. Press, Provincetown, Massachusetts. Shimbun Kenkyu. Tokyo. International Journal of Sexology. A.P. Pillay, Social Forces. University of North Carolina Press, Bombay. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Sociological Review. University College of North American Psychological Association, Staffordshire, Staffordshire, England. Washington, D.C. Studies in Public Communication. University of Journal of Broadcasting.Association for Pro- Chicago, Chicago. fessional Education in Broadcasting,Los Study Report of the Humanities Department of Angeles, California. Kagawa University, Takamatsu. Journal of Educational Research. Denbar Publica- Times Educational Supplement. Times Publishing tions, Madison, Wisconsin. Company Ltd.,London. Journal of Pediatrics. C.V. Mosby Co., St. Louis, Vision. B.H. Barlow, New York. Missouri, Wies Wspolczesna, United Peasant Party, Warsawa. Journal of Personality.Duke University Press, Yearbook of the Institute for Education by Radio. Durham, North Carolina. Columbus, Ohio. 51 INDEX

Graham, S. 31 Abrams, Mark 13 96 Gratiot-Alphanddry, He 16ne 32,33 Accra and Kumasi 103 143 Gray, Barbara Acker, C.W. 148 121 Great Britain, Home Office Albert, Robert S. 73 85 Greenstein, Jack Albertini, Laura 135 97 Guitton, R. Allwood, Martin S. Haines, William H. 149 Bailyn, Lotte 15 34 123,124,125 Hakuhodo Advertising Company Bandura, Albert Harris, Dale B. 4 Barrow, Lionel C. 68 35 17 Hart, W.A. 't Baffin, Tom G. Hauser, Philip M. 145 Becker, Samuel 18 74 98 Heimann, Paul Bellingroth, Friecihelm Heinrich, Karl 132 Belson, William A. 19 58 127 Heisler, Florence Berkowitz, Leonard 126, 161 99,145 Henshaw, S. Blumer, Herbert Hiraraelweit, Hilda 10 Boes ler, Pawel 20 86 1 Holaday, Perry W. Bogart, Leo Huston, Aletha C. 123 Brini, A. 159 75 British Broadcasting Corporation 21 Ishida, Yuko 128 Japan. League ofnon-governmental Brodbeck, A.J. broadcasters 150 Brudny, Wolfgang 105 36,76 160 Japan. Ministry of Education Bruel, Oluf 154 110 Jones, Dorothy B. Burton, R.V. Jorswiek, Eduard 74 Cantwell, F.V. 50 104 69 Keilhacker, Margarete 59, Carpenter, C.R. Keilhacker, Martin 7, 104,105 Caruso, Ada P. 85 61 6 Kejlina, I. Charters, Werrett W. 5 23 Klapper, Joseph T. Clark, W.J. 60 2 Kobylanski, Wladyslaw Coffin, Thomas E. 37 135 Koesel, Edmund F. 77 146 Kumata, Hideya Cressey, Paul G. 61 25 Laois, A. Cunningham & Walsh 105 153 Lammers, Paul Dale, Edgar Lazarsfeld, Paul F. 90 Dieuzeide, Luciana. 3 74 70 Ledig, Hans-Manfred Duggan, E.P. 106 71 Le Moal, P. Dunham, Franklin 107.108 100 Leroy-Boussion, A. Dysinger, Wendell S. Levin, H. 134 Emery, Frederick E. 129 38 72 Lewis, Philip Evans, C.C. 151 130 Logan, C.S. Evry, Hal 133 28 Lovaas, O.J. Fager J. Lyle, Jack 12, 65,82 Faugere, M.M. 106 62 131 Lyness, Paul I. Feschbach, S. McIntosh, Douglas 63 Fine, Bernard J. 29 91, 119 Maccoby, Eleanor E. 39, 78, 79, Fiske, Marjorie 134 74 109, 110, Foerster, Oskar 29 89 Maccoby, Nathan Foundation for CharacterEducation 40 157 Magnin, William Freedman, Lawrence A. 11 101 Maletzke, Gerhard Funk, Alois 41 Furu, Takeo 9 Markowski, Daniel '30 Marquis, Donald 161 Geiger, Kent 129 102 Martin, David Gerhartz-Franck, Ingrid 66 Glynn, Eugene David 158 May, Mark A. 53 Mayer, Jacob P. 111 Shitnakoa, Hisako Mehling, Reuben 42 Shuttleworth, F.K. Miller, V.L. 161 Sicker, Albert Mirams, Gordon 155 Siegel, Alberta E. Mori, Shigeru 43 Smith, E.M. Muller, Hans Peter 162 Smith, R. Nederland. Centraal Bureau Sokol, Robert voor de Statistiek 44,45, 46, 47 Spinet, P. Oppenheim, A.N. 10 Stoddard, George D. Pansky, Jerzy 48 Stuckrath, Fritz Parker, Edwin B. 12, 65, 82 Tarroni, Eve line Parker, Everett 92 Ten Have,Tonko T. Parrot, Philippe 135 Thomas, D. E. Paulsen, Kathe 87 Thomson, R.J. Pearlin, Leonard I. 93 Thrasher, Frederick M. Perron, Roger 112 Thurstone, Louis L. Peterson, Ruth C. 113 Ukawa, Katsumi Pool, Ithiel de Sole 94 Unesco Preston, M.I. 136 Van Dijk, K. Radiotelevizione Italiana 49 Vastenhouw, M. Rawlings, Edtta 127 Vince, Pamela Rebeillard, Monique 137 Wall, William D. Reds lob, E. 159 Walters, R.H. Riley, J.W. 50, 138 Ward, J.C. Riley, Matilda W. 138 Westley, Bruce H. Ross, Dorothea 124, 125 Wetterling, Horst Ross, Sheila 124, 125 Whalen, Ray Rousse let, Jean 33 Wilson, William C. Ruckmick, C.A. 100 Witty, Paul Ruthiger, Katherine 50 Wolfe, Glenn Joseph Schottmayer, Georg 116 Wolfe, Katherine M. Schramm, Wilbur 12,65,80, 81,82 Zajonc, Robert Scott, L.F. 83, 139 Zazzo, Bianka Seagoe, M.V. 51 Zazzo, Rene Se lya, B.M. 134 Zenczewski Zochbauer, Franz

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