The Forestry Authority '/r '" J Forestry Commission

Handbook 11 Creating and n WOODLANDS dlhtOUND T<

Forestry Commission ARCHIVE

K M fa ft

Forestry Commission Handbook 1 1

Creating and managing WOODLANDS AROUND TOWNS

Simon J. Hodge

LONDON:HMSO © Crown copyright 1995 Applications for reproduction should be made to HMSO Copyright Unit

ISBN 0 11 710328 4

FDC 270:62:91:(410)

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

KEYWORDS: Amenity, Conservation, Design, Establishment, Landscape, Management, Urban forestry.

Published by HMSO and available from: HMSO Publications Centre (Mail, fax and telephone orders only) PO Box 276, London, SW8 5DT Telephone orders 0171-873 9090 General enquiries 0171-873 0011 (queuing system in operation for both numbers) Fax orders 0171-873 8200 HMSO Bookshops 49 High Holborn, London, WC1V 6HB (counter service only) 0171-873 0011 Fax 0171-831 1326 68-69 Bull Street, Birmingham, B4 6AD 0121-236 9696 Fax 0121-236 9699 33 Wine Street, Bristol, BSl 2BQ 0117 9264306 Fax 011.7 9294515 9-21 Princess Street, Manchester, M60 8AS 0161-834 7201 Fax 0161-833 0634 16 Arthur Street, Belfast, BTl 4GD 01232 238451 Fax 01232 235401 71 Lothian Road, Edinburgh, EH3 9AZ 0131-228 4181 Fax 0131-229 2734 The HMSO Oriel Bookshop The Friary, Cardiff CF'l 4AA 01222' 395548 Fax 01222 384347 HMSO's Accredited Agents (see Yellow Pages) and through good booksellers Acknowledgements The production of this Handbook would not have been I am grateful to the following for their valuable comments possible without the contributions of: on the text: • Derek Patch, Arboriculture Advisory and Information • Clive Davis, Cleveland Community Forest Service (refereeing) « Sheila McCabe, Department of the Environment • George Gate, Forestry Commission Research Division • George Barker, English Nature (photography and graphics) • Gina Rowe, British Trust for Conservation Volunteers ■ Pat Hunter Blair and colleagues in the DANI Forest ■ Vincent Goodstadt, Strathclyde Regional Council Service (help, information and Plates 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, • Paul Tabbush, Gary Kerr, Ralph Harmer, Peter Gosling, 10.4 and 10.5, and Figure 10.1) Marcus Sangster, Brian Hibberd, Andy Moffat, Richard ■ Gareth Price, Forestry Authority England (design of Ferris-Kaan, Julian Evans, Graham Gill and Sally York Freckland Wood, comments on text and Figures 9.1 and (all Forestry Commission) 9.2) • Simon Bell, Forestry Commission Forestry Practice Division (Figures 10.2, 10.3, 10.4 and 10.5) Front cover • Dee Stamp and Community Land and Workspace Ltd Multi-purpose woodlands in the urban environment of (community involvement) the West Midlands. ( 40956) ■ John Williams, Forestry Commission Research Division (line drawings) • Environmental Management Consultants (Figures 8.1 and 8.2) • Elaine Dick, Forestry Commission Forestry Practice Division (artwork in Figure 9.3) • Dave Rogers, Forestry Commission Research Division (Plates 6.3a and 6.3b) • Clive Carter, Forestry Commission Research Division (Plate 7.5)

The development of the ideas and approach of the Handbook have been much influenced by working with: < colleagues at Alice Holt, in particular Ian Collier, Derek Patch, Gary Kerr, Paul Tabbush, David Williamson and Ralph Harmer < the Thames Chase Community Forest team (also for Figure 3.2) • Nerys Jones and the Black Country Urban Forestry Unit (who also provided Plates 1.3 and 3.1, and commented on the text) • Martin Glynn, Nottinghamshire County Council (who also provided the contract schedule and gave comments on Chapter 9) • Steve Potter, Staffordshire County Council I Contents

Acknowledgements iii 3 Working with local people 17 Foreword vii Why work with local people? 17 Introduction viii Building links with the local community 17 Introduction viii The nature of community involvement 21 Einleitung ix Information and education 22 Intro duccion ix Consultation 26 Participation to benefit local people 28 1 Opting for woodland 1 Organising events 30 The benefits of trees in the urban For more information 31 environment 1 Why woodlands and not just trees? 5 4 The right specification 32 Urban woodland: a low-cost/high-benefit Is woodland the best use of the site? 32 land use 5 Site assessment 34 Recognising opportunities for urban woodland 7 Setting objectives and priorities 42 For more information 7 The importance of robustness 43 Drafting a specification 46 2 Issues affecting the decision to plant 8 Practical woodland design 46 Development plans 8 Work schedules and contracts 53 Landscape protection and enhancement 9 For more information 57 Providing a recreation network 9 A long-term perspective 9 5 Establishing successful woodlands 58 Grants and advice 11 Ground preparation 58 Sponsorship for tree-related activities 13 Fertiliser 61 Urban woodlands and the law 13 Species choice 63 For more information 15 Species mixtures 67

v Planting-stock quality and type 72 9 Freckland Wood: case study of a new Tree spacing 76 woodland 140

Planting 77 Getting the ball rolling 140 Implementing the design plan 79 Draft specification: the basis for Tree protection 80 consultation 141 Weed control around trees 84 The landscape design plan 143 Vegetation management between trees 88 For more information 90 Liaison with local residents 143

The final specification 146 6 Woodland creation from seed 92 Natural colonisation 92 Implementation 153

Direct seeding 96 The tree establishment contract 153 For more information 100 Promotion and interpretation 157

7 Managing existing woodlands 101 For more information 159 The management plan 101 Initiating a silvicultural system 102 10 Belvoir Park Forest: case study of an Silvicultural management of recently existing woodland 160 established woodlands 104 The woodland 160 Thinning 105 Silvicultural management and regeneration The regional context 163 of mature woodlands 107 Recreation, amenity and woodland users 164 Protection of existing woodlands 111 Wildlife conservation 166 For more information 114 Timber production and resources for 8 Woodlands for particular uses 115 woodland management 166 Woodlands for recreation and amenity 115 Management planning 167 Woodlands for wildlife 122 For more information 171 Woodlands for timber production 132 For more information 138 Index 172 vi Foreword

We tend to think of woodlands as part of the countryside but, over recent years, there has been a growing awareness of the contribution they can make to the urban environment and the quality of life of city dwellers. Urban woodlands bring the countryside and its wildlife right into the city. Managed with the involvement of local people they can encourage a sense of community ownership and responsi­ bility and develop an appreciation of woodland and the natural environment. People of all ages working together can help to manage the woodland for present and future generations. This vision lies at the heart of the many community and urban forestry initiatives now in place, and has attracted people from all walks of life. These people are faced with the task of realising their vision, often on heavily used and degraded sites, and many in private ownership. Success requires the skills of the forester, community worker, land­ scape architect, ecologist, planner and negotiator all rolled into one. I commend this practical Handbook to all those engaged in the task. In a lively and accessible format it describes how to plan, create and manage multi-purpose urban wood­ lands, based on the experience gained by the Forestry Commission’s Research Division in creating demonstration woodlands in association with Local Authorities and Community Forest Teams.

The Rt. Hon, Ian Lang, Secretary of State for Scotland

vii Introduction Introduction

Great Britain has a population of 57.4 million of La Grande-Bretagne a une population de 57.4 mil­ which 46 million live in towns and cities and do lions, de laquelle 46 millions habitent dans les not have immediate access to the countryside. The villes et les cites, et ainsi n’ont pas d’acces immedi- primary role of urban forestry is to provide wood­ at a la campagne. Le role primaire de la foresterie lands and trees which improve the quality of daily urbaine est pourvoir des bois et des arbres qui life for these people. ameliorent la qualite de la vie quotidienne pour ces Urban forestry is becoming increasingly recog­ gens. nised as a discipline in its own right but those On reconnait de plus en plus la foresterie urbaine involved come from many backgrounds and disci­ comme une discipline de plein droit, mais ses prati- plines, ranging from planning through landscape ciens ont des antecedents divers et viennent des design and horticulture to forestry. These back­ disciplines differentes telles que la planification, grounds often result in an approach that is focused l’architecture paysagere, l’horticulture et la on certain aspects of the process of woodland cre­ foresterie. Souvent ces antecedents en resultent que ation at the expense of others. This Handbook pre­ la mise au point se concentre sur certains aspects de sents practical information on the process of urban la formation des bois au prix des autres. Ce Manuel woodland planning, establishment and manage­ presente des informations pratiques sur le proces­ ment. It is designed to help practitioners to achieve sus de la planification, l’etablissement et l’amenage- results where it really matters — on the ground. ment des bois urbains. II a pour but aider les prati- The definition of urban woodland used in this ciens a parvenir a ses fins ou il importe vraiment, Handbook is groups of trees in and around towns c’est-a-dire sur le terrain. that are extensively managed to provide a naturalis­ La definition de bois urbain utilisee dans ce tic vegetation structure. This can be achieved on Manuel est des groupes des arbres dans et autour areas from less than 0.1 hectare to hundreds of des villes qui s’amenagent extensivement pour hectares. The establishment and management of fournir une structure naturaliste vegetale. On peut individual urban trees is not covered in this realiser ce but sur des superficies de moins que 0.1 Handbook as it is a distinct discipline with its own hectare jusqu’a des centaines d’hectares. Ce Manuel problems and techniques. ne traite pas de l’etablissement et de l’amenagement des arbres individuels urbains, parce que c’est une discipline distincte avec ses propres problemes et techniques. Einleitung Introduccion

GroBbritannien hat eine Bevolkerung von 57,4 Mio. Gran Bretana tiene una poblacion de 57.4 millones, von der 46 Mio. in Stadten leben und keinen unmit- de los cuales 46 millones habitan en ciudades y telbaren Zugang zum Land haben. Die Hauptrolle pueblos, y asf no tienen aceso inmediato al campo. der stadtischen Forstwirtschaft ist es, Walder und El papel primario de la dasonomia urbana es Baume zur Verfiigung zu stellen, um die Qualitat proveer bosques y arboles que mejoran la calidad da des Alltagslebens dieser Menschen zu verbessern. la vida diaria para esta gente. Stadtische Forstwirtschaft wird zunehmend als Cada vez mas se reconoce la dasonomia urbana eine eigenstandige Disziplin angesehen, aber die como una disciplina por derecho propio, pero sus Leute die sich damit befassen kommen von vielen practicos tienen antecedentes diversos y vienen de Berufsfeldern und Disziplinen, welche von Planung varias disciplinas - planificacion, arquitectura de iiber Landschaftsgestaltung und Gartenbau bis zur paisaje, horticultura y ciencia forestal. Muchas Forstwirtschaft reichen. Demzufolge wird sich im veces estes antecedentes resultan en un enfoque que Verlauf der Waldschaffung oft auf gewisse Aspekte concentra en algunos aspectos del proceso de la for- auf Kosten anderer konzentriert. Dieses Handbuch macion de bosques a expensas de otros. Este gibt praktische Information iiber den Verlauf der Manual presenta informacion practica sobre el stadtischen Forstplanung, Etablierung und Pflege. processo de la planificacion, el establecimiento y el Es will dem Fachmann helfen, Resultate zu erlan- manejo de bosques urbanos. Tiene la intencion de gen, dort wo es wirklich wichtig ist, namlich vor ayudar los practicos de alcanzar buenos resultos Ort. donde es mas importante, es decir en el campo. Stadtische Forste werden in diesem Handbuch als La definicion de bosque urbano que se usa en este Baumgruppen in und um Stadte herum definiert, Manual es: ‘grupos de arboles dentro y en torno de die umfangreich verwaltet werden, um eine natiir- pueblos que se manejan extensivamente para liche Pflanzenstruktur zu ergeben. Dies kann auf proveer una estructura naturalfstica de vegetacion’. Flachen von weniger als 0,1 Hektar bis zu Hunder- Este puede alcanzarse en areas de menos que 0.1 ha ten von Hektaren erreicht werden. Die Etablierung hasta los cientos de hectareas. No trata este Manual und Pflege von individuellen Stadtbaumen wird in el establecimiento y el manejo de arboles individu- diesem Handbuch nicht behandelt, da dies eine os urbanos, porque eso es una disciplina distinta andere Disziplin mit ihren eigenen Problemen und con sus propios problemas y tecnicas. Methoden ist. Plate 1.1 Urban woodlands provide opportunities for peace and quiet, and contact with nature.

x 1 Opting for woodland

environment into the town. Contact with nature This Chapter contains the following is recognised to be important for keeping our sections : urban existence in the context of the ‘wider cre­ ation’ and for keeping us in touch with the pas­ sage of time and the changing of the seasons. • The benefits of trees in the urban Most have experienced the positive feelings asso­ environment ciated with seeing buds break and new leaves • Why woodlands and not just trees? emerge, or the anticipation of the coming winter • Urban woodland: a low-cost/high-benefit heralded by leaf fall. land use • The value of peace and tranquillity. A study of • Recognising opportunities for urban an American urban forest found that perceived woodland benefits relating to resting and escaping were • For more information especially important to users. The opportunity to relax and passively appreciate aesthetic settings appears to be a major source of the value which people place on urban parks and woodlands. The benefits of trees in the urban • Spiritual and emotional renewal. A study con­ environment ducted in Sweden showed that wooded rural scenes were more effective than treeless urban Most readers who want to learn more about urban scenes in sustaining people’s interest and that woodlands will already be convinced of the value, rural scenes tended to result in lower levels of and committed to the provision, of trees but it is sadness and fear. Urban woodlands can promote worth re-stating the benefits that trees can offer in feelings of well-being and provide a conducive order: setting for ‘recharging the batteries’. • to be clear about the case for more tree planting; • Relief from stress and improved recovery from and illn ess. The renowned landscape architect • to make the most of trees on any given site. Frederick Law Olmstead recognised over 100 years ago the stresses of urban life and argued Some of the most important benefits of trees are that views of nature are effective in helping difficult to quantify. recovery from such stresses. This has been scien­ • Contact with nature and the seasons. In this tifically demonstrated in American research increasingly man-made and man-modified world, which showed that hospital patients recovering urban trees and woodlands can bring the natural from surgery had shorter post-operative stays and

1 Plate 1.2 Trees can create enclosure and a more intimate scale for urban living.

required fewer pain killing drugs when their out­ look was of a small stand of trees rather than the wall of a building. • Improving the attractiveness of urban environ­ ments and the quality of everyday urban life. Once people have met their basic life needs, the importance to them of environmental quality increases. A survey in the USA asked people to rate overall satisfaction with their community. Parks were the third most important issue. Research has shown that the more natural the

Plate 1.3 An absence of trees impoverishes the urban environment. [41023]

2 landscaping of streets and other urban areas, the can also screen out the surrounding area creating more positively the people in the survey reacted privacy, separation and enclosure. to them. Noise reduction. Trees and shrubs, particularly • Raising senses of pride of place and self worth. evergreens, can be effective in absorbing noise if Improving the quality of a neighbourhood and densely planted in belts at least six metres wide increasing local distinctiveness can promote with the foliage and branches to ground level. pride of place and reduce antisocial behaviour. Some researchers have contended that the ability In recognition of this view, police in some of trees to offer an optical and psychological bar­ American inner-city areas such as Harlem and the rier to the source of offensive sound is just as Bronx have become involved in community tree important as their actual noise reducing capability. planting schemes. Community tree planting is Dust traps. Trees are good atmospheric scrubbers also a tool for encouraging people to recognise and can filter out as much as 75% of particulate their own worth and to learn the importance of pollution, such as dust and soot. Species like community cooperation. For example, the RAISE hawthorn, which have a rounded, open canopy (Raising Ambition Increases Self Esteem) project that allows particles easy access into the crown, in Baltimore, USA has the goal of developing in are most effective. In addition, by slowing wind participants an understanding and appreciation speeds, trees can increase the deposition of dust of nature whilst fostering a work ethic through in their vicinity. This may be an important func­ community tree planting programmes. tion of roadside planting. Trees improve human well-being in many ways. Summer shade. Trees cast summer shade, and • Landscape enhancement. Trees can break up the cool urban areas by using energy to evaporate visual monotony of uninteresting areas and transpired water. With increasing concentrations reduce the perceived scale of urban development of greenhouse gasses and ozone depletion, protec­ to a more intimate level. The variety of colours, tion from direct sunlight may become increasing­ textures and forms, and seasonal variations in ly important for both comfort and health. appearance can be used to increase the beauty Shelter. Trees can give shelter in otherwise and diversity of the urban landscape. exposed areas and may increase the extent to • Complementing urban architecture. Carefully which recreational activities are undertaken and designed planting schemes or retained woodland enjoyed. can complement and improve the built environ­ Recreation. Urban trees and woodlands provide ment by manipulating perceived scale, separating opportunities for recreation as well as a con­ distinct architecture from its surroundings and ducive environment for leisure and play. Surveys softening the visual impact of hard development. have shown that natural surroundings are just as • Screening. Whilst trees cannot hide eyesores as important to children’s games as expensive play effectively as total barriers, their natural form equipment. Local woodlands are invariably a breaks up the harsh angularity of built structures magnet for children, and areas with trees and and reduces their impact in the landscape. Trees woodland are also the best setting for many forms

3 of adult recreation from dog walking to archery. Trees and woodlands can greatly increase the capacity of an area to absorb people and improve its ability to meet a range of recreation and amenity objectives. • Urban wildlife. Urban trees and woodland can provide habitats and opportunities for wildlife to the benefit of both the flora and fauna and the people who enjoy seeing them. Because of the relatively low intensity of management in wood­ lands, levels of disturbance are low compared to other urban land uses and many plants and ani­ mals have the opportunity to exploit these habi­ tats. Trees and woodland around towns can also provide economic benefits. • Attracting development. One of the main reasons for planting trees on derelict land is to cover it up and make it attractive. This important function of trees is recognised by the urban development cor­ porations and ‘City Challenge’ initiatives. Improving the attractiveness of urban areas and creating a pleasant environment in which to live and work is one of the keys to drawing in com­ mercial investment, creating jobs and improving standards of living. By injecting resources into environmental improvement at the start of this cycle, it may continue with reduced resource pro­ vision as individuals and companies seek to maintain and further enhance their own sur­ roundings. • Energy conservation. Urban trees can reduce wind speeds around buildings and so reduce heat loss from those buildings. An effective wind­ break can save about 15% of the heat used in a typical home. Global warming could make the Plate 1.4 Urban woodlands provide a wealth of potential saving in air conditioning requirement opportunities for children’s play. an increasingly important consideration in this 4 country. There is, however, something of a forms, and that offer the maximum opportunity for dilemma as trees, particularly evergreens, shading recreation, amenity and escape from the pressures buildings in the summer can also reduce benefi­ of urban life. cial warming of the building at other times of the year. • Property values. The value people put on a well- Urban woodland: a low-cost/high- planted environment is reflected in the price they benefit land use are prepared to pay for property. In the USA trees have been shown to increase residential Formal, high specification, urban tree-planting property values by up to 20%. schemes based on large planting stock and/or plant­ • Wood. Some urban woodlands and trees will ing densities up to 20 000 trees per hectare (ha) cost have the potential to provide timber of high up to £300 000 per ha. This approach is frequently value, given appropriate management. Wood of used in extensive open areas where it is inappropri­ lower value can still provide products like wood- ate. Survival and growth are often poor and chips for mulches, bark for play areas and wood schemes soon look shabby and fail to improve the for fuel. urban environment. On the other hand, urban woodland can be an extremely cost effective land Trees also help to maintain the quality of the global use. environment by locking up carbon dioxide, a gas Urban woodland creation using forestry tech­ which contributes to the greenhouse effect. As long niques need not be expensive. A 1.5 ha demonstra­ as the wood is not burnt and does not rot down, the tion woodland was planted in 1990 by the Forestry carbon dioxide will be kept from returning to the Commission in partnership with the Black Country atmosphere. Vigorous trees lock up carbon dioxide Urban Forestry Unit and Sandwell Metropolitan more quickly than slow growing trees. Borough Council. Woodland has been created using forestry techniques and planting stock on W hy woodlands and not just trees? derelict land in the heart of the West Midlands conurbation (Plate 1.5). The total cost for site Trees provide benefits to the global environment preparation and planting was £2700 per ha (1993). wherever they are and however they are arranged, Maintenance costs are £240 per ha per year during but the extent to which trees meet other needs the five-year establishment phase. After three grow­ depends on planting scheme design. Urban tree ing seasons 90% of the trees were alive and 91% of planting is often based on individual trees in formal live trees were growing more than 20 cm a year. designs which draws attention towards the built The scheme is already functioning as a woodland to environment. However, in many urban situations the benefit of local people. attention needs to be drawn away from the built The costs of urban forestry using forestry tech­ environment. This is best done with woodlands or niques also compare favourably with those of inten­ groups of trees that emphasise the natural environ­ sively managed grass sward and other soft land ment, through informal designs based on organic uses.

5 6 Recognising opportunities for urban With careful planning, even small-scale opportu­ w oodland nities can be used to improve the urban environ­ ment and to provide people with a countryside Urban trees can cause problems. Trees drop leaves, experience where they really need it: on their fruits, blossoms and aphid honeydew. Tree roots doorstep. can damage foundations by drying shrinkable clays, make pavements uneven and block drains. Trees and branches, if blown down, can damage property For more information and injure people. Trees can cut out light from buildings. Woodlands may be perceived as threat­ Publications ening places and may give cover for antisocial Anon. (1976). Trees and forests for human settle­ behaviour and crime. Careful design and species ments. IUFRO Symposia P i.05 00, Vancouver, choice is essential to avoid these disadvantages. 11-12 June. University of Toronto Centre for Urban Forestry Studies, Toronto, Ontario M5S LAI. Anon. (1978). Proceedings of the national urban forestry conference. Washington D.C. 13-16 Opportunities for urban woodland creation November. Publication 80-003. State University of New York College of Environmental Science and When there is a change in land use, such as: Forestry, Syracuse, New York, 13210. • inner city redevelopment Anon. (1992). Span’s landscape and external works price book. E. and F. N. Spon, London. • redevelopment of industrial land • reclamation of mineral workings Dewalle, D. R. and Heisler, G. M. (1988). Use of windbreaks for home energy conservation. • restoration of landfill sites Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 22/23, Using vacant land: 243-260. • under-used parks and recreation grounds Horticultural Trades Association (1991). Using • derelict urban land plants to benefit the community. 19 High St, • transport corridors Theale, Reading, RG7 5AH. • urban-edge degraded farm land Ulrich, R. S. (1984). View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science, 224, 420-421.

The prospect of future development of a site should not prevent tree planting, as low-cost forestry techniques can create functioning urban woodlands in as little as three years. When devel­ opment occurs, established woodland can be retained for screening and landscape improvement.

7 2 Issues affecting the decision to plant

Development plans This Chapter contains the following sections : Not all urban green-space or urban fringe land should be planted with woodland, and a balance of green-space land uses is required, as well as a bal­ • Development plans ance between green-space and the built environ­ • Landscape protection and enhancement ment. The development planning system provides • Providing a recreation network a framework for making the most of urban space • A long-term perspective and it is important to appreciate where your wood­ land fits in. • Grants and advice At the county level, structure plans provide guid­ • Sponsorship for tree-related activities ance on planning matters in accordance with • Urban woodlands and the law regional planning guidance. Mineral plans and • For more information waste management plans are also relevant for wood­ land creation on reclaimed and restored sites. At the district or borough level, local plans focus If you are involved in urban woodlands there are a regional and county policy and strategy by outlin­ number of issues that may affect your plans. ing opportunities for development and land use

Plate 2.1 A landscape of declining distinctiveness on the outskirts of Birmingham.

8 policies for the locality. In metropolitan boroughs strengthen them. Because trees are a key compo­ these two levels of plan are combined into unitary nent of the landscape, landscape assessments are development plans (UDPs). The purpose of these being increasingly used as the basis for planning the tiers of development planning is to reconcile com­ extent, design and character of woodland planting peting demands whilst protecting the interests of around towns. Where large scale planting is local people. Most structure plans, local plans and planned, for example in the designated community UDPs outline policy and strategy on the protection forest areas, landscape assessments are of key and enhancement of landscape character, provision importance in promoting the balanced expansion of of recreation facilities and the use of green-space. woodland cover which is sensitive to landscape In some areas local authorities have produced heritage and current demands on land. Price (1993) indicative forestry strategies and community wood­ presents a framework for carrying out landscape land plans which link in with existing development assessments. plans and indicate areas with most potential for the expansion of forestry and the creation of commu­ nity woodlands. Providing a recreation network

Urban woodlands will be most valuable when they form part of an interlinking network of foot paths, Landscape protection and cycle ways and recreational features. Concentrate enhancement effort and resources on planting that will strengthen existing features and that will be accessible from In the UK, highly distinctive regional landscapes rights of way. The ideal is to work towards a skele­ have evolved over the centuries in response to the ton of greenways — paths and tracks running from influences of climate, geology and patterns of land the heart of towns and cities into the countryside, use. These landscapes are under increasing pres­ flanked by woodlands and green-space designed to sure, particularly on the urban edge, due to human provide opportunities for recreation and amenity pressure, changing land use patterns and the high and to enhance the landscape viewed from the cost of maintaining landscape features that no rights of way. Canals, river courses and disused longer serve a practical function. With improving railways offer good possibilities for forming the communications and mass production, regionally basis of such a network. distinctive landscapes are being homogenised by a standardisation of materials and design in the land based industries. This influence is increasing as the A long-term perspective means have become more readily available to modi­ fy patterns of land use on a large scale, for example When planning for woodland creation or manage­ through hedgerow removal, opencast mining and ment you must consider the availability of time, trunk road construction. commitment, expertise and resources. The fact that In some areas local landscape patterns are being woodland is a long-term land use is often not recog­ analysed as a basis for strategies to protect and nised in resource allocation and staff responsibili-

9 Plate 2.2 The desire for instant impact often results in negative impact.

Plate 2.3 A heavily used urban woodland in need of a programme of management. (40960)

10 ties and, furthermore, the responsibility for wood • Well-managed existing woodlands will foster a land and trees can be shared between different positive attitude towards increasing woodland departments and individuals. The increasing use of cover (and towards the agency trying to achieve it). contractors adds further links to the chain of man­ Most new woodlands can be planned to yield pro­ agement. The essential ingredients of practical duce whatever their main objectives, and the finan­ planning, sensitive implementation and a commit­ cial return will increase the scope to manage wood­ ment to long-term management can only be secured lands in a planned and sustained way. For wood to by coordinated teamwork between landscape be marketable there must be enough of a uniform designers, experienced foresters and enlightened product to interest a buyer (Chapter 8, Woodlands resource managers on the basis of clearly defined for timber production). Consider designing small responsibilities. woodlands to fit in with a wider working plan The way in which local authorities and other which allows a viable annual harvest. Coppice has agencies are financed, along with a common desire great potential for integrating sustainable wood pro­ for instant impact, often results in generous short­ duction for local use with amenity, landscape and term funding for tree and woodland planting with community involvement objectives if managed in little or no resourcing for essential long-term care this way. and maintenance. An increasing emphasis on the planting of new woodlands could further divert resources from the management of existing wood­ lands. This leads to a decline in the quality of the Grants and advice woodland estate as a whole and increases the risk that today’s newly planted woodland will become The Woodland Grant Scheme, administered by the tomorrow’s neglected woodland. The first priority Forestry Authority, is the principle source of grant must be management of existing woodlands for aid for urban woodland establishment and manage­ these reasons: ment. New planting and restocking or regeneration after felling are currently eligible for planting grants, and for woodlands to be planted within five • The greatest short-term gain in public benefits miles of urban areas a substantial supplement may from woodland comes from bringing existing be available for actively encouraging public access. derelict woodlands into management. Planting on arable land and improved grassland is • Unmanaged woodlands may still have consider­ currently eligible for another supplement. For able value for landscape, recreation and wildlife established woodlands, annual management grants but continued neglect can result in rapid decline. are available where there is an agreed five-year Neglected woodlands attract antisocial activities, management plan. are prone to windthrow, often contain dangerous Tree planting on farms may be eligible for annual trees, lack regeneration of the species required to payments for up to 15 years under the Farm perpetuate the wood, and are likely to suffer a Woodland Premium Scheme, in addition to decline in wildlife value because of shading, Woodland Grant Scheme grants. The Farm and people pressure and reducing structural diversity. Conservation Grant Scheme offers 30 % grant aid on

11 shelterbelts, hedges and enclosure of grazed wood­ The Countryside Commission Countryside land to exclude stock. Stewardship Scheme is designed for the conser­ Derelict Land Grant is funded by the Department vation and development of chalk and limestone of the Environment and administered by English grassland, lowland heaths, waterside landscapes, Partnerships and the Welsh Development Agency coastal areas and moorland in England. Where for the reclamation of ‘land so damaged by industri­ tree planting is planned as part of a stewardship al or other development that it is incapable of bene­ agreement grant is paid at a fixed rate per tree. ficial use without treatment’. Tree planting may be This scheme will be administered by the Ministry grant aided where: of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food from 1995. Countryside Commission landscape conservation • development of the site is not imminent; grants are administered by local authorities and • trees offer the most cost effective treatment; the amount of grant aid given is at the discretion • the treatment significantly improves the demand of the local authority tree officer. for the site; English Nature offers conservation grants for a • trees are likely to be a permanent feature of the wide range of practical projects of benefit to site; nature conservation. English Nature Community • where the trees will be largely visible to passers Action for Wildlife grants are offered to enable by. community groups to carry out activities that will benefit wildlife and the local community. Levels of grant range from 50 to 100% of approved English Nature school grants are given to help costs, depending on location and ownership. The schools create opportunities for wildlife within Department of the Environment manages other their grounds. urban regeneration grants, currently including City Grant and City Challenge, all of which may grant- The Countryside Council for Wales has a whole aid tree planting as part of derelict site redevelop­ farm scheme, Tir Cymen, which offers annual ment. Derelict Land Grant is to be subsumed by the payments for positive management of natural fea­ Single Regeneration Budget in 1996, which will tures and for providing new opportunities for also incorporate City Grant, English Estates, the people to enjoy the countryside. In addition, the Coalfield Areas Fund, the Urban Partnership Fund Landscape and Nature Conservation Grant and the urban development corporations. Scheme is administered through the county coun­ In Scotland, Derelict Land Grant is not available cils and grants are available for urban forestry but Local Enterprise Companies are involved in projects and programmes. restoring derelict land. Scottish Natural Heritage gives grant aid for small-scale tree and hedge planting projects, gen­ Additional grants for amenity woodlands erally administered by local authorities.

• Some local authorities offer grant aid for local The European Union may be a source of grant aid small scale tree and hedgerow planting in certain parts of the country under the Euro­ schemes. pean Regional Development Fund, the European

12 Social Fund, and funds for the improvement of tives, and some local authorities are looking for run down ex-coal mining, ex-shipbuilding and additional resources for woodland work. ex-steel industry areas (RECHAR, RENAVAL, Securing sponsorship is a form of trading. The RESIDER). company or organisation interested in sponsorship • The Department of the Environment Local Action will want the benefits from their involvement to be greater than the cost of sponsorship. The benefits Fund, administered by the Civic Trust. sought are usually publicity, ‘green’ image building • Training and Enterprise Councils. and contact with a target audience. The demands of • Scottish Enterprise. a sponsor may not always be compatible with the approach that the urban forestry project would like • The Sports Council. to take and the negotiated compromise represents the • Tourist boards. cost of the deal to the urban forestry project. Funding in kind is often the best way to maximise • The Tree Council. benefits to both parties. The sponsor may provide • The Prince of Wales Committee. land for planting, trees, ground preparation equip­ • Trusts, hundreds of which allocate funds for ment, etc. or make available staff or skills. In this environmental activities. way, the real cost to the sponsor is small compared to the value to the recipient and this, in turn, means Advice on woodland creation and management is that the sponsor requires less return on the invest­ available from the Forestry Authority and all ment. Take care when considering deals: a seeming­ Forestry Commission publications referred to in ly generous offer may become counter-productive if this Handbook can be obtained from the Forestry the sponsor tries to dictate the identity of the project. Commission’s Publication Section. Some local Urban and community forestry projects are, by authorities have woodland or tree officers, and com­ nature, environmentally oriented and geographical­ munity and urban forest projects give advice within ly defined. Local companies are likely to see bene­ their project areas. The Black Country Urban fits in linking their name to a local ‘green’ initiative. Forestry Unit is increasingly providing urban Some national companies are dedicated to helping forestry advice on a national basis. The environmental projects and have set up specific ini­ Arboricultural Advisory and Information Service tiatives to help dispense aid such as the Shell Better gives advice on amenity tree planting and manage­ Britain Campaign, Ford British Conservation ment, and forestry or arboricultural consultants Awards, Forte Community Chest and Barclays offer a range of services and skills. The Institute of Youth Action. Chartered Foresters and the Arboricultural Association maintain registers of consultants. Urban woodlands and the law Sponsorship for tree-related activities Responsibilities to site users Raising money and funding in kind is a major part The occupier of a site has a duty to visitors, under of the work of urban and community forest initia­ the Occupiers Liability Act 1967, ‘to take such care

13 as is reasonable to see that the visitor is reasonably an offence to allow Japanese knotweed and gianl safe in using the premises for the purpose for which hogweed to grow in the wild. he is invited or permitted to be there’. The duty owed to different classes of visitor will vary and the Tree preservation orders occupier must expect that children will be less care­ Local planning authorities can protect trees, stands ful than adults. This liability was extended in 1974 of trees and woodlands using tree preservation to include uninvited visitors. There is an exclusion orders (TPOs). This prohibits the cutting down in the legislation for organised educational parties. lopping, uprooting or wilful damage of trees excepl with the consent of the local planning authority Safe working practices and may require replanting of woodland felled as Under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, both part of a TPO permission. Woodlands that are cov­ employers and employees have a duty to ensure ered by a Forestry Authority Woodland Grant health, safety and welfare at work for themselves Scheme plan of operations are exempt from TPC and others. Where contractors or volunteers are restrictions. invited onto a site to undertake work, the person in control of the ‘non-domestic premises’ has responsi­ Felling licences bility to ensure that the premises, access, egress and A felling licence is normally required from the articles or substances provided for use there are Forestry Authority to fell growing trees more than safe. 8 cm in diameter. If a licence is refused the ownei A range of safety guides covering most woodland may be entitled to compensation. A licence is not operations is available from the Forestry and required for work to prevent danger or abate a nui­ Arboriculture Safety and Training Council and the sance, for the felling of trees in compliance with a Health and Safety Executive. Use them to ensure statutory requirement, at the request of an electrici­ safe working practices, and keep a record of safety ty company, for development authorised by plan­ checks that you do and the action taken to reduce ning permission, or if felling is in accordance with risks and make safe hazards. an approved plan of operations under one of the Forestry Authority’s grant schemes. Pests Landowners have a duty (under the Pests Act 1954, Trees and boundaries Agricultural Act 1947 and Agricultural (Scotland) Land managers have certain obligations in respect Act 1948) to control rabbits and vermin on their of boundaries with neighbouring land and high­ land if they are interfering with the use of neigh­ ways. Boundary trees must not cause undue nui­ bouring land or (under the Forestry Act 1967) if sance to neighbours by overhanging branches or they are damaging trees. Under the Weeds Act 1959 unreasonable reduction in light to adjacent proper­ occupiers of land have a duty to control the spread ties. The neighbour is entitled to cut back branches of spear thistle, creeping thistle, curled dock, to the boundary and may seek an injunction for the broadleaved dock and ragwort from their land, and reduction in size of trees blocking light. There is no under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 it is right in law to a view and obscuring a view by

14 planting trees cannot be legally regarded as a nui­ Scottish Development Department (1990). sance. If the roots of trees on one property cause Indicative forestry strategies. Circular 13/1990. damage or nuisance to the owner of an adjoining Shell Better Britain Campaign. Getting help for property (for example subsidence of a building on community environmental projects. Red House, shrinkable clay), the owner of the tree may be liable Hill Lane, Great Barr, Birmingham, B43 6LZ. for damages. Landowners who plant poisonous trees, such as yew, near a boundary and allow the Advice branches to grow, or leaves to blow, over their neighbours’ land are liable if the neighbours’ ani­ The Arboricultural Advisory and Information mals suffer as a consequence. Service, Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham, Surrey, GU10 4LH. (01420) 22022. The Black Country Urban Forestry Unit, Red House, Hill Lane, Great Barr, West Midlands, B43 6LZ. For more information (0121) 358 1414. The Community Forest Unit, Countryside Publications Commission, Fourth Floor, 71 Kingsway, London, The Arboricultural Association. Directory of consul­ WC2B 6ST. (0171)831 3510. tants and contractors. Ampfield House, Romsey, Countryside Commission, John Dower House, Hampshire, S051 9PA. (01794) 368717. Crescent Place, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, Department of the Environment (1992) Circular GL50 3RA. (01242) 521381. 29/92: Indicative forestry strategies. HMSO, Countryside Council for Wales, Plas Penrhos, London. Ffordd Penrhos, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2QL. Directory of Social Change. A guide to major trusts (01248)370444. and raising money from trusts. Radius Works, Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland, Back Lane, London, NW3 1HL. Dundonald House, Newtownards Road, Belfast, Harris, J. G. S. (1991). Trees and the law. The BT4 3SB. (01232) 520000. Arboricultural Association. English Nature, Northminster House, Peterborough, The Institute of Chartered Foresters.List of mem ­ PEI 1UA. (01733) 340345. bers in consultancy practice. 7 A St. Colme Street, Forestry Authority England, Great Eastern House, Edinburgh, EH3 6AA. (0131) 225 2705. Tenison Road, Cambridge, CBl 2DU. (01223)314546. Lorrain-Smith, R. (annually updated). The Calderdale grants for trees booklet. Calderdale Forestry Authority Scotland, Portcullis House, Metropolitan Borough Council, Leisure Services 21 India Street, Glasgow, G2 4PL. (0141) 248 3931. Department. Forestry Authority Wales, North Road, Price, G. (1993). Landscape assessment for indica­ Aberystwyth, Dyfed, SY23 2EF. (01970) 625866. tive forestry strategies. Forestry Authority England, Forestry & Arboriculture Safety & Training Council, Cambridge. 231 Corstorphine Road, Edinburgh, EH12 7AT.

