Technologies to Sustain Forest Resources

Technologies To Sustain Forest Resources

March 1984 OTA-F-515 NTIS order #PB92-182104 Recommended Citation: Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-F-214, March 1984).

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 84-601018

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 Foreword

The United States has a stake in the sustained economic development of tropical nations for humanitarian, political, and economic reasons. To a great extent, the development of these nations depends on increasing production from their potentially renewable soil, forest, and water resources. But tropical forest resources, which cover nearly one-half of the tropical nations’ land, are being consumed at a rate that may make them nonrenewable. They are exploited for timber and cleared for pasture and cropland with little regard for their abilities to produce—in a long- term sustainable fashion—important goods, maintain soil productivity, regulate water regimes, or regenerate themselves. Much of the recent deforestation occurs where the new land uses cannot be sustained and it causes productivity losses that tropical nations and the world can ill afford. International recognition of the importance of tropical forests, and efforts to sustain the productivity of these resources, have increased significantly in the last decade. In 1980, the House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs, Sub- committee on International Organizations, held hearings on tropical deforestation. The committee then requested the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) to conduct a more thorough assessment of the problem, the technologies that could help sustain tropical forest resources, and possible options for Congress. The Subcom- mittee on Insular Affairs of the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs and the Subcommittee on Environmental Pollution of the Senate Committee on Public Works endorsed the request. The Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources asked that the assessment specifically address forest resources of the U.S. insular territories in the Caribbean and western Pacific. The report and its two background papers (Reforestation of Degraded Lands and U.S. and Interna- tional Institutions) identify and discuss in-depth some of the constraints and opportunities to develop and implement forest-sustaining technologies. OTA greatly appreciates the contributions of the advisory panel and workshop participants assembled for the study, the authors of the commissioned technical papers, and the many others who assisted us, including liaisons from other Govern- ment agencies. As with all OTA studies, however, the content of the report is the sole responsibility of OTA.

iii Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources Advisory Panel

Leonard Berry, Panel Chairman Center for Technology, Environment, and Development Clark university Eddie Albert Jan Laarman Conservationist Department of Forestry North Carolina State University Hugh Bollinger Vice President Charles Lankester Native Plants, Inc. U.N. Development Programme Robert Cassagnol Robert Owen Technical Committee Chief Conservationist (retired) CONAELE Trust Territory of the Pacific IsZands Robert Cramer Christine Padoch Former President Institute of Environmental Studies Virgin Islands Corp. University of Wisconsin Gary Eilerts Allen Putney Appropriate Technology International ENCAMP West Indies Lab John Ewel Department of Botany Jeff Romm University of Florida Department of Forestry University of California Robert Hart Winrock International John Terborgh Department of Biology Susanna Hecht Princeton University Department of Geography University of California Henry Tschinkel Regional Office for Central American Programs Marilyn Hoskins Agency for International Development Department of Sociology U.S. Department of State Virginia Polytechnic Institute John Hunter* Michigan State University Norman Johnson Vice President, North Carolina Region Weyerhaeuser Co.

*Resigned in July 1982.

iv OTA Staff on Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resourses

H. David Banta* and Roger Herdman, * * Assistant Director, OTA Health and Life Sciences Division

Walter E. Parham, Program Manager Food and Renewable Resources Program

Analytical Staff

Susan Shen, Forester Alison Hess, Resource Economist Chris Elfring, Science Journalist Eric Hyman, Environmental Planner*** Denise Toombs, Resource Policy Analyst*** Jim Kirshner, Resource Policy Analyst*** Bruce A. Ross-Sheriff, Geographer, Project Director

Administrative Staff

Phyllis Balan, Administrative Assistant Nellie Hammond, Secretary Carolyn Swarm, Secretary

OTA Publishing Staff

John C. Holmes, Publishing Officer John Bergling Kathie S. Boss Reed Bundy Debra M. Datcher Joe Henson Glenda Lawing Linda A. Leahy Cheryl J. Manning Technology Transfer Workshop

Ron Stegall, Chairman Development Consultant Washington, D.C. Anil Agarwal Gerald Murray Centre for Science and Environment Pan American Development Foundation New Delhi, India Haiti Jose Roberto Castillio Gunnar Poulsen Farmer/Businessman Tropical Forestry Consultant Mexico Denmark Merrill Conitz David Richards Agency for International Development Appropriate Technology International Nairobi, Kenya Washington, D.C. Robert Fishwick Skip Stiles World Bank Office of Congressman George E. Brown, Jr. Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Marilyn Hoskins Virginia Polytechnic Institute Blacksburg, Va.

Systems Analysis Workshop

Donella H. Meadows, Chairwoman Resource Policy Center, Dartmouth College Jeffrey Gritzner John Terborgh Board on Science and Technology Department of Biology for International Development Princeton University National Academy of Sciences Frank Wadsworth Jeff Romm Institute of Tropical Forestry Department of Forestry Puerto Rico University of California

vi Chapter Page Introduction ...... 3 I. Summary ...... 9 Z. Importance of Tropical Forests ...... 37 3. Status of Tropical Forests ...... 63 q. Causes of Deforestation and Forest Resource Degradation ...... 85 5. Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources ...... 105 6. U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific...... 127 --&. Technologies for Undisturbed Forests ...... 159 8. Technologies to Reduce Overcutting...... 177 9. Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests ...... 195 1O. Forestry Technologies to Support Tropical Agriculture. ., ...... 219 11. Resource Development Planning ...... 243 12. Education, Research, and Technology Transfer ...... 257 13. Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories...... 275 14. Options for Congress...... 301

Appendix Page A. Status of Tropical Forests: Tables ...... 323 B. Glossary ...... 332 C. Commissioned Papers ...... 336

Index ...... 341

vii Introduction

● Introduction 4 ● Technology to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Figure I.—Trend of Change Among Tropical Forest Land Uses

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment

Figure 2.–Conceptuai Diagram indicating Land Use Changes Typical of Tropical Asia 100

land

Crop land, grazing land manmade forest,

f-l — Time –

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment.

If nothing were done to change the system, of production. The actual equilibrium maybe the point at which the amount of undisturbed delayed until even more undisturbed forest is forest land and unproductive land stabilize for cleared because costs and benefits accrue to a given region would be, in theory, where the different groups of people, skewing both mo- cost of clearing the next acre of undisturbed tivations to invest and to exploit. forest equals the cost of reclaiming an acre of unproductive land. Since that cost is high for Many technologies exist but are not fully known technologies, this equilibrium implies used to prevent conversion of productive land little accessible undisturbed forest, a great deal to unproductive land, to increase yields on in- of unproductive land, and extremely low levels termediate lands, or to harvest from undis- /introduction ● 5 turbed forest without converting it to a less eluding most of the land capable of sus- sustainable land type. There are also social taining continuous agriculture. Further changes both possible and desirable to re- clearing is occurring and technologies to duce the driving forces behind conversion to sustain productivity on these lands gen- unsustainable uses. erally are not applied. ● Countries where emergency measures are Because different countries or regions of required—the ratio of unproductive land countries fall at different points along the to original undisturbed forest is high and curves in figure 2, the actions needed to halt increasing, severe shortages of locally pro- this degradation would be most effective if de- duced forest products are occurring, and signed for the urgency of the situation in each the amount of intermediate land types is country. For example, regions with low rain- declining rapidly because technologies are fall and/or dense populations probably follow not adequately used to sustain land pro- this process more rapidly than countries with ductivity. moist forest and large areas of currently inaccessible land. Categorization of countries or An improved division of countries into cate- major regions to indicate the urgency for ac- gories might account separately for urgency of tions to address loss of tropical forest resources human needs (e.g., food, fuelwood, materials and degradation of land productivity might for shelter, fodder, etc.) and urgency of ecolog- take the form indicated in figure 3: ical need (e.g., loss of genetic diversity). The Food and Agriculture Organization has cate- Ž Countries where the problem is latent but gorized countries by need for action to ame- not compelling: A considerable amount liorate fuelwood deficiencies, but scales to of original forest land remains, but with- measure other dimensions of forest resource out appropriate measures, population value have not been created. pressures and development needs can be expected eventually to propel these coun- The loss of tropical forest resources is not tries into the next categories. new, and its effects are not restricted to those ● Countries where the problem is critical: who live within the forests. Part I of this report Much original forest land has been con- describes the Background of tropical forest verted into the four intermediate uses, in- resource changes, including who is affected,

I — Time — I

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment. 6 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropics/ Forest Resources the current status, the visible agents and un- • reduce degradation of the resource base, derlying causes of change, and the organiza- ● reduce demand on the ecosystems, tions-United States, national and internation- Žprovide more timely and accurate infor- al—involved. This section also describes the mation to decisionmakers or reduce the tropical lands of most direct concern to the time necessary to implement decisions. U.S. Congress: the U.S.tropical territories. A final chapter in this section discusses appli- Part H of this report, Technology Assess- cation of the various kinds of technologies to ment, discusses various technologies for re- the U.S. tropical forests. source-sustaining development of tropical for- Part 111 describes Issues and Options for est lands. The technologies considered cover a broad range. Some are techniques to manage Congress to promote development and use of technologies that can sustain tropical forest re- the forests-undisturbed and disturbed-and some are technologies to use forests to protect sources globally and within U.S. tropical ter- related resources such as agriculture and wa- ritories. The organization of options for the Congress does not indicate the relative importer. Others are techniques to prepare people for tance of the various measures. If long-term ac- the various tasks involved in sustaining tropical forest resources, such as resource development tions are not taken to build institutions concerned with the sustainable use of tropical for- planning, education, research, and technology ests, short-term actions will be overwhelmed. transfer. And conversely, if short-term measures are not - Within each technology discussion, actions taken, development of institutions to manage are suggested to promote development of sus- the forest resources in the long term may be tainable tropical forest use. In general, actions pointless. can enhance the stability and productivity of tropical lands if they: Chapter 1 Summary Page Introduction ...... 9 Importance of Tropical Forest Resources ...... 10 Status of Tropical Forests...... 10 Technology Assessment...... 14 Technologies for Undisturbed Forests ...... 14 Maintaining Sample Ecosystems ...... 14 Making Undisturbed Forests More Valuable ...... 14 Technologies to Reduce Overcutting ...... 15 Industrial Wood ...... 15 Fuelwood ...... 16 Technologies for Disturbed Forests ...... 17 Management of Secondary Forests ...... 17 Reforestation of Degraded Lands ...... 17 Forestry Technologies to Support Tropical Agriculture ...... 18 Agroforestsry ...... 18 Watershed Management ...... 19 Resource Development Planning ...... 20 Education, Research, and Technology Transfer...... 20 Education ...... 20 Research ...... 21 Technology Transfer...... 22 Issues and Options for Congress ...... 23 Expand and Coordinate Development Assistance ...... 24 Encourage Resource Development Planning ...... 25 Improve Tropical Forest Research and Market Development ...... 25 Protect Biological Diversity ...... 26 Expand U.S. Expertise in Tropical Forest Resources ...... 26 U.S. Tropical Forests...... 27 Introduction ...... 27 The U.S. Caribbean Territories: Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands ...... 28 The U.S. Western Pacific: Micronesia and American Samoa ...... 29 Issues and Options for Congress ...... 31