15 Forestry Commission Publications Section, Alice Scottish Natural Heritage, 12 Hope Terrace, Holt Lodge, Farnham, Surrey, GU10 4LH. Edinburgh, EH9 2AS. (0131) 477 4748. (01420)22255. Scottish Office Agriculture and Fisheries Health and Safety Executive, Library and Information Department, Land Use Branch, Pentland House, Services, Broad Lane, Sheffield, S3 7HQ. 47 Robb’s Loan, Edinburgh, EH14 1TW. Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food, Nobel (0131) 556 8400. House, 17 Smith Square, London, SWlP 3HX. Welsh Office Agriculture Department, Subsidies (0171)238 3000. and Lands Branch, Trawsgoed, Aberystwyth, Dyfed SY23 4HT. (01974) 261301.

16 3 Working with local people

This Chapter contains the following There are real benefits to community sections : involvement in urban forestry.

• Allows conflict to be anticipated, defined • Why work with local people? and resolved at an early stage. • Building links with the local community • Increases responsiveness to local needs and • The nature of community involvement desires. • Information and education • Engenders a positive image for an initiative. • Consultation • Harnesses the ideas, commitment, energy • Participation to benefit local people and expertise of local people. • Organising events • Builds links between the ‘authorities’ and • For more information local people. • Helps reduce vandalism in local woodlands. • Raises local support which can influence Why work with local people? potential funding agencies and sponsors. • Fosters a greater awareness, appreciation and It is a paradox that the publicly owned urban forest sense of responsibility for trees and the has traditionally been managed with little input natural environment. from the public themselves. This may be because • Through increasing understanding and involving local people in urban woodlands is time involvement, results in greater support for consuming and the benefits are often hard to mea­ forestry throughout the UK. sure. So, why bother with community involve­ ment? The answer to this question lies at the heart of what urban forestry is all about: to benefit urban people, not just by improving their living environ­ ment, but also by offering the power of involvement Building links with the local and encouraging active citizenship. An urban community woodland initiative can become a focus for the development of communities and individuals, and The first step in the process of community involve­ the project team should be concerned with nurtur­ ment is to define the relevant communities. There ing local communities as well as with nurturing are two principle types: communities of neighbour­ trees. hood and communities of interest.

17 Where the focus of community involvement is a munity woodland initiatives is to draw local people particular site then an approach to the community together by this common focus and so, out of pas­ of neighbourhood will usually be most appropriate. sive communities of neighbourhood, create active This community is defined entirely geographically and fulfilling communities of common interest as those people who live around and use the site around a woodland site. and there will often be no other community bond For community forestry initiatives set up on a within this group. The principal interest of these town or city scale, community involvement in the people will be how the site can be managed to meet initiative is best developed through communities of their needs and desires. One important role of com­ interest (Table 3.1). Each community of interest

18 Plate 3.1 If local people can be enthused about a particular site, a new community of interest can be created with opportunities for fun and friendship.

Table 3.1 Examples of communities of interest (adapted from the Countryside Commission advice manual for the preparation of a community forest plan).

Landowning Landowners and occupiers Private and public. LAs, CLA, BC, BR, FC, EN, DOT, NT. Farmers Land owning and tenant. NFU, FWAG, YFC. Woodland interests Land owning and tenants. FC, Woodland Trust, NT, LAs.

Business Local businesses Local companies and national companies. CBI, Rotary clubs, chambers of commerce.

Citizens Local environment Residents’ associations, parish councils. Sport e.g. Anglers’ Federation, local fishing clubs, British Horse Society, local riding clubs, orienteering clubs, motor scrambling clubs. Leisure e.g. Regional arts associations, painting clubs, Ramblers' Association. Community farms NFCF, local city farms. Wildlife Urban wildlife groups, county trusts, watch groups, RSPB, local natural history societies. General environment e.g. FOE, Groundwork Trusts, BTCV, CPRE, civic trusts, amenity societies, environmental networks. Education PTAs, school clubs, WEA groups, universities. Children Pre-school groups, schoolchildren, youth groups. Women WI, Townswomen's Guild. Ethnic groups Black Environment Network. Disabled groups Fieldfare Trust. Senior citizens’ groups Religious groups

BC - British Coal; BR - British Rail; BTCV - British Trust for Conservation Volunteers; CBI - Confederation of British Industry; CLA - Country Landowners’ Association; CPRE - Council for the Protection of Rural England; DOT - Department of Transport; EN - English Nature; FC - Forestry Commission; FOE - Friends of the Earth; FWAG - Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group; LAs - Local Authorities; NFCF - National Federation of City Farms; NFU - National Farmers' Union; NT - National Trust; PTAs - Parent Teacher Associations; RSPB - Royal Society for the Protection of Birds; WEA - Workers’ Education Association; WI - Women’s Institute.

19 20 will have a different focus and different reasons for being willing to get involved with community In order to succeed in building links with the forestry. The approach to each community of inter­ local community an urban woodland initiative est is best tailored to make clear how its involve­ must: ment and support is relevant to its interests as well as to those of the initiative. • understand people’s need for a feeling of Some communities of interest are relatively easy relatedness to others and to the life of the to access. For example, schools, conservation vol­ community; unteers, scouts and guides are often keen to play a • be proactive in order to build positive links role in a new project, especially where it is tailored with local people; to meet a specific interest such as the national cur­ • foster a down-to-earth local image with riculum or local historical ecology. Other communi­ which local people can identify - a glossy, ties are much more difficult to access and may feel high profile, civic dignitary, photo-opportu- remote from the countryside, preoccupied with nity approach can alienate local people; daily necessities such as employment or health and cynical about money spent on what they perceive as • extend a sense of identity into a sense of low priorities. Making the project relevant to them is ownership - if people feel they have a a greater task and requires patience, persistence and personal stake in a project they will be commitment. In the urban fringe many people are motivated to help it succeed; and not active citizens and are not affiliated to any com­ • have a long-term outlook — building up munity of interest. These are the most difficult peo­ community involvement is about building ple to get involved, but as support grows through relationships and earning people’s trust: contact with communities of interest, it will become this takes time. easier to motivate unaffiliated residents into involve­ ment. Identification of key opinion formers can be a gateway into inaccessible communities. A supply of land is critical for the creation of community woodlands, particularly in the urban fringe where landowners hope to develop agricul­ The nature of community involvement tural and vacant land. With the policy of achieving new community woodlands by voluntary incentive, Community involvement includes any activity in the farming and landowning community is a most which local people are actively considered as part important community of interest. Farmers and of the woodland management process (Figure 3.1). landowners are often understandably cautious The ladder of participation defines the spectrum of about allowing access to land where crops and live­ community involvement from creating and" manag­ stock may be at risk. If positive relationships can be ing woodlands fo r local people, through creating fostered between them and neighbouring residents, and managing woodlands with local people, to more progress may be made in releasing land for helping local people create and manage woodlands new community woodland. for themselves.

21 them. Views on the appropriate extent of communi­ Without the opportunity for direct ty involvement may develop over time and so goals participation local people will not should be periodically reviewed. Be aware, though, benefit or learn from the experience of doing it for themselves. that trying to whip up involvement beyond the desire of local people can alienate the community and appear patronising. The ‘top down’ approach, where an agency or landowner tries to generate community involve­ ment, is most vulnerable to failure. Most examples of successful community involvement have been initiated by local people and related to specific needs in the local environment. Agencies must fos­ ter enthusiasm in the local community for environ­ mental improvement and local woodlands which will hopefully result in the community deciding to get involved and then approaching the agency for help. This sort of community-led involvement is most likely to meet the needs of local people.

Information and education

Providing information is the first step towards full participation and can be done at two levels. Without being consulted Without an education local people may feel that programme local people • Educational information raises people’s aware­ may not understand the it is not their initiative ness of the contribution and benefits of trees in or responsibilty. importance of trees and the benefit of being involved. the urban environment. For example, a project may need to help local people appreciate the dif­ Figure 3.1 The aspects of community involvement ference between neglect and low level manage­ required for a successful community forestry programme. ment. Nature is often untidy and many people who are brought up to expect a neat and tidy city landscape do not initially appreciate the informal If you want to involve the local community at all, appearance of thriving naturalistic habitats in it is important to find out at an early stage how towns. much involvement local people want. This must • Site-based information on projects under way in then be reconciled with the ability, objectives and the locality increases the interest of local people resources of the agency or landowner. Don’t and reduces negative attitudes, Dissemination of assume you know what local people want; ask this information will be most intensive in the

22 The ladder of participation

The community is in full control of a scheme and makes the decisions regarding resource allocation, use Community control and management. Agency involvement is available, but at the direction of the group.

The community is undertaking substantial aspects of the community woodland programme without significant input from the agency. The agency is Community participation increasingly taking a back seat and a local group may have formed to formalise community involvement.

Members of the community who have become interested through consultation are encouraged by the agency to become involved with appropriate aspects of Community involvement the planning, implementation and management of the community woodland scheme.

Members of the community are actively encouraged to offer ideas and options that can be incorporated into Consultation the scheme if appropriate.

Telling people what is going to happen without recruiting support or offering the opportunity to Information comment.

Securing a commitment to an objective of community Persuasion involvement and a structure to achieve it within the agency.

A scheme is provided by the agency or landowner with Agency control no actual or intended reference to the community.

locality of the scheme and may take the form of tion in a lively and interesting way, making the leafleting, an article in the local press, or most of points of human interest like historical unmanned displays in the local school, library or connections with the site and cultural associa­ supermarket. It is important to present informa­ tions with the tree species.

23 Plate 3.3 Involving children with urban woodlands offers many educational opportunities and formative experiences.

Woodlands offer a wide range of educational pos­ planting, managing and monitoring trees and for sibilities for pre-school, primary and secondary teaching, celebration and adventure play. schools, colleges, adult classes and interest • Developing work sheets around a specific wood­ groups. land to cover aspects of natural history, biology, • School competitions, inviting designs for a wood­ environmental education, history and maths land, suggestions for a name, posters, essays or (Figure 3.2). poems on what it could be like. Winning entries An example of the guidance available on using trees can be used. and woodlands in schoolwork is provided by Clark • School adoption of plots in the.woodland for and Walters (1992).

24 Figure 3.2 An example of the development of an educa­ tion resource alongside a community woodland project.

COST AND BENEFITS OF PLANTING Tasks OAKS OF DIFFERENT SIZES 1. Measure the total height of the labelled trees in each sector. 2. Plot the heights on the histogram below (Column B).

3. Calculate the increase in height from November 1991 and plot this growth on the histogram (Column C).

4. Calculate the cost of each sector and fill in the boxes below the histogram (the cost of each tree is on the signs, there are 16 trees in each sector).

5. W hy do you think Thames Chase usually plants transplants?

6. Estimate how long it will take for the transplants to ‘overtake’ the half standards.

A = Height at planting (November 1991) B = Present height (April 1993) C = Growth

300

280

260

240

220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

AB CA B CA B CA B CA B C

ACORNS CELL GROWN TRANSPLANTS FEATHERED WHIPS HALF STANDARDS

Cost per plot Cost per plot Cost per plot Cost per plot Cost per plot DEMONSTRATION cJLv w o o d l a n d

25 Consultation express their views without feeling ‘put on the spot’. Consultation must relate the proposals in a Consultation is the process of actively seeking an way appropriate to the audience, and the opinions input of ideas and views before plans are fixed. and comments of local people must be recorded. How you consult depends on what you want to con­ People need to know that their views and ideas are sult about and on the target audience. Don’t, for being taken seriously and will be used where possi­ example, hold an evening meeting in an area where ble. It is important to make clear the aims of con­ some people are afraid to go out after dark. sultation so that people do not commit themselves Successful consultation encourages local people to to a level of involvement they cannot sustain.

Appropriate forms of consultation Less appropriate forms of consultation

Working groups with invited representatives Public meetings may be well attended where from the various communities of interest can be contentious issues have arisen. However, an more productive than public meetings. If nur­ ongoing commitment to public consultation tured, groups may become involved in the should prevent such issues from gaining promi­ implementation and management of woodland nence as they tend to generate negative feeling schemes and may eventually be encouraged to and prevent a proactive approach. In practice, take a lead in running the site. most public meetings to discuss urban wood­ land development are poorly attended and the Manned displays in public places can be an people that do attend can have extreme and effective means of soliciting public comment on polarised views. a proposal, particularly if the display material is lively and the approach is not intimidating. Postal questionnaires rarely result in a full and balanced response and are not effective at estab­ Site meetings with local people promote discus­ lishing contacts with local people. sion over proposals for a site. Plan site meet­ ings with a core of invited community represen­ Comments by post from community representa­ tatives but extend the invitation to all-comers tives do not help in building contacts with local through local publicity. people and written responses are usually less forthcoming than verbal ones. Person to person questionnaires can be good as a straw poll of local preferences and to establish a dialogue with local people. However, the results of a questionnaire will vary greatly depending on where and when it is carried out.

26 Visual props make consultation more interesting • Display boards showing options for the objectives and help people decide on their views. Remember (Plate 3.5) or the appearance of a scheme (Plate though that many people find it difficult to under­ 3,6), using stick-a-dots to allow people to express stand maps or interpret complicated diagrams. Here their preferences. are some suggestions for attractive material. • Panoramic diagrams of the proposed woodland from key viewpoints. • Models of the proposed woodland or, better still, hands-on models that allow different options to be explored (Plate 3.4). • Comment cards and box that allow people to identify problems and potential solutions. Anonymity is preserved, allowing creative inputs even from those who don’t normally like to speak in public meetings.

Plate 3.5 Design for a display board with possible objectives for a proposed woodland. People put black stick-a-dots against their first choice, and red stick-a-dots against their second choice.

Plate 3.4 Visual props can bring the process of Plate 3.6 Design for a display with options for the consultation alive. This tree planting model allows appearance of a proposed woodland. Stick-a-dots are trees to be inserted by consultees. put against the preferred option.

27 However it is done, it is important to recognise that involved. The move towards greater participation consultation is the key to providing local people can be achieved only by gradual delegation of tasks with the woodlands that they want, as well as a way as and when volunteers are ready to accept greater of drawing people into full participation in urban responsibility, not by a sudden withdrawal of pro­ woodland projects. Without arranging a mecha­ fessional help. nism for consultation, the progression from working There are two main sources of volunteers: fo r , to working with local people cannot be • people from the local community can be time achieved. consuming to recruit and achieve little on the ground, but are most likely to offer a long-term Participation to benefit local people commitment to the project; • volunteers recruited through an umbrella organi­ As a result of providing information, educating and sation such as BTCV tend to be easier to enlist, consulting, some local people will be keen to and groups often come with their own leader, become more involved with your woodland project. equipment and experience - they are a good way Community involvement describes the involvement of getting a job done but not of generating long­ of people in activities planned and organised fo r term commitment to a project. them, whereas participation describes the involve­ People volunteer for many and varied reasons and ment of people in activities planned and organised thus bring with them many expectations. But, with them. Involvement must come before partici­ always remember that the primary reasons why pation in order to create interest, overcome apathy, most people become involved in this sort of activity inspire ideas and show people the benefits of being are to have fun and meet people.

Plate 3.7 Improving and creating wildlife habitats is a popular form of participation in environmental work.

28 Activities around which community participation events can be organised

Seed collection and tree nurseries. Collecting and growing seed from local woodlands or notable trees is a good way of establishing a link between the existing tree resource and proposed new woodlands.

Tree planting has to take place in winter which is not a popular time for events and is likely to be attended only by specifically invited groups or particularly committed volunteers unless other attrac­ tions can be provided.

Participation in aftercare. Involvement in tree planting should, if possible, be followed up by participa­ tion in aftercare activities. Encourage local people to help with mulching, fertiliser application, litter picking and other maintenance activities. Establishing a continuity of involvement on a site will help to foster the sense of community ownership and demonstrate the whole process of woodland creation.

Providing for wildlife. Activities such as pond creation and bird or bat box making and erection pro­ vide some of the most appealing opportunities for enjoyable public participation, but generally require a considerable amount of organisation both before and during the event.

Managing existing woodland. Activities based in existing woodlands are good for encouraging local people to get involved: established woodlands are generally attractive places to spend some time and there is potential for the results of the work to be immediately obvious. Scrub clearance, glade creation, coppicing and footpath maintenance are the most common activities. If the task is large chainsaws and clearing saws should be used, but only by trained operators.

How to get the best out of volunteers and give back a rewarding experience , Do not overwork people; let them work at • Ensure that the job of work is of real their own speed and at jobs they feel capable value to the environment and the com­ of doing. munity. Volunteers soon lose heart if • Encourage people to contribute their own they are just being used as cheap labour. ideas and experiences to the project and, • Ensure that the reasons for the work and where appropriate, let them take responsi­ the methods of carrying it out are clearly bility, for example by leading the group. explained. Many volunteers are keen to • Provide training for suitable volunteers. learn. As well as teaching skills, this increases • Safety is paramount. Ensure the right confidence and self-esteem. equipment is provided and correct • Provide rest breaks and refreshments, and procedures are followed. say ‘Thank you’.

29 Organising events How to get the best out of wardens and give Before organising an event define the target audi­ back a rewarding experience ence, so that the details and publicity can be appro­ priately tailored. A good turn out is most likely if • Ensure that wardens are clear about what the event is organised around an invitation to a par­ is expected of them. A job description or ticular community of interest such as a school or informal contract may be appropriate. community group, with wider publicity extending • Provide training so that people feel equipped an open invitation. This reduces the risk of poor to perform effectively. attendance, which can be a discouragement to those • Prevent people from feeling isolated by who do attend as well as a poor return on the effort networking your wardens and running of organisation. social events. Plan events to maximise the enjoyment and satis­ • Ensure that wardens always have someone to faction of volunteers. Encourage a relaxed informal turn to if difficulties arise. atmosphere, for instance, by taking group pho­ • Safety is paramount. Ensure that wardens tographs, providing refreshments, or having a bring- are properly equipped and appreciate any your-own barbecue. At key events the effort of hazards in their patch. organising demonstrations, community artists, • Allow a warden’s role to develop. New ideas musicians or displays may be worth while to max­ and initiatives are essential to keep people’s imise local interest. Allow volunteers to help them­ interest over long periods of time. selves to woodland produce as an additional reward for involvement. As your initiative develops, the need for special events to engender support should become less as Voluntary warden schemes are a good way of get­ local people become involved on a regular basis, ting local people involved in woodlands as the} their efforts being channelled through local groups offer responsibility and a measure of prestige to vol­ set up to manage specific sites or to service particu­ unteers, and therefore often result in a long-terrr lar interests and needs. commitment.

30 Tips for a successful event

• Start planning at least three months ahead. public liability insurance (to at least £250 000) for any damage or injury they may cause to • Ensure the availability of key groups when property or to the public. Individual cover setting the date. against personal accident is also advisable for • Choose weekends between 10.00 am and regular volunteers. 4.30 pm but avoid bank holidays and peak • Organise publicity for the week before the holiday periods when many people will event. Consider leafleting, posters and using have made other arrangements. local newspapers, although the importance of • Make sure you have the necessary permis­ personal invitations and word of mouth should sions for working on the site and inform or not be underestimated. Any publicity material invite neighbouring residents. should include information on the location of • Establish clearly who has responsibility for the event, suitable clothing and any need to organising particular aspects of the event. bring tools or refreshments. Ensure the availability of skilled supervisors • The site should be well organised and pre­ and project staff known to local groups. pared in advance of the event, ensuring that • Trees, tools, skips, etc. must be organised up the work area is free from hazards and that to two months ahead. ample parking is available. Take account of • Arrange first aid cover and insurance. restrictions such as rights of way and Volunteers working should be covered by wayleaves.

For more information Kiser, B. (1991). Trees and aftercare: a practical handbook. BTCV, 36 St Mary Street, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, 0X10 0EU. Shell (1989). Making community action work in the Publications environment. Report of a workshop at Losehill Hall, Clark, R. and Walters, P. (1992). Trees in the school December 1988. Shell Better Britain Campaign. grounds. Learning Through Landscapes Trust, Third Floor, Southside Offices, The Law Courts, Advice Winchester, Hampshire, S023 9DL. (01962) 846258. The Community Development Foundation, Davidson, J. (1990), Advice paper 6: Involving local 60 Highbury Grove, London, N5 2AG. communities. In: Advice manual for the preparation (0171) 226 5375. of a community forest plan. Countryside The Community Forest Unit, Countryside Commission, 19-23 Albert Road, Manchester, Commission, Fourth Floor, 71 Kingsway, London, M19 2EQ. (0161) 224 6287. WC2 B6ST, (0171) 831 3510.

31 4 The right specification

• Could tree planting adversely affect the site? This Chapter contains the following • Are there any legal, contractual or statutory con­ sections : straints on tree planting?

Is woodland the best use of the site? Site assessment Setting objectives and priorities The importance of robustness Drafting a spectification Practical woodland design Work schedules and contracts For more information

The failure of many urban woodlands can be pre­ dicted, even before they are planted, from the nature or lack of any specification. A comprehen­ sive specification for the period from site prepara­ tion to the end of the establishment phase, along with the design plan, is essential to ensure that your scheme is suited to the site and the uses to which it will be put. The steps needed to get the best wood­ lands on the ground are shown in Figure 4.1.

Is woodland the best use of the site?

Before deciding to plant woodland on a site ask these questions. • Will the site support woodland? Figure 4.1 Elements in the process of planning urban • Will woodland add to the value of the site? woodlands.

32 Will the site support woodland? Some urban and degraded sites will not support healthy tree growth due to extremes of pH, electri­ cal conductivity or toxicity, or abundance of rubble or stone. The minimum soil standards acceptable for woodland planting are shown in Table 4.1. The site must support trees not only during the estab­ lishment phase, but on to maturity if a valuable woodland resource is to be created. If a site is not capable of supporting tree growth to maturity after appropriate ground preparation, then woodland should only be planted if reclamation works are undertaken. Planting trees that fail either to establish or achieve the objectives of planting will undermine your credibility and require the repayment of grant aid. If you have any doubts about the potential for woodland establishment get expert advice from a forestry consultant (Chapter 2, Grants and advice). Plate 4.1 Will the site support woodland? The effect of extreme acidity on the vegetation of this colliery spoil site should have alerted those planning tree planting to the problem . [40974)

Table 4.1 Minimum soil standards for tree establishment on disturbed land (from Moffat and Bending, 1992)

Depth Not less than 1 m of rootable soil material1 Bulk density <1.5 g cm'3 to at least 50 cm depth <1.7 g cm'3 to 1 m depth Aeration status2 Soil oxygen >5% during the growing season Stoniness <40 % by volume; few stones greater than 100 mm in size pH 3.5-8.5 Electrical conductivity <2000 gS cm'1 (1:1 soihwater suspension) Iron pyrite content <0.5% Heavy metal content Not excessively over ICRCL3 threshold trigger concentrations Organic contaminants Not exceeding ICRCL3 action trigger concentrations

1 1.5-2.0 m of soil recommended on modern landfill sites where cap forms part of the pollution control measures. 2 Particularly relevant to landfill sites. 3 Interdepartmental Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land.

33 Will woodland add to the value of the site? • conditions attached to the title deeds In some situations openland provides valuable ben­ • commoners’ rights. efits. The site may support rare openland plant or animal communities that would decline under the shade of trees. The site may be heavily used and Site assessment greatly appreciated by local people as it is. Some sites have a long history as open commonland or Before you can formulate the specification and heathland, and may contain features of archaeologi­ design you must get to know the site. Verbal and cal value. In some circumstances, maturing trees written descriptions and photographs may be use­ may cause a nuisance to surrounding landowners or ful, but there is no substitute for getting out onto the residents. site and digging holes in it. Site assessment should include: Could tree planting adversely affect site quality? • site history Tree planting will only very rarely have any adverse • existing woody vegetation effect on site quality, but theoretical risks include: • existing ground vegetation • the uptake of contaminants by tree roots, their • characteristics and variability of soil-forming movement to the foliage and eventual deposition materials onto the soil surface at leaf-fall; • evidence of damaging agents • the acidification of a contaminated substrate by • exposure and frost prolonged tree growth, and the consequent • surrounding land uses increase in contaminant solubility and mobility; • existing uses of the site • the penetration, or drying and cracking, of poorly engineered caps designed to cover and seal conta­ • features of archaeological or cultural value minated materials or landfill; and • landform and visual analysis. • the possibility of windthrow exposing an engi­ For each aspect of the analysis consider strengths, neered cap or contaminated materials at the soil weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT). surface. Annotate a site plan with your findings as a basis for drafting the specification and preparing the Are there any legal or contractual constraints landscape design (Figure 4.1). on tree planting? Constraints may be imposed by: Site history • landscape, conservation or heritage designations This will give clues as to what site constraints or problems can be expected. For example, former • existing management agreements industrial land may be affected by toxic materials, • planning permissions poorly restored sand and gravel workings may be • wavleaves for overground or underground cables prone to drought stress and infertility, cultivation of and pipes abandoned farm land may lead to an explosion of

34 Plate 4.2 Site assessment is the essential first step in formulating a specification for woodland creation.

arable weeds, and colliery spoil may be affected by hand, existing woody vegetation can be a problem if extreme acidity. it is profuse and of species incompatible with long­ term objectives. Existing woody vegetation Existing trees and shrubs should be retained wher­ Existing ground vegetation ever possible. Not only does existing woody coloni­ Ground vegetation should be assessed for three rea­ sation give the planting scheme a head start, but sons. species composition and spatial distribution are • To identify species and habitats of conservation often appropriate to the character of the area value. Valuable grassland and openland plant (Chapter 6, Natural colonisation). On the other communities of importance are not uncommon

35 on vacant urban land. The chemical constituents and physical structure of soil-forming materials Table 4.2 Indications of the need to apply on some derelict sites can result in habitats simi­ fertiliser from soil analysis lar to semi-natural ecosystems such as coastal Probable Possible No grassland, downland or heathland. A local need need need authority ecologist or local conservation group may be able to survey potentially interesting sites Extractable P and advise on the value of the ground vegetation. (mg per litre) 0 -9 10-15 16+ • The distribution of ground vegetation will high­ Extractable K (mg per litre) 0-60 61-120 121 + light parts of the site where soil conditions are Extractable Mg particularly inhospitable. Site history may indi­ (mg per litre) 0-25 26-50 51 + cate possible reasons such as the presence of toxic substances, extremely low moisture-holding capacity, extreme infertility or barriers to rooting (e.g. concrete below the surface). problems, but compaction can be more accurately • The range of species present must be taken into assessed by using a penetrometer or taking bulk account when deciding 011 the most appropriate density samples. method of weed control around the newly planted Soil samples should be analysed for phosphorus trees. (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and pH - a standard analysis available at low cost from labora­ Soil characteristics and variability tories undertaking analysis of agricultural soils. Assessing soil-forming materials helps to determine Table 4.2 shows the likely need for fertiliser from whether the site has the capacity to support trees soil analysis, although the interpretation of soil and is essential for decisions on the need for ground analyses cannot be hard and fast because of the preparation (Table 4.1). Most planting sites will effect that other site characteristics can have on need amelioration of site physical conditions and essential element availability. Nitrogen is difficult some will also need amelioration of site chemical to assess in soils and is not generally included in conditions. The assessment of site physical condi­ analyses, but on most disturbed, non-agricultural tions can be routinely undertaken without expert sites nitrogen is in short supply. assistance but if you suspect chemical contamina­ Poor soil physical conditions can prevent the tion seek expert help. uptake of essential elements and cause trees to be Because of the variability of many urban sites, deficient even when soil analysis indicates that lev­ soil-forming materials should be assessed systemati­ els In the soil are sufficient. If this is suspected, cally across the site and with particular intensity on foliar analysis (which can include nitrogen) of areas of sparse ground vegetation. Dig soil pits of woody vegetation on site may be more revealing 70 cm depth to assess compaction, drainage and the (Table 4.3). With non-agricultural substrates assess presence of rubble and stone, Visual assessment soil conductivity, as high conductivity can damage may be all that is needed to identify soil physical and kill newly planted trees.

36 Plate 4.3 Incorporation of this naturally colonised Plate 4.4 Methane seepage on this landfill has killed hawthorn into the woodland design will offer elements all vegetation on some parts of the site, of instant woody structure. [41102]

Table 4.3 Deficient and optimal foliar nutrient concentrations (%oven dry weight) (from Taylor, 1991)

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium

def. optimum def. optimum def. optimum

Ash <2.0 >2.3 <0.19 >0.22 <0.7 >0.9 Beech <2.0 >2.3 <0.14 >0.16 <0.7 >0.9 Birch <2.5 >2.8 <0.19 >0.22 <0.7 >0.9 Common alder <2.5 >2.8 <0.16 >0.18 <0.7 >0.9 Corsican pine <1.2 >1.5 <0.12 >0.16 <0.3 >0.5 Larch <1.8 >2.5 <0.18 >0.25 <0.5 >0.8 Norway maple <2.0 >2.3 <0.19 >0.22 <0.7 >0.9 Oak <2.0 >2.3 <0.14 >0.16 <0.7 >0.9 Sweet chestnut <2.0 >2.3 <0.14 >0.16 <0.7 >0.9

Notes Values are tentative for species other than Corsican pine. Values between deficient and optimum are described as marginal.

37 Table 4.4 Maximum acceptable concentrations in Conditions parks, playing fields and open space for heavy metals (from Moffat and McNeill, 1994) All values are for concentrations determined on spot samples based on adequate site investigation carried out prior to development. They do not apply to analysis of averaged, Contaminant Threshold bulked or composited samples. concentration If values are above the threshold, remedial action may be (mg per kg air needed. dried soil) 1 Soluble hexavalent chromium extracted by 0.1M HC1 at Contaminants which may pose 37°C; solution adjusted to pH 1.0 if alkaline substances hazards to health present, Arsenic 40 2 The soil pH value is assumed to be about 6.5. If the pH is Cadmium 15 lower, the toxic effects and the uptake of these elements Chromium (hexavalent)1 25 will be increased. Chromium (total) 1000 Lead 2000 3 Determined by standard ADAS methods (soluble in hot Mercury 20 water). Selenium 6 4 Total concentration (extractable by HN03/HC104).

Contaminants which are phytotoxic 5 The phytotoxic effects of copper, nickel and zinc may be but not normally hazardous to health additive. The threshold values given here are those Boron (water-soluble)2'3 3 applicable to the ‘worst case’; phytotoxic effects may Copper2,4,5 130 occur at these concentrations in acid, sandy soils. In neu­ Nickel2,4,0 70 tral or alkaline soils phytotoxic effects are unlikely at Zinc2,4,5 300 these concentrations.

If you suspect that toxic substances axe present, aminants such as diesel, or toxic manufactured com­ detailed soil analysis will be needed. Site history will pounds. give clues to the substances present. Soil-forming materials on certain industrial sites, some types of Damaging agents mine spoil, and land that has received heavy doses of Evidence can often be found on site to indicate the sewage sludge in the past may need analysis for a types of damage likely (Table 4,5). The risk of dam­ range of heavy metals. A typical analysis would age by cattle and sheep should be predictable and, include lead, cadmium, copper, nickel, zinc, chromi­ in certain parts of the country, informal horse graz­ um, mercury and arsenic. The recommended safety ing is commonplace and to be expected. Local limits for these metals (Table 4.4) are lower than the foresters, farmers, rangers or estate managers may levels that are phytotoxic and so it is these safety lim­ be useful sources of information on the local status its that should be considered as the maximum. Some of deer which can cause serious damage by bark industrial sites may warrant analysis for organic cont­ stripping and browsing. Hares tend to frequent

38 open agricultural land and are most often to be seen gnawing around the base of trees and browsing during the spring. damage to small trees. Rabbit populations have Evidence of rabbits should be reasonably obvious returned to pre-myxomatosis levels in many areas on the site or surrounding land from burrows, and it is best to assume that protection will be need­ scrapes, droppings, areas of tightly grazed sward, ed unless site inspection clearly indicates other­

Table 4.5 Identification of bark stripping and browsing damage on young trees (adapted from Kerr and Evans, 1993)

Mammal Tree size Time of year Description of damage

Bark stripping

Field voles Young trees to All year but Bark is stripped on the roots or lower stem up to the 5 cm diameter greatest risk height of surrounding vegetation from where the attack in winter is carried out. Very small trees can be girdled and felled. Bark is usually removed in short, irregular strips 5 to 10 mm wide, with incisor marks 1 mm wide in pairs. Rabbits All Winter and Bark stripping can occur to a height of 55 cm (higher spring in snow). Incisor marks are 3 to 4 mm wide, in pairs, usually running diagonally across the stem. Deer Pole stage All year Red, sika and fallow deer strip bark leaving vertical incisor marks. Bark fraying results when male deer rub new' antlers to remove velvet and mark territories. Livestock All All year Severe stripping of bark to the height of the livestock type. Intensity of stripping often leads to tree death.

B row sin g

Rabbits Winter/spring, Sharp angled cut on the ends of stems or branches, occasionally removed portion usually eaten. Damage occurs to summer 50 cm, or higher during snow. Hares As rabbits As rabbits but shoots are not consumed. Damage can be up to 70 cm. Deer Mid November Lack of teeth in front upper jaw produces a ragged to spring edge on damaged stems. Roe and muntjac to 1.1 m, fallow and red to 1.8 m. Livestock Summer Coarse browsing of foliage to 2.5 m with horses, 2.0 m with cattle and 1.5 m with sheep and goats. Newly planted trees can be pulled out of the ground.

39 wise. The risk from field voles is more difficult to landscapes devoid of hedgerows and trees or on assess as evidence of their presence on the unplant­ prominent sites like spoil mounds. Wind affects ed site may not be obvious, and populations tend to trees during the establishment phase by causing be cyclical, often increasing rapidly after a mild socketing in the soil at the base of the stem, which winter. Evidence of voles includes gnawing around damages roots and makes the trees unstable. the base of young trees, vole runs in grass and holes Treeshelters will be blown over on windy sites in the ground about 2 cm across. High vole popula­ unless firmly staked. Windthrow of maturing trees tions are most likely in areas of rank grass. can devastate a woodland. The risk is highest on People can be the most serious damaging agents exposed sites with shallow or compacted soils on urban planting sites. Vandalism, fire-raising, which restrict the depth of rooting. On these sites motorcycle scrambling and fly-tipping can be seri­ take particular care to achieve a full one metre ous problems but are often localised. Evidence of depth of rootable material. these activities must strongly influence the planting Frost is a particular problem on flat or concave specification and implementation strategy. sites where frost pockets readily form. The most damaging frosts occur during early autumn, when trees are not fully hardened off, and especially dur­ Exposure and frost ing late spring as trees start to break bud and flush. Wind damage to trees is more prevalent in the low­ On frost-prone sites even normally hardy species lands than commonly supposed, especially in flat such as ash and lime can be badly affected by

Plate 4.5 Late frosts can be a serious limitation to the establishment of some species, such as this Norway spruce. [8 8 2 J)

40 P late 4,6 The prominence of housing next to this planting site necessitates careful design to minimise the negative impact of the woodland on local residents, and minimise the negative impact of the housing on woodland users. [41103)

dieback each year, and so a proportion of particu­ near commercial areas may be used for short cuts to larly hardy species should be used, work and lunch-time relaxation. Factors such as local parking facilities and links with rights of way Surrounding land use will also affect patterns of use. Also assess the Surrounding land uses will affect the type of people landscape impact of surrounding land uses. using the wood, what they want to do in the wood, Woodlands can be designed to provide a valuable and how long they want to stay. For example, buffer to existing development and eyesores, whilst woodland near housing is most likely to be used for maintaining existing fine views from within the dog walking and children’s play whereas woodland woodland.

41 Existing uses of the site Forestry Commission’s Forest landscape design Current users will want to continue to use the site guidelines describe visual design principles and how to undertake a site visual analysis as a basis for after woodland planting. If their activities are not the landscape design. antisocial they should be accommodated as far as possible. The woodland design must allow for the continued use of existing paths and access points. Failure to appreciate the desires of existing site Setting objectives and priorities users undermines the reason for providing urban woodland on the site - to benefit the public - and Site assessment will define the limits to what is sil- may result in vandalism. viculturally possible and visually acceptable for a site. Within these limits the woodland design Features of archaeological or cultural value should cater for the uses to which the site will be put. Many schemes are planted with no particular Records held by local authorities will usually indi­ end use in mind and the resulting woodlands, cate the presence of known archaeological features. whilst filling up vacant space and creating inciden­ On sites that have not been greatly disturbed in the tal benefits, do not contribute to urban amenity as recent past it may be worth inviting the local much as they could. For most urban woodlands authority or local history society archaeological there will be a number of objectives, commonly expert to survey the site before ground preparation including landscape enhancement, amenity and begins. Historical and past industrial associations recreation, habitat creation and wood production. with a site are often less tangible but can be, For publicly owned sites, these objectives must be nonetheless, important to local people. Sympathy defined and accorded priority in the light of: towards, and allusion to, such associations in the woodland design can help to create a spirit of place • information derived from the site assessment; which is lacking in many new urban and urban • the views of local people (Chapter 3, edge woodlands. Consultation); and

Landform and visual analysis • development plan policies and commitments (Chapter 2, Development plans). Much of the landscape design process involves recognition and analysis of landscape components. As well as setting broad objectives, consider the To do this you need some understanding of visual specific uses likely to be made of the woodland as design principles relating to shape, visual force, these will influence the detail of design and high­ scale, diversity, unity and spirit of place. Assess light areas of potential conflict. Make sure that the landform and other visual aspects of the site objectives reflect primarily the needs and desires of and surrounding landscape with these design prin­ local people rather than the convenience of man­ ciples in mind. Visit prominent view-points from agers and officials. which the site is visible and take photographs Objectives should be clearly written into the which will be useful for developing the landscape specification. Woodland is a long-term land use design (Chapter 9, The landscape design plan). The and written documentation may be the only thread

42 There are two approaches to designing multi-purpose The clear definition and ordering of objectives woodlands. creates a benchmark against which to assess • Designing for the range of objectives to be the scheme, allowing: fulfilled on the same piece of land. • Zoning. • a focus on the specification and design Some objectives are easily compatible on the same considerations appropriate for different end piece of land, such as landscape enhancement and uses; informal recreation, but some uses are not compati­ • an assessment of the feasibility of the ble and need separating. In small woodlands this specification needed to satisfy the desired may mean, for example, designing to encourage objectives: if the scheme is not feasible due people to stay on the paths to protect nature conser­ to budgetary or site constraints, the vation interests in other parts of the site. Large objectives should be re-defined; woodlands can be more fully zoned, with a differ­ • a comparison of costs against the likely ent primary objective for each zone. Careful wood­ benefits of the scheme (over and above the land design and management can help to contain costs and benefits associated with the site site users within the appropriate zone without in its current state); resorting to barriers and ‘Keep out’ signs. • an objective assessment of the success of the scheme: it is only by such assessment that skills and experience in urban woodland The importance of robustness establishment and management can be built Few woodlands are more difficult to establish than up; and those on degraded, heavily used, urban sites. • conflict between objectives to be resolved by Careful management minimises tree losses but to clear ordering of priorities: in situations reduce the risk of failure a robust specification is where objectives are likely to conflict (for needed that takes into account the vulnerability of example, where visitor pressure may limit woodlands during the establishment phase, and the wildlife value), clearly defined priorities will effect that this can have on tree survival and identify which objective must be compro­ growth. The creation of robust woodlands should mised (in the example above, either be considered in two stages. controlling access to visitors or accepting a 1. Creating a woodland environment: the reduction in wildlife value). specification for woodland establishment. 2. Satisfying woodland-based objectives: the management of the established woodland. of continuity between a succession of site managers. The woodland design can then be formulated, in Creating a woodland environment the light of the specification, to achieve these objec­ Whatever the objectives of a scheme, the first pre­ tives. requisite is the successful establishment of trees. 43 Plate 4.7 Low initial stocking reduces the chances of creating a woodland environment.

44 You will usually want to create a woodland envi­ and hence maximises the probability that woodland ronment as quickly as possible, to minimise the will be created. period until the realisation of objectives and to min­ Creating a woodland environment does not mean imise the vulnerable establishment phase. The planting trees on every available part of the site. most practical way of creating robust woodlands is Site assessment will indicate areas that should be to use an approach based on sound silvicultural left unplanted because of valuable light-demanding practice (Chapter 5) that meets the biological needs plant communities, existing paths, recreational of the trees, anticipates and minimises likely losses needs and particular view points.

The robust approach to urban woodland creation

Ground preparation Soil compaction reduces tree survival and growth. Compaction must be relieved over the whole site, usually by ripping. Species choice Whether native or introduced, species must be suited to site conditions. Species mixtures Simple mixtures of compatible species are appropriate for informal wood­ lands and are practical to plant and manage. Planting stock Small, sturdy forestry planting stock tends to survive and grow better than large stock sizes. Tree spacing Sufficient trees should be planted to result in full stocking at the end of the establishment phase. Planting should be at 1.5 x 1.5 m on difficult sites, 2.0 x 2.0 m on good sites. Planting Small planting stock can be notch planted into well-prepared ground. Tree protection Effectively excludes, or protects trees from, the mammal pest species pre­ sent. On heavily used sites protection should not restrict access or draw attention to the trees. Weed control In lowland Britain competition for moisture is the main limitation to suc­ cessful tree establishment. Maintenance of weed-free conditions around the base of the tree for five years greatly improves survival and growth. Vegetation management Vegetation between weeded spots need not be regularly mown. Mowing is expensive, damages trees, makes planting stock more vulnerable to van­ dalism and reduces natural informality. Fertiliser Spot-applied fertiliser, in combination with effective weed control, can boost the growth of newly planted trees on nutrient deficient sites.

45 By anticipating losses, the robust approach to Drafting a specification woodland establishment: The two stage approach to woodland creation • can prevent failure of the woodland when losses should be reflected in the specification. occur; • creates a mutual nursing effect, the trees 1. Prepare the specification for woodland estab­ sheltering each other and encouraging good lishment well before planting. height growth; 2. Prepare the first five-year plan for the subse­ • reduces the need for beating up (replacing of dead quent management of the woodland (Chapter 7, trees); The management plan) towards the end of the • minimises the duration of the vulnerable establishment phase. establishment phase; The package of information needed for the creation • can create useful, functioning woodlands in as of a new urban woodland will generally come in little as three years; and three parts: • maintains the choice of management options for • the written specification; the satisfaction of woodland-based objectives. • the map-based design and layout; and • the work schedule for tree establishment. Satisfying woodland objectives The draft written specification, developed on the The quality of the tree resource at the end of the basis of the site evaluation exercise, forms the establishment phase will dictate the scope of man­ framework for the design plan and contract docu­ agement options for satisfying woodland objectives. ments, although as the design of the woodland The options available will be greatest on a well- develops the written specification may need to be stocked site, as it is much easier to remove unwant­ amended. The written specification is your record ed trees than to establish additional trees. On poor­ of site information, the objectives of woodland cre­ ly prepared and poorly stocked sites the only realis­ ation and your vision for the woodland, and is the tic options are to start again or to compromise the best way to ensure clear communication. Without objectives of the scheme by managing the area as the written specification plans will lack purpose, open ground with scattered trees and scrub. management will lack direction and woodlands will If woodland establishment using the robust not achieve their potential. approach has been successful and survival is good, the detail of the design can be implemented by tree removal. The timing of intervention and the num­ Practical woodland design ber of trees to be removed will depend on the objec­ tives of the woodland and the success of establish­ The landscape design should be based on the draft ment. By not being too rigid about the layout of specification and the site assessment. It should open space at planting, areas of persistently poor show how the objectives for the woodland can best establishment can be used as open space without be met in the light of the constraints and opportuni­ reducing the wooded area beyond what was origi­ ties presented by the site, and organisational and nally planned. resource constraints. The most important design

46 Essential elements of a woodland specification

1 Site name, location and grid reference. 2 Identification of project coordinator. 3 Brief background to project — why the site is available for planting, organisations or parties involved, context of any local initiatives, development plan commitments, etc. 4 Objectives of woodland planting on the site, listed by priority. 5 Site description: include information on size of the site, site history and ownership, existing woody vegetation, existing ground vegetation, substrate type, results of soil analysis, existing features on the site, evidence of damaging agents, evidence of exposure, surrounding land use, existing uses of the site, wayleaves, designations, other constraints to management, and hazards to safe working (using maps as appropriate). 6 Rationale for planting - woodland type or types (high forest, coppice, coppice with standards, wood pasture), species mix for each distinct part of the woodland, the characteristics desired of each distinct part of the woodland. 7 Silvicultural details - prescriptions for ground preparation, species choice and mixture, planting stock type, tree spacing, planting methods, tree protection, duration and timing and type of weed control, management of inter-row vegetation, fertiliser application, and beating up. 8 Open space - objectives and management prescriptions for open space within the wood. 9 Timing - deadlines for major operations leading up to and including planting should be detailed. 10 Responsibilities - clear definition of responsibilities in the specification can avoid misunderstand ings during implementation. 11 Resource requirement - numbers of trees of each species, type and length of fencing, area requiring ground preparation, herbicide and fertiliser requirement. 12 Review dates: review progress and achievement after planting and at the end of the proposed period of weed control. Setting review dates: • gives an opportunity to revise the specification; • highlights lessons to be learnt from the implementation of the specification; and • prompts you to formulate the first five-year managment plan for the established woodland. 13 Distribution list: distribute the final specification to all parties involved with, or affected by, the proposal. Recording the distribution of the specification makes the circulation of revisions and subsequent management plans easy.

47 Design with scale in mind The scale of many urban woodlands falls between the detailed 1:500 approach of many landscape architects and the extensive 1:10 000 scale of many foresters. When the 1:500 approach is applied to sites of over one hectare the result is complicated designs that are difficult and expensive to imple­ ment, and possibly not the most appropriate to the site. Conversely, sites planned using the 1:10 000 approach may lack the detail required to ensure that specific points of design importance are implement­ ed. A successful design should work at all scales. To achieve this, resolve the landscape scale issues first and then move to progressively finer detail. One of the benefits of urban woodland is natural Figure 4.2 Relationships between various aspects of simplicity which must be balanced against the ben­ the environment and its visual attractiveness (from efits of diversity. The key to achieving this balance Arboricultural Association, 1990). is to understand that the impact and value of diver­ sity depends entirely on the scale at which it is planned. A woodland comprising an intimate mix­ ture of 20 species over the whole site will appear considerations for creating visually attractive wood­ monotonous to many site users and will provide lit­ lands have been determined by a consumer prefer­ tle visual diversity or additional interest as the user ence study (Figure 4.2). Ways to design visually walks through the wood. More effective is to create attractive woodlands that can also perform other areas of planting that are relatively simple but functions are shown in the Forestry Commission’s which contrast with each other to provide a diversi­ Community woodland design guidelines, Lowland ty of experience over the whole site. For example, a landscape design guidelines, and Forest landscape path might run from an area of predominantly oak design guidelines which cover landscape assess­ high forest, through a glade into hazel coppice with ment, visual design principles, detailed design ele­ oak standards, up a slope skirting the edge of an ments, design of open space, woodland design for area of larch high forest, fringed with birch, rowan mineral workings and derelict land, and design for and scattered oak established on poorer soil. informal recreation. This section focuses on the reconciliation of woodland design with the practical aspects of Design with robustness in mind implementation, a process which is essential if The need for robust urban woodlands has implica­ designs are to result in successful woodland on the tions for species choice and woodland design. On ground. Chapter 8 considers design aspects for many urban sites, inhospitable substrates and peo­ particular woodland-based objectives. ple pressure can rule out a total reliance on the

48 yjr-A

W ^ -w

Plate 4.8 Using an alder ‘skeleton’ to add robustness to a vulnerable urban woodland. [40977)

49 species that would be preferred and result in a need a later opportunity to replant the preferred species to plant at least a proportion of particularly tough in sheltered conditions. Because of the difference species. in likely growth rates between tolerant and pre­ On the most difficult sites it must be accepted ferred species it is usually better to plant them in that tolerant species are the only ones likely to separate blocks, rather than in intimate mixture establish successfully. A 15- to 30-year rotation of (Chapter 5, Species mixtures). tolerant species may improve the site sufficiently to allow replanting with preferred species, particularly if coppice regrowth can be used to nurse the newly Design with timescale in mind planted trees. Woodland is a long-term land use. While the for­ On less severe sites, a design incorporating a mulation of a design must be undertaken well framework of tolerant species within a matrix of before planting, the implementation of that design preferred species will add robustness to the wood­ should span the period from the first site prepara­ land. If the preferred species establish successfully, tion operation to woodland maturity. A common the tolerant ones can be gradually removed after the mistake is to try to complete the implementation of establishment period. If the preferred species fail a design at planting, which results in a lack of then the tolerant ones will, at least, create the robustness and increases the risk of failure. appearance of woodland cover on the site, and offer Although a design is created with the mature wood-

implementing a woodland design

• Before planting. The broad layout of the woodland types and access points and paths will be marked out on site. • At planting. The species mix will be implemented. • During the establishment phase. Beating up can be used to adjust and diversify the species mix. Differential fertilizer regimes can encourage the development of naturalistic woodland edge. The instigation of ride mowing regimes will encourage the development of the desired ground vegeta­ tion structure. The detail of the design will be adjusted around areas of poor tree establishment. • Soon after the establishment phase. Coppicing may be initiated in parts of the wood. Vigorous tolerant species should be removed if directly competing with less vigorous preferred species. Additional shrub planting around glades and woodland edges may be beneficial. • In the maturing woodland. Management may be required to maintain fine views out of the wood. Selective felling and restocking may be desirable to increase structural diversity. Coppice rotations will be established and the size, shape and order of cutting determined. Ride widening may be needed to maintain sunlit conditions in the rides. Trees may need to he cut back from ponds or streams.

50 stand the causes of antisocial behaviour and to cre­ ate woodlands in a way that minimises it.

• People do not like change when it is imposed on them (whether for the better or the worse). The robust approach minimises the impact of the change of land use from open land to woodland. However, when woodland is to be planted into mown sward the impact of change can still be great. Consider delaying planting for a year and leaving the areas to be planted unmown as an intermediate stage between intensively mown grass and extensively managed woodland.

• Some people tend to be negative towards ‘the Plate 4.9 This planting scheme used 21 species, mostly authorities’. Imposed schemes can be seen as in intimate mixture. This has led to a fussy appearance legitimate targets on which to vent frustrations. and lack of natural simplicity. [40967) The robust approach, if implemented sensitively, is perceived by local people to be more a result of the natural processes of growth and tends not to land in mind, it will be appropriate to implement attract this sort of attention. specific aspects of the design at different stages in • People feel antagonistic if their use of the site is the development of the woodland. interrupted. The woodland design should accom­ modate existing uses of the site, paths (Plate 4.10) Design with implementation in mind and access points where possible. If possible find A robust woodland design must take into considera­ an alternative site for inappropriate activities tion the skills and resources available for implemen­ such as motorcycle scrambling or informal horse tation and subsequent management. Over-ambitious grazing. or complicated designs and maintenance require­ • High impact schemes have a high challenge value ments are expensive, difficult to implement, and can to vandals. The vandal’s efforts are prominent result in fussy looking woodlands. The most com­ with big trees at wide spacings (Plate 4.11) and plicated designs are usually the least likely to suc­ the satisfaction of causing damage is high in the ceed. knowledge that the trees were costly. Efforts to protect big planting stock against vandalism fur­ Design to minimise vandalism ther increase the challenge and hence the deter­ Community involvement in the planning and mination of the vandal. Small planting stock implementation of a scheme can do much to reduce minimises the challenge value of new planting vandalism and antisocial behaviour. Another key and minimises the cost consequence and impact to successful urban woodland provision is to under­ of vandalism that does occur. Where serious van-

51 Plate 4.11 The challenge and satisfaction of vandalising prominently planted large stock is high. Forestry type planting could reduce the incidence of vandalism and have a dramatic effect on the amenity value of the site.

dalism is anticipated use species that will cop­ pice vigorously if broken off. • Failing, neglected planting schemes are seen as a legitimate target for vandalism, tipping and other forms of depreciative behaviour. The robust approach should result in healthy, vigorous woodland which is less likely to attract signifi­ cant vandalism. • The robust approach reduces the need for expen­ as well as planting, offering an incentive to the con­ sive, high-input management but the evidence of tractor to maximise the quality of the initial planti­ carefully targeted management (such as weed ng operation in order to minimise the cost of subse­ control around trees) should be clear so that site quent tree replacement. users do not interpret low-input management as There are four main ways of letting contracts. neglect. • Negotiation. A contract is agreed through direct negotiation with an individual contractor. Work schedules and contracts Negotiation is most appropriate for small or com­ plicated jobs where the preparation of tender details would not be justified, and where known The work schedule is derived from the specification and trusted contractors are available. Use and gives detailed instructions to the operatives negotiated contracts to foster new and small con­ planting the woodland. The use of contractors to tracting firms, or to try out an unknown contrac­ undertake forestry work is now commonplace and tor on a small job. so the work schedule often takes the form of a con­ tract. If work is to be undertaken in-house or by • Single tender. A schedule of work is supplied to a volunteers, the preparation of a work schedule can single contractor who returns a written quote for still be valuable in clarifying details of the work the job. Using single tender contracts requires programme. knowledge of the going rate for the job as the lack The balance between rigid instructions and per­ of competition may result in a high price. formance specification in the work schedule Contracts can be set up quickly by single tender, depends on the capability of the operatives. A per­ but the lack of competition makes it suitable only formance specification details the final outcome for small jobs using known and trusted contractors. that is required (for example, a lm x lm area at the • Selected tender. A limited number of contractors base of each tree should be kept 80% weed-free are invited to tender for a job. For a large work between the beginning of April and the end of programme and where you know of a number of September) but leaves the method of achieving it to contractors, selected tenders usually attract the the discretion of the operatives. This allows the lowest prices, whilst limiting the time and detail of operations to be modified in response to expense of setting up the contract. The work prevailing circumstances and site and weather con­ schedule and conditions of contract must be clear ditions, makes the most of operatives’ skills and and comprehensive so that returned, priced ten­ knowledge, and so can result in a lower price and a ders are fully comparable. Make sure to give new better job. contractors the opportunity to tender. The use of contractors can offer flexibility in • Open tender. An intention to let work is adver­ work programming and can encourage the develop­ tised giving any contractor an opportunity to ment of a woodland skills base in urban areas tender. In some organisations all jobs over a par­ where there is no tradition of woodland establish­ ticular value must go to open tender. The cost of ment and management. The contract should advertising and the lead time required before include the first two or three years of maintenance work can start can be offset by lower prices.

53 upen tenuers are a goou wayiu evaiuaie me con­ tractor resource in an area, or to draw in contrac­ tors from further afield for particularly large jobs. The objective of multiple tender is to maximise the cost effectiveness of a work programme but this does not necessarily mean accepting the lowest tender. • Is the tender price unrealistically low? • Does the contractor have the necessary skills to undertake the work? • Is the contractor likely to deliver the quality of work required within the specified time? The need for clarity throughout a work schedule and contract document cannot be overemphasised. Whatever type of contract is used, hold a site meet­ ing with the prospective contractor(s] before a deal is struck to ensure that the work schedule and con­ tract conditions are understood. The contractor will have the opportunity to explain problems aris­ ing from the work schedule and to suggest practical modifications. Site meetings and regular contact with contractors and their operatives will help to ensure that the contract achieves its objective: the creation of healthy and vigorous urban woodlands.

Plate 4.12 There is no substitute for all parties involved discussing plans on site. t Outline of a woodland planting and maintenance contract

In Chapter 9, The tree establishment contract section shows the conditions of contract for the planting of Freckland Wood. Instructions to tenderers. This outlines the procedure for tendering. Preliminary particulars. Will include the name, location and a brief description of the site, a brief descrip­ tion of the type and extent of works, details of access to the site, and a key to site plans. General conditions of contract. Many organisations have their own standard conditions of contract. Additional conditions, such as limitation of working hours, protection of services, laying and removal of temporary hard-standings, protection of existing trees, and reporting of archaeological finds, may be required for certain works or sites.

Specific conditions of contract. A set of standard specific conditions can be drawn on as necessary for each individual contract. Specific conditions will vary according to the job, but will commonly include guidance on: • acceptable conditions for site preparation • beating-up surveys • specification for fencing, stiles and gates • timing and quality of weed control • approved suppliers of plants • control of noxious weeds • quality, handling and inspection of plants • ride management and grass cutting • method of setting out the site • fertiliser application • acceptable conditions for planting • removal of litter • preferred method of planting • requirement for site meetings. • planting of mixtures Schedule of work and bill of quantities. Gives work details that are particular to the site including the quantity and description of materials, such as plant numbers and the length and type of fencing. The schedule should make clear whether materials are to be supplied by the contractor, the employer or a third party; the required breakdown of costs; and critical work deadlines. This part of the schedule can be simplified with reference to standard specific conditions. Schedule of payment. Should detail the arrangements for payment. Maps and site plans. • Site location map. • Site plan detailing the design of the scheme and the location of the various operations. • Site plan indicating access points for the contractor, any constraints or hazards on site such as overhead or underground services and, if appropriate, where stores or other buildings may be located. Model contract conditions for use in urban forestry contracts. This agreement is made between (name of client) (hereinafter called T h e Client’) and (name of individual or firm) (hereinafter called ‘The Contractor’).

The contractor hereby agrees to carry out the work specified in the first schedule attached hereto, lo the satisfaction of the client subject lo the following terms and conditions.

1. Preliminary arrangements. The client will enable the contractor to commence prescribed operations on the dales scheduled and give him such instructions and advice as affecl the contract. 2. Work sites and access. The contractor will familiarise him self with work sites and the authorised access routes. The use of such access routes shall be at the contractor’s own risk and the client shall not be responsible for any damage or injury arising out of the contractor’s use of such routes. 3. Payment. The client will pay the contractor the agreed price for the specified work provided that it has been completed to the client’s satisfaction. By mutual agreement, payment may be made in instalments not in excess of the value of the work com ­ pleted. Ten percent of sums due will be retained from all invoices to be paid on satisfactory completion of the contract. In the event of the contractor failing to com plete any part of the work lo the client’s satisfaction, the client may declare this agreement void (insofar as it relates lo such part of the work), and payment shall only be made for any portion of that work certified as fit for payment. The contractor shall compensate the client for any additional expenditure incurred as a result of his failure lo complete the work satisfactorily. 4. Liability. The contractor will indemnify the client against any claims for loss, injury or damage occasioned by the act of default of the contractor in the execution of this agreement, and will if so requested, satisfy the client that he is adequately insured. 5. Force Majeure. In the event of any government regulation or departmental order coming into operation, or any act of God. strike, lockout or any other occurrence of a serious nature beyond the control of the contractor taking place, affecting their abil­ ity to perform their obligations under the agreement and as a result of which the work detailed hereof is delayed or suspended, either parly may request an alteration to the period of the agreement. 6. Rewards. The contractor shall nol offer any reward, prerequisite or emolument whatsoever lo any person in the employment of the client. 7. Health and Safely al Work Act 1974. The contractor will accept full responsibility for compliance with the Health and Safely al Work etc. Act (1974), and all other relevant Acts and Regulations in respect of the work comprised in the contract and taking place within the land, access routes or other premises of the client. In the event of any breach in these standards committed by the contractor, sub-contractor or his employees or agents then he will be informed of the nature of the breach and of the reme­ dial action lo be taken within a specified time. Failure to meet the conditions imposed within the lim e specified shall be regard­ ed as a breach of contract. 0. Precautions. The contractor shall lake all reasonable precautions lo prevent a nuisance or inconvenience to the owners, ten­ ants or occupiers of other properties and to the public generally. 9. Assignation. The contractor shall not sub-let or assign his rights under this contract except with the written consent of the client and upon such terms as the client may require. 10. Suspension of work. The contractor shall al the direction of the client suspend or delay work on the whole or part of the con­ tract, if in the opinion of the client such suspension is necessary, and shall recommence such work within three days of the client’s written order lo do so. If in the opinion of the client such suspension is due to circumstances which could nol have reasonably been foreseen by the contractor, the client may authorize reimbursement of any increased cost which in their opin­ ion the contractor has incurred. 11. Term ination. If the contractor commits a serious breach of any of the terms or conditions of this contract, the client shall have the right by written notice lo require the contractor to remedy the matter within 14 days, and if the mailer is nol so remedied the client shall have the right to terminate the contract, and any termination shall be without prejudice lo the client’s other rights or remedies under the contract. 12. Removal from sile. The contractor shall within one month of the termination of the contract remove from the site any equip­ ment or erections belonging lo him. Should the contractor fail to remove any such equipment or erections within the lime spec­ ified. the client may retain or remove them as he thinks fit, and the contractor shall on demand rc-imburse the client for all costs incurred in their disposal after receiving credit for any value which the client has placed upon them. 13. Settlement of disputes. If any dispute or difference of any kind shall arise out of any of the provisions of the contract upon which agreement cannot be reached between the client and the contractor, the dispute or difference shall be referred lo an inde­ pendent arbitrator agreed upon between the parlies for a decision. W hich decision shall be final and binding upon the parlies. D a le: Signed: Contractor. Signed: On behalf of the client. For more information

Publications Guidance on the assessment and redevelopment of Arboricultural Association (1990). Amenity valua­ land. ICRCL Guidance Note 59/83. DoE tion of trees and woodlands. Amp field House, Publications Sales Unit, Building 1, Victoria Road, Romsey, Hampshire, S051 9PA. South Ruislip, Middlesex, HA4 ONZ. Binns, W. O., Insley, H. and Gardiner, J. B. H. Joint Council for Landscape Industries (1992). Form (1989). Nutrition of broadleaved amenity trees: 1. of agreement for landscape works; supplementary Foliar sampling and analysis for determining nutri­ memorandum, and Practice Note 3. RIBA ent status. Arboriculture Research Note 50/89/SSS. Publications Ltd, Finsbury Mission, 39 Moreland Arboricultural Advisory and Information Service, Street, London, EClV 8BB. Farnham. Kerr, G. and Evans, J. (1993). Growing broadleaves Bridges, E. M. (1987). Surveying derelict land. for timber. Forestry Commission Handbook 9. Clarenden Press, Oxford. HMSO, London. British Standards Institution (1988). DD 175: Code MAFF (1981). RB427: The analysis of agricultural of practice for the identification of potentially cont­ materials. HMSO, London. aminated land and its investigation. BSI, London. Moffat, A. J. and Bending, N. A. D. (1992). Physical Dobson, M. C. and Moffat, A. J. (1993). The poten­ site evaluation for community woodland establish­ tial for woodland establishment on landfill sites. ment. Research Information Note 216. Forestry HMSO, London. Commission, Edinburgh. Forestry Commission (1994). Forest landscape Moffat, A. J. and McNeill, J. D. (1994). Reclaiming design guidelines. HMSO, London. disturbed land for forestry. Forestry Commission Bulletin 110. HMSO, London. Forestry Commission (1992). Community woodland design guidelines. HMSO, London. Taylor, C. M. A. (1991). Forest fertilisation in Britain. Forestry Commission Bulletin 95. HMSO, Forestry Commission (1992). Lowland landscape London. design guidelines. HMSO, London. Gilbert, O. L. (1989). The ecology of urban habitats. Advice Chapman and Hall, London. Institute of Ecology and Environmental Institute of Chartered Foresters (1992). List of Management, 36 Kingfisher Court, Hambridge Rd, members in consultancy practice. 7A St Colme Newbury, Berkshire, RG14 5SJ. Street, Edinburgh, EH3 6AA. Institute of Professional Soil Scientists, The Manor Interdepartmental Committee on the House, Castle Street, Spofforth, Harrogate, Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (1987). Yorkshire, HG3 1AR.

57 5 Establishing successful woodlands

Amend soil physical conditions to: This Chapter contains the following • relieve compaction sections : • improve soil structure • improve drainage • Ground preparation • remove or dilute rubble and stone. • Fertiliser • Species choice Amend soil chemical conditions to: • Species mixtures • improve the supply of essential elements • Planting stock quality and type • remove or dilute toxic substances. • Tree spacing • Planting Dealing with compaction • Implementing the design plan The most common problem on urban planting sites • Tree protection is compaction and poor soil structure. Soil com­ • Weed control around trees paction reduces the retention and movement of air • Vegetation management between trees and water in the soil and can physically impede • For more information root penetration. Poor structure reduces soil mois­ ture-holding capacity and so accentuates winter waterlogging and summer drought. You are likely Your specification and design will be of little value to encounter three types of compaction. if they do not result in a successful woodland on • Compaction throughout the soil profile. the ground. Careful attention to the details of Characteristic of land associated with industry implementation can make the difference between and mineral workings where the ground has been success and failure. compacted by heavy machinery. • Compaction in the surface layers of the soil. Ground preparation Characteristic of amenity grassland or pasture land where superficial compaction results from Urban soils are often disturbed, compacted, infer­ pedestrian use, regular grass mowing and grazing tile, drought prone, poorly drained or contaminated animals. with toxic materials. The site assessment survey • Plough pans. Compaction just below the depth of (Chapter 4, Site assessment) will determine the soil ploughing is common on ex-arable land, particu­ attributes needing amendment. larly with clay soils.

58 Plate 5.1 Compaction throughout a man-made soil profile showing phases in the site’s history as an infilled open-cast coal mine, brick-works and coal storage area.

Plate 5.2 Wing-tined ripping on a 1.5 ha urban site in the West Midlands.

59 If trees are to thrive any compaction must be tem of the newly planted tree and reduces water relieved before planting and this is best achieved and air movement into the soil. Relieve surface when the soil is dry. Dry soil fractures and shatters compaction using an agricultural chisel plough. well to give good soil disturbance. Soil disturbance Surface compaction can reform quickly after culti­ is less when wet, and cultivation can cause smear­ vation so, as with all types of ground preparation, ing and loss of structure. There is only one oppor­ avoid traffic over the cultivated soil, particularly tunity to get ground preparation right - in the sum­ when the ground is wet. mer before planting. The specification and design Even though plough pans do not normally affect must be ready in time to allow this. the production of shallow-rooting annual arable Relieve compaction throughout the soil profile by crops, they do restrict the depth of tree rooting, deep cultivation, to 0.5 m on clay sites, and 0.7 m making trees vulnerable to spring waterlogging, on sandy sites, using a wing-tine ripper. Tines summer drought and instability. Agricultural sub­ should be spaced no wider than 1.2 m apart, with soilers are designed to break up plough pans and the outer ones positioned in line with the tractor are readily available at low cost through agricultural tracks. Cross ripping perpendicular to the first pass contractors or local farmers. Soils formed from is not usually required. On sites where buried swelling clays (for example Oxford clay and rocks or other large debris are expected, conven­ London clay) are prone to shrinkage in the summer tional deep tines should be used. If the degree of and can crack badly down the rip lines. On these cultivation is still not adequate, wing-tine ripping soils the planting position must be offset from the should then be undertaken, making sure that large rip line to avoid exposing the tree roots to drying. boulders and pieces of debris are removed or clearly marked. After ripping, heavy discs are sometimes used as a final treatment to break up particularly Other forms of site amendment large clods or to incorporate sewage sludge into the Conventional restoration practice relies on the use soil. of earthscrapers to replace soil-forming materials, On small urban forestry sites wing-tine ripping which inevitably causes compaction. Restoration using a purpose built implement may be impracti­ using the dump truck and backactor method can cal because of limited manoeuvrability and expen­ prevent compaction in the first place. Dump trucks sive because of high delivery charges. On several tip the soil-forming material in heaps on the (if nec­ sites in the Midlands a much smaller and cheaper essary, ripped) surface of the overburden and the ripper has been successfully used (Plate 5.2); its soil is spread using a backactor with a wide bucket. conventional tines have had wings welded to their At no stage is soil trafficked by earth-moving removable tips. Heavy duty agricultural subsoilers machinery and compaction can be almost entirely and power harrows have also been used success­ avoided. fully on some sites. However, with these smaller On flat, low-lying sites that are prone to waterlog­ machines the soil surface and vegetation must be ging, plant trees on ridges or mounds above the totally dry to achieve the best possible traction. waterlogged zone. Hibberd (1991) gives details of Compaction in the surface layers of the soil forestry scarifiers and mounders designed to under­ reduces moisture availability around the root sys­ take this type of ground preparation but the location

60 and small size of most urban forestry sites will ment) site reclamation may be needed and you mean that a backactor is usually the only viable should consult a reclamation engineer. Moffat and option. A system of open drains may be needed to McNeill (1994) give more information on the recla­ take excess water off the site. mation of derelict sites. Pit planting is expensive and on compacted sites Low fertility can be corrected using artificial fer­ results in trees that are slow growing, unstable, and tilisers or sewage sludge, although repeated applica­ prone to drought and waterlogging for many years. tions may be necessary. Some spoils, particularly Consider it as a last resort for steep banks or very colliery spoil, can be extremely acidic, requiring small areas where other cultivation equipment can­ lime applications of up to 40 tonnes per ha before not be used. Planting pits should be at least 0.3 x tree planting can be contemplated. In all cases, 0.3 x 0.3 m for forestry-type planting stock. species must be selected which can tolerate the con­ Research has found that the incorporation of ditions inherent in the site. On particularly infer­ organic amendments into planting pits is rarely tile sites species which can fix atmospheric nitro­ beneficial and can be harmful. Organic amend­ gen (such as the alders) increase the robustness of ments with high nutrient levels can reduce tree sur­ the planting mixture. vival and growth because the resulting high soil- If small areas of soil within a site are affected by conductivity damages tree roots (products used at toxic or inert materials, these may need to be 30% volume/volume in the planting pit should removed or covered with better quality soil-forming have conductivities no higher than 4000 pS per materials. However, if the soil problem is predomi­ cm). Organic amendments make planting pit soil nantly physical in nature, such as areas of pure more coarsely textured than the surrounding soil. sand or brick rubble, or due to chemical conditions This can result in waterlogging in the winter and not covered by the ICRCL safety thresholds, such as increased drought stress in the summer. acidity, alkalinity or salinity, (Chapter 4, Site Water retentive polymers are sometimes pre­ assessment) these areas are best left as open space scribed for use in planting pits to reduce drought in the woodland design. stress during the establishment phase. However, in field experiments these products have not increased the survival and growth of newly planted trees. Fertiliser This is because summer rainfall in lowland Britain is rarely heavy or prolonged enough to fully The need for fertiliser should be determined before recharge the polymer once it has given up its water. planting (Chapter 4, Site assessment). Nitrogen (N) Where irrigation is planned, water retentive poly­ is in short supply on most degraded urban sites and mers may allow an extension of the interval applications through the establishment phase will between irrigation treatments. usually increase growth rates and improve the appearance of the trees. Phosphorus (P) is also often in short supply, but potassium (K) levels are Dealing with persistent soil problems usually adequate. Deficiency symptoms in the If the presence of toxic, inert or alkaline materials is newly planted trees will indicate the potential ben­ beyond recommended limits (Chapter 4, Site assess­ efit of further fertiliser applications during the

61 Table 5.1 Typical sewage sludge nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) analysis (from Wolstenholme et al. 1992)

Sludge type Total Available1 N P N P

Liquid digested (kg per m ') 1.8 0.6 0.6 0.3 Liquid digested (kg per m ) 2.0 0.7 1.2 0.3 Undigested cake (kg per tonne)2 7.5 2.8 1.5 1.4 Digested cake (kg per tonne) 7.5 3.9 1.1 1.9

Figure a.l The effect of fertihser ana weed controi on 1 Available in the first growing season. the growth of oak transplants. 2 Wet tonnes.

establishment phase. Lime-induced chlorosis is a nitrogen and phosphorus (Table 5.1) and should be result of excessive soil alkalinity and shows as a considered as a fertiliser for urban forestry schemes. yellowing of foliage. It is not easily corrected but Sewage sludge may be liquid or dewatered (cake), careful species choice can minimise its incidence digested or undigested. Anaerobic digestion in on high pH soils. heated tanks results in a more innocuous product Whatever fertiliser is applied, it must be accom­ with less odour and a lower pathogen content. panied by weed control around the trees (Figure Some water companies are now producing dry and 5.1). Fertiliser application without weed control pasteurised sludge products which are easy and can actually reduce tree survival and growth. totally safe to handle. It is the responsibility of the Because weeds are aggressive competitors they ben­ sludge supplier to analyse both sludge and soil for efit from fertiliser application more than the estab­ heavy metal content to ensure that ICRCL thresh­ lishing trees; the invigorated weeds then compete olds are not exceeded (Chapter 4, Site assessment). with the trees all the more aggressively for soil Whilst sewage sludge can be expensive to spread, moisture. increasing pressure to find acceptable means of dis­ posal is encouraging water companies to bear much Sewage sludge of this cost. On impoverished sites, up to 100 m3 Composted wastes and animal manures are suitable per hectare of caked sludge or 400 m3 per hectare of forms of organic fertiliser but they are not usually liquid sludge (in doses no greater than 100 m3 per available in the quantities required for urban wood­ hectare to avoid run-off) can be applied before lands. However, sewage sludge is a good source of ground preparation. However, the resulting vigor­

62 ous growth of vegetation between the weeded spots Artificial fertilisers can swamp the trees and may require mowing. Artificial fertilisers vary in their formulation and Similarly, open space will also require more fre­ release rate. Correct specific deficiencies using sin­ quent mowing unless application can be avoided on gle element fertilisers and deficiencies of several these areas. elements with compound fertiliser of the appropri­ Unpasteurised sewage sludge can contain patho­ ate formulation. Slow release fertilisers are most genic bacteria and viruses. Whilst the risk of infec­ expensive but should be used where repeat doses tion is very low, current advice is to restrict public cannot be applied. access for three months after surface application. Consider tractor application of P over the whole This will rule out the use of some sewage sludges site before planting as this is quick and cheap. on urban sites. Wolstenholme et al. (1992) detail When soil pH is near neutral, soluble sources of P health and safety considerations of sewage sludge such as triple-superphosphate should be used - application. rock phosphate can become immobile. Apply N as urea or ammonium nitrate at the start of the second growing season, by which time establishing trees will have a system of fine roots Deficiency symptoms on fully developed leaves able to absorb it. Because N is not held in the soil, in full light (from Taylor, 1991) new planting may benefit from further applica­ tions during the establishment phase. Restrict N N itrog en : yellowing of the whole crown, application to the weed-free 1.0 x 1.0 m around reduced leaf size, leaves uniformly discoloured. the tree. This minimises cost and avoids fertilis­ ing inter-row vegetation which tends to reduce Phosphorus: stunted, dull green leaves. Purple sward diversity and may result in the need for or red tints at leaf margin in severe cases. mowing. Apply N only to those species that can­ not fix it (i.e. not to alders and legumes). This Potassium: yellowing of leaves, sometimes avoids damaging the N-fixing capability of these between veins, with marginal scorch in severe species, minimises the cost of application, and cases. Leaves inside crown may be less affected. gives a growth boost to the slower growing species. The use of N-fixing trees in intimate mixture with Magnesium: slight yellowing of leaves, espe­ other species to provide a nutritional benefit is cially between the veins where dead patches problematic and not usually practical (Chapter 5, may develop in severe cases. Species mixtures).