List of Tables Table No. Page 1. Estimates of Closed Forest Areas and Deforestation Rates in Tropical Africa, America, and Asia ...... 13

List of Figures Figure No. Page 4. Global Areas of Tropical Woody Vegetation ...... 9 5. Areas of Woody Vegetation in 76 Tropical Nations ...... 11 6. A Typical Biosphere Reserve ...... 15 7. Location of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands ...... 29 8. Location of the U.S. Western Pacific Territories ...... 30 Chapter I Summary

INTRODUCTION . Forests of various kinds cover 42 percent of To avoid even more acute problems, they need the tropical nations’ land (fig. 4). To support a to restore resource productivity. Other nations, population of 2 billion, these nations must use even those with adequate forests, need to sus- the natural resources found in these forests: tain their forest resources to avoid future prob- soil, water, plants, and animals. The produc- lems. In just 30 years, the population of tropical tivity of these resources can be renewable, but nations is expected to double to 4 billion peo- only if tropical people use resource-sustaining ple. Thus, the importance of tropical forest pro- technologies. ductivity is increasing as more and more people depend on forest products and services for Some tropical nations are experiencing se- basic needs such as fuel, materials for shelter, vere shortages of forest products and services. and a reliable water supply.

Figure 4.–Global Areas of Tropical Woody Substantial institutional activity is occurring Vegetation worldwide that directly or indirectly benefits Land surface of the Earth tropical forest resources. The U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), the United Nations agencies, the multilateral development banks, and others have increased their attention to forestry in recent years. Private corporations and nonprofit organizations also have Land surface of the 76 countries studied been involved in the search for solutions to tropical forest problems. Most importantly, tropical nations’ governments have come to recognize that deforestation and forest resource degradation constrain their economies and their development options. The large number of organizations that have some responsibilities in forestry might imply that an adequate level of activity is under way. But the total amount of expertise and funding available to forestry still remains small relative to the scope of the problem. International development assistance organizations cannot fund enough forest conservation to offset de-

- Conifer \ forestation because the underlying institutional forests Plantations causes can only be resolved by the tropical countries themselves.

25-287 0 - 84 - 2 10 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

IMPORTANCE OF TROPICAL FOREST RESOURCES

For tropical nations, forests and shrublands ment or the U.S. private sector are being under- provide wood for lumber and paper, building cut by flooding, siltation of reservoirs, pest out- materials, and fuel, and are an important breaks, and other problems associated with de- source of foreign exchange. Forests help main- forestation. Food and jobs, both critical for po- tain soil quality, limit erosion, stabilize hill- litical stability in developing nations, can be sides, modulate seasonal flooding, and protect reduced by the consequences of deforestation. waterways and marine resources from accel- The highly diverse tropical forests contain erated siltation. In addition, many millions of plants, animals, genetic material, and chemi- people living in and near the forests depend cals that have great potential value for medi- directly on them for food, medicines, and other cine, agriculture, and other industries. The basic needs. Tropics are thought to contain two-thirds of the The benefits from tropical forests are not lim- world’s approximately 4.5 million plant and an- ited to tropical nations. World trade in tropical imal species. An estimated 2.5 million of the wood is significant to the economies of both tropical species are yet unknown to science. the producing and consuming nations, The Considering the value to society that has come United States is the second largest importer of from those tropical species that have been stud- tropical wood products, and U.S. demand for ied (e.g., many major agricultural crops, anti- tropical wood has been growing at rates well cancer drugs, insects used in integrated pest above our population and gross national prod- management), it is very likely that some of the uct growth rates. Tropical forests also provide remaining unstudied species offer potentially a broad array of nonwood products such as important resources, particularly for pest con- oils, spices, and rattan that are valuable for trol, plant breeding, genetic engineering, and both subsistence and commerce. The annual other biotechnologies. Biologists are already world trade in rattan, for example, is estimated using new techniques for cloning plants and to be $1.2 billion. Thus, industrial wood and micro-organisms to screen for their production other forest product exports earn substantial of useful chemicals. foreign exchange for nations that trade with Tropical forests also provide habitats for the United States. many of the world’s migratory birds and various endangered species. About two-thirds of The productivity of renewable resources in the birds that breed in North America migrate the Tropics affects both the economic viabili- to Latin America or the Caribbean for winter. ty of U.S. investments overseas and political Some of these migratory birds play an impor- stability in the tropical nations. Many devel- tant role in controlling agricultural pests in the opment projects funded by the U.S. Govern- United States.

STATUS OF TROPICAL FORESTS

Some 76 nations located entirely or largely areas where soils are dry or have low fertility. within the tropical latitudes contain about half Commercial agriculture, on the other hand, the world’s population (approximately 2 bil- generally is sited on the more fertile and often lion), These nations are characterized by rapid- irrigated alluvial plains of major river valleys. ly growing populations, low per capita in- Both types of agriculture are strongly affected comes, and predominantly agrarian econo- by the 1.2 billion hectares* of moist tropical mies. Near forest lands, much of the agriculture is subsistence farming, often in upland *One hectare equals 2.47 acres. Ch. 7—Summary ● 11 forest and 800 million hectares of drier open forest types are unequally distributed among woodlands. countries. The type and distribution of forests vary con- Data on the extent and condition of tropical siderably across regions in the Tropics (fig. 5). forests are widely scattered and often inac- Two-thirds of the closed forests* are found in curate, Overall figures for deforestation* mask tropical America, while Africa has two-thirds of the open forests.** Even within regions, *Deforestation is the conversion of closed or open forest to nonforest. A distinction should be made between deforestation *Closed forest means that trees shade so much of the ground and degradation; the latter refers to biological, physical, and that a continuous layer of grass cannot grow. chemical processes that result in loss of the productive poten- * *Open forest has trees that cover at least 10 percent of the tial of natural resources in areas that remain classified as forest. ground but still allow enough light to reach the forest floor so This distinction explains some of the confusion in estimates of that a dense, continuous cover of grass can grow. change in forest resources.

a Figure 5.—Areas of Woody Vegetation in 76 Tropical Nations (thousands of hectares, 1980 estimates) Tropical America

Plantatio forests 4,620 sed fore‘St fallow Open 108,612 f 61,650 Open woodlands 216,997 Tropical Africa

Tropical Asia

Clo sed forestl fallow 69,225

Sh ‘Closed forest ds fallow 61,646 Plantation Open woodland Plantation forests fallow forests 5,111 3,990 1,780 12 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

considerable differences among the rates at able access to farmland. People displaced by which individual countries are using and alter- development in the lowlands often have been ing their forest resources (table 1). If present the direct agents of deforestation because they trends were to continue, nine tropical coun- have little choice if they are to survive. tries would eliminate practically all of their closed forests within the next 30 years and The main agents of tropical deforestation and another 13 countries would exhaust theirs forest resource degradation continue to be sub- within 55 years. sistence agriculturalists, livestock raisers, fuelwood collectors, and people who set fires to Estimates of overall deforestation rates also facilitate clearing or gathering activities. Com- conceal significant differences in the types of mercial agriculture plays a smaller role in de- tropical forest affected. The loss of species is forestation today than it has in the past, al- probably greatest in the broad-leaved humid though in some areas (e.g., Central America lowland forests as these are biologically the and Brazil) clearing tropical forests for cattle most complex and diverse. But the tropical ranching causes a large part of the forest re- conifer forests cover much smaller areas and source loss. Commercial logging is also an im- have been severely degraded by logging and ag- portant cause of forest degradation. riculture. Direct impacts on people are greatest in dry regions where degradation of open for- Both subsistence and commercial use of forests leads to severe shortages of wood for fuel. est lands can cause deforestation. Combined, But the loss of mountain watershed forest may they form particularly pernicious relationships. affect even more people by making river flows For example, loggers build roads through un- more erratic. disturbed forests to remove timber. Slash-and- burn cultivators use the roads to gain access Each year approximately 11.3 million hec- to the forests and clear patches for temporary tares of the Earth’s remaining tropical forests agriculture. Ranching or commercial agricul- —an area roughly the size of Pennsylvania— ture may follow the farmers, exploit the land’s are cleared and converted to other uses. Where remaining productivity, then move on into new cleared land is developed for sustainable agri- areas. These agents of tropical forest change culture, deforestation can be beneficial. But vary in prominence among tropical America, most land being cleared cannot sustain farm- Africa, and Asia. ing or grazing with available technologies. So it is abandoned after a few years. Often, com- Alternative techniques exist that could be mercially valuable trees do not grow back substituted for these destructive practices. quickly because of highly weathered soils, However, sustainable forestry and agriculture harsh climates, and recurring fires. Thus, pro- practices generally are not being developed ductive but underused forest resources are giv- and applied. The underlying causes of this failing way to low productivity grasslands and ure lie in political, economic, and social forces deserts. (e.g., undefined property rights) that cause peo- Deforestation and degradation of tropical ple to use forests in ways that are inappropriate lands are not new. Losses of forest resources to ecological conditions. Deterioration of the have been reported as early as 450 B.C. in the forest resources seems likely to continue until African Sahel and 1000 A.D. in South China. combinations of improved technologies and en- For centuries, tropical deforestation has been forced resource development policies make associated with poverty and with patterns of sustaining the forests more profitable than de- economic development that result in inequit- stroying them. Ch. I—Summary ● 13

Table 1. —Estimates of Closed Forest Areas and Deforestation Rates in Tropical Africa, America, and Asia