Iron and manganese: yellowing between leaf veins, similar to magnesium deficiency. Usually Species choice associated with lime-induced chlorosis, when There are two main considerations when choosing iron and manganese become insoluble due to species for urban woodlands. high pH. • Which species are suited to the site conditions?

63 • Of these species, which are suited to the objectives of the woodland? Table 5.2 Species tolerant of dry sites Acidic Alkaline Whatever the objectives of a scheme, the species * Field maple (Acer campestre) ✓ * used must be suited to the site. If species are cho­ * Box elder(Acer negundo) ✓ * sen for purely aesthetic, commercial or objective- Norway maple (A cer platanoides) ✓ ✓ * related reasons, either the scheme will fail to Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) ✓ * ✓ * realise its objectives or considerable expense will * Silver maple (Acer saccharinum) ✓ * Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima)^ ✓ * be required to bring the site up to a standard suffi­ * Italian alder(Alnus cordata) i/* cient to support the chosen trees. Evans (1984) Grey alder (Alnus incana) t/* S and Anderson (1961) give practical advice on Caucasian alder(Alnus subcordata) * species selection on the basis of site type and veg­ * Silver birch (Betula pendula) ✓ ✓ etation. Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa) * Dogwood (Cornus sanguined) * Fertile sites with deep soils present few limita­ * Hazel(Corylus avellana) ✓ ✓ tions to species choice. However, most urban sites * Turkish hazel(Corylus colurna) ✓ are less hospitable and Tables 5.2 to 5.5 list species * Snow gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora suitable for particular site conditions. If sites dis­ sub. niphophila) ✓ play more than one of the attributes covered by the * Beech (Fagus sylvatica] ✓ * Green ash tables (for example, a site that is drought prone and (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) ✓ * ✓ * alkaline), suitable species will be present in both Maidenhair tree(Ginkgo biloba) i/ tables. * Honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) ✓ ✓ * Having established a short-list of species suited *# Sea buckthorn to the site, the final choice will depend on the (Hippophae rhamnoides) ✓ * * Holly (Ilex aquifolium) ✓ ✓ * objectives of the scheme. On sites not radically * Crab apple (Malus sylvestris) ✓ ✓ altered by human activities, soil characteristics, * White mulberry (Morus alba) ✓ ✓ * vestiges of semi-natural vegetation, and tree London plane (Platanus acerifolia) / ✓ species present in nearby woodlands and * White poplar (Populus alba) ✓ * ✓ hedgerows may be used to indicate the species *# Grey poplar (Populus canescens) \/* ✓ * * Wild cherry (Prunus avium) ✓ that are most appropriate for the site. On degrad­ * Bird cherry (Prunus padus) ✓ ed sites choice is restricted to tolerant, often intro­ Pear (Pyrus communis) t/ ✓ duced, species which, if laid out and managed Holm oak (Quercus ilex) ✓ * sensitively, can still create valuable naturalistic *# Sessile oak (Quercus petraea) ✓ * multi-purpose woodland. Urban planting schemes * English oak (Quercus robur) ✓ * ✓ * * Red oak (Quercus rubra) ✓ * provide good opportunities for the imaginative use *# Purging buckthorn of species that may be inappropriate in rural areas. (Rhamnus cathartica) ✓ * These species, as well as being tolerant of difficult * False acacia site conditions, can add interest to a woodland (Robinia pseudoacacia) t/* ✓ * through the variety of colour and form, and can * Violet willow (Salix daphnoides) *# Whitebeam (Sorbus aria) ✓ * provide wood that is particularly suited for use by * Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) ✓ local communities.

64 T a b le 5 .2 cont. T a b le 5 .3 cont. Acidic Alkaline Acidic Alkaline * Small-leaved lime(Tilia cordata) ✓ *# White birch (Betula pubescens) ✓ * Broad-leaved lime(Tilia platyphyllos) # Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) ^ *# Wayfaring tree (Viburnum lantana) ✓* Bitternut (Carya cordiformis) # Hazel(Corylus avellana) ✓ ✓ * Algerian fir (Abies numidica) Turkish hazel(Corylus colurna) ✓ ✓ * * Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica) ✓ # Common hawthorn Lawson cypress (Crataegus monogyna) ✓ ✓ (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) ✓ ✓ *# Alder buckthorn (Frangula alnus) * Leyland cypress (x Cupressocyparis # Green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) ✓ * ✓ * leylandii ‘Leighton Green’J ✓* ✓ Maidenhair tree(Ginkgo biloba) ✓ * Smooth Arizona cypress # Holly (Ilex aquifolium) ✓ ✓ * (Cupressus glabra) # Sweetgum (Liquidamber styraciflua) *# Common juniper # Crab apple (Malus sylvestris) ✓ ✓ (Juniperus communis) ✓ ✓ * # White mulberry (Morus alba) ✓ ✓ * * Oriental spruce (Picea orientalis) ✓* London plane (Platanus acerifolia) ✓ ✓ * Corsican pine # White poplar (Populus alba) ✓ * ✓ (Pinus nigra var. maritima) ✓* ✓* # Hybrid black poplars *# Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) ✓ ✓ (Populus x canadensis) ✓ * * Yew (Taxus baccata) ✓ ✓* *# Grey poplar (Populus canescens) ✓ * ✓ * * Western red cedar (Thuja plicata) ✓ ✓* *# Black poplar Western hemlock (Populus nigra var. betuiifolia) ✓ * (Tsuga beterophylla) ✓ * *# Aspen (Populus tremula) ✓ * !______# Western balsam poplar Notes: Table 5.2 (Populus trichocarpa) and cultivars ✓ * it Native to at least part of Great Britain (see Soutar and # Bird cherry (Prunus padus) V Peterken (1989) for geographical distributions). Pear (Pyrus communis) ✓ ✓ * Particularly tolerant of the conditions indicated. # Pin oak (Quercus palustris) # English oak (Quercus robur) ✓ * ✓ * False acacia(Robinia pseudoacacia) ✓ * ✓ * *# White willow (Salix alba) ✓ * Table 5.3 Species tolerant of wet sites *# Goat willow (Salix caprea) ✓ ✓ * Acidic Alkaline *# Grey sallow (Salix cinerea) ✓ ✓ * * Field maple (Acer campestre) ✓ * *# Crack willow (Salix fragilis) ✓ * * Box elder (Acer negundo) ✓ * ✓ * *# Bay willow (Salix pentandra) ✓ * Norway maple (Acer platanoides) ✓ ✓ * *# Common osier (Salix viminalis) ✓ * Sycamore (A cerpseudoplatanus)

65 T a b le 5 .3 cont. T a b le 5 .4 cont. Acidic Alkaline D ry W et Leyland cypress (x Cupressocyparis Snow gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora leylandii ‘Leighton Green’j ✓* ✓ sub. niphophila] ✓ * Hybrid larch (Larix x eurolepis) ✓ * Green ash Dawn redwood (Fraxinus pennsylvanica] ✓ * / * (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) Honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos)

66 Table 5.5 Species tolerant of alkaline sites T a b le 5 .5 cont. Dry W et Dry W et *# Field maple (Acer campestre) ✓ ✓ * False acacia(Robinia pseudoacacia) ✓* ✓ * Box elder(Acer negundo) ✓ * ✓* *# White willow (Salix alba) ✓* * Norway maple (Acer platanoides) ✓ ✓ *# Goat willow (Salix caprea) ✓* * Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) ✓ ✓ *# Grey sallow (Salix cinerea) ✓* Silver maple (Acer saccharinum) ✓ * ✓ * *# Crack willow (Salix fragilis) ✓* * Tree of heaven (Aihmthus ultissima) ✓ * # Bay willow (Salix pentandra) ✓* * Italian alder(Alnus cordata) # Common osier (Salix viminalis) ✓* * Common alder (Alnus glutinosa) ✓ * *# Whitebeam (Sorbus aria) ✓* Grey alder (Alnus incana) ^ ✓ * # Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) ✓ ✓ * Silver birch (Betula pendula) ✓ # Small-leafed lime(Tilia cordata) ✓ ✓ *# Box (Buxus sempervirens) *# Wayfaring tree (Viburnum lantana) ✓* * Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) ✓ *# Dogwood (Cornus sanguined) ✓ Grecian fir (Abies cephalonica) * Hazel(Corylus avellana) ✓ ✓ Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica) ✓* Turkish hazel(Corylus colurna) ✓ * ✓ Lawson cypress (Chamaecyparis * Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) ✓ lawsoniana) ✓ ✓ * Beech (Fagus sylvatica) ✓ Leyland cypress *# European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) (x Cupressocyparis leylandii) ✓* ✓* * Green ash (Fraxinus pennsyivanica) ✓ * ✓* *# Common juniper Maidenhair tree(Ginkgo biloba) ✓ ✓ (Juniperus communis) ✓ * Honey locust (Gieditsia triacanthos) ✓ * * Corsican pine *# Sea buckthorn (Pinus nigra var. maritima) ✓* ✓* (Hippophae rhamnoides) i/* # Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) ✓* ✓ *# Holly (Ilex aquifoiium) \/ ✓ Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) * Crab apple (Malus sylvestris) t/ ✓ *# Yew (Taxus baccata) ✓ * White mulberry (Morus alba) i/* ✓* Western red cedar (Thuja plicata) ✓* ✓ London plane (Platanus acerifolia) t/ ✓ White poplar (Populus alba) t/* ✓* Notes: Table 5.5 * Hybrid black poplars • Native to at least part of Great Britain (see Soutar and (Populus x canadensis) ✓* Peterken (1989) for geographical distributions). *# Grey poplar (Populus canescens) i/* ✓* • Particularly tolerant of the conditions indicated. (NB. *# Black poplar (Populus Sites with a pH above 8.5 should not be considered for nigra var. betuiifoiia) ✓* woodland creation). * Western balsam poplar(Populus trichocarpa) and cultivars ✓* Species mixtures * Wild cherry (Prunus avium) t/ * Bird cherry (Prunus padus) ✓ ✓ The use of carefully planned mixtures can: * Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) • improve the success and speed of woodland Wild pear (Pyrus communis) t / ✓ * Holm oak (Quercus ilex) 1/ establishment; *# English oak (Quercus robur) ✓ * ✓* • increase the amenity value of woodland; and *# Purging buckthorn • facilitate the growing and harvesting of utilisable (Rhamnus catharticus) t/* timber.

67 Newly planted trees experience high levels of stress and this is exacerbated by poor site quality and exposure. Tolerant species can be used to ‘nurse’ the more sensitive preferred species, by improving the microclimate on the planting site and protecting the preferred species from exposure. In addition, N-fixing species have the potential to improve the availability of nitrogen to the preferred species. As well as benefiting preferred species, tolerant species act as a fall back should the preferred species fail (Chapter 4, Practical woodland design). Tolerant nurse species used in mixtures should be removed once they have done their job. Failure to do this will affect the character of the develop­ ing woodland and preferred species may be sup­ pressed. Traditionally, the nurse crop is progres­ sively removed when it has drawn the preferred Figure 5.2 Intimate mixture of four species in equal proportion. At the compartment scale the impression species into good quality straight stems and has is of a homogeneous woodland. reached a saleable size itself. In urban woodlands, where a return from the nurse species is not an imperative, the process of removing the nurse can start much earlier. If the preferred species have established well, coppicing or removal of nurse trees can start as early as year five (Chapter 7, Silvicultural management of recently established woodlands). The species in a mixture designed to be part of the long-term character of the woodland must be compatible. Your design must ensure that vigorous species do not suppress slower growing species and that the species mixture has the potential to create the desired woodland structure.

Intimate mixtures Whilst diverse at the individual tree level, intimate Figure 5.3 Regular mixture in square groups of 16 of mixtures tend to give a homogeneous effect at the four species in equal proportion (red, green, blue, yellow site level (Figure 5.2) resulting in a monotonous running top to bottom —» bottom to top —> etc., as would experience for site users and a limited diversity of realistically be the case).

68 habitats for wildlife. In addition, the planting of complex intimate mixtures is expensive, and slower growing trees are likely to be suppressed by faster growing species. This presents a dilemma when nitrogen-fixing species are used to confer a nutri­ tional benefit on preferred species. The nitrogen- fixing trees (alder, false acacia or laburnum) must be close enough to the recipient trees to confer a nutritional benefit but, before nitrogen becomes available through root and leaf decomposition, the vigorous nitrogen-fixing trees can out-grow and suppress the preferred species. The use of nitrogen- fixing shrubs (like green alder) may be a way around this problem.

Group mixtures Figure 5.4 Regular mixture in staggered groups of 16 of four species in equal proportion (red, green, blue, yellow Group mixtures (Figures 5.3 and 5.4) are more running left to right —» right to left —> etc., as would robust than intimate mixtures as the competition realistically be the case). between slow and fast growing species is less, whilst the advantages of species diversity and nurs­ ing benefits remain. Group mixtures are more prac­ tical to plant than intimate mixtures as long as the species sequence is simple. Groups should general­ ly be of between 9 and 25 trees, although under- storey shrubs can be planted in smaller groups. A variant of group planting is to have a matrix of one species with (usually square) groups of 9 or 16 at the required final spacing for overstorey trees (about 100 groups per ha) (Figure 5.5). Management effort is focused on the groups which will form the mature woodland of the desired character.

Random mixtures Random mixtures are advocated for the creation of naturalistic woodlands. Species can be randomly planted in intimate mixture, but this has the dis­ Figure 5.5 Final crop trees in groups of nine at final crop spacing within an intimately mixed matrix of 50% of one advantages outlined above. More practical is to species and 25% each of another two species. randomise the layout of single species groups

69 of first thinning the two outer rows of conifer are removed to create space for the broadleaves and yield an early economic return. About seven years later the centre row of conifer and the broadleaves are selectively thinned. After the third or fourth thinning the nurse crop is completely removed leaving pure broadleaved woodland. Because of their high landscape impact line mixtures are usual­ ly inappropriate where visually contrasting species are used (particularly mixtures of deciduous and evergreen) and where viewpoints look down onto the woodland.

Single species The use of only one species in a large compartment will not create the diversity that is usually benefi­ Figure 5.6 Random mixture in groups of nine of four cial for visual amenity and wildlife. However, there species in equal proportion. are circumstances where the simple splendour of a mature monoculture may offer an experience to site users that more complex mixtures cannot (Plate [Figure 5.6). Randomness is almost impossible to 5.3). Something of this effect may still be achieved achieve unless some deliberate method is employed by planting a single species overstorey with infor­ and the coloured bead technique is one approach. mal understorey planting over parts of the compart­ If a mixture of 65 % oak, 25 % birch and 10 % ment (Figure 5.7). rowan is to be planted, 65 red beads (oak), 25 blue In small woodlands (less than 3 ha) single over- (birch) and 10 yellow (rowan) are placed in a pocket storey species plots of 50 to 100 trees are often the and each group of trees is planted according to the most practical means of creating robust woodlands, colour of the bead picked out of the pocket. Make particularly where differential growth rates between sure that using random mixtures does not result in species may be a problem. Supplement this type of species being planted on a part of the site to which design with the planting of understorey species they are unsuited. adjacent to the single species plots (Figure 5.8).

Line mixtures How many species? Line mixtures are a good way of organising a mix­ The number and proportion of species to use must ture to minimise the cost of management and max­ be decided for the woodland as a whole and also for imise the return from thinning. Traditionally, the each part of the woodland which will need different most favoured line mixture was three rows of proportions of species in relation to site characteris­ conifers and three rows of broadleaves. At the time tics and design criteria.

70 Plate 5.3 The simplicity that results from the use of a single species can be a great asset in some woodlands. [ 29290 ]

71 Many urban planting schemes contain more than 20 species resulting in a fussy, unnatural appear­ ance as well as making the woodlands difficult to plant and manage. It is better to use the number of species that would occur in native woodland (see Rodwell and Patterson, 1994), which are predomi­ nantly composed of two or three dominant over- storey species and two or three frequently occurring understorey species. There may be three to six other tree species that occur infrequently. The dis­ tribution of species within native woodland is closely linked to spatial variation in topography and soil type. The Freckland Wood case study (Chapter 9, The final specification) illustrates the number and proportions of species used for the planting of a 20 ha colliery spoil mound.

Figure 5.7 Compartment with a single overstorey species and three understorey species intimately mixed over parts of the site. Planting-stock quality and type The stresses experienced by trees planted onto degraded urban sites are severe and the best possi­ ble planting stock is needed to achieve success. The performance of planting stock is affected by its physical characteristics and its physiological condition. Physical characteristics are largely determined by the method of production in the nursery which results in stock types ranging from seedlings to semi-mature trees (Table 5.6; defined 100 m in British Standard 3936, Parts 1 and 4). Physio­ logical condition is largely determined by the handling of the trees during transportation and planting, and prevailing site conditions in the year after planting.

Bare-root trees Bare-root trees are grown in outdoor nurseries to a Figure 5.8 A one hectare woodland planted with single variety of sizes. When ready for sale, the dormant species plots. trees are lifted and the soil is shaken from their

72 Table 5.6 Stock types available for urban woodland planting

S to ck typ e Usual height (cm) Approximate cost*

B a re -ro o t

# Seedling (1+0) 15-30 £0.14 # Transplant (l/2+l/2,l+l) 20-120 £0.16 # Undercut (l/2ul/2,lul) 30-60 £0.16 W hip (1+2,1+2+1, etc) 120-180 £1.00 Feathered to standard 180-350 £3.00+

R oo t-b all

Half standards to semi-mature 180+ £10.00+

C o n tain er

# Cell grown (seedling) 15-30 £0.18 Container grown (>1 year) 50+ £1.50 Containerised 50+ £1.50

O th er

# Cuttings 20-30 £0.20 # Sets 70-200 £1.40 # Seed £0.01

* For common species; 1993 prices. # Suitable for urban woodland planting. roots. The notations used in Table 5.6 are the The predominant use of small bare-root stock in recognised abbreviations for bare-root stock types. forestry is due, in part, to their low cost, but also to The numbers refer to years and V indicates when their better survival and growth rates. When large trees are transplanted into more spacious surround­ stock sizes are lifted from the nursery a high pro­ ings, usually from the crowded seed bed. The most portion of the root system is left behind. During the commonly used type of forestry stock is the 1+1 growing season the depleted root system is unable (Plate 5.4) which has spent one year in the seed bed to supply the demands of the large crown and the and one year in a transplant line. The ‘u’ indicates tree dies back, remains slow growing and in poor undercutting, when the lower parts of the root sys­ condition for many years, or dies (Plate 5.5). The tem are severed to promote a compact, well- root system of small stock sizes is more complete branched and fibrous root system. Larger nurseries when lifted from the nursery and hence more able are increasingly turning to undercutting as a means to supply the lower water need of the smaller tree of controlling root structure. during the critical establishment phase.

73 Plate 5.5 Large planting stock often have inadequate root systems to supply the moisture needs of a large crown. The result is die-back or tree death. [40969)

Plate 5.4 A 1+1 transplant oak. Plate 5.6 Plugs are cell-grown trees removed from the containers before despatch. [40274]

74 Whether transplants or undercuts are ordered, late August, at which time fertilising should cease. bare-root planting stock should have a fibrous, Avoid cell-grown trees that are less than the British bushy root system. Although height is used most Standard 3936, Part 4 recommended 5 mm at the commonly to grade bare-root plants, the best indica­ root collar for broadleaves and 3 mm for conifers. tor of suitability is the thickness of the root collar Low-volume reusable plastic containers are good (where the root joins the shoot). Sturdy trees with a for local tree rearing schemes as they can be moved thick root collar are more likely to regenerate new around and trees can be produced on a small scale roots quickly after planting. For a 30 cm tall bare- (Chapter 3, Participation to benefit local people). root plant a root collar diameter of at least 5 mm is desirable. Other stock types Root-balled trees are grown outside in the nursery, Container trees usually to a large size. When lifted, a ball of soil is Containerised trees are bare-root trees that have kept around the root system and wrapped in sack­ been potted in the season before sale. This stock ing. The cost of this stock type makes them unsuit­ type is expensive and lacks the complete root sys­ able for urban woodland planting. tem of container-grown stock so should not be used Cuttings and sets are commonly used for planting for urban woodland planting. Container-grown poplars and willows. Cuttings are most suitable for trees are raised in containers from seed and so have urban woodland planting and should be of one- complete root systems. Because of their high cost year-old material from vigorous young trees (often they should be used for urban woodland planting coppiced annually to provide a supply of suitable only when a species, such as yew and holly, cannot material). Cuttings from the crowns of mature trees be obtained as bare-root stock. Even in these situa­ and from two-year-old wood should be avoided. tions the trees used should be less than 50 cm in Cuttings should be between 20 and 25 cm long with height. the top cut about 1 cm above a leaf bud and the bot­ Cell-grown stock are produced in one growing tom end close to or just below a bud. Sets are com­ season in low-volume containers and are suitable plete one-year-old shoots. They are more expensive for urban woodland planting. There are two princi­ than cuttings and used for planting at wide spacing pal types of cell, the most common being reusable in deep soils for the production of veneer quality plastic containers from which the trees are removed timber. Sets are less susceptible than cuttings to for despatch as ‘plugs’ (Plate 5.6). Some nurseries mammal damage and physical swamping by weeds. still produce cell-grown stock in Japanese paper Direct seeding involves the sowing or planting of pots. With this system the trees are despatched in a seed directly onto the woodland site (Chapter 6, biodegradable paper pot. Both of these container Direct seeding). types ensure that trees are supplied with an intact root system. Cell-grown stock is usually grown in polythene tunnels and needs a period of hardening off before despatch. Plants should be moved out of doors by

75 Plant handling Trees are living organisms and must be treated with care. The physiological condition of planting stock can be reduced by poor plant handling in four main Steps to ensure that good quality stock is ways. purchased and planted • Root drying. Even on dull, cool days exposure to • Order plants in the summer before planting. air can quickly desiccate roots. • If stock is available, buy locally to reduce • Overheating. If plants are stored or transported transit time and facilitate nursery inspection. under a dark coloured tarpaulin, or in dark coloured or translucent polythene bags the tem­ • If possible, look at the plants in the nursery peratures experienced by the trees in sunny con­ before buying. Good quality plants will be ditions can be damaging. stout, of an even height, have high root to shoot ratios and have no visible defects. • Frost damage. The roots of lifted trees can be • Order 5% above requirement to allow for on­ damaged or killed by freezing. site culling and other wastage. • Physical damage. Broken roots and shoots are • Ensure that trees are carefully and correctly visible but internal damage from rough handling packaged and transported. Bare-root trees also reduces the vigour of planting stock. and plugs should be transported in co­ extruded black and white polythene bags. These bags are black on the inside to reduce Tree spacing the risk of frost damage to trees and white on the outside to reflect the sun’s heat. The bags On the parts of the site where woodland is desired, should be sealed. sufficient trees must be planted to account for loss­ es during the establishment phase. These losses • Minimise the amount of time that the trees can be particularly high on degraded urban sites are out of the ground. Tell the nursery when where forestry stock should be planted at 4500 per the plants are required so that they can lift the ha (1.5 x 1.5 m spacing). Planting density can be stock shortly before delivery. Plan work so reduced on better quality land but the need for that planting takes place soon after delivery. rapid establishment of woodland cover on heavily • If the time of planting cannot be planned used sites means that the minimum planting densi­ with certainty, cell-grown stock delivered in ty around urban areas should usually be 2500 per the containers can be kept throughout the ha (2.0 x 2.0 m spacing). planting season as long as they are watered This is how you determine the required stocking and not exposed to frost. Stock delivered in density. sealed planting bags can be kept for up to 10 days in cool, shaded conditions. For longer 1. Decide what density of established trees is periods stock must be temporarily heeled-in desired on the parts of the site to be wooded. to ensure roots are kept moist. 2. Estimate the likely level of survival during the • Plants must be handled carefully at all times. establishment phase. On inhospitable sites and where pressure from site users is high, this

76 could be less than half, particularly if demanding species have been planted. 3. Divide the density of established trees required (1) by the proportion expected to survive (2). For example, 2000 established trees per ha are desired and 70% (0.7) survival is expected; the number of trees that should be planted is 2000 s- 0.7 = 2857. The need to beat up may not be totally eliminated, but this approach does reduce reliance on beating up and minimises the duration of the vulnerable and management-intensive establishment phase.

Planting

Whatever method of planting is used, an insistence on the highest quality of planting practice is always Figure 5.9 Planting transplants using the T-notch method. amply repaid in later years, and a high level of site supervision is essential once planting gets under way. methods give a measure of short-term weed control and may reduce the extent to which notches re­ open in the summer. Planting methods Pit planting should not be used as an alternative Notch planting (Figure 5.9) is appropriate on most to whole site ground preparation. However, there sites. A garden spade can be used for making the are situations where a small pit dug with a spade or notch, but a specially designed planting spade is mattock is the most appropriate method of planting more effective. On ripped sites there will be a on already cultivated sites: choice of planting position. Where drought is likely • where planting stock has very bushy root systems to be a problem the tree should be planted about 15 and is difficult to notch plant; and cm from the rip line. On very wet sites the tree can be planted over the rip line and, if possible, on • where soils derived from swelling clays shrink small mounds. If the ground to be planted is vege­ during summer, opening up the planting notch tated the notch can be cut into the sward and weed and exposing tree roots to drying and contact control applied later. Alternatively a square of turf with herbicides. can be can be cut out first and either removed, with The method of planting cuttings is shown in Figure the notch being cut directly into the exposed soil 5 .1 0 . Both cuttings and sets must be planted in (screef planting), or inverted with the notch being well-cultivated ground to ensure good contact cut through the turf (turf planting). Both of these between the set and soil. On deep soils sets are

77 January and February if soils are frozen or water­ ~ o ~ logged. Beyond early April soils may already be too Figure 5.10 Planting dry to provide the needs of trees that are already unrooted cuttings of poplar and willow. flushing. Some nurseries cold store trees to delay flushing, thus allowing later planting, but this is a viable option only on particularly wet sites. So, the periods when both the trees and the site are suitable for planting are: • late October (possibly late September for cell- grown stock) to the end of December: favoured on dry sites as some root growth may occur before * soils get too cold, which prepares the tree to with­ stand spring drought; • late February to the end of March: favoured on wet sites as trees do not have to suffer the ravages of a hard winter on a waterlogged planting site; however, if there is any risk of planting being held up it should be planned for the autumn planted into holes to a depth of one-third the length rather than being pushed into April. of the set, but on poorer ground sets must be plant­ ed in deep planting pits. Beating up Beating up is the replacement of dead trees in the Time of planting years after planting. There should be little need in Trees should be planted whilst dormant. Planting robust woodlands, but if there are higher than any stock when it is actively growing will reduce expected losses the site should be brought back to establishment success because the root system of the original stocking density at the end of the first the stressed tree will not be able to provide the and second growing seasons. If appropriate after­ immediate water needs of the foliage. In the low­ care is undertaken, there should be no further need lands, stock is usually dormant from October to the to beat up, stocking being sufficient to bear any fur­ end of March, although in mild autumns it may be ther moderate losses without putting the creation of into November before plants can be lifted in the a woodland environment at risk. Beating up with nursery, and in mild springs flushing of some fast growing species minimises the extension of the species can begin in mid March. Cell-grown stock establishment maintenance phase. can be despatched from the nursery at any time and Beating up provides a good opportunity for may be planted from late September in years when increasing the species diversity of new woodlands, late summer rainfall has been plentiful. particularly around the edge of compartments Trees should only be planted when site condi­ where the opportunity can be taken to strengthen tions are suitable, which can exclude much of the understorey, or to key compartments together by

78 increasing the overlap of species. plot boundaries on the ground (Plate 5.7), One per­ The beat up requirement must be determined dur­ son holds the layout plan and walks the plot bound­ ing the summer by counting the number of live aries whilst the other follows directly behind mark­ plants in a series of 0,01 ha sample plots. On rela­ ing the boundary with spray paint. Operatives then tively homogeneous sites with few species, use 12 simply fill in the marked plots with the relevant plots for schemes under 5 ha and 15 plots for larger species. schemes. Variable sites and complicated designs will require more plots for accurate assessment. Plots should be located systematically over the site. Try to determine the principal reasons for losses. This may indicate the need to use more tolerant species, to protect trees against damage, or to allow certain areas to revert to open space.

Implementing the design plan

At planting, the design plan must be accurately translated into woodland on the ground. The importance of designing with implementation in mind to make this process straightforward has already been stressed (Chapter 4, Practical wood­ land design). The simpler the design the more like­ ly that it will be laid out accurately. Because of the difference in species mix between compartments, it is usually best to advise planting one compartment at a time. For very simple designs with a few, large com­ partments a careful briefing of operatives may be sufficient, particularly if the design plan contains reference points that are clearly visible on and around the site. For more complex or sensitive designs reference points can be provided. Draw a grid on the design plan, at a scale appropriate to the size and complexity of the site, and insert stakes on the site corresponding to the grid intersection points on the design plan. For particularly complex or sensitive designs the Plate 5.7 The ‘pantomime horse’ method of laying out ‘pantomime horse method’ can be used to mark the complex new woodlands.

79 Tree protection domesticated animals can be high. Damage during the vulnerable establishment phase extends the Mammal damage to newly planted trees can be a establishment period, reduces stocking and, in serious problem, even in populated areas. Whilst extreme cases, virtually destroys the woodland. deer numbers might be low close to towns, the There are three options for control of mammal potential for damage from voles, rabbits, hares and damage:

Table 5.7 Height of tree protection required against different mammal pests (adapted from Kerr and Evans, 1993)

AnimaJ Individual tree Fencing Notes protection

Cattle and Generally not Standard stock fence A buffer zone is needed between stock horses viable (without barbed wire fence and trees for horses)

Sheep 1.8 m (if sheep are Standard stock fence to have regular access, two tall stout stakes are needed)

Deer: red, sika, fallow, 1.8 m 2,0 m roe, muntjac 1.2 m 1.8 m

Hares 0.75 m 1.0 m. Use rabbit netting with a line wire 10 cm above the netting

Rabbits 0.6 m 0.9 m. 15 cm at base Landowners are legally required to turned away from the control rabbits area to be protected and secured by turves Rabbits can be gassed from October to mid March

Voles Vole guards 20 cm Vole guards may be Good weed control will reduce the risk tall, buried at required in fenced of damage least 5 mm into the areas if weed control soil is not meticulous Treeshelters will not protect against voles unless staked firmly and buried 5 mm into the soil

80 1. fencing (not effective against voles) • the desirability of freedom of movement and 2. individual tree protection access :s. controlling animal numbers. • the risk of vandalism. Killing mammal pests is rarely practical or popular The first three factors relate to the cost of protec­ in urban situations, although land owners are legal­ tion. A calculation of relative costs should be made ly obliged to control rabbits on their land if they are for each site to be planted (Table 5.8). Once the interfering with the use of neighbouring land cost consequences of the decision on protection (Chapter 2, Urban woodlands and the law). You type are known, the other three factors must be con­ will generally need to choose between fencing and sidered. Some types of individual tree protection individual tree protection (Table 5.7); the decision are visually obtrusive and can draw attention to the depending on: trees and attract vandalism. However, fencing restricts the movement of site users and can be • the size of the area to be planted stolen. Whichever protection method is used, regu­ • the shape of the area to be planted lar inspection is obviously crucial. • planting density Fencing heights for different mammal pests are • aesthetic considerations given in Table 5.7. British Standard 1722: Part 2

Table 5.8 Calculation for cost-effective tree protection against damage by mammals

Site 1 Site 2

Animal pests Roe deer and rabbits Rabbits

The planting site Shape Rectangular Triangular Dimension 100 x 60 m 200 x 400 x 450 m Area 0.6 ha 4 ha Number of plants 1200 (2000 per ha) 12000 (3000 per ha)

Fencing Fence length 320 m 1050 m Fence cost (per m) £4.10 (for deer fencing) £2.40 (for rabbit fencing) Total fencing cost £1312 £2488

Individual tree protection Cost of treeshelter £1.00 (for 1.2 m shelters) £0.60 (for 0.6 m shelters) Total treeshelter cost £1200 £7200

Most economical protection Treeshelters Fencing

81 Treeshelter specification driven 30 cm into the ground. Stakes must be at least 25 x 25 mm in cross section. Size. Height must be above the maximum browse level of the animal (see Table 5.7). Ties. Should be quick and easy to secure and release to allow inspection and maintenance. Cross-sectional shape. Square: can be flat packed for easy storage and transport, but can Lip. The lip of the treeshelter should be folded blow flat in strong winds. Round: less prone to or curved outwards, to avoid abrasion and wind distortion but bulky to store and transport breakage of soft leading shoots. even though differing diameters fit together in nests of three. Colour: Colour should be chosen to blend in with the landscape, light brown and some Stake. When erected the stake should be §horter shades of green being most commonly available. than the treeshelter to avoid stem abrasion When planting under the shade of existing trees when the tree emerges from the shelter, and clear treeshelters should be used.

Intermediate posts 15 m apart maximum

Not to scale

Figure 5.11 A deer and rabbit proof fence.

82 gives the specification for rectangular wire mesh lor deer and stock) and hexagonal wire netting (for abbits and hares) (Figure 5.11), and fencing tech- hques are described in Pepper (1992). Consider the practicalities of fencing at the design stage. The ine of a fence can greatly influence its cost as it iffects fence length and the number of strainer posts ised. Where possible, straight lengths for fencing hould be maximised. This may mean enclosing :ome land to be left as open ground, or exclosing outlying groups of trees which can be individually protected. Treeshelters are translucent polypropylene tubes which protect trees from mammal pests and provide a favourable microclimate around the tree by acting as a mini greenhouse. Their use is fully described in Potter (1991) which recommends that treeshelter height should principally reflect the mammal pests present (Table 5.7). As well as protection from damage, treeshelters accelerate early height growth, although diameter and root growth is not increased proportionally. Consequently, if treeshelters are removed prematurely the trees may be unable to support themselves. Treeshelters offer protection from herbicide damage and make trees easy to find in dense vegetation. However, in areas with high levels of public access, treeshelters can attract unwanted attention to the trees, and removal or damage of the shelter will leave the tree vulnerable to mammal damage. Split plastic tubes protect tree stems from mam­ mal and strimmer damage. For protection from voles (Plate 5.8) they should be 20 cm tall and pushed 5 mm into the soil. Taller split plastic tubes have been used to protect against rabbit damage but much forestry planting stock is neither tall nor stur­ dy enough to support them. Plate 5.8 Severe vole damage has killed this two-year-old Spiral guards are loosely coiled plastic tubes grey alder. Protection must be provided before damage which are used to reduce bark stripping by rabbits. gets this severe. 83 Weed control around trees

The effect of weeds around trees Weeds, particularly grasses, are fast growing and compete aggressively with newly planted trees for moisture and essential elements. Tall weeds com­ pete with small trees for light causing new growth to be spindly and prone to physical damage. Rank weed growth can totally swamp small trees, reduc­ ing growth, or causing deformity or death. A cover of weeds provides an ideal habitat for voles which damage and kill trees. The result of competition with weeds is slow growth and death of trees. If trees are already weak due to poor plant han­ dling, or are planted onto impoverished sites with low moisture-holding capacity, the effect of weed competition can be virtually complete failure of the new woodland by the second growing season. Slow growing, moribund trees will remain vulnerable to other types of damage and stress for many years. Plate 5.9 Reliance on individual tree protection can have a negative landscape impact during the establishment phase, is expensive with high density planting, and can Principles of weed control attract unwanted attention to the trees. [40962) Careful and well-timed weed control can have a dramatic effect on tree survival and growth (Plates 5.10 and 5.11) and is crucial to the success of any They are only suitable for sturdy trees that are taller tree planting. Whatever method is used to kill than the 60 cm height of protection needed, and weeds, trees must be freed from competition around that have sufficient side branches to hold the guard their rooting zone until rooting is extensive and in place. deep enough for the tree to compete with weeds. Plastic mesh guards are staked plastic netting Trees will benefit from weed control over the whole tubes. They are generally only suitable for protect­ rooting zone throughout their life (as is often under­ ing the leading shoot of newly planted trees from taken in orchards) but this is not practical, cost rabbit damage, but for species with poor apical effective or environmentally acceptable for wood­ dominance even the leading shoot may grow land planting. The compromise is to keep 1 m2 through the netting, becoming vulnerable to damage around each tree weed free, or to maintain a im from mammals and strangulation by the netting. wide weed-free strip along the rows of trees. The Plastic netting is more commonly used to protect provision of weed-free conditions is particularly established trees from bark stripping by livestock. important during the growing season, which starts

84 in mid April and ends in September. There may be opportunities to control perennial weeds in the autumn before planting to ensure weed-free condi­ tions at the start of the growing season. On sites that will support rapid tree growth the duration of weed control should be three years, by which time tree root spread will be extensive. On difficult urban sites establishment will be slower and so weed control should be routinely continued for five years.