Closed forest Percent Closed forest Percent area deforested area deforested Country (1,000 ha) per yeara (1 ,000 ha) per yeara Tropical Africa: Haiti ...... 48 3.8 Ivory Coast...... 4,458 6.5 El Salvador ...... 141 3.2 Nigeria ...... 5,950 5.0 Jamaica ...... 67 3.0 Rwanda...... 120 2.7 Nicaragua ...... 4,496 2.7 Burundi ...... 26 2.7 Ecuador ...... 14,250 2.4 Benin ...... 47 2,6 Honduras ...... 3,797 2.4 Guinea-Bissau ...... 660 2.6 Guatemala ...... 4,442 2.0 Liberia ...... 2,000 2.3 Colombia ...... 46,400 1.8 Guinea ...... 2,050 1.8 Mexico ...... 46,250 1.3 Kenya ...... 1,105 1.7 Panama ...... 4,165 0.9 Madagascar ...... 10,300 1.5 Belize ...... 1,354 0.7 Angola ...... 2,900 1.5 Dominican Republic ...... 629 0.6 Uganda ...... 765 1.3 Trinidad and Tobago ...... 208 0.4 Zambia ...... 3,010 1.3 Peru ...... 69,680 0.4 Ghana ...... 1,718 1.3 Brazil ...... 357,480 0.4 Mozambique ...... 935 1.1 Venezuela ...... 31,870 0.4 Sierra Leone ...... 740 0.8 Bolivia ...... 44,010 0.2 Tanzania ...... 1,440 0.7 Cuba ...... 1,455 O.l Togo ...... 304 0.7 French Guiana ...... 8,900 Sudan ...... 650 0.6 Surinam ...... 14,830 b Chad ...... 500 0.4 Guyana ...... 18,475 b Cameroon ...... 17,920 0.4 Totals ...... 678,655 0.6 Ethiopia ...... 4,350 0.2 Somalia ...... 1,540 0.2 Tropical Asia: Equatorial Guinea ...... 1,295 0.2 Nepal ...... 1,941 4.3 Zaire ...... 105,750 0.2 Sri Lanka ...... 1,659 3.5 Central African Republic . . . . . 3,590 0.1 Thailand ...... 9,235 2.7 Gabon ...... 20,500 0.1 Brunei ...... 323 1.5 Congo ...... 21,340 O.l Malaysia ...... 20,995 1.2 Zimbabwe ...... 200 Laos ...... 8,410 1.2 Namibia ...... b b Philippines ...... 9,510 1.0 Botswana ...... b b Bangladesh ...... 927 0.9 Mali ...... b b Viet Nam ...... 8,770 0.7 Upper Volta ...... b b Indonesia ...... 113,895 0.5 Niger ...... b b Pakistan ...... 2,185 0,3 Senegal ...... 220 b Burma ...... 31,941 0.3 Malawi ...... 186 b Kampuchea ...... 7,548 0.3 Gambia ...... 65 b India ...... 51,841 0.3 Bhutan ...... 2,100 0.1 Totals ...... 216,634 0.61 Papua New Guinea...... 34,230 0.1 Tropical America: Totals ...... 305,510 0.6 Paraguay ...... 4,070 4.7 Costa Rica...... 1,638 4.0 14 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT

This report discusses various technologies to Strict preservation with total exclusion of develop tropical forest resources. Some are economic activity is not practical for many techniques to manage forests—undisturbed and sites where protection of undisturbed forests disturbed—and some are technologies to use is important. Recognizing the growing de- forests to protect related resources such as ag- mands to develop rural land, protected area riculture and water. Others are techniques to planners and managers have begun to pay prepare people for the various tasks involved more attention to socioeconomic and institu- in developing and implementing technologies tional factors. They seek participation from to sustain the resources. both the people who will affect or be affected by forest resources and the people and agen- Technologies for cies that must support management programs. Undisturbed Forest Some innovative plans that include the sur- Undisturbed forests produce many valuable rounding biophysical and socioeconomic set- products and services, usually with little or no ting have been developed for protected areas. human management. One way to reduce the One such activity is the UNESCO Man and the rate at which undisturbed forests are converted Biosphere (MAB) program’s worldwide net- to other, nonsustainable uses is through sys- work of biosphere reserves (fig. 6). The man- tematic preservation of sample ecosystems in agement of these reserves considers the needs parks and protected areas. Another approach of local populations and seeks ways to make is to enhance the value of the forest by develop- benefits available to local people. More field ing its resources other than timber—the non- experience and monitoring are needed to eval- wood products and forest food sources. For uate the successes of existing biosphere re- either approach to succeed, willing involve- serves. However, the MAB effort is constrained ment of local people and political commitment by a lack of strong, consistent commitments from government decisionmakers are essential. from U.S. and other governments.

Maintaining Sample Ecosystems Making Undisturbed Forests Parks and protected areas can be managed More Valuable for direct income (e.g., tourism) and for indirect benefits, such as preventing siltation of reser- Few deliberate attempts have been made to voirs. Some of these benefits can be estimated harvest forest products other than timber and for resource allocation decisions. Other major fuelwood in a sustainable, organized way. In- benefits provided by protected areas—e. g., centives to maintain unlogged forests would preservation of biological diversity—cannot be be greater if methods were developed to use forest resources other than timber more fully– measured in dollars. Thus, in the past, the locations of protected areas have been determined either by discovering new, valuable products or by encouraging collection and processing more for watershed protection or tourist potential than for conserving of biological diversity. of existing products. A marked disparity exists in the worldwide Products obtained from animals and from distribution of parks and protected areas, with wood, bark, leaves, or roots of trees and other some types of ecosystems well represented and forest vegetation offer significant opportunities others not represented at all. Many legally pro- for tropical countries to develop cottage indus- tected areas lack firm commitments from local, tries. Employment and incomes for people liv- national, and international agencies. Conse- ing in or near forests could be improved while quently, they receive little actual protection or encouraging maintenance of the natural eco- are inadequately managed. systems. Improved assessment of the role of Ch. l—Summary ● 15

Figure 6.—A Typical Biosphere Reserve forests by cutting more wood than grows each year. Development of improved wood processing technologies and markets for more of the many tree species and sizes growing in the closed forests would reduce the area that must be logged to satisfy timber demand. Where too much wood is being cut, it may be necessary to reduce demand by increasing the efficiency of woodstoves and charcoal kilns or by substituting alternative energy sources.

Industrial Wood Intensive forest harvesting could give increased output per unit area, thus reducing demand to cut elsewhere. But this approach can have both positive and negative impacts. It can make reforestation planting more feasible. On the other hand, it increases the potential for damage to the site from poor road engineering, inadequate site protection, and tardy restoration of forest stands. Intensive harvesting would require strict enforcement of regulations to prevent adverse impacts on the land’s long- term productivity. Intensive harvesting depends on the availability of profitable technologies to extract, proc- SOURCE M. Batisse, “The Biosphere Reserve: A Tool for Environmental Con- ess, and market a wider range of tree species servation and Management, ” Environmental Conservation, vol. 9, summer 1982. and sizes. Grouping species according to their uses (e.g., construction material) is an approach forest products in subsistence economies and that has been successful in Africa. However, development of markets for nonwood products many unused species have sizes, shapes, or could help decisionmakers recognize the value wood characteristics that make them difficult of undisturbed forests. U.S. scientific and to harvest and process and that limit their use- managerial expertise could be applied to this fulness. problem, especially from the fields of ecology, botany, business, and forest management. The use of smaller trees would require costly replacement of existing equipment, which Few technologies exist today that can extract has been designed for large logs. Portable saw- selected renewable resources from a tropical mills and small units that could be carried easi- forest while leaving the forest nearly intact. ly and set up to mill logs at the stump could Crocodile and butterfly farming are two ex- make logging much more efficient. Such tech- amples that are being implemented. The devel- nologies might minimize adverse environmenta- opment of other such resource-conserving sys- 1 effects from hauling logs but might encour- tems is needed. age logging of currently inaccessible areas.

Technologies to Reduce Overcutting The greatest progress toward making intensive harvest profitable has occurred where mul- Much resource degradation is caused in tispecies wood chips are produced for wood closed tropical forests by inappropriate wood pulp or fuel. The “press-dry paper process” harvesting methods and in mountain and dry developed at the U.S. Forest Products Labora- 16 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources tory promises to increase the world market for hardwood chips. However, chipping can have adverse impacts because in moist tropical forests most of the plant nutrients are located in the trees rather than in the soil. Thus, wood chip harvesting that removes most trees can severely reduce the fertility of the site. For little known but potentially marketable lumber species, cost-effective preservation and drying technologies are needed to improve use characteristics. Many types of wood are susceptible to attack by termites, other insects, or fungi under tropical conditions. Although wood preservatives are available, they generally are costly. Some less expensive techniques exist but their effectiveness has not been proven.