Herbicides Herbicides can be an effective and economical way of killing weeds. Herbicides approved for forestry are described in Willoughby and Dewar (1995). There are two broad groups of herbicides.

Hate 5.10 Three-year-old wild cherry without weed ontrol. [40203]

Plate 5.11 Three-year-old wild cherry with effective Plate 5.12 Three-year-old wild cherry in regularly weed control. [40199] mown grass sward. [40202] 85 • Foliar acting herbicides are most commonly used Mulches for woodland establishment. They are absorbed Mulches are materials that cover the ground and at the point of contact on the leaf and the stem, physically prevent weed growth. and give best results when applied to actively growing weeds. Few foliar acting herbicides are • Organic mulches can control weeds effectively if highly selective and in most cases it is necessary applied, at considerable expense, over the whole to guard trees against spray contact, or use appli­ of a previously weeded site. Applications around cation methods which avoid contact with tree each tree may control weeds for one growing sea­ leaves. son but are rapidly invaded by weeds and need • Residual herbicides act via the soil where they replacing at least annually. Consequently, organ­ are taken up by weed roots. To be effective most ic mulches such as bark and wood chips are not must be applied to non-cloddy, damp soil and cost effective for weed control in urban wood­ further rain is needed to wash them into the top 2 lands, but may usefully form part of a community to 3 cm. Large soil clods will weather and crum­ participation programme. ble, exposing untreated soil and allowing weed • Sheet mulches can be applied individually growth. Because of these requirements residual around each tree or as a 1 m wide strip down herbicides are of most use for tree planting on rows of trees. Whilst more expensive than herbi­ cultivated arable land. cides, sheet mulches can provide two or three years of weed control if durable materials are used and properly applied. However, do not con­ Why you should kill weeds around newly sider sheet mulches as a one-visit tree-establish- planted trees ment system as they frequently become torn, tat­ tered and displaced. Invigorated weed growth • Eliminates competition for limited soil around the mat and through the hole for the tree moisture. stem can greatly reduce the area of effective weed • Maximises the amount of rainfall that control. If surrounded by rank grass, mulch mats percolates into the soil. can be colonised by voles which kill and damage • Increases spring soil temperatures, promoting trees. early tree root growth. • Reduces competition for nutrients. Other forms of weed control • Eventually contributes to the supply of Mowing keeps grass growing throughout the sum­ nutrients as the dead weeds decompose. mer and so increases competition for soil moisture • Reduces the shading and physical swamping (Plate 5.12). Mowing or strimming of vegetation effects of trees. directly around trees often causes physical damage • Discourages voles from damaging trees. and tree losses and so should be considered only for • Reduces weed seed production from newly the management of inter-row vegetation. If vegeta­ planted woodlands. tion around newly planted trees has become rank some removal using hand tools may be required

86 Herbicides or mulch mats?

Herbicides Mulch mats

Advantages Advantages

Cost-effective. Can give 2 -3 years of weed control if a durable material is correctly applied.

Quick to apply. Can be applied by volunteers.

Can be selective about which ground vegetation Can recycle waste materials like old carpets species are killed. and vinyl.

Disadvantages Disadvantages

Operatives must be trained and certificated so More expensive than chemical weed control. not suited to volunteers.

Needs a continuing commitment to aftercare. Poorly laid or poor quality material can lift and break up.

Damage or death of trees can result from careless Must be regularly inspected. use.

Should be applied only when weather or soil Can invigorate weed growth around the mulch conditions are right. and through the hole for the tree stem.

Can look unsightly and attract unwanted attention to the trees.

Can harbour voles.

87 before herbicides can be applied, to minimise the • inter-row vegetation is likely to swamp the risk of herbicide contact with the trees. establishing trees; Cultivation can temporarily remove or check • the risk of fire is particularly high (mowing weeds and some forms of ground preparation can 5 m into the planted area along paths may be a reduce weed competition in the first growing sea­ cost-effective solution; Chapter 7, Protection of son. However, continued weed control by cultiva­ existing woodlands]; tion with hand tools is expensive and offers little • the seeding of arable weeds is likely to cause satisfaction to volunteers as it must be repeated four a nuisance on neighbouring land; or or five times a season. • increasing sward diversity is an important objective (Chapter 8, Woodlands for wildlife). Vegetation management between Using selective herbicides that kill only grasses on trees grass dominated sites can result in a dramatic increase in the range of flowering plants. Species- Most of the land in newly planted woodlands is not specific herbicides may be of value to eradicate par­ occupied by trees. On the parts of the site that are ticular problem species like thistle and docks. planted, 75% of ground falls outside the weed-free A more intensive approach to managing inter-row spots with planting at 2.0 x 2.0 m and 56% at 1.5 x vegetation is to sow the desired ground flora species 1.5 m. Unplanted space must be managed accord­ into a cultivated seed bed. This is expensive and ing to the objectives of the woodland. requires careful management but may be an attrac­ tive option in certain situations where the risk of Management of inter-row vegetation tree losses is low and hence the plant spacing can be wide enough for tractor access. On impoverished urban woodland sites inter-row vegetation is unlikely to swamp the newly planted • Low-productivity (usually fescue-based) grass trees and so should not need mowing. The low swards can be sown on fertile arable land to pre­ intensity of inter-row vegetation management is vent an explosion of arable weeds. The sward is important to the informal appearance of urban most easily established in the spring or autumn woodlands and can result in attractive ground flora, before planting, but can be sown as strips particularly where grazing pressure has been between the rows of trees after planting. relieved and where the sward is not dominated by • Low-productivity grass/wildflower mixtures can coarse grasses. In addition, the opportunity is pro­ be sown on bare sites or where existing vegetation vided for woody colonisation to increase diversity is uninteresting (Plate 5.13). Light-demanding and break up planting patterns. On exposed sites species found in meadow mixes are most appro­ inter-row vegetation can provide valuable shelter to priate although many will eventually die out after newly planted trees. canopy closure. True woodland plants are diffi­ Cutting inter-row vegetation is expensive and can cult to establish in full-light conditions due to result in mechanical damage to the trees. It is war­ competition from more aggressive species ranted only when: (Chapter 8, Woodlands for wildlife).

88 ,>•

; ; u .

Plate 5.13 The sowing of wild flowers can add interest to establishing woodland. [40178)

89 • Nitrogen-fixing legume species can be sown to For more information increase nitrogen supply to the establishing trees. However, legume species such as clovers and Publications vetches compete aggressively for moisture and will rapidly colonise the weed-free patch around Anderson, M. L. (1961). The selection of tree each tree. species. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh. • Silvo-arable systems combine timber production British Standards Institution (1984). British with arable cropping. They require the planting Standard 3936 Part 4: Specification for forest trees. of trees at very wide spacing and have only been BSI Standards, Milton Keynes. undertaken on fertile arable land with fast grow­ ing poplars. Silvo-arable systems require inten­ British Standards Institution (1984). British sive management and are more a method of max­Standard 1722 Part 2: Specification for rectangular imising cropping potential than a means of creat­ wire mesh and hexagonal wire netting fences. ing woodland. Consequently such systems will BSI Standards, Milton Keynes. rarely be appropriate in the urban environment. British Standards Institution (1992). British Standard 3936 Part 1: Specification for trees and Management of open space shrubs. BSI Standards, Milton Keynes. Open space may need regular cutting where access The Committee for Plant Supply and Establishment is to be encouraged. In large glades or rides differ­ (1985). Plant handling. The Horticultural Trades ential mowing regimes can contribute to the devel­ Association, 19 High Street, Theale, Reading, opment of woodland edge (Chapter 8, Woodlands Berkshire, RG7 5AH. (01734) 303132. for wildlife) and reduce mowing costs. On impov­ Davies, R. J. (1987). Trees and weeds. Forestry erished sites vegetation may not require mowing at Commission Handbook 2. HMSO, London. all, treading by site users being enough to define Dobson, M. C. and Moffat, A. J. (1993). The poten­ paths, although ride mowing can be a useful tool for tial for woodland establishment on landfill sites. channelling site users. Take care not to lose the HMSO, London. informal atmosphere of urban woodlands by over- Evans, J. (1984). Silviculture of broadleaved wood­ zealous mowing regimes. The judicious use of land. Forestry Commission Bulletin 62. HMSO, selective herbicides can increase the floristic diver­ London. sity and interest of open space. Hibberd, B. G. (ed.) (1991). Forestry practice. Forestry Commission Handbook 6. HMSO, London. Hodge, S. J. (1991). Cell-grown broadleaved stock. Arboriculture Research Note 98/91/ARB. Arboricultural Advisory and Information Service, Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham, Surrey GU10 4LH. Hodge, S. J. (1991). Amenity tree planting with bare- root stock. Arboriculture Research Note 97/91/ARB.

90 Arboricultural Advisory and Information Service, Soutar, R. G. and Peterken, G. F. (1989). Regional Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham, Surrey GU10 4LH. lists of native trees and shrubs for use in Hodge, S. J. (1993). Trials of organic backfill afforestation schemes.Arboricultural Journal, amendments on trunk road sites. Arboriculture 13 (1), 33-43. Research Note 114/93/ARB. Arboricultural Taylor, C. M. A. (1991). Forest fertilisation in Advisory and Information Service, Alice Holt Britain. Forestry Commission Bulletin 95. HMSO, Lodge, Farnham, Surrey GU10 4LH. London. Jobling, J. (1990). Poplars for wood production and White, J. E. J. and Patch, D. (1990). Propagation of amenity. Forestry Commission Bulletin 92. HMSO, lowland willows by winter cuttings. Arboriculture London. Research Note 85/90/SILS. Arboricultural Advisory Kerr, G. and Evans, J. (1993). Growing broadleaves and Information Service, Alice Holt Lodge, for timber. Forestry Commission Handbook 9. Farnham, Surrey GU10 4LH. HMSO, London. Williamson, D. R. (1992). Establishing farm wood­ Moffat, A. J. and McNeill, J. D. (1994). Reclaiming lands. Forestry Commission Handbook 8. HMSO, disturbed land for forestry. Forestry Commission London. Bulletin 110. HMSO, London. Willoughby, I. and Dewar, J. (1995). The use of her­ Pepper, H. W. (1992). Forest fencing. Forestry bicides in the forest. Forestry Commission Field Commission Bulletin 102. HMSO, London. Book 8. HMSO, London. Potter, M. J. (1991). Treeshelters. Forestry Wolstenholme, R., Dutch, J., Moffat, A. )., Bayes, Commission Handbook 7. HMSO, London. C. D. and Taylor, C. M. A. (1992). A manual of good Rodwell, J. and Patterson, G. (1994). Creating new practice for the use of sewage sludge in forestry. native woodlands. Forestry Commission Bulletin Forestry Commission Bulletin 107. HMSO, 112. HMSO, London. London.

91 6 Woodland creation from seed

For woody colonisation to occur at all there must This Chapter contains the following be a suitable seed supply and it follows that species sections : with poor powers of dispersal are least likely to colonise urban sites. The survey found the frequen­ cy of colonisation of most species to be closely • Natural colonisation linked to the presence of parent trees. The degree • Direct seeding of urbanisation appeared to influence the amount of • For more information colonisation from both bird-dispersed seed and the heavier windblown seeds such as ash and sycamore (Table 6.1). Disturbance of birds and lack of suit­ Tree planting will usually be the most reliable able habitat reduces numbers of berry eating birds method of woodland creation, especially where par­ in urban areas and the generally sparse tree cover ticular species and proportions of species are reduces the dispersal opportunities for the heavier required. However, sowing seed directly onto the windblown seeds. However, even given an ade­ site or allowing the site to colonise naturally are quate seed supply, conditions on the site must be options for woodland establishment which may conducive to germination and establishment. offer benefits under some circumstances.

Natural colonisation Table 6.1 Proportions of seed types by intensity of Natural colonisation is the process of woodland cre­ urbanisation from a Forestry Commission Research ation on previously unwooded sites by natural seed Division survey of abandoned urban sites dispersal. Whilst it offers a naturalistic vegetation structure and distribution (Plate 6.1), the manager Light Heavy Bird - has very little control over the speed of the process windblown windblown dispersed seed seed seed and the character of the woodland that develops. Woodland creation by natural colonisation can be Avon 1% 40% 56% a very slow process. In a Forestry Commission (lightly urbanised) Research Division survey of 47 abandoned urban and urban edge sites, only 20 % of quadrats exam­ South Staffordshire 56% 26% 16% (moderately urbanised) ined were sufficiently colonised for woodland cre­ ation within 10 years of abandonment. This figure West Midlands 91% 1% 7% remained more or less constant until sites had been (intensely urbanised) abandoned for more than 35 years,

92 Plate 6.1 Naturally colonised woodland on coal spoil heaps abandoned in 1910.

93 Figure 6.1 The effect of vegetation type on colonisation to a woodland standard from a Forestry Commission Research Division survey of abandoned urban sites.

Plate 6.2 The rank grass on the more fertile soil in the background has prevented colonisation, but birch and sallow colonisation is prolific on the poorer area in the foreground. [40979]

94 In the absence of ground vegetation, fertile, moist sites will be colonised most quickly and by the widest range of species. However, these sites are also most favourable to rank ground vegetation. Avon Rapid invasion of coarse grasses and other vegeta­ □ ash tion prevents seed from making contact with the □ haw thorn mineral soil and competes for moisture and light □ blackthorn with seed that does germinate (Figure 6.1). In con­ □ eld er trast, on the most impoverished sites little ground ■ dogw ood vegetation develops but moisture and nutrient HI oak stress are so great that woody colonisation cannot □ goat willow, wayfaring tree establish either. Woody colonisation is most likely hazel, elm, cherry, sycamore, on sites that are sufficiently infertile and moisture holly, apple, field maple stressed to prevent the rapid dominance of rank lime, rowan vegetation (weak sward in Figure 6.1), but not so South stressed as to prevent the establishment of woody Staffordshire seedlings (no vegetation in Figure 6.1; Plate 6.2). □ birch Woodlands formed by natural colonisation are □ ash generally species poor; the survey recorded an aver­ H goat willow age of three species per site. The most common □ hawthorn species recorded were ash, birch, goat willow, [§ oak hawthorn, blackthorn and oak, although the species □ elder, hazel, pear, rose, rowan most likely to colonise and the species diversity Scots pine, sycamore, whitebeam varied between the three survey locations (Figure 6.2). In the relatively rural hinterland of Bristol West (Avon) 17 species were recorded; in moderately Midlands urbanised south Staffordshire 13 species and in the H] goat willow heavily urbanised West Midlands 11 species were □ birch recorded. Species numbers were undoubtedly lim­ □ hawthorn ited by reduced seed dispersal in the more urban 0 c h e rry situations, but the predominant site types also var­ □ hazel, pear, privet, robinia ied between locations and this influenced the species composition of colonisation. Goat willow and birch were most prevalent on infertile sites supporting a weak sward; hawthorn was more common on densely vegetated, fertile Figure 6.2 Species mix of colonisation in Avon (lightly urbanised), South Staffordshire (moderately urbanised) sites. Ash was most prevalent on subsoil where fer­ and the West Midlands (heavily urbanised) from a tility was moderate but grass growth not too rank. Forestry Commission Research Division survey of Oak colonised the whole range of site types. abandoned sites.

95 Site conditions can be modified to increase the processes. Many are lost to development, or even to likelihood of colonisation. Apart from direct seed­ expensive landscaping schemes. ing, little can be done to increase the supply of seed to a site, although there is evidence that bird perch­ es can significantly increase the rate of colonisation of bird-dispersed species like hawthorn, holly and Direct seeding elder. Possibly of more benefit is removal of rank vegetation by cultivation, harrowing or herbicides, In some circumstances, woodlands can be created or reducing fertility by topsoil stripping. However, using seed rather than young trees. This can be success is still not guaranteed because of other fac­ done in two main ways: tors like seed supply, seed predation and site chem­ • broadcasting or drilling tree seed (with or without ical conditions, and operations may need to be con­ an agricultural crop such as barley or linseed); tinued over several years before colonisation occurs and and trees establish. • planting a small number of seeds in specific William Ellis wrote in 1745 that colonisation planting positions (dibbling). should be used primarily to augment rather than create woodlands, and this advice remains relevant Information on quantities of seed required is rather today. When you find colonisation on a planting scanty, but Table 6.2 gives provisional recommen­ site incorporate it into the design if possible. Dense dations taking into account likely germination suc­ colonisation may need respacing and thinning to cess in field conditions and the likely losses of seed allow light penetration and promote structural and seedlings by predation and weed competition. diversity (Chapter 7, Silvicultural management and Insist on a certificate of germination or viability regeneration of mature woodlands). Where there is from commercial seed suppliers and send samples no woody colonisation consider leaving some land of locally collected seed to a tree seed testing sta­ unplanted and managing it to encourage colonisa­ tion for evaluation. You can then adjust the sowing tion. Foster colonisation between the planted trees densities in Table 6.2 according to the germination and use it to increase species diversity and to break quality of your seed. up the planting pattern (Chapter 5, Vegetation man­ Woodland establishment by direct seeding is agement between trees). often more expensive, and certainly less reliable, Abandoned sites that have been colonised and than planting. The large volume of seed required have developed into woodland can be very impor­ may necessitate the use of imported material, and it tant to urban amenity and landscape; in a recent does not usually offer the best use of locally collect­ survey undertaken by the Black Country Urban ed seed. Direct sowing in cultivated strips reduces Forestry Unit natural colonisation was found to be seed requirement by 30%, and direct sowing by dib­ the origin of 35% of the woodland in the West bling can reduce seed requirement by 75% but is Midlands Borough of Sandwell. Unfortunately, the much more labour intensive. However, the lower value of existing naturally colonised woodlands is seed numbers make these methods more prone to often not recognised, possibly because they have failure, although the chances of success can be not been subject to the normal management improved by using chitted (already germinated)

96 Plate 6.3a Direct seeding of acorns using modified agricultural equipment.

Plate 6.3b Direct sown oak under a cover crop of wheat.

97 Table 6.2 Seed requirements and cost for woodland establishment by direct sowing

Species Germination Direct sowing densities Cost of seed (%) (kg per ha) (£ per ha 1993)

Ash 60 23 180

Beech 50 87 960

Birch 20 3 370

Common alder 40 4 370

European larch 35 2 500

Field maple 30 245 2940

Hazel 70 3000 7200

Hornbeam 55 16 410

Norway spruce 75 1 150

Pedunculate oak 65 570 1850

Scots pine 70 1 170

Sessile oak 57 560 1960

Sycamore 45 58 435

Wild cherry 40 540 6480

seed and treeshelters to protect selected seedlings are deeply dormant, made up 35% of the seed mix and allow weed control (Plate 6.4). but only 1% of the seedlings after one year. More Success is most likely with large-seeded species, ash may germinate in the second season, but by this and species which are not deeply dormant. In a time weed competition will probably be intense, recent example of direct seeding on agricultural even where graminicides are used. Even on this fer­ land, large seeded species made up 21% of the seed tile arable site, only 6.5% of the seed produced mix but constituted 47% of the seedlings after the seedlings by the end of the first growing season. first growing season (Figure 6.3). Ash seeds, which Stocking is likely to decrease over subsequent sea­

98 sons as mammal damage and weed competition ashes, which by reason of their small growth the take their toll. first year should be kept well weeded (the impor­ John Mortimer, in his book of 1708, recommend­ tance of weed control) and well secured from cat­ ed the use of a cover crop for direct sowing of ash tle, who are very desirous of cropping them (the keys and made all the major points that should be need to control browsing animals), the secon d considered with such a system today: year they will strike root, and quickly surmount what impediments they may meet. ’ ‘But if you would make a wood of them (ash keys) at once, dig or plough up a parcel of land and pre­ John Mortimer painted a very optimistic picture pare it as for corn (prepare a seed bed); only if you of the potential of direct seeding on the basis that plough it give it a summers fallowing to kill and browsing and weed competition will be controlled, rot the turf (take steps to eliminate weeds before but in practice many more recent attempts to use it sowing), ploughing of it as deep as you can, and have met with failure, principally due to the follow­ with your corn, especially oats, sow your ash keys, ing: and at harvest taking off your crop of corn the • slow emergence of tree seed which results in high next spring you will find it covered with young seed losses by predation, desiccation and shading:

[U oak 10% ■ wild cherry 9% □ hazel 2% □ sycamore 24% □ Norway maple 15% □ field maple 5% □ ash 35%

■ wild cherry 6% □ hazel 1% □ acers 52% □ ash 1% □ oak 40%

Figure 6.3 Tree seed a) sown (103 300 seeds per Plate 6.4 Chitted ash seed inside a treeshelter, planted at ha = 100%) and b) recorded after one growing season five keys per planting position. Individual tree protection (6705 seedlings per ha = 100%) is used to protect seeds and seedlings from predation and to make them easier to locate and weed. (41050)

99 For more information Prescription for the direct sowing of tree seed Publications 1 Kill weeds on site in the summer before Gordon, A. G. (1992). Seed manual for forest trees. sowing using foliar-acting, rather than Forestry Commission Bulletin 83. HMSO, London. residual, herbicides. Putwain, P. D. and Evans, B. E. (1992). 2 Cultivate to relieve compaction and create a Experimental creation of naturalistic amenity seed bed. woodland with fertiliser and herbicide management 3 Repeat herbicide application if recolonisa­ plus lupin companion plants. Aspects of Applied tion of woods occurs after cultivation. Biology 29: Vegetation management in forestry, amenity and conservation areas, pp. 179—186. 4 Fence out browsing animals (domestic stock, deer, hares, rabbits) if present. Schlich, W. (1904). Schlich's manual of forestry Vol II: Silviculture. Third edition. Bradbury, Agnew 5 Sow freshly collected seed in October or and Co., London. November. Sow bought-in seed in March if it has been pre-treated to break dormancy. Stevens, F, R. W., Thompson, D. A. and Gosling, 6 Harrow soon after sowing to bury seed into P. G. (1990). Research experience in direct sowing mineral soil for protection against predation for lowland plantation establishment. Research and weather extremes. Information Note 184. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. 7 Use graminicides (herbicides that kill only grasses) to control aggressive grasses after seedling emergence. Other herbicides will Advice also kill tree seedlings. Seed testing: The Official Seed Testing Station for 8 If fencing is not undertaken, selected trees and shrubs is at the Forestry Commission’s seedlings can be protected with treeshelters. Research Station, Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham, Surrey GU10 4LH.

• unpredictability of germination; • difficulties of weed control and slow early growth relative to competing vegetation which leads to intense competition for water, nutrients and light • loss of establishing seedlings from animal pests.

100 7 Managing existing woodlands

fication where one exists. Reiterate or, if necessary, This Chapter contains the following modify the objectives for management and outline sections : clearly the management needed in the next five years to enable the woodland to meet these objec­ tives. Remember to include the next five-year • The management plan review date. The management plan need not be • Initiating a silvicultural system long and its structure can be adapted to meet the • Silvicultural management of recently established woodland • Thinning • Silvicultural management and Essential elements of a woodland management regeneration of mature woodlands plan • Protection of existing woodlands • For more information 1 Site name, location and grid reference. 2 Identification of project coordinator. 3 Background and description of the site. 4 Objectives of woodland management on the The management plan site, listed by priority. Woodland planting and establishment will be guid­ 5 Rationale for management - woodland type ed by the written specification (Chapter 4, Drafting and desired stand characteristics for each a specification), which should include a review part of the woodland. date, usually five years after planting, as a prompt 6 Open space - objectives for, and manage­ to formulate the first five-year management plan for ment of, open space within the wood. the established woodland. If the original objectives 7 Detail of silvicultural operations (with for a woodland are to be achieved this continuity of supporting maps as necessary). management planning is essential as aspects of the 8 Timing of operations within the five-year design need to be implemented and particular man­ plan period. agement operations undertaken at different stages in 9 Responsibilities. the life of the woodland (Chapter 4, Practical wood­ land design). 10 Resource requirement and sources. The structure of a management plan should 11 Review date - usually after five years. broadly follow that of the initial specification and 12 Distribution list. some information can be transferred from the speci­

101 needs of a particular woodland. Use maps to con­ its initiation. The other sections in this chapter vey clearly and concisely spatial information about focus on the management and regeneration of high the woodland and proposed operations. forest woodlands.

Initiating a silvicultural system Coppice Coppice is produced by coppicing: cutting near the When designing a woodland you will need to con­ base of the stem and allowing the regrowth of a sider the silvicultural system that is most appropri­ number of shoots from the cut stump. Coppicing ate for achieving the objectives, and the manage­ can be used to increase woodland structural diversi­ ment operations needed for its introduction. Most ty and is a good way of involving local people in urban woodlands are managed as high forest, where woodland management. It has the potential to pro­ trees are allowed to grow to their mature height, duce wood for a variety of urban uses if even-sized creating relatively even-aged stands. Because this poles can be produced from a suitable species in woodland type tends to develop without interven­ sufficient quantity to interest a user (Chapter 2, A tion it does not need specific early management for long-term perspective). The Freckland Wood case study shows how plans have been developed for coppicing in a new urban edge woodland (Chapter 9, The final specification). To initiate a coppice system in a recently estab­ lished woodland, divide the area into a number of coupes to be cut at different times. Coupes can be shaped according to the design objectives but should be at least 0.1 ha (0.5 ha if wood is to be commercially coppiced). Most urban woodlands will be too small to support an annual cut on a rota­ tion of 10 to 20 years (Table 7.1) and so the appro­ priate number of coupes should be divided by the proposed rotation length to determine the required interval between cutting (for example, if 10 ha are to be cut on a 20-year rotation using 1 ha coupe, one coupe will be cut every two years). The first coppice coupe can be cut at the end of the establishment phase (Plate 7.1), although cut­ ting can be delayed until stems become saleable if income is important. Coppicing can be done at any time of year although you should avoid the bird Plate 7.1 An ash tree coppiced when five years old. nesting season, and it is easier when there is no (40972) foliage on the trees. Cut as close to the ground as

102 Table 7.1 Products and rotations for coppice (adapted from Evans, 1984)

Species Rotation (years) Stools/ha Products

Alder 10-15 1100-1500 Charcoal, turnery, fuel-wood, wood-chips.

Ash 10-25 750-1500 Turnery, thatching sways, tool handles, split rails, fuel-wood, wood-chips.

Birch 15-25 750-1100 Turnery, horse jumps, fuel-wood, wood-chips.

Hazel 6-9 1500-2000 Hurdles, thatching spars, pea and bean sticks, hedge-laying stakes, wood-chips.

Oak 30 600 Fencing, fuel-wood, tan bark, charcoal, wood-chips.

Other hardwoods and 20-25 750-900 Fuel-wood, pulp, turnery, wood-chips. mixed coppice

Sweet chestnut 15 1100 Stakes, fence palings, hop poles, fuel-wood, wood-chips.

Sycamore 10-20 900-1500 Turnery, fuel-wood, wood-chips. possible to encourage coppice shoots from the root established by planting or natural regeneration. collar to improve the stability of the coppice stool. Regular spacing of standards is not important but The angle of cut appears to have no effect on the they should cast only light shade, which rules out success of shoot initiation. Coppice regrowth is the use of beech and limits numbers to, at most, 100 vulnerable to deer and rabbit browsing for the first per ha. More than 30% canopy cover reduces cop­ two or three years and you may need to exclude pice vigour and can result in the death of freshly them or control animal numbers. coppiced stools. Coppice-with-standard management is appropri­ Coppice with standards ate for ancient semi-natural woodlands where this Coppice with standards is a two-storey management has been the traditional management system. system where among the coppice (underwood) However, in secondary woodland the complexity of some trees (standards) are grown on for larger size management and possible negative landscape timber. The overstorey of standards should not be impact means that it should only be used where it even-aged and, at each coppicing, some mature will be particularly beneficial. A more practical standards should be felled and a few new ones way of achieving structural diversity is to create a

103 mosaic of coppice coupes and stands of high forest Even newly established woodlands can offer ameni­ at a scale appropriate to the woodland. This simpli­ ty, recreation, conservation and landscape benefits, fies management and is less vulnerable to neglect. but these can only be fully realised by sensitive and well-timed management. If woodlands are neglect­ Wood-pasture ed at this stage, not only will their present and future value be reduced but the cost of management Wood-pasture is a traditional system of agro- in later years could be unduly high (and hence the forestry where wood is produced on land that is likelihood of it taking place low). grazed. Wood-pastures differ widely in appearance The silvicultural operations required during the according to the amount of grazing and the method first management-plan period will depend on the chosen to control it: they can vary from open grass­ condition of the woodland at the end of the estab­ land with scattered trees to woodland. Many wood- lishment phase and desired woodland characteris­ pastures involve pollarding, the practice of cutting a tics. If survival and growth rates have been poor, tree at 2 to 5 m above the ground, leaving a perma­ some areas will need to be replanted, and manage­ nent base called a boiling. Once cut, the tree is able ment options to develop the woodland further will to resprout above the reach of grazing animals. be limited. In this case the first management plan Wood-pasture will rarely be a practical possibility will be very similar to the initial specification. If in urban situations but there may be opportunities the woodland is well stocked and vigorous, the for using pollarding to manage widely spaced trees specified operations will relate initially to manipu­ in amenity grassland. Pollards can be created from lating species composition and increasing structural recently planted trees by cutting out the leading diversity. shoot and pruning lower branches once the tree is taller than the desired boiling height. When the Manipulating species composition remaining branches have grown to a useable size the tree can be pollarded. This approach will be Intervention will generally be aimed at increasing most effective on species that have poor leading species diversity by planting shrub and understorey shoot dominance such as oak, beech and hornbeam. species, by favouring natural colonisation that may Alternatively, trees can be left until 25 to 35 years be occurring, or by removing trees of a dominant old, by which time the branches removed by species where they threaten to shade out a preferred pollarding will be large enough to be sold or used. species (Chapter 4, The importance of robustness). Colonisation by invasive or inappropriate species may need to be removed, particularly if a clearly Silvicultural management of recently defined woodland type is desired. established woodlands Increasing structural diversity Establishment is considered to be complete when Without active management planted woodlands can trees are growing vigorously without the need for become homogeneous in structure. The dense tree regular maintenance. However, the need for active canopy cuts out light to the woodland floor, restrict­ management does not end at tree establishment. ing understorey, shrub and field-layer development.

104 This is rarely desirable in urban woodlands. Careful design of species layout can give woodland inherent structural diversity with different tree species varying in their form, growth rate and ulti­ mate size. Choice of silvicultural system will also have a profound influence on structural diversity. In woodlands where a predominantly high-forest system is to be used structural diversity can be enhanced by gap creation or enlargement, cleaning (removal of dense, choking understorey growth), small scale coppicing and fostering of natural colonisation. The development of a graded wood­ land edge can be encouraged by delayed shrub planting and the use of differential fertiliser regimes on impoverished sites, with the trees nearest the woodland edge not receiving fertiliser.

Thinning

As a high-forest woodland gets older, thinning becomes the main way of manipulating stand struc­ ture and species composition. Thinning encourages the growth of remaining trees and increases the amount of light penetrating the canopy to the bene­ fit of the understorey, shrub and field layers. The decisions that must be made when planning thin­ ning operations are:

• when to start thinning; • what proportion of the trees to remove; • how to decide which trees to remove; and • how often to thin.

These decisions usually involve compromise between the silvicultural ideal (frequent, light, selective thinning) and the need to minimise the net cost (or maximise net income) from thinning (infre­ Plate 7.2 A broadleaved stand being thinned to maintain quent, heavy, systematic thinning). an open canopy with good light penetration. [40984]

105 When to start thinning • the type of woodland; In woodlands for timber, thinning broadleaved • the objectives for management; and stands normally starts when trees reach 10 m in height, usually between age 15 and 25, depending • the resources available for woodland management. on species and growth rate. However, if creation of Conifer stands tend to be fairly uniform and so tree diverse, attractive woodlands is a high priority, use removal in woodlands containing conifers can be the degree of ground flora suppression by shading systematic for the first one or two thinning opera­ as your guide to when to start thinning. In well- tions in the knowledge that most conifers that stocked urban woodlands thinning should start remain will be as able to meet the objectives for early to maintain light penetration to the woodland planting as those that were removed. Systematic floor for flora development. However, woodlands methods include removing whole rows of trees or planted at wide spacings with poor survival may removing every fourth tree, and are the cheapest not need to be thinned for 30 years. method of thinning. Most broadleaved woodlands contain trees What proportion of trees to remove which vary in their ability to meet specified objec­ In broadleaved woodland the importance of remov­ tives, and so thinning operations should be selec­ ing a particular proportion of the trees is less than tive, in order to leave the most desirable trees. with conifers as the primary objective of thinning is Where timber production is the main objective to improve the remaining woodland rather than to thinning will favour healthy, straight crop trees of maximise total timber production. However, the a species with valuable timber (Chapter 8, cost of (or potential income from) thinning will still Woodlands for timber production). Where conser­ be an important consideration in urban woodlands vation is the main objective thinning will favour and so it should be heavy enough to make the oper­ native trees appropriate to the site, trees that will ation worth while. In a young woodland each thin­ form a diverse woodland structure and that offer a ning operation should remove about 25% of the range of niches for wildlife (for example dead trees, although after five or so thinning operations branches and cavities) (Chapter 8, Woodlands for this should be reduced to 15%. At this rate of tree wildlife). In multi-purpose woodlands for use by removal, most thinning operations should yield local people the choice of trees to remove will lay between 20 and 45 m3 of wood per ha. between these two extremes. Consider thinning to In dense young stands it may not be cost effective favour several hundred good timber trees per to remove the wood, which can be left on the wood­ hectare whilst thinning to enhance diversity in the land floor. In this case, the proportion of trees rest of the stand. removed can be lower than would otherwise be If the tree selection criteria you set are very spe­ acceptable. cific you may need to mark the trees for removal prior to thinning. For less exacting criteria a sam­ How to decide which trees to remove ple area can be marked, and when using experi­ Which trees are removed in a thinning operation enced foresters a ‘feller-selection’ system can be depends on: used after a site briefing.

100 How often to thin overcrowding, whilst oak is generally able to After receiving its first thinning a woodland can be expand its crown after thinning provided crown left until the tree crowns are fully touching. By this dieback has not begun. The risk of damage after time the degree of shading will start to become thinning is higher in woodland reaching maturity detrimental to the ground flora, and the degree of and so you should consider starting group selection overcrowding detrimental to favoured trees. Most felling and regeneration early with the aim of broadleaved stands require thinning every 5 to 10 achieving a gradual replacement of the neglected years, although for mature stands 10 to 15 years is stand. adequate as tree growth rates tend to decline.