Fuelwood Approximately 80 percent of the estimated 1 billion cubic meters of wood removed annually from tropical forests is used for fuel. The effects of excessive fuelwood cutting are seen first near cities and towns where fuel demand is concentrated. But overcutting does not always remain a local problem. Mangrove forests of Thailand and dry forests of Kenya, for example, are overcut to produce charcoal that is transported by ship to other nations. Most wood fuel is used in homes for cooking, though tobacco drying and other rural in- mand require especially careful planning, dustries also consume substantial quantities. monitoring, and evaluation. Common domestic stoves waste much of the wood energy, as do traditional methods of mak- Nonwood fuels such as kerosene can some- ing charcoal. Therefore, it should be possible times be used to reduce wood demand tempo- to reduce fuelwood demand significantly and rarily while fuelwood plantations are estab- consequent overcutting by disseminating more lished and while natural forests recover from efficient stoves and charcoal kilns. exploitation. But the costs of obtaining and distributing nonwood fuel substitutes are often Attempts to introduce such technologies in prohibitive, especially to the rural poor. Small- tropical nations have had mixed success. Im- scale, renewable energy technologies such as proved stoves are not quickly and widely ac- solar dryers have more potential for long-term cepted. Though cheap by U.S. standards, they use, but their adoption is inhibited by finan- often cost too much. Some reduce the range cial and managerial constraints. of fuels that can be used. Further, improved charcoal production sometimes does not lead Substituting plantation-grown wood for na- to less wood cutting because charcoal makers tural forest wood clearly is an important op- may use the time or profits they gain to make tion in many tropical regions. Investment in even more charcoal. Techniques to reduce de- plantations is constrained, however, where ac- Ch.1—Summary ● 17 cess to “free-for-the-taking’ forest wood is not production exist, but for most of these the time restricted. Thus, regulatory controls on fuel- lag before payback begins is too long and re- wood gathering from the natural forest must turn on the investments is too low to attract be enforced if the fuelwood plantation option adequate private and public capital. Opportu- is to be used before all the accessible natural nities to improve this situation include: forests are destroyed. Where fuelwood has ● resolution of land tenure issues, commercial value above the cost of cutting and ● public and private investments in research transportation, there is a possibility that farm- and development to make sustainable sec- ers and business will invest in planting trees. ondary forest management more profit- Securing future wood supplies is a social, able, political, and economic problem. Investments ● increased technology transfer of profitable of land, labor, and capital in tree growing are resource-sustaining forest management constrained by problems with land ownership, methods, and laws, and social organization. Until these are ● implementation of resource use regula- resolved and woodfuel supplies are being effec- tions, tax laws, or subsidies to make in- tively replenished, measures to reduce demand vestments in secondary forest manage- will fail to reach the root of the problem. De- ment more profitable. mand reduction creates no incentives for in- SimpIy reducing logging damage by using ap- creased supply; it may achieve the reverse. propriate or improved harvesting equipment can increase the number of trees available for Technologies for Disturbed forests a future crop as well as increase natural regen- An estimated 400 million hectares of poten- eration and facilitate enrichment planting. But tially productive secondary forest* exist in to ensure that this occurs, regulations to con- closed tropical forest areas. Approximately 2 trol logging practices must be enforced. billion hectares of tropical lands are in various stages of degradation. Investment in the im- Reforostation of Dograded Lands provement of secondary forests and reforesta- Technologies are available to reforest certain tion of degraded lands offers opportunities to degraded lands. But tree planting sometimes meet needs for materials, substitute domestic does not compete well, in economic terms, production for imports, and provide new with other land uses. The solutions to this di- sources of employment in wood production lemma include reducing reforestation costs, re- and processing. ducing plantation failure rates by enlisting support of local people, increasing plantation Management of Socoadary Forests yields, and developing methods to quantify the Many tropical countries could sustain pro- indirect benefits of reforestation. duction of all the wood they will need for dec- Reforestation costs can be reduced if land ades if adequate investments were made to de- preparation is used to reduce weed invasion velop and manage cutover secondary forests. and ensure a favorable environment for seedl- However, such investments are seldom made. ing growth. Plantation yields can be increased Land tenure can be a constraint, but even by selecting high-yielding, fast-growing, soil- where the forests are clearly owned and con- enriching, and stress-tolerant tree species. trolled by government forestry agencies or Developing and implementing tree breeding private landowners, investments are usually in- and improvement programs can produce vari- adequate. Technologies for sustained forest eties with high yields and other desired characteristics. Careful provenance testing—matching the appropriate variety to a particular *Secondary forest includes both residual forest that has been cut once or several times during the past 60 to 80 years and sec- site—should improve species performance and ond growth forests that invade after periodic cultivation. reduce mortality. 18 • Technoogies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

To achieve successful reforestation, several Forestry Technologies to Support constraints must be overcome: Troical Agriculture ● shortage of planting stock and lack of qual- Medium- and long-term maintenance of trop- ity control in seed and clone production, ical forest resources may depend more on sus- . inadequate knowledge of tropical site containing the land already under cultivation than ditions, and on refining use of the remaining forest. Intro- . lack of information dissemination. ducing woody perennials into farming and pas- The coordination of collection, certification, toral land (agroforestry) and improving farm- and international distribution of high-quality ing techniques for upland watershed areas seeds in commercial quantities needs to be im- could help sustain the productivity of lands proved. Information on proven silvicultural under cultivation and so reduce the need to techniques must be disseminated to the local clear additional forest lands. people.

These technical problems can be solved Agroforestry given adequate funding and time. A more subtle problem is to get local people to maintain Agroforestry encompasses many well-known tree plantations. First of all, they must clearly and long-practiced land-use methods. The aim understand the reasons for planting trees. The is to create productive farming systems able to trees should produce products local people supply a higher and more sustainable output want, and the people must be convinced that of basic needs and saleable products than oc- substantial benefits from the trees will accrue curs without trees. Agroforestry is most impor- directly to them. Often this means using spe- tant on lands with serious soil fertility prob- cies selected by local people rather than species lems and lands where inadequate rural infra- selected by foresters. structure makes it vital for people to produce most of their own basic needs for fertilizers, food, fodder, fuel, and shelter. Agroforestry is a newly recognized field and could benefit from a critical examination of practices and quantification of information. Since agroforestry cuts across several disciplines, its research and development requires an interdisciplinary approach. Because of frag- mented institutional jurisdiction, however, agroforestry is not receiving adequate support from either forestry or agricultural institutions. Great technological potential for agroforestry seems to lie in genetic improvement (systematic breeding and selection) of multipurpose tree and shrub species. Selection of appropriate provenances, subspecies, and varieties can greatly enhance the success of agricultural systems designed for particular land require-

Photo credit: J. Bauer ments. Mahogany seed. Shortage of planting stock and lack of The potential for farmers and pastoralists ac- quality control in seed production are constraints to tually to adopt agroforestry system improve- reforestation. Systematic collection, certification, and distribution of seeds in commercial quantity ments is more difficult to assess. Peasant farm- could facilitate tree planting ers can ill afford the risks of innovation. Large- scale adoption of new agroforestry systems until farmers and herders in upland areas have would require creating incentives for people incentives to stop destructive land-use prac- to implement new practices in spite of the ini- tices. To provide upland farmers with nondes- tial risks and delayed returns. tructive land-use alternatives necessitates:

● Watershed Manegement developing methods of land use that are more profitable to the local community The greatest problems in tropical watersheds and at the same time improve control of occur where subsistence farmers and their live- water flows; stock move onto steep uplands. Excluding ● developing improved techniques to meas- farmers and livestock from such areas can al- ure and predict tradeoffs of different man- low vegetation time to recover, but enforcing agement actions; and such policies is difficult. Mechanical structures ● testing new technologies and getting the and replanting methods can restore water flow useful ones adopted by the local communi- stability from some deforested slopes. Further, ty. Subsidies from downstream benefici- conservation practices exist that allow farm- aries of the watershed protection may be ing and grazing on many moderate watershed necessary. Sociological studies could help slopes. However, the watershed management define the type of incentives needed to ob- techniques are unlikely to become widespread tain farmers’ cooperation. 20 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Rosource Development Planning Finally, even well-planned development may prove unsustainable if planning stops after im- Most conversions of tropical forests to other plementation begins. Most planning is done be- land uses take place without adequate consid- fore projects begin when least is known about eration of whether the natural and human re- biophysical and human resources at the site. sources available can sustain the new land use. Continuous planning, monitoring, and evalua- Sometimes, destructive forest conversions are tion are necessary during and after the project. an unplanned result of some other, narrowly The major development assistance organiza- planned development. For instance, poorly tions have begun to institute such procedures sited logging roads can open highly erodible but have not yet determined how to use the reforest land to unplanned clearing for slash-and- sults. burn agriculture. Opportunities to enhance the use of resource This problem can be ameliorated through the development planning include improving data use of resource development planning tech- availability, more demonstration of the techniques that match land development activities niques’ potentials, better communication of to the natural and human capabilities of specif- planning successes, increasing the number of ic sites. These techniques can identify which trained planners, improving techniques for sites can sustain crop production, grazing, res- economic and social analysis, and assuring that ervoirs, new settlements, intensive forestry or projects remain open to redirection after imple- agroforestry, and which will be most produc- mentation begins. tive if retained as natural forest.

Ideally, resource development planning in- Education, Research, and cludes four components: biophysical assessment, financial (investor’s viewpoint) and eco- Technology Transfer nomic (society’s viewpoint) assessment, social Forest resource development is constrained assessment, and project monitoring and eval- in most tropical nations by a shortage of pro- uation. Biophysical assessment is used more fessional and technical personnel who know often than the others, although it still is under- about appropriate technologies and who also used. Furthermore, the techniques commonly understand the institutional, economic, and are used to find the best site for a particular cultural aspects of forest resource systems. In development purpose rather than to develop the near term, expatriates, including U.S. pro- a comprehensive strategy for all sites in a fessionals, can provide some expertise. But this region. is not likely to be sufficient because the scope of tropical forest resource problems is so large Use of each of the four planning components and the number of expatriate experts is few. is constrained by a lack of information on Further, expatriates lack the political and cul- cause-and-effect relationships. Economic as- tural ties necessary to influence policy. Sustain- sessment encounters difficulty measuring non- ing tropical forest resources requires develop- market values. Further, the analyses may con- ment of indigenous expertise in all aspects of sider the forest values only of a small site, resource development. Education, research, disregarding the interrelationships between and technology transfer are the means to de- that site and the surrounding area. For exam- velop expertise both in the United States and ple, loss of the genetic resources in a small in tropical nations. patch of a large forest may seem unimportant because nearby forested areas contain the same biological diversity. Consequently, individual economic analyses may justify clearing the for- U.S. universities can act to sustain tropical ested region piece by piece without accounting forests in two ways: educating professionals for the overall genetic loss incurred. who will work in tropical forestry related fields Ch.1—Summary ● 21 and strengthening tropical nations’ universi- who make decisions about the use of natural ties. However, tropical forestry is peripheral to resources. Environmental education aims to the interests of most U.S. forestry schools and change people’s attitudes and behavior by pro- the experts are scattered widely among institu- viding them with the motivation and the knowl- tions. Consequently, efficient mechanisms edge necessary to make decisions and take ac- must be developed to bring together multidis- tions that will sustain natural resource pro- ciplinary teams of researchers and educators ductivity. and connect them with students, foreign universities, and others seeking to develop tropical Environmental education efforts can be di- forest expertise. rected at the general public using mass media Twinning, which creates associations be- or programs in primary and secondary schools. tween tropical nation institutions and individ- Or the efforts can be directed more narrowly ual developed nation institutions, has worked at higher level decision makers, Unfortunate- with a few university forestry schools. Consor- ly, the behavioral science basis for environmen- tia of U.S. universities can provide tropical in- tal education is not well established, so the stitutions access to a wider range of expertise techniques must be developed by unscientific and experience than twinning arrangements. trial and error. This development could be ac- However, this approach still does not resolve celerated if significant investments were made several of the fundamental deficiencies that re- to evaluate, document, and communicate the duce the effectiveness of U.S. institutions. U.S. environmental education efforts that are under forestry schools lack a tropical setting for way. Having neither a strong scientific foun- teaching and research. Further, their curricula dation nor substantial documentation of the do not prepare students to solve the social and causes of program success and failure, envi- institutional problems that confront tropical ronmental education projects have a difficult forest resource development. time competing with other projects for funds and personnel. The development of one or more U.S. centers of excellence in tropical forestry might resolve these deficiencies. For example, a center of excellence in Puerto Rico could focus on Latin American forest development needs, providing the necessary tropical setting as well Technologies intended to develop renewable as benefiting the U.S. tropical forests. resources are likely to fail if they are based on inadequate knowledge. Thus, both fundamen- A major objective of U.S. efforts to enhance tal and applied research are necessary compo- tropical forest education could be to strengthen nents of any strategy to sustain tropical forest schools in the Tropics. Some 138 universities resources. Fundamental research is the foun- and 220 technical schools in tropical nations dation for applied research, while applied re- provide forestry education and training. Near- search is needed to improve existing forestry ly all these schools are new. Most are small and technologies and develop new ones. produce few graduates each year. Thus, substantial support is needed to provide in-service faculty training, to produce locally relevant Many experts conclude that sustaining tropical forests is not so much a technical problem course materials, and to modernize basic education facilities such as herbarium, library col- as it is an institutional problem. Thus, research lections, and computers. is especially needed to determine the interactions between the social and biophysical fac- Resource development professionals, the sci- tors of tropical forest systems. Some knowledge entists who develop technologies, and the tech- about social and institutional factors is being nicians who implement them are ineffective used in resource development projects sup- without strong support from the many people ported by U.S. agencies. However, this knowl- 22 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

edge usually is based on personal experience, tinually repeated, and potentially successful not on careful research. A substantial increase technologies spread slowly, if at all. in truly interdisciplinary research could enhance the likelihood that institutional changes Technology Transfer would result in sustainable forest resource The experience of U.S. forestry organizations development. shows that many potentially profitable techniques languish for lack of effective technology The techniques used to manage tropical for- transfer among scientists, between scientists est resources are generally based on trial-and- and technology users, and among technology error experience gained in past centuries. They users. Thus, it is appropriate that international have benefited little from the rapid advances in fundamental and applied biology that have development assistance organizations focus their efforts not on promoting particular tech- occurred recently. For most tropical forest nologies but rather on building local institu- types, techniques have not been developed tions’ capacities to choose, receive, adapt, and that can: deliver technologies appropriate to local cir- ● produce the products, environmental serv- cumstances. ices, and employment opportunities that An important constraint on development as- local people need, and sistance effectiveness in forestry is the lack of ● sustain the productivity of the resource coordination among many bilateral and multi- base, and lateral projects. Coordination of resource de- ● be profitable enough to motivate people to velopment projects so that each project contrib- risk their scarce capital, labor, and land. utes the appropriate actions at the appropriate Applied research to improve existing technol- time to accomplish long-range plans should be ogies probably will not suffice to meet these the responsibility of tropical governments. But goals. Innovations based on new fundamental donor agencies usually fund the projects they research will also be necessary. identify rather than projects identified in some longer term planning process. One approach Low levels and short periods of funding are to improve planning and coordination of tech- major constraints on fundamental research in nology transfer is the use of ad hoc interna- tropical areas, but these are not the only reational committees that are separate from the sons why basic knowledge is inadequate to sus- policies and problems of individual govern- tain tropical forests. Most fundamental re- ment agencies or development assistance or- search in tropical biology has been designed ganizations. Committees such as the newly in- to develop evolutionary theory, and relatively stituted Coordination for Development in Af- little work has been done or is being done on rica could assist tropical governments in de- ecological theory. veloping long-range plans and in identifying Another problem is poor communication and recommending projects for the various in- among researchers and between researchers ternational organizations. and technology users. Most forestry and biol- The OTA assessment identified a number of ogy research organizations reward scientists, necessary conditions for successful technology including those working on applied research, for publishing in journals that technology users transfer. * For most technologies, the lack of these conditions seems to be constraining seldom read. In fact, few journals exist that are designed to communicate research results to wider adaptation and adoption: resource developers. The U.S. Forest Service ● Technology is transferred most effective- periodical The Caribbean Forester once served ly by direct people-to-people actions. Peo- this purpose but has been discontinued. As a ple who are to adapt and apply the tech- result of poor communication, the pace of in- *These conditions were a result of discussions among OTA novation is slower than it needs to be, tech- staff; Roger Moeller, AID; and Gary Eilerts, Appropriate niques are reinvented, some mistakes are con- Technology International, Ch.1—Summary ● 23

nology need to learn it directly from peo- agents, facilitators, and end users—must ple who have experience applying it. feel that they are winners and must, in The technology needs to be adapted at the fact, be winners. Each actor’s self interests users’ end to local biophysical and socio- should be identified at the start of the tech- economic conditions. nology transfer process so that they can Well-qualified people with knowledge be addressed. about the technology are needed on the Each participant must be aware of subse- source end of the transfer, and receptive, quent steps in the transfer process so his capable people are needed on the receiv- or her actions are appropriate to the later ing end. These people may be local trans- steps. This requires early definition of fer agents or they may be the end users. roles for each person involved. Another type of actor, the “facilitator,” is The environment for technology demon- also necessary. Facilitators understand the strations should be similar to the environ- technology transfer process, including the ment that will exist during subsequent market for the technology and its products steps of the transfer process. Pilot transfer and the political, social, and economic projects should not be unrealistically easy. constraints and opportunities that affect The initial commitment of resources to the all the other actors. process should be sufficient to carry the Users and transfer agents should be in- technology transfer until it is self-support- volved in choosing the technologies and ing. in planning and implementing the transfer The transfer process must include mech- process so that the technology and the anisms through which all participants can transfer meet actual needs and are appro- contribute effectively to interim evalua- priate for the local situation. tions and improvements. All parties involved—source, transfer

ISSUES AND OPTIONS FOR CONGRESS

Tropical forest resources represent a great of the tropical nations. However, the United opportunity for sustained development because States can help stimulate such reforms. Some they are fundamentally renewable. However, U.S. technologies, such as Landsat imagery, al- too little such development is occurring. In- ready supply vital information to improve re- stead, the productivity of the forests continues source development decisions. U.S. diploma- to be diminished. The U.S. Congress has al- cy—for example, supporting the United Na- ready helped to sustain tropical forests by tions Environment Program and UNESCO’s directing AID and the U.S. representatives to MAB program—also can help to foster under- international organizations to give forest re- standing of resource problems and coordinate source development higher priority in devel- international efforts to resolve them. opment assistance programs. To expand this progress, Congress could take actions that Congress can address technical constraints would enhance tropical governments’ abilities more directly. U.S. and international organiza- to plan and coordinate resource development tions that Congress can influence have the ca- projects. pability to: 1) develop technologies to produce The underlying causes of forest resource de- goods and services for local people while con- terioration are institutional, social, and eco- serving forest productivity, and 2) assist trop- nomic. Consequently, the reforms needed to ical organizations and individuals in develop- support sustainable resource development can ing, adapting, and implementing such technol- only come from the governments and people ogies. U.S. agencies that are applying this type 24 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources of expertise include AID, the Forest Service, recent years for forest related projects. How- the National Academy of Sciences, the Nation- ever, many opportunities for use of develop- al Park Service, the Fish and Wildlife Service, ment assistance to sustain tropical forest re- and the Soil Conservation Service. Some com- sources are not being pursued adequately. Ex- mercial firms, private voluntary organizations, amples of such opportunities are: and U.S. universities also have expertise rele- ● emphasize agroforestry, innovative crops, vant to sustaining tropical forest resources. and other techniques to sustain permanent Congress has ways to influence multilateral agriculture on relatively poor soils; banks and U.N. agencies, some obvious (e.g., ● promote reforestation and management of through allocation of funds) and some subtle natural forests to sustain environmental (e.g., using the prestige of Congress to give services and produce fuelwood, construc- credibility to a new idea). The final chapter de- tion wood, polewood, and nonwood prod- scribes opportunities for congressional action ucts; to: ● stress institution-building to enable tropical governments to exercise improved con- ● expand and coordinate development trol over timber concession operators; and assistance, ● support livestock projects that do not re- ● encourage resource development plan- sult in deforestation or forest degradation. ning, ● improve tropical forest research and de- Option velopment efforts, ● protect biological diversity, and To encourage expanded support for forestry ● expand U.S. expertise in tropical forest re- projects, committees of Congress could contin- sources. ue oversight hearings requesting AID officials and U.S. representatives to multilateral devel- The U.S. tropical forests are discussed sepa- opment assistance organizations to testify on rately in this summary. the extent to which assistance practices accomplish the objectives set forth in section 118 of Expand and Coordinate the Foreign Assistance Act. Development Assistance

Issue (Coordination) Issue (Prjects) Development assistance agencies general- Development assistance progress is slow ly do not coordinate their projects effective- and the gains are insufficient to sustain trop- ly at the country or regional level. To improve ical forest resources. Many opportunities ex- their effectiveness, projects could be orga- ist to enhance gains already made, but con- nized as steps in comprehensive strategies de gressional vigilance is necessary to ensure signed to develop sustainable forest resource that forestry projects receive an appropriate use systems. Individual development assist- share of U.S. development assistance funds ance agencies have neither developed nor co- and that other types of projects complement ordinated such strategies. the forestry efforts. The reasons why host governments and in- The Foreign Assistance Act directs develop- ternational assistance organizations do not ment assistance organizations in which the coordinate activities more effectively are com- United States participates to give higher priori- plex. But coordination could play a key role in ty to protecting against the loss and degrada- improving the cost effectiveness of U.S. assis- tion of tropical forests. Accordingly, AID, the tance. If the Congress decides that improving World Bank, the U.N. Food and Agriculture cost effectiveness is worth relinquishing some Organization (FAO), and some other multilat- degree of U.S. control over what projects are eral organizations have increased funding in funded, it could mandate increased U.S. effort Ch. l—Summary ● 25 to enhance the tropical nations’ abilities to ment banks to promote environmental assess- coordinate the work of development assistance ments at an early stage of project planning. organizations. This request could be followed up with hearings to determine whether the banks are using Options environmental assessment procedures effectively. One way to begin such a fundamental shift in the development assistance process would be to direct the Department of State to assess whether various tropical nations are able and Improve Tropical Forest Research politically ready to develop long-term action and Market Development plans for sustained forest resource development. Another mechanism is to create ad hoc Issue (Research) committees of experts from donor nations and tropical nations to work together to identify Fundamental research, applied research, and technology implementation related to problems and plan regional forest development tropical forests are not well coordinated. strategies. Moreover, interactions among factors that constrain forest resource development are Encourage Resource DeveIopment poorly understood. Consequently, resource Planning development projects often fail and technol- ISSue ogies that seem to succeed in trials fail to Although resource development planning spread beyond demonstration areas. Re- technologies can improve the sustainability search on tropical forest resources needs to of tropical forest development, they are sel- be more interdisciplinary and more closely dom applied to their full potential. related to technology implementation. Resource development planning techniques Much work remains to develop profitable technologies that can supply local people’s can be used to identify development activities needs while simultaneously sustaining forest that match the available human and natural re- productivity. New techniques need to be based sources. The techniques can give decisionmak- on improved understanding of the biological, ers a clearer picture of the social, economic, and environmental implications of a particular economic, and cultural factors affecting forest resources. This calls for interdisciplinary re- type of development on a particular site. Also, they can be used to determine the best locations search based on an adequate understanding of for protection of natural areas to maintain bio- the needs of technology implementors. logical diversity while providing tangible ben- Options efits. But the application of planning is hampered by shortages of information on how bio- Initially, Congress could conduct hearings to physical, social, and economic factors interact. determine whether the research organizations that receive U.S. funds give adequate priority Options to interdisciplinary tropical forestry that links To encourage the use of resource develop- research and development. Special attention ment planning, Congress could maintain the should be paid to disseminating research re- availability of low-cost Landsat images to trop- sults. Congress could increase support for ical governments. Congress also could direct agencies where such research and develop- AID to expand its Environmental Profiles to ment is stressed. include macro-level land classification and col- The other approaches would be for Congress lection of information for social and institu- to appropriate funds specifically to support tional analyses. Further, Congress could direct UNESCO’s MAB program or to amend the For- U.S. representatives to multilateral develop- eign Assistance Act to include funds for the