Neglected woodlands Silvicultural management and regen­ It may occasionally be in the interest of specific eration of mature woodlands conservation objectives to withdraw management As high-forest woodlands approach maturity, you completely from all or part of a wood. However, must plan to perpetuate them. In some stands trees woodlands that have not received periodic thinning should be left until the end of their natural life for tend to become dark, impenetrable and ill suited to wildlife and as objects of history and beauty. meeting amenity, wildlife or timber production However, failure to take any action to regenerate a objectives. Active management by thinning or cop­ woodland will lead to a loss of structural diversity picing should be a priority in these woodlands and vulnerability to the effects of windblow. In despite the legacy of neglect resulting in higher addition, over-mature trees may pose an unaccept­ costs and lower income. able hazard in heavily used woodlands. Thinning neglected stands is expensive as access is difficult and cut trees get caught in the crowns of surrounding trees. Potential income is Planting or natural regeneration? low as overcrowding results in a large number of Planting is necessary if desired species are not small spindly trees. Heavy thinning of over already on site or if it is important to achieve rapid stocked woodland can increase the risk of wind and complete restocking. Natural regeneration is damage, dieback, snow-break, development of epi- often more difficult and less reliable than planting cormic branches and damage to remaining trees but may be favoured when: during the harvesting operation. Remove only 10 to 15% of trees at each thinning to minimise these • the parent species are suitable; risks. It may take two or three light thinning oper­ • there is already some regeneration taking place; ations over a number of years before a woodland is • there is no urgency to fell and restock in the same fully restored. year; and If the neglected woodland is reaching maturity • conservation of local genetic stock is important. the response to thinning will be dependent on the species. For example, ash is very poor in its Natural regeneration occurring before or soon after response when crowns have become small due to felling can be used in two ways:

107 • if there is a sufficient stocking of acceptable species, favour them by weeding, cleaning and, where appropriate, individual tree protection; • use regeneration of less desirable species to add (a) robustness (Chapter 4, The importance of robust­ ness) and to give shelter to widely spaced planted trees.

mil lllin 1111111 I m Silvicultural systems for woodland regeneration (b) Clear cutting (Figure 7.1a) has been the traditional system of regenerating broadleaved high forest in Britain and coupes tend to be between 1 and 4 ha. Clear cutting is usually followed by replanting because natural regeneration over such large areas rarely results in adequate stocking of desirable (c) species. Species with light, windblown seed such as goat willow and birch are likely to be first to colonise (Chapter 6, Natural colonisation). Group selection (Figure 7.1b) will often be the best way to regenerate urban high-forest woodlands because it offers the potential to maintain the bene­ fits of mature woodland on a site in perpetuity. Figure 7.1 Diagrammatic representation of the main Groups of between 0.1 and 0.5 ha are felled, which woodland regeneration systems. are large enough to allow the regeneration of light- demanding species. When regeneration has occurred, the group can be enlarged and new ones created. The smallest group felling should create a The shelterwood system (Figure 7.1c) involves gap with a diameter at least twice the height of adja­ partially felling a stand to leave a scattered over­ cent trees. The woodland is divided up into an storey of seed bearing trees. For light-demanding appropriate number of coupes which will be felled species such as oak, ash and sycamore six to ten and regenerated over a planned time period. Large metres should be left between remaining crowns. woodlands may warrant the felling and regenera­ For beech the gap size can be reduced to four tion of two or more coupes a year, whilst smaller metres. The overstorey reduces the effect of frost woodlands may warrant the felling of only one and exposure on regeneration and can shade out coupe every five years. Whilst harvesting costs are aggressive weed growth. With ash, alder, birch, relatively high with small areas of felling, if the cherry and sycamore the overstorey should be stand has been well managed the value of the trees removed three to four years after regeneration has removed may be considerable. occurred to ensure that sufficient light reaches the

108 young trees. Overstorey removal over oak should where group systems are not feasible, and where be in five to seven years in two stages and for beech side light encourages regeneration. phased removal over 15 years is possible. This sys­ tem is little used in Britain but is particularly suit­ Preparing for natural regeneration able for regenerating species with heavy seeds such as beech and oak. The silvicultural requirements for natural regenera­ tion are: Individual tree selection (Figure 7.Id) is a method for creating irregular (uneven-aged) woodlands • plentiful seed; which contain an intimate mixture of age classes. • sparse ground vegetation; Young trees, whether naturally regenerated or • freedom from browsing animals; and planted, must be of a shade-tolerant species as the canopy is never completely opened up; the system • low levels of weed competition during the is classically used for regenerating beech. Because regeneration period. management is expensive and difficult, this system Any patches of existing regeneration should be used is usually suitable only for the smallest woodlands as focal points for group felling. If possible fell after

Table 7.2 Seed production of broadleaved trees in Britain(from Evans, 1988)

Species Minimum seed Average Age after which Time of seed bearing age interval seed production fall (years) between large begins to seed crops decline

Common alder 15-25 2-3 60 Sept-Mar

Ash 20-30 3-5 100 Sept-Mar

Beech 50-60 5-15 160 Sept-Nov

Birch 15 1-3 60 Aug-Jan

Cherry 10 1-3 100 July-Aug

Norway maple 25-30 1-3 100 Oct-Feb

Pedunculate oak 40-50 3-6 160 Nov

Sessile oak 40-50 2-5 160 Nov

Sycamore 25-30 1-3 100 Sept-Oct

109 Plate 7.3a Prolific natural regeneration of beech has been achieved in a well-thinned beech stand at Haigh Hall near Wigan . . .

Plate 7.3b . . . but where visitor pressure is intense, soils are compacted and eroded and natural regeneration is not forthcoming.

110 a good seed year when there should be an abun­ 7.5) or coppice regrowth (Chapter 5, Tree protec­ dance of seed on the ground. If felling is in a poor tion). Established trees can be seriously damaged or seed year, it may be best to delay treatment of the killed from bark stripping by grey squirrels, rabbits, woodland floor until after a good seed year (Table deer and livestock (Table 7.3). In addition, fraying 7.2). An assessment of the developing seed crop damage (the removal of bark from the stems and can be made with binoculars in late June. branches of young trees by male deer rubbing the Compacted, eroded or waterlogged soils are velvet from their antlers or territory marking in inhospitable to germination and deep cultivation preparation for the rut) can be locally intense. The and drainage may be needed to encourage natural main fraying period for roe deer is March to August regeneration. If visitor pressure is intense, site and for other species mid July to mid September. users may need to be diverted away from the area to Rabbits, deer or livestock must be fenced out or be regenerated (Plates 7.3 a and b). The likelihood reduced in number if causing serious damage. Grey of successful natural regeneration is increased by squirrels are more difficult to control. The recom­ scarification or disc ploughing to create a seedbed mended method, where damage is compromising of loosened mineral soil, and by removal of compet­ the objectives of the woodland, and where red ing vegetation. If these are achieved by late sum­ squirrels are not present, is poisoning with 0,2 % mer, before seed fall, the seed will become covered by leaf litter in the autumn, creating ideal condi­ tions for germination. Some species (such as ash, field maple and hazel) may remain dormant for a year and so a lack of regeneration in the first year might be misleading. Respacing is the removal of excess natural regen­ eration to favour selected stems (Plate 7.4). Abundant regeneration that is not respaced will develop into dense impenetrable woodland. Respacing is best done with a clearing saw once regeneration is about 2.5 m tall. Dense regeneration should be respaced in stages over two or three years to reach the target tree density (2500 to 4500 trees per ha) without risking stand instability and vigor­ ous coppice regrowth from the cut stems, which could suppress the selected trees.

Protection of existing woodlands Damage from mammals Plate 7.4 A clearing saw is invaluable for respacing naturally seeded trees and preventing the suppression Control of damage from deer, rabbits, hares and of the preferred trees in recently established or voles is essential for successful regeneration (Plate regenerated woodlands. [40983]

111 warfarin on wheat dispensed from purpose The issue of controlling mammal damage is com­ designed hoppers. Other forms of control - shoot­ plicated in urban woodlands by the need to consid­ ing and trapping - are less effective. er woodland users and the urban situation, • Disturbance by woodland users will tend to reduce the occurrence of mammal damage. • Woodland animals are a part of the attraction of woodland. • Controlling animal numbers by poisoning, shoot­ ing, trapping or gassing may be impossible because of the intensity of public use, or undesir­ able because of strong local feeling. • The risk of vandalism to fences or theft of netting can make fencing an unreliable form of control, and certainly necessitates regular fence inspec­ tion and prompt replacement of stolen or dam­ aged sections. • Minimising the use of fencing benefits public access and enjoyment. • Individual tree protection can increase vandalism of the trees (Chapter 4, Practical woodland design) and can leave trees vulnerable to damage if removed. In many urban woodlands these factors will result in a policy of no control, tree damage and limitation of management options being accepted as the opportunity cost.

Fire Fire risk (likelihood of a fire starting) is high for much of the time in many urban woodlands and is directly linked to the intensity of public use. Fire hazard (susceptibility of vegetation to burn if a fire does occur) is highest:

Plate 7.5 Relieving browsing pressure by fencing this • during prolonged periods of dry weather, particu­ woodland glade has resulted in an abundance of naturally larly in early spring and late summer when there seeded trees. is a lot of dead vegetation present; and

112 • in newly established or restocked woodland mowing inter-row vegetation over the whole plant­ where canopy closure has not yet occurred and ed area to reduce the impact of deliberate fire rais­ there are continuous stretches of dense ground ing is debatable. Whilst the fire hazard can be vegetation (and large volumes of branch-wood on reduced in this way, the risk of localised outbreaks restock sites). of fire may be considered acceptable when balanced Wild-fires are suprisingly difficult to start at most against the expense and disadvantages of mowing times of the year and damage is likely to be restrict­ (Chapter 5, Vegetation management between trees) ed to a few trees only (Plate 7.6). The value of and the fact that most broadleaved species will

Table 7.3 Bark stripping damage to established trees (adapted from Kerr and Evans, 1993)

Mammal Tree species Size/age Description of damage Time of year

Grey squirrel Beech and 10- to 40- Bark stripping is most serious on May to sycamore are year old the stem but can occur on root mid Aug most susceptible trees spurs or on the branches of older but all species trees. Incisor marks are 1.5 mm can be damaged wide in pairs, running parallel along branches and vertically on stems.

Rabbits All, but thin- All Bark stripping on root spurs and Winter to barked species lower stems up to 50 cm. early such as ash and Incisor marks are 3 to 4 mm spring sycamore are wide in pairs, usually running most susceptible diagonally across the stem.

Deer All 10- to 30- Produces characteristic 'stripped Jan to year old wallpaper’ appearance. The early trees lower incisor is used to bite into spring the tree and the bark is pulled upwards leaving vertical teeth marks at the base of the wound. Teeth marks are 6.5 mm to a maximum height of 1.1 m.

Livestock All All Severe and sometimes complete Any time stripping of bark from ground but level to maximum browse height especially for animal. winter

113 Plate 7.6 Wild- running fires are relatively rare and where they do occur many broadleaved tree species will subsequently resprout.

resprout after a running ground fire so damage Kerr, G. and Evans, J. (1993). Growing broadleaves caused will often be temporary. However, the like­ for timber. Forestry Commission Handbook 9. lihood of accidental fires can be reduced by mow­ HMSO, London. ing rides and five metres into tree planting adjacent Matthews, J. D. (1990). Silvicultural systems. to rides, in order to reduce the bulk of combustible Clarendon Press, Oxford. material during times of high fire hazard. Rackham, O. (1980). Ancient woodland: its history, vegetation and uses in England. Edward Arnold, For more information London. Rollinson, T. J. D. (1988). Thinning control. Forestry Publications Commission Field Book 2. HMSO, London. Evans, f. (1984). Silviculture of broadleaved wood­ land. Forestry Commission Bulletin 62. HMSO, London. Advice Evans, J. (1988). Natural regeneration of National Small Woods Association, Hall Farm House, Preston Capes, Northamptonshire, broadleaves. Forestry Commission Bulletin 78. NN11 6TA. (01327) 36387. HMSO, London. Coppice Association, Eastern Cottage, Main Road, Hart, C. (1991). Practical forestry for the agent and Toft, Bourne, Lincolnshire, PE'10 OJT. surveyor. Alan Sutton, Stroud. (01778) 33470. Hibberd, B. G. (1991). Forestry practice. Forestry Commission Handbook 6. HMSO, London.

114 8 Woodlands for particular uses

recreation and amenity as the primary objective This Chapter contains the following of management. Private landowners may be sections : encouraged to allow and provide for access but generally this will be a secondary objective of management. Landowners on the urban edge • Woodlands for recreation and amenity may not be able to prevent access and making • Woodlands for wildlife provision for controlled access may divert people • Woodlands for timber production from sensitive areas and reduce vandalism and • For more information antisocial behaviour. • The size and characteristics of the woodland. This will define the ‘carrying capacity’ of the woodland, the types of activities that would be Most woodlands are able to yield some benefits for feasible and the extent to which a range of recre­ landscape, recreation, wildlife and timber produc­ ation and amenity related demands can be met. tion even if not managed to those ends. However, Opportunities will be greatest in large, mature, where specific objectives have been set, targeted diverse woodlands that are linked well with a design and management can greatly increase the wider recreational network (Chapter 2, Providing potential of the woodland. Woodland landscape a recreation network). design is comprehensively covered in the Forestry Commission’s Community woodland design guide­ • Preferences of existing woodland users. The lines and Lowland landscape design guidelines so is preferences of existing woodland users can be not considered in detail in this chapter. established by survey, informal conversations and evidence of activities. Appropriate provision for recreation and amenity will depend on the num­ Woodlands for recreation and amenity ber and type of people using the wood and the average duration of stay. What are appropriate activities? • View's and preferences of local people. If new Woodlands are capable of supporting a wide range woodlands have been established or access only of leisure activities and the owner or manager must recently liberalised there is less likely to be a decide which activities are appropriate, depending body of users to consult. Local people can be on the following considerations. consulted on w'hat would attract them to the • The objectives and attitude of the manager. woodland and what activities they would find Many public landowners will see provision for antisocial.

115 Plate 8.1 Archery is a recreation requiring the attributes of woodland for functional rather than aesthetic reasons. [18846]

Plate 8.2 Many activities are undertaken in woodland simply because it is a nice place to be.

116 • Approaches from local clubs or hobby groups. Managing woodland for recreation and amenity The demand for formal recreational activities is The emphasis of woodland management for recre­ usually manifest in approaches from local clubs. ation will be to provide the facilities required for the activity (roads for rallying, a barrier of trees for Recreation archery, and suitable cover for paint-balling). Recreation management will be infrastructure ori­ Some activities can be conveniently located in ented in order to cater for organised groups which woodlands but derive only a secondary benefit from need ample parking space and possibly toilet facili­ the aesthetic quality of the surroundings. The focus ties. There will often be less need for on-site inter­ of attention is the activity itself rather than the envi­ pretation as people are guided to and informed ronment in which it takes place. Car rallying takes about the activity by organisers. place in large forests mainly because of the pres­ Where recreational activities predominate, the ence of suitable forest tracks; archery takes place in woodland itself can be managed for other objectives woodlands as the trees present a barrier for stray with relatively few concessions being required to arrows; paint-balling takes place in woodlands facilitate the particular activity. Because most because they provide suitable terrain and cover. woodlands have inherent aesthetic qualities, what­ For the purposes of this Handbook these are termed ever the objectives of management the woodland recreational activities and are characteristically for­ will provide a pleasing backdrop to the recreational mal, active, organised, guided and gregarious. activity. The emphasis of woodland amenity management Amenity will be to provide a conducive environment for amenity related activities. Recent research confirms Some activities are based on enjoyment of the that people value variety and contrasts in woodland woodland environment and so depend on the aes­ (Chapter 4, Practical woodland design). Features thetic qualities of the woodland. The enjoyment such as ponds, streams, glades and varied relief are derived from walking, picnicking, nature watching attractive and valuable as they greatly enhance vari­ and photography depend to a large extent on the ety and provide strong contrasts. Variety and con­ aesthetic qualities of the surroundings. For the pur­ trasts within the wooded area can be increased by: poses of this Handbook these are referred to as amenity and are characteristically informal, passive, • using species of contrasting colour and form; unorganised, unguided and solitary. • maximising the structural diversity of the wood­ Of course, the division between activity-oriented land; recreation and environment-oriented amenity is • varying the scale of stands through the woodland; hazy and activities generally contain an element of and both. Some activities such as pony-trekking and • careful planning of rides and open space to give a cycling fall towards the middle of this continuum, variety of views and visual contrasts. with the enjoyment of the leisure experience com­ ing equally from the activity itself and the environ­ Viewing wildlife, particularly birds, mammals, but­ ment in which it takes place. terflies and woodland flowers, is an important

117 aspect of the amenity value of woodland. A study on the recreation and amenity value of forests found that, on average, 38% of the value of a woodland visit was ascribed to seeing or hoping to see wildlife. Management practices that encourage and protect attractive flora and fauna will increase the amenity value of a woodland. The provision of some facilities can greatly improve the value of woodlands for amenity.

Plate 8.4 Glimpsing a wild animal such as this roe deer adds a lot to the pleasure derived from woodlands.

Because visits for amenity are characteristically informal, passive, unorganised, unguided and soli­ tary, on-site interpretation and way-marked routes are usually appreciated. Picnic tables, barbecue grates, areas suitable for games or viewing hides

Plate 8.3 Features such as ponds greatly enhance the may be as attractive to many visitors as the wood­ amenity value of woodland, as well as providing a land environment itself. Judgement and careful diversity of opportunities for wildlife. design is always needed to balance the benefits of

118 Plate 8.5 A surface suitable for wheelchairs and seating has been provided without compromising the aesthetic qualities of the woodland.

facilities against the effect they will have on the aes­ whilst they are taking place, may not be compatible thetic qualities of the woodland. with other recreation and amenity uses. Zoning can Reconciling various uses and objectives in multi­ be used in large woodlands to keep incompatible purpose woodlands can become particularly diffi­ activities apart. In smaller woodlands it will gener­ cult where visitor pressure is intense. This makes ally be most appropriate to encourage unobtrusive the clear definition and prioritising of objectives amenity related activities, as intensive use for spe­ particularly important (Chapter 4, Setting objectives cific recreational activities may preclude informal and priorities). Formal recreational activities, amenity use for much of the time.

119 Design with user safety in mind lower than in built-up areas. Nonetheless, the The use and enjoyment of urban woodlands can be design of urban woodlands should try to overcome severely restricted for wide sections of the commu­ the fear resulting from actual and perceived risks. nity, for both practical and perceptual reasons of Design and management to reduce people’s sense safety. Statistics show that the frequency of violent of anxiety and fear can reduce the natural informali­ attacks in parks and woodlands is considerably ty of woodland. For this reason it will not be appropriate to attempt to make all woodlands feel totally safe to all sections of the community. Focus measures on sites close to residential areas and at access points to woodlands where public activity is concentrated and where a formal landscape is acceptable. There are a number of design and man­ agement issues to consider when designing to max­ imise safety and perceptions of safety.

• Limiting the number of principal routes within the woodland. This will concentrate site users into a smaller area and therefore increase contact and feelings of safety. Obviously, wilder paths should be available for those wanting to use them. • Through routes may need to be lit. • Principal routes should be planned with clear views for fairly long distances. Corners or junc­ tions should be designed to provide maximum visibility. Woodland either side of principal routes should be open with widely spaced trees and little understorey. • Wide rides reduce the incidence of heavy shad­ ows being cast on the paths during the day. • Understorey shrubs that are planted adjacent to routes or open spaces should be spiky or thorny to deny cover to potential attackers, and prefer­ ably well back from the path. • Entrances to safe routes will be of special impor­ tance and should, as far as possible, relate to safe Plate 8.6 For many sections of the community, wood­ and busy areas. lands can be perceived as dark and threatening places. In some locations, increasing feelings of safety must be • Signs should be used to inform the user about the a high design priority. (40961) length and nature of the routes and to make them

120 easy to follow. Signs can also be used to rein­ surfaced paths. In heavily used woodlands obvious force the perception of the safety by showing the hazards should be dealt with wherever they are (for location of places of refuge such as roads and example, felling unsafe trees or fencing off steep buildings. sided pits). Hazards should be dealt with promptly, j Environmental ‘incivilities’ such as graffiti, aban­ and a record kept of inspections and action taken. doned cars and fly-tipped rubbish should be removed rapidly. They signify to site users a lack of social control and a lack of ownership (Chapter Catering for less-mobile people 4, Practical woodland design). Provision for recreation and amenity should be con­ » Specific recreation facilities, such as picnic siderate of less-mobile people which includes the places, should not be perceived as being hidden disabled, the elderly, the blind, people who are in the wood. In some instances the location of temporarily restricted by accident or pregnancy, as facilities at the edge of the wood may help to dif­ well as people with babies and young children. fuse the woodland edge, which is seen by many Design for less-mobile people should be consid­ as a barrier between safety and fear. ered as design for everyone and should be based on Woodland managers have a legal responsibility to six principles. provide a safe environment for visitors (Chapter 2, • Inclusion not exclusion. Less-mobile people are Urban woodlands and the law). In mature wood­ too often excluded from the countryside not by lands formal routes should be regularly inspected their own limitations but by deficiencies in lor hazards such as dangerous trees or pot-holes in design and access provision.

Plate 8.7 Where possible access points should be designed to allow access to all sections of the community. Here, the needs of able adults and dogs have been thoughtfully catered for, but what about parents with children in push-chairs! 121 • Integration not segregation. Less-mobile people losophy of urban and community forestry is free are part of the community and do not look for access and the opportunity to escape from commer­ special provision which sets them apart. cial urban pressures into a natural environment. Whatever is done should be done with the less- These objectives are generally not compatible with mobile person in mind. charging or intensive investment in commercial facilities. • Thought not money. Thought and imagination rather than expensive design solutions are what is often required. • Promoting recreational opportunities. Less- Woodlands for wildlife mobile people need to know where opportunities for them exist. Conservation management of woodlands benefits wildlife and the woodland users who experience it. • Access to the site. If possible, provision for less- Conservation management should be a high priority mobile people should be linked with the means in ancient semi-natural woodland, but can greatly for them to get to the site. enhance the potential for wildlife in any wood. • Design with less-mobile people, not just for them Most woodlands contain a number of habitats, some (Chapter 3, Consultation). of which are valuable in their own right. This sec­ tion focuses on those habitats which are likely to be Income from recreation and amenity present or possible to develop in all woodlands, and the factors which affect their conservation Woodland recreation and amenity will rarely be a value. viable commercial venture. However, there may be potential to earn income from u sers to offset some of the cost of management activities. To have potential for income generation a woodland must Woodland habitats of importance to wildlife offer considerable attraction to target customers. The earning potential must b e large enough to • large trees ensure that income at least exceeds the cost of money collection, if not the cost of provision and • standing dead trees maintenance of facilities. The potential for income • dying and dead wood generation is greatest in large, diverse forests that • waterside zones can accommodate a range of specialist recreational • deciduous stands activities for which a charge can be made, and that • caves can attract enough fee-paying visitors to justify cap­ • cliffs ital investment in facilities. Most urban woodlands will not have sufficient • areas being naturally colonised earning potential to warrant charging, even if con­ • open spaces siderable capital is invested to create an attraction. • edges In addition, an important pari o f the value and phi­

122 Habitat diversity ing, thinning, group felling (Chapter 7) and peri­ Diversity of woodland structure increases the num­ odic cutting of shrubby woodland margins. ber of habitats within a woodland and hence the • Within stands, habitat diversity can be increased opportunities for wildlife. There are many opportu­ by sensitive management (see ‘Stand management nities for increasing woodland diversity. for w ildlife’, below). • Landform, site features and site variability will Whilst high habitat diversity is valuable, the con­ influence vegetation development and provide cept should not be taken too far and should be bal­ the basis for a diversity of habitat types. anced against the benefits of large areas of a single • The wooded area can encompass and protect a habitat. Many animals, birds and invertebrates range of unwooded habitats such as grassland, have a minimum area requirement and need a habi­ wetland, ponds, streams and bare patches. tat large enough to supply a continuity of food and • The wooded area can be vertically and spatially shelter. In addition, the large areas of a single habi­ diversified through species choice, varying plant­ tat that may be needed to support viable breeding ing density, using natural regeneration, coppic­ populations are less vulnerable to catastrophic

Plate 8.8 Woodland design and management should seek to create and enhance structural diversity. This increases the range of habitats in the woodland and the length of internal edges, which tend to be particularly important for wildlife. (7130)

123 disturbances and generally support a greater diver­ desirable woodland plants are able to tolerate a sity of specialised species than small fragments of degree of shading through the summer. Without the same habitat. shade these species are at a competitive disadvan­ A diversity of habitat types within a woodland tage from more aggressive species. maximises the length of edges between habitats. Edges are of particular importance to wildlife, offer­ The impact of disturbance ing some of the benefits of both habitats. The edge zone between strongly contrasting habitat types Disturbance includes harvesting of produce, graz­ should be as wide as possible to avoid abrupt ing, cutting, treading, erosion, fire, vandalism and changes. the presence of people and dogs. Compared to most urban and agricultural land uses, woodlands receive a very low intensity of management (in The importance of stress essence, planned disturbance). Irrespective of the Plants and animals vary in their ability to tolerate quality and diversity of habitats in the woodland, stress and disturbance, and the balance of stresses this low intensity of management offers many and disturbances will affect the range of organisms opportunities for wildlife. a woodland will support. For plants, stress Some types of disturbance are important in main­ includes infertility, drought, waterlogging, extremes taining and increasing the wildlife value of wood­ of pH and shading. lands. For the range of site stresses within which wood­ • In low-stress environments cutting can reduce the land establishment is viable (Chapter 4, Is wood­ dominance of the few aggressive species that land the best use of the site?), increasing stress would tend to predominate, and provide opportu­ tends to increase the diversity and conservation nities for a greater range of plants. The removal value of a habitat. A newly planted woodland in an of cut vegetation from the site can be beneficial in arable field with a neutral, fertile, loam soil is a removing nutrients and so reducing the competi­ low-stress environment. Hospitable conditions tive advantage of aggressive species. favour the dominance of a few rapidly colonising and fast growing species such as charlock, cleavers, • Once open ground is colonised it tends to move thistles and volunteer cereals, which prevent the through a succession of grassland and scrub to colonisation of other less aggressive, but possibly colonising woodland, and eventually climax more desirable, species. In contrast, a newly plant­ woodland. This succession is not desirable on all ed woodland on a south facing slope of acidic, parts of a woodland and mowing, flailing and tree infertile colliery shale is a stressed environment. felling are ways of arresting the succession to Stress levels prevent colonisation by the few aggres­ maintain a diversity of habitats in the field, shrub sive species, and provide opportunities for a diver­ and canopy layers. sity of tolerant successional species which are often • Thinning, group felling or coppicing may be of greater conservation value. used to maintain shade levels suitable for desir­ Shading is a stress of particular importance in able woodland plants and other woodland floor woodlands. Unlike most pioneer species, many habitats.

124 • Light disturbance of the soil and ground vegeta­ if conditions are suitable. There is still much tion caused by felling and extraction operations debate about the value of corridors between wood­ provides fresh ground within the woodland for lands for the movement of species. Mobile species colonisation by pioneer species and can help dis­ such as plants with wind-borne seeds will colonise perse rhizomes and tubers of species which tend new woodlands without corridors and immobile not to spread by seed. species, including many desirable woodland plants, • Controlled grazing is important in wood-pasture axe so slow to colonise that a corridor is unlikely to and can increase ground flora diversity in some be of any practical benefit. Corridors may be of woodland types. benefit to species with dispersal powers between these extremes but species will tend to colonise Some types of disturbance reduce the wildlife value these areas rather than use them as corridors and so of woodlands. the term linear habitat is probably more meaningful • Urban woodlands are likely to experience high to the understanding of their value. levels of disturbance from site users causing If increasing ground flora diversity is a high prior­ physical damage to vegetation through trampling, ity in a new woodland with little existing floristic vandalism and fire, and disruption to animals value, the introduction of species commonly found with noise and activity. in local woodlands and appropriate to the site type • Intensive commercial management of woodlands may be considered (Figure 8.1). It is not possible to can result in low habitat diversity and hence lim­ recreate ancient woodland flora but the introduction ited opportunities for wildlife. of woodland plants can provide food sources for • Fragile habitats such as marshy areas and sand specific invertebrates and can greatly enhance the banks are very easily damaged, and stressed habi­ attractiveness of the woodland. The introduction of tats tend to be slow to recover from damage ground flora into woodlands has only been under­ caused by disturbance. taken experimentally using container plants (costing • Severe disturbance from harvesting and extrac­ between £1200 and £4000 per ha), sowing (costing tion in wet conditions can destroy ground vegeta­ about £1900 per ha) and introduction of litter and soil from a floristically rich woodland (only under­ tion and encourage colonisation by undesirable taken when the source woodland is to be destroyed species such as heath rush. by development). These techniques are still being • Uncontrolled grazing can be extremely damaging evaluated and their success for a range of species to both woody and herbaceous flora. monitored. Success with sowing requires a good seed bed, Colonisation and introductions and weed control prior to planting or sowing has Species richness can only be increased if new been found to be beneficial in reducing subsequent species colonise the woodland. Colonisation will competition (Figure 8.2). There may be potential be greatest where there is a nearby pool of desirable for using graminicides to control invasive grasses species. Woodlands planted adjacent to existing during the establishment of introductions. Success species-rich woodlands or hedgerows will be is generally greatest with infertile substrates where colonised most quickly by the species they contain aggressive species are least likely to dominate.

125 SELECTION CRITERIA DATA REQUIRED

ALL BRITISH WOODLAND SPECIES WOODLAND SPECIES LIST IN KIRBY (1988)

Data on soils from site survey plus data from Table 4 in Rod- Is species present at moderate frequency in woodland til: NO well and Patterson (1994) and community on similar soils, ie. > 20% frequency nationally? frequency data from Rodwell (1991) YES # Is species present at moderate frequency in local woodland Plant frequency data from local wood on similar soil +111 NO community on similar soil, ie.> 40% frequency in local woods? ’

YES * Plant distribution data NO Is species native to locality? from atlas of British flora and county floras

YES

•*1" YES Is species invasive or aggressive? See for example Grime etal (1988)

NO

1-

+111 YES Is species frequent in local secondary woods? ' Plant frequency data from local secondary woods

NO

- f -

-•ill YES Is species already present on site or in adjacent wood, hedge, Botanical data from site and adjacent land or other habitat?

NO

• * i u NO Is species available in quantity required as seed/plant/bulb? Data from local suppliers

YES

'Optional, skip if no data Species to exclude Species to include

Figure 8.1 The selection of species for introduction of woodland understorey.

126 YES

Figure 8.2 Management prior to the introduction of field layer plants into secondary woodland.

127 ♦

$

Plate 8.10 Wood anemone is a shade tolerant woodland species which is difficult to introduce into new wood­ lands. Its poor powers of dispersal and exacting site requirements mean that it is largely restricted to ancient semi-natural woodlands. [40608]

Plate 8.9 Red campion is a species of woodland edges and hedgerows. Such species tend to be relatively easy to introduce into recently established woodland. [41099]

Woodland edge species such as red campion and planting to prevent the invasion of more aggressive hedge woundwort can be introduced by sowing into plants (Figure 8.2). newly planted woodlands or in glades within estab­ lished woodland, provided that a good seed bed is produced and weed competition is not too intense. Choice of tree species Most true woodland species such as primrose and wood anemone tend to establish poorly from seed, The woody species that are planted or allowed to colonise influence the conservation value and and seed is often difficult to obtain so the use of wildlife characteristics of a stand. container plants is most likely to be successful. Unless weed control is to be rigorous, the correct • The diversity and species of organisms directly level of shading from a tree canopy is needed before dependent on trees - native species tend to

128 support a greater diversity of flora and fauna than Trees become more valuable for nature conserva­ introduced species. tion as they become older and eventually decrepit. • The availability of physical niches such as holes, For example, many lichens require old bark on standing deadwood and dense foliage - these which to develop. Moreover, dying and dead wood attributes vary by tree species and include form, provides one of the greatest resources for fungal and evergreen or broadleaf, mature size, longevity and animal species in the forest. A woodland can lose wood durability. more than 20 % of its entire fauna if coarse woody debris is eliminated. In general large pieces of • The shade characteristics at the woodland floor. • The structure and degradability of leaf litter and its suitability for desirable plants and animals. • Soil characteristics in the medium and long term. • The rate of woodland development - the use of species ill suited to the site will result in poor survival, slow growth, and thus delayed achievement of the woodland environment. Where encouragement of wildlife is a primary objective and site quality allows, the species used should be native to the area and appropriate to the site type. Where it is forthcoming, natural colonisa­ tion or regeneration of these species is desirable. Planted stock should be from local seed if the woodland is in the vicinity of long established semi-natural woodlands. Elsewhere, planting stock should be at least of British origin and ideally from similar site types within the native range of the species. Rodwell and Patterson (1994) show the dis­ tribution of native woodland types in Britain and advises on species choice, woodland design and sil­ vicultural operations to create new native wood­ lands with a high conservation potential.

Stand management for wildlife Active management of woodland is required to cre­ ate and maintain a mosaic of habitats and to main­ tain the right balance of light and shade on the Plate 8.11 This venerable oak is providing a good range woodland floor (Chapter 7). of niches for wildlife. {7863)

129 deadwood tend to support a greater diversity of four to five downed trees per ha should be provided organisms than small pieces, and moist deadwood where possible. In woodland that is intensively in shade tends to support a greater diversity of used deadwood on standing trees must not be organisms than dry deadwood continually exposed allowed to become a hazard to visitors (Chapter 2, to sunlight. Urban woodlands and the law). As a rule, trees Native species which are large, long lived and retained to over-maturity should be well away from decay slowly, tend to support a greater diversity of paths and heavily used areas. organisms than non-native or short-lived trees. Of our native trees, oak is the most important provider Open space management for wildlife of deadwood due to its large size and slow rate of decay. Its prolonged period of old age allows the Along with long-term retentions, open space is an development of many niches, supporting a diverse important semi-permanent habitat within wood­ fauna. Beech, ash, hornbeam, elm and common land. In new woodlands careful planning of open lime are some of the other tree species which pro­ space can greatly enhance its potential for wildlife. vide valuable deadwood habitats. Birch, whilst Between 15 and 20% of open space is usually short-lived and rapidly decaying, can create dead- appropriate and existing areas of diverse ground wood and rot holes within 70 years (compared with flora (which are often on the most stressed parts of a minimum of 100 years for oak, ash and beech) and the site on which it is most difficult to establish supports an important specialist fauna of its own. trees) should be retained within the open space net­ Woodland management should aim to provide a work, surrounded by a buffer zone if necessary to range and succession of deadwood habitats, each of reduce the extent of future shading (Chapter 4, Site which provides particular ecological niches for spe­ assessment). If the size and shape of the site allows, cialised organisms. major conservation rides should have an east-west orientation and a total width not less than the even­ • Dead limbs on living trees. tual tree height (about 24 m is ideal) to allow sun­ • Decay columns in trunks and main branches. light to reach the ground. Sheltered glades on south • Rot holes in standing trees. facing slopes can be a particularly valuable habitat for invertebrates. Even if woodland establishment • Standing dead trees. is to be principally by planting, areas can be left for • Fallen deadwood - trunks and large branches. natural colonisation and succession to take place. It • Fallen deadwood - small branches and twigs. may be appropriate to manage these areas to encourage woody colonisation (Chapter 6). • Stumps and old coppice stools. In established woodlands one of the most impor­ • Deadwood in watercourses. tant aspects of open space management is the devel­ The long-term retention of some mature stands is opment of a graded woodland edge, from the desirable in most woodlands to provide deadwood canopy layer through a shrub and scrambler layer to habitats. In more intensively managed parts of the a rank field layer and possibly to a mown sward. It woodland, a minimum density of six to eight is also worth creating areas of bare earth as a seed mature trees, six to eight standing dead trees, and bed for pioneer species.

130 > Cutting back and thinning the woodland edge. The woodland edge should be cut back as far as The ride management prescription used in required to maintain sunlit conditions in perma­ Forestry Commission woodlands on sandy soils nent open space. Thinning of the woodland edge in east Suffolk on the south and west of glades will also improve sunlight penetration. The woodland edge should Within the Sandlings forests, soil-moisture not be cut back uniformly; scallops and bays availability limits the rate of vegetation growth, reduce the wind-tunnel effect along rides and fur­ necessitating swiping of the ride every other ther increase the diversity of habitats. In a year only. The centre of the ride (one pass of the mature woodland, bays should be at least 25 m swipe) will be cut every other year. Ride mar­ long to provide light for a range of plants over an gins (at least two passes of the swipe on each appreciable part of the growing season. Along a side) will be cut every fourth year. Ride margins ride, opposed bays allow the greatest penetration will be cut alternately so that in one operation of light, whilst well-lit glades can be formed by the centre of the ride and one margin will be cutting off the corners at ride and path intersec­ cut. Two years later the centre of the ride and tions. the other margin will be cut. Where ride-side scrub is present beyond the ride margins, this will be flailed every five years, avoiding the cut­ ting of both sides in any one year.

• Periodic cutting of shrubs and grass sward. Without cutting, these habitats are likely to devel­ op into woodland. Management is required to create a varied edge zone, in places grading through the whole spectrum of habitat types, in other places juxtaposing contrasting habitats such as the woodland edge and mown sward. Shrubs should usually be cut on a five- to seven-year cycle, and the rank field layer every two to five years. Annual cutting is needed to encourage short turf species, and ideally cuttings should be removed. Undertake cutting between October and February unless you want to discourage or encourage specific species, in which case cutting should take place at the appropriate growth phase Plate 8.12 The most valuable rides for wildlife are wide, sunny and have wide edges grading from the field layer, of the target species. Brash from shrub cutting through a shrub and scrambler zone, into the tree stand. should be removed from the site, or at least 131 relatively cheap to harvest, and the scale and layout of the woodland facilitates cost-effective manage­ ment, harvesting and extraction. Many urban woodlands will be the antithesis of this but, nonetheless, will still have the potential to yield valuable produce which can go a long way to offset the cost of management for other objectives. Stems of planking-quality hardwood timber can he worth £50 to £60 each standing, the timber value of a woodland containing 120 of these stems per ha being £6000 to £7200 per ha (1993 prices). In most cases it is possible, with sensitive management, for woodlands to yield this level of income without unduly compromising amenity, conservation or landscape objectives. Much of the information in this Section comes from Kerr and Evans (1993).

Planning for timber production Plate 8.13 Woodlands can be valuable for wildlife, Future income from timber will be heavily influ­ amenity and landscape enhancement, and still yield enced by woodland design and layout so make sure valuable timber. [ 40985 ] that the potential for timber production is not over­ looked at the planning stage. These suggestions pulled back under the trees or put into piles 50 m should be followed, where site constraints and apart. other objectives allow. • The scale of planting of any timber-producing • Providing bare ground as a seed bed. At each species should be large enough to yield saleable cutting cycle a new area of one to two square parcels from thinning and felling. For high value metres in each bay should be scraped bare of veg­ produce at least one lorry load (30 m3) of timber etation. Periodic removal of groups of shrubs will is usually required to interest a buyer, and for low also provide bare ground for colonisation. value pulp wood upwards of 100 m3 is needed. • The layout of compartments and mixtures should Woodlands for timber production not hinder felling and extraction. Potentially valuable stems can be rendered worthless if the The most profitable woodlands are generally large- cost of harvesting exceeds timber value. scale conifer plantations on fertile sites, managed as • Initial spacing of timber-producing species high forest and harvested by clear felling. Fast should be close enough to promote the growth of growth minimises the rotation length, the tree straight stems and encourage early side-branch species produce straight saleable timber which is suppression (Table 8.1).