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United Nations University. Both promote in- Project Biological Diversity terdisciplinary research. Additionally, Con- gress could amend the existing legislation that Issue allocates funds for tropical agriculture to include tropical forestry and agroforestry explic- Benefits from preserving the biological di- itly. Congress also could determine the feas- versity of tropical forests accrue to society as ibility of establishing a forestry research pro- a whole, including future generations in the gram at existing Consultative Group on Inter- U.S. and elsewhere, yet the costs are borne national Agricultural Research (CGIAR) institu- by the people of the tropical countries. tions. Congress could establish a trust fund for Developing new markets and ways of har- the Forestry Department of FAO of the United vesting and using tropical forest species even- Nations specifically to support improved com- tually may make it possible to manage natural munication among researchers and technology forests profitably and sustainably. But until the implementors. markets and technologies are developed, it is necessary to protect and maintain undisturbed Issue (Market Development) portions of these biologically diverse ecosystems for future generations. In many areas sustaining tropical forest resources will depend on local markets for for- Optons est products. People seldom attempt to sustain the productivity of natural resources Congress could take two approaches to help used for subsistence products because these maintain biological diversity. First, it could appear to be “free.” Government agencies conduct hearings on its recent amendment to typically are not aware of the natural forest’s the Foreign Assistance Act which directs AID, potential to support rural communities. in concert with other appropriate agencies, to develop a comprehensive U.S. strategy to main- Tropical forest ecosystems house complex tain biological diversity. associations of vegetation, wildlife, and other potential resources that could be developed. Additionally, Congress could support the Development of markets, along with research creation of an international fund to subsidize on ways to manage the unused resources for the establishment and maintenance of tropical sustained yields, could help motivate local peo- parks and protected areas. Money for such a ple and local resource agencies to manage the fund could be contributed by a variety of forests effectively. It could be possible in some sources, including transfers from existing places to maintain biological diversity and si- assistance agencies (e.g., AID, multilateral multaneously support profitable rural develop- development banks, and U.N. agencies), in- ment. However, such market development is creased export taxes and import duties on trop- likely to reduce subsistence opportunities for ical forest products, and donations from pri- landless poor people. vate foundations and multinational corporations. Options Expand U.S. Expertise in Tropical Congress could direct and fund the U.S. For- Forest Resources est Products Laboratory to develop new products and market information to use tropical Issue tree species and increase its efforts to trans- U.S. tropical forest resource expertise is fer technologies. Similarly, AID could be di- widely scattered and is not being developed rected to expand its support for synthesis and or used effectively. dissemination of information on underused tropical forest resources and to assist in devel- The United States has recognized expertise oping markets for those products that can be (both individuals and organizations) in many produced on a sustainable basis. resource fields, including reforestation, water- Ch. l—Summary ● 27 shed management, commercial forestry, re- to the unplanned or unmanaged conversion or source inventory and mapping, resource devel- degradation of tropical forests. Further, Con- opment planning, and information collection, gress could direct Federal agencies to encour- processing, and dissemination. But only a few age employees to participate in international of these experts or organizations have the ex- assistance efforts under existing laws or it perience or training to apply their skills directly could amend legislation to encourage such in- to the increasingly important field of tropical terchange. Congress could encourage partici- forest resources. pation of the U.S. private sector to develop and implement technologies to sustain tropical for- options est resources. Congress could contribute to the United Nations Associate Experts Program Congress could modify the organic legisla- whereby young U.S. professionals can gain tion of those U.S. agencies whose actions af- field experience in tropical forestry. Congress fect the tropical nations or the U.S. tropical ter- also could designate U.S. centers of excellence ritories to say that tropical forests are valuable in tropical forest resources to develop and renewable resources and to direct each agen- make available U.S. expertise in tropical re- cy to conduct its activities without contributing source issues.

Introduction Only in Hawaii has forestry been made an integral part of the region’s economic develop- Less than 1 percent of the world’s tropical ment. To protect watershed values, most for- forests fall under U.S. jurisdiction. These forested land in Hawaii is classified under con- ests are located primarily in Puerto Rico, the servation zoning which restricts or prohibits U.S. Virgin Islands, Hawaii, and the U.S. west- conversion to land uses other than forest. Near- ern Pacific territories of American Samoa and ly half of Hawaii’s designated “commercial for- Micronesia (which includes Guam, the Com- est land” is owned by the State. Since 1962, the monwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Re- and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands). sources has followed multiple-use programs for As Congress becomes more involved in efforts managing water, timber, livestock forage, rec- to sustain tropical forest resources worldwide, reation, and wildlife habitat on these lands. In it has reason to pay particular attention to the addition, two of the three programs of the U.S. tropical forests in territories under its care. Forest Service Institute of Pacific Islands For- Despite their small total land area, the U.S. estry are dedicated to research on Hawaiian forests. tropical forests are important resources to local people and economies: they supply food, fod- Even though forestry problems still exist in der, fuel, and employment; reduce erosion; and the Hawaiian islands (e.g., the recent dieback protect ocean fisheries. Most wood products, of native forests, endangered status of numer- however, are imported to these areas. For ex- ous native plants and animals) considerable ef- ample, Puerto Rico imported $400 million fort has been made to mitigate these problems. worth of wood products in 1981. Perhaps the A number of organizations working to sustain most important value of forests on these trop- tropical forest resources are based in Hawaii, ical islands is regulation of water regimes. For including the Nitrogen-Fixing Tree Associa- instance, because of deforestation the U.S. Vir- tion, the Bioenergy Development Corp., the gin Islands no longer has permanent streams. East/West Center, and the College of Tropical Most other islands also have experienced prob- Agriculture and Human Resources at the Uni- lems with water quality and quantity, versity of Hawaii. These are among the sources 28 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources of expertise housed in Hawaii that can be ap- that can be owned by an individual or corpora- plied to the U.S. tropical territories and to the tion. world’s tropical forest resources. Opportunities exist to develop small-scale Forest resources in the U.S. Caribbean and forest industries to serve domestic markets Pacific tropical territories are not receiving a using technologies that require comparative- similar level of attention. The forests have suf- ly low capital outlay, such as the portable fered degradation in the pastas a result of poor sawmills now used in Puerto Rican Common- land-use practices. More recently, incentives wealth forests. The sawmills are one compo- for local people to undertake and improve agri- nent of a Puerto Rico Department of Natural cultural or forestry activities have been re- Resources program to bring private landhold- duced by dependence on U.S. Federal income ers into commercial forestry. This program supports and by economic development focus- relies heavily on U.S. Federal cost-sharing pro- ing on industrial growth. This has resulted in grams and on funding from the U.S. Forest a movement away from agriculture and cor- Service’s State and Private Forestry grants. in- responding increases in abandoned agricultur- creased support for these activities could en- al land and unmanaged secondary forests, In courage plantation forestry and increase Puer- many places, runoff and erosion resulting from to Rican self-sufficiency in forest products. past forest loss threaten water supplies and The U.S. Virgin Islands have little remain- coastal marine resources. With forest resource ing forest and no forest industry but are used development technologies, much of the pro- extensively for tourism. Lack of forest manage- ductivity of this degraded and abandoned land ment and a growing population in the U.S. Vir- could be restored to support economic growth. gin Islands have disturbed local water regimes. “ Although current overexploitation of forest Thus, water must be shipped from Puerto Rico resources is not a problem in most of the ter- or desalinized from sea water at great expense. ritories, the remaining forests are vulnerable Reforestation and management of island water- as populations and expectations rise. Future sheds could reduce runoff rates, decrease ero- problems could be averted, however, if sustain- sion, and enhance aquifer recharge. able forest use techniques could be integrated The main constraints to sustaining tropical into strategies for regional economic develop- forest resources in the U.S. Caribbean are lack ment. of support for existing forest resource development institutions and lack of a skilled cadre of The Caribbean Territories: Puerto Rico local resource managers. The U.S. Forest Serv- and the U.S. Virgin Islands ice maintains a forestry research station, the Institute of Tropical Forestry (ITF). It also The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is the manages the Caribbean National Forest and largest contiguous tropical area under U.S. supports a State and Private Forestry cooper- jurisdiction (see fig. 7). At least one-third of its ative program with the Puerto Rico Depart- land area is under forest cover–mostly second- ment of Natural Resources and the Virgin growth trees, fruit tree plantations, and shade Islands Department of Agriculture. At a time trees in coffee-growing regions. Because Puerto when U.S. Forest Service research needs to be Rico has a relatively large forest area, a relative- expanded to include agroforestry, watershed ly well-developed road system, and secure land protection, and other areas of importance to tenure, it has significant potential for commer- landholders and the public, its research funds cial forestry to supply its domestic economy. and staff size have been reduced. About 200,000 acres in Puerto Rico have been identified as suitable for commercial forestry. In the short term, people with general tropi- However, large-scale forestry is hindered by cal forestry expertise can be attracted to work high land prices and a law limiting the acreage in the U.S. Caribbean, but in the long term an Ch. l—Summary ● 29