132 Pruning and selective thinning favouring in thinning operations. Some of these trees will be removed in later thinnings but a choice Soon after the establishment phase formative prun­ of final crop trees must be maintained. Pruning ing may be needed in stands of species with low will also increase the value of those trees that are apical dominance, such as oak and beech, and those removed towards the end of the rotation. containing widely spaced trees. The objective of formative pruning is to produce a single straight stem with small branches that will die quickly at Marketing and utilising timber from urban the onset of canopy closure leaving the bole knot woodlands free. Most conifer species tend to self-prune as the Timber marketing is a neglected discipline, particu­ stand develops, but in order to produce high quality larly with urban woodlands, and as a result much broadleaved timber, side branches must continue to good quality timber is wasted and much potential be removed before they reach 5 cm diameter. After income lost. Successful timber marketing requires: this size removal becomes difficult and wounds are • a sound knowledge of the timber parcel to be large enough to be infected by rot fungi. Pruning is sold; usually done in two stages, up to 3 m prior to first thinning and up to 6 m before the second thinning. Because of the cost of pruning, concentrate effort on potential final crop trees, which is where the Selecting final crop trees greatest timber value lies. Select and mark between 200 and 350 trees per ha (Table 8.2) for pruning and The selection of final crop trees is best done in winter when the condition of the crown and upper stem can be easily seen. The following Table 8.1 Recommended minimum stocking at the criteria, in order of priority, should be used. end of the establishment phase for production of quality hardwood timber 1 Good stem form and freedom from defect on the lower 7 m of stem. Species Steins per ha with 2 Absence of deep forking in the crown. square spacing (m) 3 Good vigour.

Cherry 1100 4 Freedom from defect in upper stem and crown, e.g. squirrel damage, evidence of Ash 2500 disease. 5 Low incidence of epicormic branching Sycamore 2500 (profuse sprouting from suppressed buds on Sweet chestnut 2500 the tree stem). 6 Proximity of other selected trees - seeking an Oak 3100 even spacing of selected trees should only Beech 3100 come after the other criteria are satisfied.

133 Table 8.2 The number of potential final crop trees to be selected at first thinning, and final crop stocking of the major timber producing broadleaves

Number of potential final Normal final crop Normal crop trees to be selected stocking (stems per ha) rotation age (stems per ha) and average and average spacing (years) spacing (m) (m)

Oak 200 (7.1) 60-90 (12.9-10.5) 120-160

Beech 250 (6.3) 100-120 (10.0—9.1) 95-140

Sweet chestnut 250 (6.3) 100-190 (10.0-7.3) 60-70

Cherry 250 (6.3) 140-160 (8.5-7.9) 50-70

Ash 350 (5.3) 120-150 (9.2-8.2) 65-75

Sycamore 350 (5.3) 140-170 (8.5-7.7) 60-70

• familiarity with timber markets and how various be a factor of 10 and knowing the difference factors influence price; and between shake and drying cracks could be critical; • careful presentation of the timber parcel for sale • offer knowledge of the supply patterns from local with provision of accurate supporting documen­ woodlands, which may allow a cooperative tation for prospective buyers. approach to marketing; and The most important aspect of timber marketing is to • advise on the best method of sale, point of sale grow what the market wants. Problems with mar­ and presentation of timber to potential buyers. keting are usually most acute with low-grade mater­ Timber will either be sold standing or felled. ial which has a very limited range of low-value end Standing sales are relatively easy to organise and uses. Markets for softwoods are fairly well devel­ minimise the cost to the grower. However, prices oped in Britain and current market prices for differ­ will be lower not only because the merchant has to ent species and products are published in the bear the cost of harvesting, but also, with forestry press. This is not the case for hardwoods broadleaves, because there remains an element of and it may be worth using a professional consultant uncertainty over timber quality. For this reason, who will be able to: high quality hardwoods are usually sold felled to • grade timber and ensure that the best market allow inspection for flaws and rot on the cut log prices are obtained: for example, the price differ­ ends. Low-grade broadleaves and conifers are ential between second quality and veneer oak can generally sold standing.

134 Plate 8.14 Timber marketing is a neglected discipline which often results in the potential for income from timber not being realised.

135 Broadleaves should preferably be felled from bench. The proximity of customers offers good autumn to early spring, before the sap starts to rise. market potential for firewood and wood-chips (for Ash, beech, sycamore and cherry will start to footpaths, children’s play areas, equestrian surfaces, degrade if left at ride-side for more than six weeks, fuel, compost and mulching). and so must be sold promptly; oak and sweet chest­ nut form heartwood and so are much more durable. Poplars for timber Conifers can be felled throughout the year as their On large, fertile sites poplars are the most profitable resin content gives them some resistance to forestry option. Furthermore, woodland can be cre­ degrade. However, despatch should generally be ated quickly, with a canopy height of 6 m after two within six weeks of felling, and within two weeks growing seasons being quite possible. for pine which is vulnerable to blue-stain fungi. Much produce from urban woodlands will be of low grade or in small lots. However, with energetic marketing there is great potential in urban areas for finding high-value markets. Niche markets (such as specialist fencing, rustic work, bollards, plant tubs, play equipment, footpath edgings, tree stakes and guards, gates, seats and benches) may be better exploited by converting roundwood into the dimen­ sions required before sale. This can be done through a local saw-mill or with a mobile saw-

Plate 8.15 With energetic marketing there is great poten­ Plate 8.16 This 21-year-old crop of poplar is approaching tial in urban areas for finding high value niche markets. harvestable size. [3905]

136 To achieve good growth rates the most produc­ tive poplar clones require deep, fertile, freely rootable soils of pH 5.0 to 7.0, with ample and continuous supplies of water, but freedom from waterlogging. For the production of veneer quality timber, two metre sets (Chapter 5, Planting stock quality and type) of an approved clone should be planted at 8.0 x 8.0 m spacing (156 per ha) so that one third of their length is below the surface. Spot weed control for two to three years after planting is critical for the achievement of good early growth rates. Pruning to achieve 6 to 7.5 m of clean stem is needed to attract the premium paid for high quality knot-free timber. Fast growing cultivars on prime sites can reach veneer log size in about 20 years. Even on poorer quality sites, poplars planted as 25 cm cuttings at 3.0 x 3.0 m spacing can be used for rapid screening and wood production.

Short rotation coppice Plate 8.17 Short rotation coppice using poplars and willows can offer landscape and amenity benefits as Short rotation coppice is loosely defined as coppice well as a high yield of wood-chips. [40973) worked on a cycle of less than 10 years. There are several traditional forms of short rotation coppice including hazel for hurdles and thatching spars, Nationally, energy production is seen as the prin­ sweet chestnut for walking sticks, and osiers for ciple market for short rotation coppice, but in urban woven baskets. Of more potential in the urban areas the diverse potential uses for wood-chips offer environment is short rotation coppice of poplar and the possibility of breaking the ‘no market, no crop: willow. These are easy to establish using 25 cm no crop, no market’ trap being experienced else­ cuttings (Chapter 5, Planting stock quality and type) where due to the scale of production required for and suitable clones are available for most site types. viable energy coppice production. With careful Planting densities of 10 000 per ha for willow and planning poplars and willows can quickly create 7000 per ha for poplar are recommended for maxi­ landscape impact, and provide shelter, screening mum yield. On the best sites, yields of 10 to 15 dry and a conducive backdrop for recreation and ameni­ tonnes per ha per year may be expected with cop­ ty uses. Varying the layout design, choice of clone picing periods of between two and five years, and cutting cycle offers many opportunities for depending on the harvesting system used and on combining sensitive design with production capa­ site and clone productivity. bility. On difficult sites tough poplars (for example,

137 Populus alba ‘Racket’) and willows (for example, Douglass, R. W. (1969). Forest recreation. Pergamon Salix x dasyclados) can be used to create a wood­ Press, Oxford. land skeleton (Chapter 5, Species mixtures), nursing Ferris-Kaan, R., Lonsdale, D. and Winter, T. (1993). plots of more sensitive species which will eventual­ The conservation management of deadwood in ly form the character of the woodland. Whilst not forests. Research Information Note 241. Forestry as valuable for wildlife as native coppice, short Commission, Edinburgh. rotation coppice of poplar and willow can be con­ Forestry and British Timber is a monthly trade mag­ siderably more valuable than intensively farmed azine that regularly publishes timber auction prices. agricultural land or urban green-space because of its Forestry Authority (1992). Forest recreation guide­ structural diversity and the relatively low intensity lines. HMSO, London. of management. Forestry Authority (Scotland) (unpublished). Community woodlands in Scotland: a manual on For more information the presentation of community woodlands. Portcullis House, 21 India St, Glasgow, G2 4PL. Publications (0141) 248 3931. Arboricultural Association (1990). Amenity valua­ Forestry Commission (1989). Marketing for small tion of trees and woodlands. Ampfield House, woodlands: county lists of mills, merchants and Romsey, Hampshire, S051 9PA. contractors. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. Carter, C. I. and Anderson, M. A. (1987). Forestry Commission (1990). Forest nature Enhancement of lowland forest ridesides and road­ conservation guidelines. HMSO, London. sides to benefit wild plants and butterflies. Research Forestry Commission (1991). Community woodland Information Note 126. Forestry Commission, design guidelines. HMSO, London. Edinburgh. Forestry Commission (1994). The management of Countryside Commission (1981). Informal country­ semi-natural woodlands. Forestry Practice Guides side recreation for disabled people. Advice Series 1 to 8. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. 15. Countryside Commission, 19—23 Albert Road, Forests, woodlands and people’s preferences. In Manchester, M l9 2EQ. preparation, by T. Lee, for the Forestry Commission, Chambers, K. (1990). Design issues relating to fear Edinburgh. in parks and woodlands. In: Advice manual for the Francis, J. L. and Morton, A. J. (1992). The estab­ preparation of a community forest plan. lishment of ground flora species in recently planted Countryside Commission, 19-23 Albert Road, woodland. In: Aspects of Applied Biology 29: Manchester, M l9 2EQ. Vegetation management in forestry, amenity and Department of Transport (1993). The wildflower conservation areas. Association of Applied Biology, handbook. Design manual for roads and bridges. HRI, Wellesbourne, Warwick, CV35 9EF. Volume 10, section 4, part 1: HA 67/93. Head of Grime, J. P., Hodgson, J. G. and Hunt, R. (1988). Highways Policy and Environment Division, DoT, Comparative plant ecology. Unwin Hyman Ltd, 2 Marsham Street, London, SWlP 3EB. London.

138 Hibberd, B. G. (1991). Forestry practice. Forestry Ratcliffe, P. R. (1993). Biodiversity in Britain’s Commission Handbook 6. HMSO, London. forests. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. The Institute of Chartered Foresters.List of mem ­ Richards, G. E. (ed) (1992). Wood energy and the bers in consultancy practice. 7 A St. Colme Street, environment. Energy Technology Support Unit, Edinburgh, EH3 6AA. (0131) 225 2705. DTI, Harwell Laboratories, Oxfordshire, O Xll ORA. Jobling, J. (1990). Poplars for wood production and Rodwell, J.S. (ed.) (1991). British plant communities. amenity. Forestry Commission Bulletin 92. HMSO, Volume 1: Woodlands and scrub. Cambridge London. University Press. Kerr, G. and Evans, J. (1993). Growing broadleaves Rodwell, J. and Patterson, G. (1994). Creating new for timber. Forestry Commission Handbook 9. native woodlands. Forestry Commission Bulletin HMSO, London. 112. HMSO, London. Kirby, K. J. (1988). A woodland survey handbook. Walshe, P. (1990). Designing community forests for Research and Survey in Nature Conservation 11. the less able. In: Advice manual for the preparation Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough. of a community forest plan. Countryside Potter, C. J., Nixon, C. J. and Gibbs, J. N. (1990). Commission, 19-23 Albert Road, Manchester, The introduction of improved poplar clones from M19 2EQ. Belgium. Research Information Note 181. Forestry Willis, F. K. and Benson, J. F. (1989). Recreational Commission, Edinburgh. value of forests. Forestry, 62(6), 93-110.

139 9 Freckland Wood: case study of a new woodland

This Chapter is a case study of a new 20 ha wood­ Getting the ball rolling land on a colliery spoil mound (Plate 9.1) owned by Nottinghamshire County Council and called The process of woodland creation started with a site Freckland Wood. It is being established by meeting between the County Council Forestry Nottinghamshire County Council in conjunction Officer and a Forestry Authority urban forester. with the Forestry Authority to serve as a demonstra­ The objective of the meeting was to discuss the ben­ tion woodland within the Greenwood Community efits that woodland planting might bring to the site Forest. Although many urban woodlands will be and the locality, and to consider the constraints and smaller the approach to woodland creation should opportunities provided by the site. The initial be the same. meeting was kept small to enable focused discus­

Plate 9.1 Newstead Tip across Newstead village.

-

■ m i l ' 140 sion of the limitations imposed by the site, the Draft specification: the basis for availability of necessary expertise and resources, consultation and the division of responsibilities. The site was assessed by the County Forestry The draft specification was the basis for initial con­ Officer who was familiar with the chemical and sultation with interested parties and relevant physical characteristics of the substrate, having specialists: undertaken schemes on other colliery spoil mounds in the area. Nonetheless, analyses of pH, nitrate • the Greenwood Community Forest project team nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and (community forest context, public consultation); conductivity were undertaken to assess the suitabil­ • Nottinghamshire County Council officials ity of the substrate as a growing medium. (authority and finance to proceed); Inspection pits were dug across the site to look at • Forestry Authority officials (authority and finance the physical condition of the substrate down to proceed); through the profile. • Forestry Authority Woodland Grant Scheme The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and officer (grant aid); threats inherent in the site were marked on a site • Nottinghamshire County Council landscape plan (Figure 9.1) which provided information to architect and ecologist (design issues and existing draft the specification. wildlife value);

141 fit o t r FasM Jutrfc ^ C tm r t /

flaurfL teteK /.izr £x/srtdi \fete77fl7cti m'M iosrm c Hcta ttatlXS Cow WJUffL ftom faiMtUNK &i (jfi/K 1&? lf£ S/7£ 7 2 > M M C)SlM)UOM£ 'Th£ SurabuvaiuC L -,

LO a/c 1//CUS ftXS/A ffomI L/NJTyI Figure 9.1 By detailing features, strengths, opportunities and potential problems on a site map, a design can be built up around these.

142 • Forestry Authority wildlife and conservation • Newstead Residents’ Association officer (wildlife potential). • Newstead Parish Council The second draft incorporated recommendations • Newstead School from these parties, after first reconciling their com­ • local youth and community interests ments with each other and with the silvicultural • coalfield development limitations inherent in the site. The second draft of • local councillors the specification was then used as the basis for: • particularly interested residents • production of the landscape design plan; • Greenwood project team • liaison with local residents; • Nottinghamshire County Council Countryside • application for grant aid under the Forestry Team Authority Woodland Grant Scheme; and • Gedling Borough Council (planning officer). • consultation with the National Rivers Authority and English Nature about a spring and silt pond on site, and an adjacent site of special scientific interest.

The landscape design plan

Having discussed the design priorities for the site with those involved, a Forestry Authority landscape architect prepared the landscape design for the site (Figure 9.2). Photographs of this prominent site taken from major viewpoints were used to deter­ mine how the design would fit into the landscape (Figure 9.3). The principal paths through the site were designed to: • take people where they want to go; • give walkers a diversity of experiences on the site; and • provide a choice of routes.

Liaison with local residents

A liaison meeting was organised by the Community Link Officer for the Greenwood Community Forest project. Represented at the meeting were: Figure 9.2 The final landscape design plan.

143 /fmRrn lAzch__ j Y/ 9££L (jo/¥*C£. amc Hkh fo t e s r

Figure 9.3 Consideration must be given to the impact that a woodland will have in the landscape. This view of the site from the east is seen from the drive of Newstead Abbey, a popular leisure destination.

144 yt/As ftfiefl.. fitc h J Mzii m// fbfiar,

14^ Following a very positive initial meeting, where the The final specification plan was well received, minor amendments were made to the specification and a series of three fur­ As a result of the second phase of consultation the ther meetings were arranged to discuss the future final specification was produced, including plans management and use of the site. A letter was sent for technical demonstration plots to be established to the bodies listed above outlining the form of continuing consultation. in the wood.

D e a r

re: Community Consultation for the Community Forest: Newstead Village/Freckland Wood

After provisional discussions with various comm unity members in Newstead Village we are now at a stage where some loose but reasonably coordinated ‘visions’ need to be pul on paper as part of the recom m enda­ tions for com m unity forest creation in this area.

To this end I would like to invite you to take part in a working group which w ill meet on 3 occasions to pul some proposals together for local authorities and landowners to consider. Details of the sessions are e n c l o s e d .

At the moment the land available includes the newly planted ‘Freckland W ood’ (the former south-facing colliery tip) and a strip of land adjacent to this by the railw ay track. We acknowledge that villagers will want to talk about other developments in and around the village and hopefully we can do this within the context of the Community Forest.

It must be recognised however that these meetings are a m echanism for putting ‘visions’ on paper for consid­ eration. No final decisions can be made at this stage, nor can the community forest team make promises to im plem ent all of the visions. W e do prom ise to:

• listen to your views and ideas; • advise, as best we can, on the feasibility of these ideas and to make recom m endations for their im plem en­ t a tio n ; • com m unicate these views to local authorities and landowners as part of the comm unity consultation and involvem ent process. It must also be emphasised that these sessions are not meant to be ‘public meetings’. They are working group sessions and as such require a relatively small but consistent team attendance.

To ensure that it is a ‘task’ group rather than a ‘discussion’ group, I would like to keep the number under 25. A provisional attendee list is enclosed. Apart from those already named there could be room for another 9 r e s id e n t s .

Local people, however, may wish to organise a public meeting to discuss visions amongst them selves and to reach some consensus of ideas. Alternatively, the Newstead Village Newsletter may be an appropriate channel to encourage debate and discussion. I would be very grateful if you could let m e know if you are able to take part in the working group or if you would prefer to send another (named) representative. I think the meetings will be very positive and creative and will provide a chance for people to speak openly and candidly about their visions and to work together to make this a real Community Forest. I look forward to hearing from you and thank you for your time.

Yours sincerely

146 Specification for urban woodland on Newstead Tip

N a m e : Freckland Wood

Project Leaders: Martin Glynn for Nottinghamshire County Council Simon Hodge for the Forestry Authority

Background: The value of demonstrating visually the importance of good silvicultural practice in tree establishment has been shown by the network of 17 demonstration areas throughout the country. With the advent of community forest initiatives on the periphery of the major urban areas of England, new collaborative opportunities have arisen to demonstrate the best and most cost-effective means of establishing urban woodland on often difficult sites.

Objectives: 1. To demonstrate to those involved in the community forests the detail and effect of objective based woodland planning, and good silvicultural practice based on recent research results. 2. To gain experience and information on the establishment of trees on Nottinghamshire coal spoils in densely populat­ ed areas. 3. To create an attractive woodland with the following hierarchy of objectives: a. informal recreation and amenity; c. wood production for local utilisation; b. landscape enhancement; d. enhancement of local wildlife value.

Site description: The site is a distinctive, and obviously man made, mound of 18.8 ha in extent with a NNE/SSW axis. It was a spoil tip from Newstead Colliery which was restored in the early 1970s with only minimal regrading. The tip is about 25 m in height, rectangular in shape and extremely prominent in the landscape (and is a distinct land form on the 1:50 000 OS map). The tip was not capped with topsoil and the substrate into which trees will be planted is a compacted mixture of blue clay and shale. Substrate chemistry is not a severe constraint to tree establishment on this site. The main problem is severe soil compaction and limited soil moisture availability during the growing season.

pH P K Mg conductivity nitrate N mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 p S mg/1

NE quadrant 6.9 3 (0) 137 (2) 463 (6) 2060 (0) 7 (0) NW quadrant 6.0 5 (0) 116 (1) 503 (6) 2160 (0) 15(0) SW quadrant 6.5 3 (0) 193 (2) 441 (6) 2070 (0) 9 (0) SE quadrant 7.3 3 (0) 153 (2) 440 (6) 2230 (1) 11 (0)

Figures in brackets are ADAS indices.

continued

147 continued The area is covered by well-established rough grassland which has been grazed until recently. Hedgerows and trees have been successfully established around the periphery of the site about 10 to 15 years ago. A hedgerow planted across the site about 10 years ago is patchy and slow growing. This is likely to be due to lack of weed control as much as inherent site problems. Within the site, on the NE side, is a spring and a derelict brick silt pond. This feature will be utilised as a silt pond of industrial archaeological interest, or regraded as a more naturalistic pond for conservation and passive recreation. Although fallow deer are present nearby, they are not likely to be a problem during establishment. Rabbits, hares and voles are likely to be the main damaging pests. On the east side, the land adjoins farmland and woodland of the Newstead Abbey Estate. To the north is a more recently restored colliery tip. To the west and south is derelict colliery and railway land. The village of Newstead is only 500 m away. Newstead Abbey (owned by Nottinghamshire City Council) is a local tourist attraction and recreational area. The Local Authority intends to fund a light railway along one of the many local derelict railway lines. This will run right by the Newstead Tip site to Mansfield. It is intended mainly for commuter and recreational use. A long distance footpath known as the Robin Hood Way runs nearby, and there is potential for its extension to the Newstead Tip site and beyond to link in with other existing footpath networks. A large local population will probably make good use of the site. This could lead to problems of vandalism, although it tends not to be a severe problem in this locality. The land is owned by Nottinghamshire County Council. The site will be planted according to current recommendations of best practice, in terms of landscape design and conser­ vation value enhancement, as well as silviculture. Various live demonstrations of practical silviculture will be estab­ lished within the woodland. Layout and woodland types: Pending the results of soil survey and analysis, it is proposed that the 18.8 ha be broadly divided as follows:

1. Predominantly hazel coppice 3.5 ha 5. Predominantly red oak high forest 1.0 ha 2. Predominantly English oak/ash/hazel high forest 1.5 ha 6. Demonstrations 1.0 ha 3. Predominantly hybrid larch high forest 5.0 ha 7. Open space 3.8 ha 4. Predominantly red oak coppice 3.0 ha 1. Predominantly hazel coppice: The aim for this area will be to create hazel coppice with 1500 stools/ha. Planting will be with 30% grey alder in group mixture to act as a nurse and a backup. Where hazel establishment is successful, alder will be removed by year 10. This area will provide hazel poles on a 6 to 10 year rotation for hurdles, bean poles, thatching spars, etc. (see Forestry Commission Bulletin 27, Utilization of hazel coppice) which would have potential to be marketed locally. Other new or existing areas of hazel in the locality could be organised to create a viable working circle. Planting will be at 1.8 m spac­ ing (3000/ha). 5250 hazel 50% 315 English oak 03% 3150 common alder 30% 210 hawthorn 02% 1050 field maple 10% 210 goat willow 02% 315 silver birch 03%

co n tin u ed

148 continued 2. Predominantly English oak/ash/hazel high forest: This woodland type corresponds broadly with NVC semi-natural woodland category W8 with pedunculate oak, hazel and ash, which is characteristic of the area. This area will be managed to produce oak and ash high forest. Planting will be at 1.8 m spacing (3000/ha); 30% grey alder in group mixture will act as a nurse and a backup. Where oak/ash/hazel establishment is successful, alder will be removed by year 10. 1350 English oak 30% 320 field maple 07% 1350 common alder 30% 90 silver birch 02% 900 ash 20% 90 hawthorn 02% 320 hazel 07% 90 goat willow 02%

3. Predominantly hybrid larch high forest: Hybrid larch for production of valuable rustic poles at thinning and sawlogs at maturity. 30% grey alder in group mix- ture will act as a nurse and a backup. Where larch establishment is successful, alder will be removed by year 10. Planting will be at 1.8 m spacing (3000/ha). 12 000 hybrid larch 80% 750 silver birch 05% 1500 grey alder 10% 750 aspen 05%

4. Predominantly red oak coppice: Predominantly red oak coppice on the poorer soils; 30% grey alder in group mixture will act as a nurse and a backup. Where red oak establishment is successful, alder will be removed by year 10. Red oak is fast growing, produces good quality coppice woodland and is notable for its striking autumn colour. 4500 red oak 50% 450 silver birch 05% 2700 grey alder 30% 270 rowan 03% 900 field maple 10% 180 hawthorn 02%

5. Predominantly red oak high forest: Red oak high forest on the poorer soils. This species will be favoured to create the impact that a simple forest structure can have (e.g. mature Chiltern beechwoods). Red oak is fast growing, produces good quality timber and is notable for its striking autumn colour; 30% grey alder in group mixture will act as a nurse and a backup. Where red oak establishment is successful, alder will be removed by year 10. 1500 red oak 50% 150 silver birch 05% 900 grey alder 30% 90 rowan 03% 300 field maple 10% 60 hawthorn 02%

6. Demonstrations: There will be three types of demonstration planted within the woodland, oak alder Establishment techniques. 13 x 13 m plots (0.3 ha total) showing the effect of: 150 150 a. Fertiliser/sewage sludge x weed control (fert/weed; fert/no weed; sludge/weed; sludge/ no weed; weed; control). Plots of 25 English oak and 25 grey alder at 1.8 x 1.8 m spacing.

co n tin u ed

149 continued 100 100 b. Ground preparation x weed control (rip/weed; rip/no weed; no rip/weed; control). Plots of 25 English oak and 25 grey alder at 1.8 x 1.8 m spacing, c. Using different English oak stock types and tree protection (18 275-300 cm standards with stakes at 3.0 x 3.0 m spacing; 33 120-180 cm whips at 2.2 x 2.2 m spacing; 33 40-60 cm undercuts in 1.2 m treeshelters at 2.2 x 2.2 m spacing; 50 40-60 cm undercuts at 1.8 x 1.8 m spacing; 50 40-60 cm cell-grown plants at 1.8 x 1.8 m spacing; direct sowing of acorns at 10 000/ha into rotovated ground [170 acorns in the 13 x 13 m plot], as recommended in Forestry Commission Bulletin 62).

oak larch Silvicultural systems. 32 x 32 m plots (0.3 ha total). 110 a. English oak in 1.2 m treeshelters at 3.0 x 3.0 m spacing. 700 b. English oak at 1.2 x 1.2 m spacing. 160 c. Two row English oak, two row European larch at 1.8 m spacing.

Objective led community woodlands. Community woodlands will exist to serve the needs of the community. New types of woodland will have a part to play in fulfilling specific com­ munity oriented objectives. 32 x 32 m plots (0.3 ha total). a. Short rotation coppice using S a lix x d a sycla d os and Populus trichocarpa x d eltoides ‘Beaupre’ for biomass production and rapid enhancement of land amenity value. Establish at 1.0 x 1.0 m over 70% of the plot area. b. ‘Fruits of the forest’ woodland: establishing a woodland for edible fruits and nuts. Overstorey tree species may include walnut, sweet chestnut, black mulberry and wild cherry, which will be at a final stocking of 70/ha. Understorey species may include hazel, blackthorn, damson, elder and crab apple, which will be at a final stocking of 1000/ha. A ground vegetation layer, designed for easy access, would be predominant­ ly blackberry, but may include raspberries, currants and gooseberries. c. Specialist wood production on difficult sites, e.g. Laburnum alpinum and R o b in ia pseudoacacia coppice and Prunus avium standards, for production of sought after laburnum turnery wood and valuable cherry stems, as well as a dramatic flowering spectacle in the spring. Planted at 1.8 x 1.8 m spacing; 35% cherry, 25% laburnum, 40% robinia.

7. Open space: Open space will be concentrated, to some extent, on the top of the Newstead Tip to maintain views of the surrounding countryside. Glades and rides will be laid out and managed to maximise the amenity value of the wood as well as its potential for wildlife. The layout of rides should create dispersal corridors for birds, mammals and invertebrates. Most rides should be planned at a width at least equal to the eventual height of the trees. In order to create a more graded edge to rides, where feasible, linear strips of coppice will be established at ride margins. Where possible, irregularly spaced glades and bays, preferably south facing, will be incorporated into the ride system as a means of avoiding a wind-tunnel effect (detrimental to butterflies and other invertebrates) and reducing visual uniformity. The larger unplanted areas will be kept free of ground preparation in order to maintain existing vegetation cover and to help define them during the early establishment phase.

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150 co n tin u ed Prescription for establishment: The basic prescription for the site is: 1. Prepare site with McLarty mounder/wing-tine ripper to a depth of 0.6 m. Ripping oblique to contours. 2. Rabbit fence. Remove or upgrade existing fences where necessary. Erect new fences as required. 3. Notch plant at 1.8 m2 (3000 trees/ha). Use the best quality stock and plant soon after delivery according to an agreed design. Unless otherwise specified, all stock will be 40-80 cm (transplants, undercut or cell grown). 4. Undertake meticulous weed control on1.0 m2 spots at the base of each tree for5 years using approved herbicides. 5. Slow release fertiliser in April of second season (and, if necessary, subsequent seasons) according to the needs of the site as indicated by soil analysis. 6. Beat up to planting density at the end of the first and second year andthereafter if plant density falls below 2222/ha. 7. Mow rides and ‘fire breaks’ as necessary.

T im in g: By September end: By December end: apply sewage sludge to relevant plots plant rabbit fence initial weed with propyzamide. peg out rip.

Responsibilities: Nottinghamshire County Council will: • prepare draft landscape design proposals; • undertake and finance necessary soil survey and analysis; • undertake and finance (through Forestry Commission grants) the laying out, planting and maintenance of the wood­ land according to the agreed plan of operations; • finance the materials required for the demonstration plots (as these will be included in the area approved for grant aid); • undertake an annual beat up survey for the main part of the site.

The Forestry Authority will: • assist with the preparation of plans and specifications for design and implementation of the scheme, involving Forestry Authority landscape architects and ecologists as necessary; • organise, lay out, supervise and undertake the establishment and maintenance of demonstration plots for 5 years; • advise on continued maintenance, management and development of the site; • assess survival, height and diameter of all demonstration plots annually; • keep a professional photographic record of the development of the site.

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151 continued

Resource requirement: 40-80 cm (transplants, undercut or cell grown): 275-300 cm standards (with stakes): L a rix x eu rolepis 12 000 Quercus robur 18 Quercus rubra 6 000 Corylus avellena 5 600 120-180 cm whips: Alnus incana 5 350 Quercus robur 33 A ln u s g lutino sa 4 500 Quercus robur 2 960 40-60 cm cell grown plants: Acer campestre 2 570 Quercus robur 50 Betula pendula 1 760 Fraxinus excelsior 900 Acorns: Populus tremula 750 Quercus robur 200 Crataegus monogyna 540 Sorbus aucuparia 360 Rooted cuttings: Salix caprea 300 Salix x dasyclados 400 Laburnum alpinum 220 Populus trichocarpa x deltoides ‘Beaupre’ 320 Prunus avium 110 Rabbit and stock proof fencing; length to be determined. Prunus spinosa 20 Wing-tine ripping for 15.0 ha. Juglans regia 10 Herbicide and fertiliser as necessary. Castanea sativa 10 Morus nigra 10 Sambucus nigra 10 Prunus domestica 10 Malus sylvestris 10 Rubus spp., Ribes spp. (numbers to be determined)

Date of review meeting for preparation of first management plan: May 1998.

L o catio n : Newstead, Nottinghamshire. SK527 525.

W ritten by: S. Hodge 10/02/92.

Approved by: Principal Silviculturist (for the Forestry Authority). Head of Planning and Economic Development (for Nottinghamshire County Council).

Distribution: Forestry Authority (England) office Countryside Commission Nottinghamshire County Council (Planning and Economic Development) Greenwood Community Forest Forestry Authority Forester

152 Implementation The tree establishment contract

There were several parties involved with imple­ The tree establishment contract was prepared on mentation and clear and regular communication the basis of the specification and landscape design, was essential to translate the specification and and was let by multiple tender well before the dead­ design into woodland on the ground. lines for commencement of work. Site meetings • Nottinghamshire County Council — preparation of were held to ensure that instructions and arrange­ the tree planting and maintenance contract; ments were understood. Regular liaison took place initial grass cutting over the whole site; applica­ during the ground preparation, laying out and tion of phosphate over the whole site; organisa­ planting operations. Implementation of the layout tion of the ground preparation contract. was aided by marker posts put on site at the loca­ tion of grid intersects on the site plan. The main • The Forestry Authority - establishment and contract covered planting and early maintenance maintenance of one hectare of demonstrations; ensuring that any initial losses are replaced at the specialists at the University of Central England’s contractor’s expense. School of Landscape helped to create the ‘fruits of the forest’ area. • Contractors - a contract for ground preparation Plate 9.2 a & b A contract was let for a combined and a more complex contract for the planting and ripping/mounding operation to provide suitable planting early maintenance of the scheme were let. positions.

153 Conditions of contract for the establishment of woodland on Newstead Tip

W ork section 1: Plants and plant handling GENERAL: Planting shall be carried out in such a manner as to ensure that the plants can establish and develop success­ fully. SUPPLY OF PLANTS: Plants shall be supplied from the nurseries listed. The nursery(ies) shall be informed that the stock is required for Nottinghamshire County Council Department of Planning and Economic Development. QUALITY OF PLANTS: All plants shall meet the Specification and BS 3936 Part 1 Nursery Stock and Part 4 Forest Transplants and be certified British grown. INSPECTION OF PLANTS: The Contractor shall notify the Supervising Officer of the numbers, species and sizes of plants to be supplied from each nursery at least two weeks before planting operations are to start. The Contractor shall, when requested, make arrangements for the Supervising Officer to inspect the plants at the nurseries before, during or after lifting for approval before dispatch. BUNDLING: Bundles of bare-rooted plants shall consist of graded plants of one species with all shoots facing the same direction. Bundles shall contain equal numbers of plants. Any part bundles shall be clearly marked. Bundles shall be tied securely with supple material which will not, by its nature or tension, cause damage to the plants. LABELLING: Each individual or plant bundle, bag or lot of one species of plants shall be labelled by the supplier with a securely attached durable printed label. The PLANT NAME, SIZE and QUANTITY in the bundle or bag, and the TOTAL QUANTITY in the consignment shall be clearly and durably displayed on the label together with the SUPPLIER’S NAME. Forestry species specified under the EEC Forest Reproductive Materials Regulations (1977) shall be labelled in accordance with those Regulations. PACKAGING: Bare-root plants shall be entirely enclosed in plastic film bags (250 gauge minimum) securely tied at the top. Plants shall be loosely bundled within the bag, which shall be of an adequate size. All shoots must face in the same direction so that roots and shoots are not in contact. Container-grown plants will not normally receive additional pack­ aging, but degradable pots shall be enclosed in polythene film (minimum 250 mm gauge) and firmly secured, as will cell- grown plants not supplied in the cell. TRANSPORT: On open lorries, all plants shall be loaded, stacked and unloaded in such a way that breakage or crushing by the weight of plants above, or the security ropes will not occur. The consignment shall be completely and firmly cov­ ered with opaque sheeting in such a way that there is the minimum draught under the sheet from the direction of travel. Plants in polythene bags shall be sheeted so that they are shaded from direct sunlight. In closed lorries or containers, all plant material shall be loaded in such a way that breakage or crushing by the weight of plants above is avoided during loading, transit and unloading. Where transport is entrusted to others, not under the control of the supplier or the pur­ chaser, consignments shall be clearly addressed, in manageable units, securely crated or packaged to withstand mechani­ cal damage. HANDLING OF PLANTS: The Contractor shall ensure that plant handling complies with the ‘Recommendations for Plant Handling - from Lifting until Delivery to Site’ in 'Plant handling’ published by the Committee for Plant Supply and Establishment 1985. The Contractor shall give the Supervising Officer at least 2 working days notice before planting so that each batch of plants can be inspected before use. Handle plants carefully to reduce as far as possible injury by mechanical shock and crushing.

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154 c o n tin u e d Work section 2: Planting SITE PREPARATION: All rubbish and debris shall be removed from site to tip. SETTING OUT: Each compartment shall be marked out with clearly visible markers at 10 m intervals and every change of direction for approval by the Supervising Officer. The markers shall be removed on completion of the planting. PLANTING SEASON: All planting is to be completed by 31 December 1992. Subsequent beating up shall be completed by 1 February of the relevant year. PLANTING CONDITIONS: Planting shall only be carried out in suitable conditions avoiding periods when the site is waterlogged, when snow is lying or when the ground is frozen. When there is a frosted crust no deeper than 25 mm this may be screefed off and shall then be broken up and disposed of by distribution around each pit. PLANT SPACING: All plants shall be planted at 1.8 m x 1.8 m spacings. PLANTING PATTERN: This shall be groups of at least 9 and no more than 16 of each species evenly spaced throughout the plot, unless otherwise shown on the drawings. FORMATIVE PRUNING: All containers and non-degradable wrapping shall be removed immediately prior to planting. Dead and damaged roots and stems shall be cut back cleanly to the nearest growth point. Additional pruning shall be carried out to ensure the plant has a well balanced form typical of the species. Where appropriate the plant shall have a dominant central leading shoot. Plants with major damage shall be rejected. PLANTING: Plants shall be planted vertically into a L or T notch to the depth of the root collar. The roots shall be well spread and firmed after planting. The exact planting position relative to the mound/rip line will be determined on site once ripping is completed. The roots of bare-rooted plants shall be evenly spread. Container medium shall be lightly disturbed and any tightly matted roots teased out.

Work section 3: Fencing RABBIT FENCING: The site has been previously rabbit fenced. This shall be inspected by the contractor and, prior to planting, upgraded to his satisfaction to ensure total exclusion of rabbits. RABBIT PROOF GATE: Prior to planting a rabbit proof gate will be erected at the main site entrance, to drawing N o. . Additional permanent fencing (to the same standard as existing fencing) shall be erected between the gateposts and exist­ ing fence strainers as necessary. STILES: Stiles to drawing N o. will be erected at the points indicated by the Supervising Officer. These shall be per­ manently rabbit proofed. RABBIT CONTROL: The contractor shall undertake a humane rabbit control programme, the details of which shall be agreed with the supervising office, before any planting works on the site commence. N.B. In the event of non-compliance with any of the above clauses, the contractor shall be held responsible for all rabbit damage to plant material.

Work section 4: Establishment maintenance of forestry areas MAINTENANCE - GENERAL: The Contractor shall maintain all areas of work during the 30 months following practical completion. A programme of maintenance visits shall be agreed with the Supervising Officer at the commencement of the maintenance period. Failure to do this may result in non-payment for works undertaken. The Supervising Officer will require prior notification of each maintenance visit to the site. Failure to give this notification may result in non­ payment to the Contractor for any items claimed to have been carried out.

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155 continued LEAFING OUT INSPECTION: The Supervising Officer will carry out a leafing out inspection during June. Plant material which has not leafed out shall be replaced by the Contractor entirely at his own cost, during the plant replacement opera­ tions. The Supervising Officer shall notify the Contractor in writing of the extent of plant losses at the leafing out stage. HERBICIDE TREATMENTS - GENERAL: Chemicals and products subject to the provisions of the Poisons Act 1972, Poisons List Order 1982 and the Poison Rules 1982 shall only be used with approval from the Supervising Officer. The use of chemicals marketed in the UK which are included in the Priority Red List at any time during the duration of the contract, are not permitted to be used within the contract. Comply with the Approved Code of Practice: The Safe Use of Pesticides for Non-Agricultural Purposes. HSE, HMSO (1991). Observe sections I and II of Draft Code of Good Agricultural Practice for the Protection of Water. MAFF, HMSO (1991). The Supervising Officer will require the neces­ sary proof of training of all pesticide operators/users, and the appropriate Certificates shall be presented to the Supervising Officer at the commencement of the Contract Period. WEED CONTROL: From the 31 March following initial planting, establish and maintain a 90% vegetation free ring 1000 mm diameter centred on each plant or the entire area of mulch for the duration of the contract period. The herbicide(s) and method of application shall be approved by the Supervising Officer before work starts. CONTROL OF NOXIOUS WEEDS: All injurious weeds as defined by the Weeds Act 1959 plus mugwort and other nox­ ious weeds as directed by the Supervising Officer shall be cut/sprayed before seeding commences. The herbicide, method and timing of application shall be agreed with the Supervising Officer before work starts. GENERAL GRASS CUTTING: Grass cutting shall be carried out when ground and weather conditions are favourable. All grass shall be effectively mown to a height of 100 mm. FERTILISING: During April of the second growing season apply fertiliser, of a formulation and at a rate agreed with the Supervising Officer, around each tree. REMOVAL OF LITTER: During each maintenance visit to the site all litter which has accumulated on the site shall be picked up and removed off site to tip. PRUNING: During each maintenance visit to the site all plant material shall be inspected and checked for damage to branches, shoots and/or bark. All dead and/or damaged branches/shoots and epicormic growth shall be cleanly cut back to sound undamaged wood, using secateurs or pruning saws as appropriate. The wounds to bark shall have the ragged ends trimmed using a sharp knife. In the case of shrub material, deadwood and suckers shall be removed at the base of the plant, unless otherwise directed. The Contractor shall allow in his rates for the cutting back of oversized plant material or certain types of shrubs in early spring, to encourage bushiness. All prunings/trimmings shall be removed off site to tip. PLANT REPLACEMENTS: The Supervising Officer will inspect the site during September/October, to determine the nature and extent of plant losses. The information collected at the earlier leafing out inspection will also be taken into account. The replacement of plant material which has failed or been badly damaged by herbicide application and which is, in the Supervising Officers opinion, the Contractor’s responsibility shall be replaced by the Contractor entirely at his own expense. The replacement of plant material which has failed and which is, in the Supervising Officer’s opinion, not the Contractor’s responsibility (eg vandalism), shall be replaced by the Employer, expenditure being covered by the Provisional Sum in the Schedules. Failure due to weather conditions will only be covered by this clause if, in the opin­ ion of the Supervising Officer, these conditions are of an extreme nature not foreseeable. The Contractor’s rates for all replacements will be based upon the rate for supplying new stock specified. The replacement planting will be carried out in November/December, and prior to the work commencing the Contractor will have received written instruction from the Supervising Officer stating those replacements the Contractor is deemed to replace and those for which addi­ tional payment will be made, as specified above. co n tin u ed

156 continued FIRMING: All plants shall be regularly inspected and firmed in and kept vertical as required. INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF GUARDS AND FENCING: Fencing will be regularly inspected and repaired as necessary to the standard as specified. Any items that need to be replaced which are not defective items originally sup­ plied shall be instructed by the Supervising Officer, and shall be paid for out of a provisional sum included in the Schedules. Work section 5: Handover HANDOVER - GENERAL: Upon satisfactory completion of all construction and planting works the Supervising Officer shall issue the Certificate of Practical Completion. Upon satisfactory completion of all works, including establishment maintenance works, the site/completed areas may be considered for handover. The final Certificate will be issued pro­ vided the following conditions apply. CONDITIONS FOR HANDOVER: The site/areas of the site will be accepted for handover upon the following conditions: a. All work is of the standard specified. b. A final stocking assessment has taken place. c. Establishment maintenance works have been satisfactory. d. Any defective work, including any settlement has been made good. e. Plant losses have been rectified according to the Conditions of Contract and replacements planted. f. Compounds and all temporary works have been removed. g. The site and boundaries to the site are in a clean, weed free and tidy condition.

Promotion and interpretation

Local media were regularly updated on plans and progress and an interview about community involvement in the project was broadcast on Radio Nottingham. The community and schools arranged tree planting events during the planting season, involving local people on the ground and encourag­ ing their continuing interest in the site (Plate 9.3], The site is used by the community forest team as a demonstration, a venue, and an example of the wider vision for the community forest. On-site interpretation has been provided to give information on site history, objectives for the wood­ land, site features, and demonstration areas.

Plate 9.3 Community tree planting helps to increase the extent to which Newstead villagers feel a sense of owner­ ship of the scheme.

157 Plate 9.4 The main lectern sign at the principal access point to the site. [40986]

A three-tier system of signs was used (Plates 9.4, 9.5 and 9.6), based on designs developed by the Forestry Commission’s Public Information Division. A Countryside Commission grant covered the cost of woodwork and three copies of the screen printed signs. With screen printing, production of addition­ al copies is relatively inexpensive and is advisable if vandalism is likely to be a problem.

Plate 9.5 Secondary milepost signs interpret demonstration areas and points of interest. [40988]

Plate 9.6 Fencepost signs explain individual treatments within the demonstration areas. [40987]

158 For more information Advice The Forestry and Land Management Team, Publications Planning and Economic Development, Hodge, S. J. (1993). Setting up tree planting and Nottinghamshire County Council, Trent Bridge woodland demonstrations. Research Information House, Fox Road, West Bridgford, Nottingham, Note 242. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. NG2 6BJ. Forestry Authority (Scotland) (unpublished). Community woodlands in Scotland: a manual on the presentation of community woodlands. Portcullis House, 21 India St, Glasgow, G2 4PL. (0141) 248 3931.

159 10 Belvoir Park Forest: case study of an existing woodland

Just as the establishment of new urban woodlands The woodland needs to be guided by clear, objective led specifica­ tion and design (Chapter 4, Drafting a specification), Belvoir Park Forest (Figure 10.2) comprises 12 ha of so too does the management of existing woodland, mature predominantly broadleaved woodland, 5 ha particularly if the woodland supports a variety of of younger broadleaved woodland (principally oak uses. A five-year plan should be drawn up at the and grey alder) and 47 ha of predominantly conifer­ end of the establishment phase and this plan should ous woodland planted between 1961 and 1981 be formally reviewed and updated at the end of (principally Scots pine, Japanese larch, Lawson each period (Chapter 7, Silvicultural management cypress and Norway spruce; (Plate 10.1). The reten­ of recently established woodland). This Chapter tion of broadleaved trees on the woodland edge describes the management of Belvoir Park Forest, along rides and paths (both from the original indicating the range of issues that are covered in the Belvoir Park, and from natural regeneration) gives a management plan, and outlining practical aspects of character of mixed woodland even in the conifer the management of this multi-purpose, urban fringe compartments (Plate 10.2). woodland. Belvoir Park Forest is a 75 ha woodland on the Within the wood is 11 ha of open space which Southern outskirts of Belfast (Figure 10.1) which includes an area of parkland with scattered speci­ attracts an estimated 300 000 visits per year. men trees, a 4 ha open space for events, car parking Planting began in 1961, building on the parkland of and a small camp site. Three historical features add the original Belvoir Park Estate. It is owned by the further interest: an Anglo-Norman motte; an ice Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland and house dating from the 1740s; and a graveyard possi­ managed by the Department’s Forest Service. bly dating back to Norman times. Remnants of the Despite such intensive use, large parts of Belvoir ornamental tree planting in the estate gardens Park Forest are successfully managed for timber remain and fish ponds from the same period are production. The potential of the Forest as a recre­ being restored. The western boundary of the wood ation, landscape, wildlife and timber resource is is formed by the River Lagan and two streams run being carefully developed by planning and appro­ through the wood into the river. The long south­ priate woodland management. Whilst the wood­ eastern boundary of the wood abuts the housing land managers freely admit they still have much to estates and playing fields of the Belfast suburb of learn, their approach will ensure that Belvoir Park Newtownbreda (Plate 10.3). The Forest is an impor­ Forest yields its range of benefits in a sustainable tant access route to the city for water, sewerage and way. electricity services.

160 Plate 10.1 The main entrance of Belvoir Park Forest through a formal, predominantly coniferous area.

Plate 10.2 Glades and scattered mature broadleaves give the feel of mixed woodland even where conifers predominate.

161 Figure 10.1 The location of Belvoir Park Forest.

162 V VIEWPOINTS CREATED

Belvoir Park Forest Golf Course

Playing fields

BELVOIR PARK FOREST

SKETCH DESIGN 1 ’ 5000

Christmas trees beneath transmission lin es FOREST SERVICE DEPARTMENT O f AGRICULTURE

Figure 10.2

The regional context Belfast’, an initiative for environmental improve­ ment and education in the city. Consultation and Belfast is a city of 500 000 people largely contained coordination have ensured that the management within the valley of the River Lagan (Figure 10.1). directions for the Forest are supporting the objec­ The Lagan Valley Regional Park is a green wedge tives of these wider initiatives. The commitment to that penetrates to the heart of the city, and Belvoir communication is made clear in the management Park Forest is the only major woodland within the plan and this is manifest in liaison over particular Park. At another level, Belvoir and the Lagan projects such as plans for pond creation and Valley are important to the vision of the ‘Forest of improved footpath links along the Lagan Valley.

163 Plate 10.3 Belvoir Park Forest lies adjacent to an extensive residential area.

The prominence of Belvoir Park in the landscape Lagan Valley Regional Park, it has been estimated is hinted at by the name, which means ‘beautiful that there are about 300 000 visits to the Forest each view’. The woodland can be seen from many parts year. The accessibility of the woodland is further of the city and from hills on the north-west edge of enhanced by a special recreational Ulster Bus ser­ the city. Although the woodland is not yet mature vice, the 'Lagan Valley Pony’, which connects dif­ its landscape contribution is already significant. ferent parts of the Lagan Valley with the main city When felling is required landscape impact will be a bus routes. A small, informal campsite within the major consideration and plans have been made to Forest is used mainly by visitors to Northern accommodate this. Ireland. The Forest is used principally for walking, dog walking, jogging, picnicking and bird watching. Recreation, amenity and woodland The Forest Service allows organised barbecues users including small family barbecues which are becom­ ing increasingly popular. There are 90 car parking A survey carried out during 1992/93 recorded spaces, picnic tables and several way-marked 33 500 vehicles entering the forest. Allowing for routes. Routes are colour coded and clearly dis­ the large number of visitors on foot from the exten­ played on interpretative panels in the parking area sive residential areas on the southern edge of the and at main access points to the wood (Plate 10.4). woodland and through the footpath network of the Several leaflets are available which describe the

164 history of Belvoir Park and points of information and interest in the woodland, Visitors are kept informed of thinning and other major operations through strategically placed notices that explain what is happening and why. One of the major open spaces within the Forest is used for events and for a recent event a sculpture, telling the story of the area, was created from locally grown ash to add a focus in this open area (Plate 10.5). The network of paths within the Forest has been developed to accommodate the high intensity of use. By routing a path around much of the eastern boundary, the maximum length of walk is offered with a rich variety of views both into and out of the woodland. Other paths in the eastern half offer shortened routes that make the most of historical, water and landscape features. The western half has

Plate 10.5 A sculpture, created for a recent event, adds interest to a large open space.

a lower intensity of paths and gives more opportu­ nity to enjoy peace and tranquillity. Where possi­ ble way-marked routes and roads used during forestry operations are kept separate. There is a policy of removing dense undergrowth adjacent to paths to improve the sense of personal security. Way-marked routes are regularly inspect­ ed for safety, and hazards, such as dangerous trees or erosion to paths, dealt with. The river valley provides ideal conditions for the caustic giant hog- weed. Notices warn visitors to avoid, and alert staff to, this plant which is removed when found. Each year about 3500 school children visit the wood and part time guides are employed to max­ imise the educational value of the visit. An old sta­ Plate 10.4 Interpretative panels show waymarked routes ble building has been converted into a forest class­ within the wood. room.

165 Considering the large number of visitors to the kept informed of operations, such as thinning, wood, conflicts between the various site uses are which are to take place. The positive nature of this few and arise mainly from dog fouling and unautho­ relationship is naturally increasing the amount of rised cross-country cycling which disturbs walkers feedback from, and consultation with, members and is causing erosion to the motte. The amount of over the management of the woodlands. The ladder intentional vandalism and antisocial behaviour in of participation is being climbed, not in a contrived the wood is low and manageable. The main vehicu­ way, but as a natural consequence of the developing lar access to the wood is closed each day before relationship between woodland managers and local sunset which must contribute to the low occurrence people. of rubbish dumping and other antisocial activities. Visitors to the woodland and those living in the neighbourhood appear to accept the concept of a Wildlife conservation working woodland, and understand that thinning and felling operations do not threaten the wood­ The woodland is recognised as an important land, but are part of the management cycle neces­ wildlife resource both for its own value and for the sary to improve and perpetuate it. This is partly amenity value of wildlife. Management operations because the woodland has always been managed on will further increase wildlife value and diversity, silvicultural principles and partly because of the and an 8.5 ha block which has been broadleaved efforts of the Forest Service to inform woodland woodland since at least 1834 has been designated as users about woodland management operations. a forest nature reserve. Access to this part of the District Conservation Committees, which have wood is not encouraged in order to keep levels of existed since the 1970s, formalise consultation disturbance to a minimum. between the Forest Service and the voluntary and statutory conservation organisations, and have also fostered the development of good working relation­ Timber production and resources for ships on an informal basis. woodland management The involvement of local people in the manage­ ment of the Forest is still in a relatively early stage Belvoir Park Forest is managed with five other of development and is currently somewhere woodlands in the area by a forester and five opera­ between information and consultation on the ladder tives. In addition, a part-time caretaker and forest of participation (Chapter 3, The nature of communi­ guides, available on a call out basis, help with the ty involvement). The conscious consideration of recreation and education work load. The equip­ community participation started in 1992 when local ment used in forest management consists of a trac­ people formed The Friends of Belvoir Park in tor, dump truck, flail mower, chainsaws, clearing response to a threat to part of the wood from a pro­ saws and hand tools. posed motorway. The group now has over 1000 Currently the only timber production is from first members who are actively interested in the manage­ thinning of conifer crops, which is undertaken ment of the woodland. The Forest Service encour­ according to the standard forest management yield ages the interest of the Friends, and members are tables (Forestry Commission Booklet 34). Current

166 production is about 200 m3 per year and over the Given these overall objectives, a form of informal next decade a steadily increasing thinning pro­ zoning has developed in the Forest (Figure10.3) gramme will yield an average income of £2500 per with a recreation emphasis around the main access year (1993 prices). From 2005 onwards the harvest­ and by the River Lagan, a conservation emphasis in ing programme will include 0.5 ha per year of clear- the forest nature reserve, and a greater emphasis on felling and will yield an income in the region of timber production within the main conifer blocks. £10 000 per year. The felling programme is The management of the Forest is directed by a designed to spread the age class distribution within management plan which is updated every five years the woodland to further landscape, amenity and and contains: conservation objectives. • legal summary The urban location of Belvoir Park Forest is used • summary of management directions as an opportunity for the sale of Christmas trees. About 7000 trees are sold annually, yielding a mar­ • recreation and landscape development plan gin of £10 000 over the total cost of growing, cut­ • forest nature reserve management plan ting, transporting and retailing the trees. • plan of forestry operations. Irrespective of the income generation potential of The management plan is kept as concise as possible this enterprise, it is considered worth while for the and only gives details of operations where there is a promotion of the Forest. need to modify standard silvicultural practice in the Whilst the woodland is not a commercial propo­ light of recreation, landscape or conservation objec­ sition, income derived from sale of timber and tives. As much information as possible is presented Christmas trees is important in offsetting some of on clear, uncluttered maps, some of which indicate the cost of management. the present state of the woodland (legal aspects, land use, potential hazards to safe working, road Management planning categories and fire plan, features of recreation and conservation importance, and landscape analysis) and others which indicate the programme of work For Belvoir Park Forest to accommodate the range (thinning, felling, and planned management to and intensity of activity that it does, careful plan­ improve amenity and landscape value). ning of management operations is required, to min­ imise incompatibility between uses and to maintain the capacity of the woodland to serve as a multi­ The legal summary purpose resource in the future. The management The legal summary contains written and mapped objectives for the Forest are broadly prioritised. information covering: 1. Recreation and amenity • ownership and details of leases • reserved rights (roads, minerals, shooting, fishing, 2. Landscape enhancement etc.) 3. W ildlife conservation • boundary obligations and agreements 4. Timber production • rights of way 167 • wayleaves and utilities (telephone, electricity, The summary of management directions water, etc.) The summary gives an overview of management • restrictions on planting objectives and an indication of required non-stan­ • archaeological designations dard and site-specific management operations. It is • conservation and landscape designations. supported by maps, a statement of the strategic

Paths give views on to

1 Sprti sewage works. Smells Ptanu Recreation G r o u n d occasionally waft across. iCollejiam R f 1

Belvoir Park Golf Course across river. (r«y'B^whnj

Plant Pathology Aborebum in contained Field Station valley with paths and\

Amenity open space- internal views except T c n n u // M AI.OM. I I’l'Ui v C o u rt i \ ff-v (Detached Portion) near qolf course. ’V P a v ilio n views across river. CO ANTRIM tousc. yard and stuc' ^ A' R»v§r Lagan A W A R D N ature Re overgrown ■iK NS/ARC'mTF Cs / j

M alo n e iF acto ry Main recreation Facilities concentrated here. o o r

Paths with mainly internal views, some slot views out to river and beyond. Enclosed and sm all scale.

// a w n £ LANDSCAPE CHARACTt Figure 10.3 Landscape character areas and woodland use zones within Belvoir Park Forest.

168 value of the woodland, and an annual budget out­ to provide an improved recreation infrastructure line. within the landscape framework. Areas of distinct landscape character were identi­ The recreation and landscape development fied and characterised (Figure 10.3). There is a gen­ plan eral pattern of greater organisation and formality of In the light of the importance of Belvoir Park Forest landscape and use at the hub of the woodland as an amenity, recreation and landscape resource, a around the car park and education centre, and a forest design consultant was used to give recom­ gradual reduction in formality and management mendations on how to realise the potential of the intensity deeper into the forest and further away woodland. The main objective of this exercise was from the hub. This trend has influenced the man­ to improve and protect the landscape contribution agement prescriptions for the various parts of the of the woodland and to create a better environment woodland. Woodland design prescriptions are for informal recreation, A secondary objective was summarised on one map (Figure 10.4) hut specific

Pastoral landscape, some obvious Internal edyes and small spaces should manayement but sense of space, ^ be developed. quietness and lack o f activity Arboretum semi-Formal area with obvious should dominate. desiyn but 'naturalistic s e t t try. Larye [y^wljing Green Hi -•i-iti---*— 4- trees yrouped with open space, shrubs |J £ / * Plant Pathology \ V f - y and youny trees, paths and some mowiry. Y.vField Station V ? A , • i: ' •'< t ■:r? Keep and manayc For nature a M \i.t Vi I. 1 I’l'l u Ham larye open space, is forest. , (D etjdicd Petition) W ilderness should be th e mam Could accomodate active recreation J CO ANTRIM human intrusion reduced bo c (•use, yard and start*. One p a th loop an d p o ssib ly < if yround conditions permit. Keep point. partly mown and mainly dear. J:U// vvnt\Lj Edyes need desiyn

l\ r # / flam concentration o f Formal activities. Already wd I developed. Some re-desijn/ upyradiry to improve quality. 1 M C A Outdoor Edye of forest to be developed Youth Centre Area of mainly manayed forest but ^ n, into open space - to blur and C, with edye olory paths, aye and • improve natural effect. species structure and views out ~ ^ developed. Recreation mainly confined

to paths but ranye possible.. -J PnUT

dost intrusive zone creaked by man mack ^ r — objects. Geometry cam be reduced but no I wilderness possible. Needs to look moneyed £ but can be impnned both externally and

intema/y ______T JZQMCEE Figure 10.4 Summary of landscape and recreation design prescriptions.

169 recommendations are detailed for the units defined under the power-lines. The design solution (Figure by the landscape character map. 10.5) is to fell much of the larch (there is a good The recommendations for the south-west part of market for small dimension larch in urban areas for the Forest serve as a good example of the level of larch-lap fencing and garden woodwork) and prescription appropriate to this woodland. Power- replant with Christmas trees and broadleaves to line wayleaves have resulted in a series of straight break up the regular geometry and minimise the parallel edged spaces running zigzag fashion impact of the wayleaves on the sky line. through this area. The resulting geometric layout and shapes affect internal views in this part of the wood, but also mar the prominent views from an The forest nature reserve management plan adjacent road and a Lagan Valley Regional Park car This plan describes the forest nature reserve, indi­ park. The feature is further exaggerated by the con­ cating strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and trast between the larch either side of the wayleaves threats. Management objectives for the five-year and the Christmas trees (Norway spruce) planted plan are then defined.

y C Ardnava -V1-A 'd n_a va 11 ^ A . A-'' / _ ’ t-f ' Af U5, f « /■»* - — —~ * r~T ’ SM S \ ISOO

Fell to create spaces of I Fxa tiy conifers rdained. Christmas tree area. better shape and-scale. I 1 Coppice broad/eaves

Figure 10.5 Design prescription for a prominent part of the Forest affected by power-lines.

170 • Improve habitat diversity. • Increase educational usage. Table 10.1 Forestry operations in Belvoir Park Forest for the period 1991/92-1995/96 • Curtail spread of invasive species. • Initiate research into bird and invertebrate popu­ 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 lations. Management prescriptions for the five-year period Planting (ha) 12-- are clear and concise. Weeding (ha) 3 2 2 - - • Improve access to the reserve by upgrading exist­ ing path along the north-east boundary. Extend Drains the path across the stream to emerge from the maintenance (ha) 4 2 7 10 6 reserve via the old stone lane on the southern boundary, Cleaning (ha) 10 8 7 - 3 • Commence clearance of laurel, rhododendron and sycamore at the northern reserve edge. Thinning (m3) - 200 410 300

• Improve structural diversity by clearing five open Felling (m3) 380 - spaces each of 0.2 ha in the next five years, par­ ticularly utilising areas containing dead elm and invasive species clearance. Deadwood should be opment of a desirable and attractive woodland left on site. structure. All forestry operations are subject to the • Recolonisation of these clearings by sycamore recreation and landscape development plan and should be prevented. The most practical method will be modified as necessary to satisfy this objec­ of regeneration will be the planting of stock tive. grown from locally collected seed. A school class should be encouraged to adopt each clearing and become involved in seed collection, tree growing, For more information planting and tending, as well as ecological stud­ ies of the clearing. Advice • Open up short sections of the stream commencing Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland, at the down-stream end. The amalgamation of Forest Service, Dundonald House, Upper open space along the stream with some of the Newtownaxds Road, Belfast, BT4 3SB. clearings would be beneficial.

The plan of forestry operations A plan of forestry operations for the five-year period are presented in tabular (Table 10.1) and map forms. The plan indicates areas that should be thinned particularly heavily to encourage the devel­ Index

acacia, false 69 colonisation, natural 92-96,104-105,125, 129-130, 132 access, for less-mobile people 121-122 communities alder species 37, 49, 61, 69, 98,103, 108-109, 148-150, identifying 17-21 160 involvement by 17-31, 143, 146, 157-158, 166, 171 am enity: s e e recreation of interest 18-21 archaeology 34, 42, 55, 168 compaction, soil 36, 45, 58-60, 100, 110-111, 147 ash 37, 93, 95, 98-99, 102-103, 107-109, 111, 113, 130, conservation (s e e a ls o wildlife) 133-134, 136, 165 energy 4-5 aspen 149 nature 106 vegetation 35—36 backactors 60-61 consultation (s e e a ls o information; publicity) 26-28, bare root stock 72-73, 75-76 115, 143, 146, 163, 166 bark 5, 103 container stock 75 stripping [see a ls o mammals, damage by) 39, 111, 113 contamination 34-38 beating up 46, 50, 77, 78-79, 151, 155 contracts 46, 53-56, 153 beech 37, 98, 103-104, 108-110, 113, 130, 133-134, 136 model 56, 154-157 Belvoir Park Forest, Belfast 160-171 coppice 11, 29, 50, 52, 68, 75, 102-103, 105, 107, 111, benefits 43 123-124, 148-149 economic 4-5 rotations 50,102-103 for landscape 2-3, 4 short rotation 137-138, 150 for town dwellers 1-7,17 with standards 103-104 birch species 37, 94-95, 98, 103, 108-109, 130, 148-149 blue-stain fungi 136 costs 5, 43 boundaries 14-15 Countryside Stewardship Scheme 12 brow sing (s e e a ls o mammals, damage by) 39, 112 coupes 102,104,108 bundling 154 cover crops (see a ls o nurse plants) 99 crown dieback 107 cell-grown stock 74-75, 78, 150-151 cultivation 59-60, 88, 96, 100, 111 charcoal 103 cutting cherry species 98, 108—109, 133-134, 136-137 clear 108 chestnut, sweet 37, 103, 133-134, 136-137 of shrubs 131-132 chlorosis, lime-induced 62-63 cuttings 75, 77-78 Christmas trees (Norway spruce) 40, 98, 160,167, 170 cycle ways 9 collieries, colliery spoil 35, 61, 92, 124, 140-141, 148 cypress, Lawson 160

172 damage as woodland product 103, 136, 170 to buildings 15 fertilisers 29, 36, 45, 50, 61-63, 105, 149, 151, 156 to trees (see specific agents of damage) fire 88, 112-114, 117-118, 124, 125 deadwood, as wildlife resource 129—130, 171 firewood 5,103, 136 deer 38-39,80-83, 103, 111, 113, 148 firming 157 demonstration plots 146, 148-151 flora, flowers (see also vegetation, ground) 88-90, Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland 160-171 106-107,125, 128, 130 derelict land 12, 36, 48 flushing 78 grant for 12 foliar analysis 36-37 design of woodlands 46, 48-53, 79, 117, 132 footpaths 9, 29, 41^12, 50-51, 148, 163, 171 landscape 42, 142-145 Forestry Authority 11, 13, 14, 140-159 for less-mobile people 121-122 formative pruning 133,155-156 development planning 8-9 Freckland Wood, Nottinghamshire 140-159 dibbling 96 dieback, crown 107 frost, damage by 40^11, 76, 78, 108,155 discolouring 63 fruits 150 displays 26-27 fuelwood 5, 103,136 disturbance, effect on wildlife 124-125 fungi, blue-stain 136 diversity habitat 123-124,131 glades: see open spaces structural 103-105, 107, 117, 138, 171 graminicides (see also herbicides) 98, 100, 125 drainage 36,58,60-61,111,171 grants 11-13 dust 3 grasses 88 grazing, damage by 124-125 edges, woodland 124, 128, 130-131 green ways (seealso footpaths) 9 education 22-25, 157, 165-166 Greenwood Community Forest 140-159 elm 130, 171 group felling 108, 123 energy conservation 4-5 English Nature 12 habitat diversity 123-124, 131 equipment 166 handling 54, 76, 84 erosion 111, 124, 165-166 damage by 76 establishment 43-46, 50, 104, 149-150, 151 hares 38-39, 80, 111, 148 European Union 12-13 harrowing 96, 100 events 30-31 harvesting 108, 124-125, 167 facilities, visitor 118-119 hawthorn 3,37,95,148-149 farmers 19, 21 hazel 98, 103, 111, 137, 148-149 farmland, planting on 11—12, 34 heavy metals 38, 62 felling (see also removal, tree; thinning) 50,107,108, herbicides (see also graminicides) 83, 85-88, 96, 100, 123-125, 136, 164, 166-167, 171 151,156 licences 14 damage by 83, 88 fencing 80-83, 100, 112, 151, 155, 157 hornbeam 98, 104,130

173 income generation (seealso products, woodland) 122, noise reduction 3 132, 167 Northern Ireland, Department of Agriculture for 160-171 information (see also consultation; publicity) 22-25 Nottinghamshire County Council 140-159 insurance 31 nurse plants, nursing (seealso cover crops) 46, 50, 68 , introduction, of species 125-128 70,138, 148-149 iron 63 oak species 37, 95, 97-98, 103-104,107-109, 129-130, labelling 154 133-134, 136, 148-150, 160 laburnum 150 objectives 42^13, 46, 64,101, 106, 115, 119, 147, 150, 163 ladder of participation 21, 23, 166 open spaces 90, 101, 123, 128,130-132, 150, 160, 165, landowners 19, 21 171 landscape osiers 137 assessment 9, 42 overheating 76 design 42, 142-145 overmaturity 107, 130 larch species 37, 98, 148-150, 160, 170 legal requirements 13-15 pans, plough 58, 60 lime, common 130 ‘pantomime horse method’ 79 lime-induced chlorosis 62-63 participation, ladder of 21, 23,166 livestock 38-39, 80, 111, 113 people, damage by (seealso vandalism) 40,110-111,125 pests (see also specific pests) 14 magnesium 63, 141, 147 phosphorus 36-37, 61-63, 141, 147 mammals, damage by (seealso specific mammals) 38^10, picnic places 118,121 45, 75, 80-84, 99, 109, 111-113, 148 pine species 37, 98, 136, 160 management planning existing woodland 11, 29,160-171 development 8-9 long-term 9-11, 46, 50-51 management 46,101-102, 160, 163, 167-171 plans 46, 101-102, 160, 163, 167-171 planting 29, 45, 103, 107, 154-155 manganese 63 bags 76 maple species 37, 98, 109, 111, 148-149 methods 77-78 marketing, timber 133-136 notch 77, 151 metals, heavy 38, 62 pit 61, 77 mixtures 45, 50-1, 67-72, 78-79 roadside 3 mounding 60, 77, 151 schemes 5 mowing 45, 50-51, 63, 86, 88, 90, 113-114, 130, 151, 156 screef 77 mulches, mulching 29, 86-87, 136, 156 Stock 45, 72-75, 129 time of 78 natural turf 77 colonisation 92-96, 104-105, 125, 129-130, 132 plough pans 58, 60 regeneration 11, 103,107-111, 123, 129, 160, 171 ploughing 60, 111 neglect 11,107 ‘plugs’ 74-76 Newstead Tip, Nottinghamshire 140-159 poisonous trees 15 nitrogen 36-37,61-63,68-69,90,141,147 pollarding 104

174 pollution 3 safety 13-14, 29-30, 63, 120-121, 130 polymers, water retentive 61 sales, of timber 134 ponds 117-118, 123, 148,160,163 saws 111 poplars 75, 78, 90, 136-138, 150 scale 48 potassium 36-37, 61, 63, 141, 147 scarification 111 pots 75 screening 3 preparation, ground 45 security 120-121, 165 priorities 43 seed products, woodland (see also income generation) 11, collection 29, 96 102-103,136 dispersal 93, 96 bark 5, 103 seeding, direct 75, 96-100, 150 charcoal 103 sets 75, 77-78, 137 fencing 103, 136, 170 sewage sludge 38, 61-63, 149, 151 firewood, fuelwood 5, 103, 136 shade,shading 3, 124,128-129 timber 5, 132-138, 160, 166-167 shelter 3 turnery 103, 150 shelterwood system 108-109 woodchips 5,103, 136—137 short-rotation coppice 137-138, 150 protection, tree (see also treeshelters) 45, 80-84, 108, signs (see also waymarking) 120-121,158 112,150 silviculture 102-114, 148, 150 pruning, formative 133, 155-156 silvo-arable systems 90 publicity (see also consultation; information) 31 site amelioration 36 questionnaires 26-27 assessment- 34^ 2,4 5 ,5 8 ,6 1 ,1 4 1 history 34-35 rabbits 38-39, 80-84, 103, 111, 113, 148, 151, 155 quality 34 reclamation 61 suitability 32-34 recreation 3-4, 9, 48, 115-122, 137, 148, 164-167, socketing 40 169-170 soil regeneration, natural 11,103,107-111,123,129,160,171 amendment 58-61 removal, tree (seealso felling; thinning) 46, 106 analysis 36, 38, 147, 151 replanting 104, 108 characteristics 36-38, 58, 129 respacing 96, 111 compaction 36, 45, 58-60, 100, 110-111, 147 restocking 50, 107 erosion 111, 124, 165-166 ripping 45, 59-60, 77, 150-151 conductivity 36 robustness 43^16, 48-50, 78,108 standards 33 root toxicity 33-34, 36, 38, 58, 61 -balled stock 75 spacing 45, 76-77, 132, 137, 155 collar 75, 103 species (see also individual species) drying 76 choice of 45, 48, 50, 63-67, 123, 128-129 -shoot ratio 76 composition 104 systems 73-75 introduction of 125-128 rowan 149 mixtures 45, 50-51, 67-72, 78-79

175 tolerance 64-67 vandalism (seealso people, damage by) 40, 42, 51-53, specifications 46^ 7, 52, 101, 141, 147-152 81, 83, 112, 115, 124-125, 148, 156, 158, 166 sponsorship 13 vegetation, ground (seealso flora, flowers) 35-36, 95, spruce, Norway (Christmas trees) 40, 98, 160, 167,170 109, 113, 125, 150 squirrels, grey 111-113,133 conservation 35-36 stock, planting 45, 72-75, 129 management 45, 50, 88-90, 96 visitor facilities 118-119 stress, effect on wildlife 124 voles 39—40, 80-81, 83, 86-87, 111, 148 structural diversity 103-105, 107, 117, 138, 171 volunteers 28-29, 53 sweet chestnut 37, 103, 133-134, 136-137 sycamore 93, 98, 103, 108-109, 113, 133-134, 136, 171 wardens 30 waterlogging 61, 78, 111, 124, 137, 155 tenders 53-55 waymarking (seealso signs) 118, 164-165 thinning (see also felling; removal, tree) 70, 96,105-107, weeds 14,35, 75, 108-109 123-124, 131, 133, 165-166, 171 control 36, 45, 53, 62, 77, 84-88, 98-100, 108, 125, timber 5, 90, 106-107, 132-138 128, 137, 148-151, 156, 171 Tir Cymen 12 wildlife 4, 11, 29, 69-70, 106-107, 117-118, 122-132, toxicity, soil 33-34, 36, 38, 58, 61 138, 141, 143, 150, 166, 170-171 transplants 73-75, 151 willow species 75, 78, 94-95, 108, 137-138, 148-150 tree preservation orders 14 wind treeshelters (seealso protection, tree) 40, 81-84, 98-100, damage by 11, 40, 107 150 speed 4 windthrow 11, 40, 107 turnery 103, 150 wing-tined ripper 59-60,151 woodchips 5,103,136-137 undercuts 73, 75, 150-151 Woodland Grant Scheme 11, 141 urban woodland wood-pasture 104 benefits 1-7 work schedules 53-55 definition viii working groups 26 opportunities 7 problems 7 zoning 43, 119, 167

Printed in the United Kingdom for HMSO Dd 297423 C50 5/95 552 12521

176

Creating and managing WOODLANDS AROUND TOWNS

This Handbook describes how to plan, create and manage urban woodlands. The primary role of urban forestry is to provide multi-purpose woodlands which improve the quality of. daily life for the 46 million urban people of Britain and so the Handbook goes beyond the technical issues of establishing and managing trees to encompass community involvement, planning multi-purpose woodlands and the wider urban context. An emphasis on case studies gives practical insights into urban forestry in its widest sense.

ISBN 0-11-710328-4 9780117103283

£18 net