Figure 7.—Location of Puerto Rico and the U.S Virgin Islands

U.S. Virgin Puerto Islands Rico Haiti \ /

● ✎ Dominican ● Republic ●

Panama

SOURCE: Off Ice of Technology Assessment. established method to train people to manage ies with the nature of each island. Few truly tropical natural resources specific to that re- undisturbed forests exist, but considerable gion is needed. Increased environmental edu- areas of secondary forest have regenerated. Lit- cation, scholarships, and creation of a natural tle of this is managed to provide forest prod- resource management curriculum at the Uni- ucts. Fuelwood and some nonwood forest versity of Puerto Rico could help train the nec- products are harvested for local use, but most essary resource managers. In the meantime, wood products are imported. adequate Federal support of Puerto Rico and As in the U.S. Caribbean, the major value of U.S. Virgin Islands forestry programs through forest resources in the U.S. western Pacific is the State Forestry Grants of the State and Pri- not timber but regulation of water regimes and vate Forestry Division of the U.S. Forest Serv- protection of biologically rich coastal ecosys- ice are needed to stimulate development, dem- tems. Island people in this region depend heav- onstration, and coordination of desirable for- ily for both subsistence and trade on marine estry practices. organisms that feed and spawn in mangrove habitats, lagoons, and coral reefs. Unplanned exploitation of upland forests can substantial- The Western Pacific: Micronesia ly reduce the productivity of these coastal and American Samoa areas. This already is occurring on some is- U.S. tropical forests exist on some 2,000 lands. islands spread over 3 million square miles in Transportation costs, limited land areas, and the western Pacific (see fig. 8). Forest cover var- insecure or communal land tenure limit the re- 30 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Figure 8.— Location of the U.S. Western Pacific Territories

Equator

American Samoa

gion’s industrial forestry opportunities. How- ple, improved small-scale charcoal production, ever, small-scale management, harvesting, and if developed and promoted wisely, could in- processing technologies could be applied to the crease the importance of wood as a sustainable secondary forests and abandoned coconut energy source in the U.S. Pacific. Production plantations to increase their provision of food, from existing agroforestry lands could be en- fuel, employment, and other goods. For exam- hanced with new techniques. Coconut shell Ch. l—Summary ● 31

Additional extension services also could be useful. Developing a group of local, grass roots naturalists with generalized training to assist scientists, spread information on appropriate land uses, and help integrate new technologies with local customs could be a joint undertaking of U.S. and local western Pacific organizations. Issues and Options for Congress The primary requirement for sustaining tropical forest resources in the U.S. tropical territories is the development of indigenous organizations capable of managing the islands’ re- Photo credit: C. Whitese// sources. Because the territories’ governments Opportunities exist for small-scale forestry operations still depend on U.S. support and their natural oriented toward domestic markets. This small sawmill resource agencies are generally new, small, operates on Ponape, Federated State of Micronesia and undersupported, the U.S. retains a substantial role in both the development of the resource organizations and in the development charcoal can be used as a filter in various in- and implementation of forest-sustaining tech- dustrial and pharmaceutical uses and could be nologies. exported from these islands. Option Any forest development in the U.S. western Pacific territories, however, will require careful Congress could direct the U.S. Forest Serv- planning and management to avoid further ice to 1) expand the scope of research and degradation of the resources and to ensure the technology development in its research insti- sustainable production of both goods and serv- tutions with jurisdiction in the U.S. tropical ices provided by the forests. This requires up- territories and 2) increase cooperative efforts to-date and comprehensive data bases on trop- with local governments. ical forest resources, their uses, and the poten- Development of forestry management plans, tials for their development. U.S. Federal agen- in the short run, will require technical assist- cies can play a major role in creating these data ance provided by U.S. expertise. Similarly, bases. adaptation of technologies to conditions in the Integrating forestry into development plan- U.S. tropical territories requires Federal assist- ning in the U.S. western Pacific will require ance. In the long run Federal aid could be re- personnel with substantial knowledge in trop- placed when more people are trained in natu- ical resource management and strong local in- ral resource management at local institutions. stitutions through which they can work. Yet, Development of programs to encourage private no natural resource management education forestry appropriate for each island probably programs exist in the U.S. western Pacific ter- also will require Federal assistance. The Fed- ritories, and few of the students who receive eral organizations responsible for assisting training at U.S. or other institutions return to forestry development in the U.S. tropical ter- work in their own regions, Actions to help sup- ritories are too small and their focus is too lim- ply needed expertise include creating a natural ited to give the impetus needed for local de- resource management curriculum at the Uni- velopment. More research, more forestry tech- versity of Guam and increasing scholarships nology transfer, and greater response to the for potential resource managers. changing needs of the territories are required. 32 . Technolog/is to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Optiona to forest owners. Replacing these subsidies Congress could support natural resource with a program of grants administered by the agencies in U.S. territories by increasing territorial governments would provide the flex- funding for the cooperative State and Private ibility needed to respond to each island terri- Forestry programs of the U.S. Forest Service tory’s unique cultural, economic, and ecologi- institutes in Puerto Rico and Hawaii. Con- cal characteristics. Furthermore, it would en- gress could also create a program of grants courage the development of a constituency to territorial governments to encourage in- concerned with sustaining the forest resources. vestment in privately owned forests. The Federal Government subsidizes private forestry with cost-sharing and direct payments

Chapter 2 Importance of Tropical Forests Page Highlights ...... 37 Social and Economic Context ...... 37 Water and Climate ...... 40 Hydrology in Tropical Regions ...... 40 Local Climate ...... 42 Tropical Agriculture ...... 42 Basic Human Needs ...... 44 Wood for Fuel ...... 44 Other Basic Human Needs ...... 45 Employment ...... 47 Commercial Forest Products ...... 48 Wood...... 48 Products for Medicine ...... 50 Other Forest Products ...... 51 Environment ...... 52 Endangered Species ...... 52 Migratory Animals ...... 52 Climate ...... 52 Political Implications...... 53 Importance to Future Generations ...... 53 Chapter p references...... 56

Table Table No. Page 2. Estimated Annual Person-day Requirements for Various Forestry Operations . . 47

List of Figures Figure No. Page 9. Tropical Forests and Woodlands Are Located at Latitudes South of 23.5° N and North of 23.5° S, and at Other Frost-Free Localities ...... 38 10. Age-Sex Composition of More Developed and Less Developed Regions, 1980 and 2000...... 39 11. The Role of Forests ...... 41 Chapter 2 Importance of Tropical Forests

The potentially renewable productivity of earn substantial foreign exchange for tropi- tropical forests will become increasingly im- cal nations that trade with the United States. portant over the next 30 years as the tropical . Tropical forest resources provide food, fuel, nations’ population grows from 2 billion to medicines, and other basic human needs for 4 billion people. millions of people who live in and near them. Tropical forests support economic develop- . Where fuel wood is not available, agricultur- ment. They sustain production on land that al lands are damaged as people have to burn rapidly loses productivity if they are re- crop residues and manure that would other- moved and they can restore the productivity wise be used as fertilizer. of degraded land. ● The highly diverse tropical forests contain Economic development in tropical nations plants and animals that have great potential is important to the people of the United value for medicine, agriculture, and other States for humanitarian reasons and because industries. These will be more valuable as of our economic ties with these nations. industries come to rely more on biotech- Industrial wood and other forest products nology.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONTEXT

Tropical nations face a dilemma. Forests Because the population structure in tropical must be cut and cleared to increase production countries is dominated by young people, food in the near term, but the loss of forests can and other needs are growing faster than popu- reduce productivity in the long term. lation (fig. 10). For example, food production in developing nations needs to increase by About 76 nations, containing about half the about 4 percent per year, while population is world’s population (2 billion), are located en- growing at about 2 percent. The age structure tirely or largely within the tropical latitudes also means that population growth has a built- (fig. 9). These nations are characterized by fast- in momentum that will prevent the numbers growing populations, low per capita incomes, from stabilizing until well into the next cen- and agrarian economies. Some of their agricul- tury, if then (80). ture is subsistence farming in upland areas where soils have low fertility or are dry. Some Part of the needed gains in agricultural pro- is commercial agriculture on the more fertile duction can come from improved irrigation, and generally irrigated alluvial plains of major crop breeding, and technical inputs that en- river valleys. The success of both types of agri- hance agricultural yields. But average yields culture is linked to the status of 1.2 billion hec- probably cannot increase every year by 4 per- tares (ha) of moist tropical forest and 800 mil- cent. Two percent gains may be possible, but lion ha* of drier open woodlands. to sustain even that rate over several decades will be very difficult. Consequently, the amount ● This report refers to land area in hectares (ha), One hectare equals 2.47 acres. One square kilometer equals 100 ha. One of land farmed and grazed will have to be square mile equals 259 ha. Thus 1.2 billion ha of moist tropical expanded and people will continue to clear for- forest is 3 billion acres or 4.6 million square miles. ests to produce food and other goods.

37 38 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources Ch. 2—Importance of Tropical Forests . 39

I I I 1 I I I I

o 0 40 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Population growth rates and the number of One approach to accommodate the conflict- young people in tropical populations also result ing needs of tropical people is to accelerate eco- in a rapidly growing labor force. But in most nomic development of resources outside the tropical nations, it does not seem likely that forest to provide food, goods, jobs, and foreign industry and commercial agriculture will be exchange. This would reduce the need to ex- able to sustain growth of over 2 percent per ploit and clear tropical forests. While this may year in job opportunities. Thus, substantial have the greatest effect in the long run, these numbers of people will turn to the forests— types of technologies (e.g., improving tropical either clearing them for conventional farming agriculture) are outside the scope of this and grazing, or managing them for forestry and assessment. agroforestry production. A second approach is to direct the use of for- The need for food and jobs is direct and com- est resources so that both sets of needs—pro- pelling, while the environmental services provision of food, jobs, and national income and vided by tropical forest resources affect tropi- maintenance of the forests’ environmental cal people indirectly and forest loss becomes services—are fulfilled. apparent slowly. In the long term, tropical people need the watershed protection, preservation of habitat and genetic diversity provided by the forests (fig. 11).

WATER AND CLIMATE Hydrology in Tropical Regions ary water storage. In addition, organic litter on the soil surface and the porous topsoil store Most rainfall in the Tropics occurs where the water. The organic litter in closed tropical for- northeast and southwest trade winds converge. ests is typically 10 to 30 centimeters thick and This Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone is intrin- the topsoil has a high organic material content sically unstable, oscillating to the north and (49,61). These mechanisms minimize the im- south of the Equator, causing an erratic rain- pacts of intense rainstorms, reduce peak storm- fall pattern with sharp seasonal contrasts (49). flows, and help mitigate flooding. When tropical rains do fall, storms are more The effects of forest cover on streamflow violent than those in temperate areas. More have been measured in tropical regions. In a water falls per storm, quickly saturating the moist montane forest in Kenya, for example, soil. Consequently, a larger proportion of the water measurements were taken on two adja- rainfall runs off the soil surface. Furthermore, cent 600 ha valleys for over 25 years. When one in tropical storms raindrops are larger, thus valley was cleared for a tea plantation—leaving having great kinetic energy and high erosive the steeper slopes and riverbanks under forest power (1,59). For example, in areas of the —the immediate effect was a fourfold increase Amazon Basin where annual rainfall averages in peak stormflow. Even after installing con- 2,100 millimeters per year and land slope is servation practices (e.g., contour planting, cut- about 15 percent, erosion removes only about off drains, cover crops), stormflows remained 360 kilograms of soil per hectare per year from double that measured in the undisturbed forest, forested land. But after the forest is cleared, although the total flows were small (49). Simi- erosion increases 100 times (43). larly, an experiment was conducted in India Tropical forests protect soil and modulate on a forest which had been reduced to waste- water flows in several ways. The canopy of land by fuelwood cutting and overgrazing. leaves intercepts rainfall and provides tempor- When the severely eroded Siwalik hills of Ch. 2—importance of Tropical Forests • 41

Figure Il.—The Role of Forests

1..Ecological effects

SOURCE: World Bank, Forestry Sector Policy Paper (Washington, D. C.: World Bank, 1978).

25-287 0 - 84 - 4 42 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Chandigah were reforested, the peak rate of rence and persistence of mists. Thus, the heat flow from the watershed was reduced 73 per- flux from a closed tropical forest in the dry sea- cent and total flow was reduced 28 percent (73). son is only half that from similar land covered with subsistence crops or rough pasture (49). In dry environments where tree canopies are Crops cultivated in and near the forest are like- open, forests are less effective in protecting the ly to enjoy greater soil moisture content than soil and modulating water flows, but their in- those on cleared land, provided that they are fluence is still beneficial. Open forests provide planted beyond the root-spread of the trees. shade and act as windbreaks. They reduce soil Similarly, windbreaks and shade trees can im- surface temperatures and wind erosion and sta- prove microclimates for crops in dry areas. bilize streambanks. They can anchor shifting sand dunes that can otherwise destroy crop- Some mountain forests in low rainfall areas lands and irrigation systems, In coastal plains, collect useful amounts of water by condensation trees can prevent the rise of saline ground wa- from mists and release the water as “drip-fall,” ter. Trees in arid areas, however, may through sometimes giving rise to perennial streams (49). evapotranspiration leave less water available However, the belief that forests actually cause for human uses (49). rain is questionable. (One recent study in the Amazon reports that a significant part of the rain falling there is water evaporated from the Local Climate forest, but the results have not been verified by other studies.) The dessication that is so fre- Tropical forests also can affect local climate. quently a consequence of large-scale forest des- In moist forests with closed canopies, tran- truction is due to the hydrological damage spiration of water extracted from the soil and caused by loss of infiltration and underground the direct evaporation of intercepted rainfall storage. In general, forests thus have a critically cool the surrounding air. The resulting cool- important influence on the reception of rain- ing effect is pronounced, increasing the occur- fall, but not on its generation (49).

TROPICAL AGRICULTURE

The populations of tropical nations generally celerated siltation that accompanies abnormal are concentrated on the coastal plains and in floods can fill reservoirs, canals, and stream the valleys of the great rivers. Most forests in channels, reducing the precision of water con- these areas already have been cleared for crop- trol in subsequent years. Thus, the Green Rev- lands. Much of this land is irrigated by old olution not only increased production from the systems that control the drainage of seasonal best tropical croplands but also increased sus- floodwaters. Land that is irrigated with newer ceptibility to damage by floods and siltation. systems uses large dams to store excess flood- This makes watershed protection provided by water and can produce more than one crop per tropical forests even more important. year, Unfortunately, recent decades have been a The most productive tropical agriculture is time of rapid deforestation in many tropical na- based on annual flooding, but it fails when the tions. Consequently, river flows have become floods are severe. New high-yielding crop vari- more erratic, flood damage to crops and struc- eties of the Green Revolution are short- tures has been severe, and siltation of water- stemmed and so require precise control of ways and reservoirs has increased (49). water levels. Excessive flooding also can result in shortages of reservoir water for irrigation The modulating effect of forests on stream- in the following dry season. Further, the ac- flow and the consequences for agriculture are most evident when the protective forests have these reservoirs are filling with sediment at been destroyed. In Pakistan, for example, some twice the expected rate (49]. Similarly, siltation 70 million people depend on 14 million ha of is expected to reduce the lifetime of the Hira- irrigated land in the Indus Basin for food. The kud reservoir in India from 110 years to 35 irrigation depends on river flow, but deforesta- years (57). tion on the Indus’ headlands has resulted in increased peak flows during the monsoons, fol- In India, the area of agricultural land dam- lowed by water shortages during the dry sea- aged each year by floods continues to increase son, With World Bank funding, two dams, the as deforestation occurs. The area of moist for- Mangla and the Tarbella, were constructed for est cleared each year is about 147,000 ha (29), hydropower, flood control, and irrigation. and the area flooded has risen 18 percent over Careful studies of sedimentation rates had the past 10 years, from 22 million to 26 million indicated that these dams would repay con- ha (72). Clearing of forests over the past 20 struction costs by providing benefits for many years in India has caused flood and erosion decades. However, parts of both watersheds damage estimated at U.S.$36 billion in 1982. have suffered uncontrolled deforestation and This estimate includes loss of topsoil, loss of 44 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

nutrients, loss of property to floods, and short- in the tropical forests. For example, a recent ened reservoir lifetimes (57). improvement in resistance of peanuts to leaf- spot was derived from breeding crop varieties Flood control and irrigation also are impor- with wild forms from the Amazon region. The tant in Central America. By the year 2000, estimated benefit from this one improvement Costa Rica and Panama plan to expand their is $500 million per year (47). irrigated areas by 180 percent and 340 percent, respectively (45). Yet, in these countries deforestation is rapid and uncontrolled. In many The peanut is just one of many crops with Central American locations, water needs for ancestors in tropical forest areas (58). Other irrigation, consumption, industry, and naviga- cultivated tropical plants include plantains, tion are reaching the limits of low-season flows. yams, tare, cassava, sugarcane, potatoes, and Half of the region’s forests have been cleared in cowpeas. Tree crops with tropical forest an- the past 25 years and water flows are becoming cestors and relatives include oil palm, rubber, more erratic as deforestation continues (26,45, coffee, cocoa, and many important fruits. 77]. Similarly, in Africa along a broad belt bor- These tropical plants account for at least half dering the equatorial humid tropical forest and the calories consumed by people in the Tropics along the Gulf of Guinea, the forests are being (47), as well as many commodities important destroyed. Consequently, several nations in the to the U.S. economy. Future gains in produc- region are expected to suffer agricultural water tivity from breeding these important agricul- shortages before the end of the century (77). tural crops may depend on the genes in their wild progenitors and, thus, on the continued In addition to watershed protection for the existence of tropical forests and associated nat- current year’s crops, forests have longer term ural areas. values for agriculture. Farmers throughout the world are using more high-yielding crop vari- For the people of the Tropics, damage from eties. In fact, about half the increase in agri- increased flooding and siltation and the poten- cultural production in recent decades can be tial loss of crop breeding opportunities mean attributed to plant breeding (81). The reliance poorer nutrition, slower economic progress, on high-yielding varieties has reduced the ge- and less prospect of achieving prosperous, netic diversity of agricultural systems and so stable economies. For the United States, this increased the risk of catastrophic damage from means the affected nations are less able to trade diseases, pests, and other stresses. Yet, no great internationally. The developing nations already increase in crop failures has occurred. This is are a major market—and the fastest growing due to new methods of crop protection and the market—for U.S. exports. Their purchases ability of crop breeders to respond to threats from the United States in 1982 were valued at quickly by breeding new traits into the crops— $82.7 billion, over one-third of all U.S. exports traits sometimes obtained from wild relatives (82).

BASIC Wood for Fuel Wood is the most important source of

Brazil and Mexico, where oil and gas provide Fuelwood, however, is becoming harder and a greater share of total fuel than wood). One harder to find. Some 100 million people already and one-half billion people in developing coun- are experiencing acute fuelwood scarcity and tries meet 90 percent of their energy needs with another billion are affected by lesser shortages Ch. 2—lmpotance of Tropical Forests Ž 45

Other Basic Human Needs The exact number of people living in and near tropical forests, relying on the productivity of forests to supply their basic needs, is not known. The U.N. estimates that about 28 million people practice shifting cultivation in the closed tropical forests of Asia, 20 million in Africa, and 40 million in Latin America—total- ing some 88 million people (31). This means some 3 to 4 percent of the total agricultural population in Asia, about 10 percent in Africa, and 35 percent in Latin America, work inside the closed forests. These estimates include ethnic populations practicing shifting cultivation as a traditional way of life. They do not include nonagricultural people who are purely hunters and gatherers, nor people who recently moved into forests. This can be significant, since in tropical Asia, at least, squatters probably out- number shifting cultivators. Many millions of additional people live in drier, mixed tree and grassland environments (open woodlands). These people are typically Photo credit: R?. C. Ghosh livestock herders and dryland farmers; yet, they Collecting firewood in the dry, open forests of Madhya too are directly dependent on the woodland en- Pradesh, India is arduous labor for women. Because the vironment. Their livestock feed on trees and quantity collected is greater than the annual growth, finding enough wood takes more and more time each year

(30). In some countries, it can take up to 300 person-days of work to satisfy one household’s annual fuelwood needs—forcing some dramat- ic changes in lifestyle. For example, many families in Upper Volta eat only one cooked meal each day, and in Senegal, quick cooking cereal (e.g., rice) has replaced more nutritious, but slower cooking, foods (e.g., millets) (64). Fewer families can avoid the “luxury” of boiling their water (76) and some are forced to keep children out of school to search for wood. Fuelwood shortages are forcing increasing numbers of people to burn animal dung and agricultural wastes, with adverse impacts on land productivity. It has been estimated that if the cow dung burned for fuel in Asia, Africa, and the Near East were used for fertilizer, grain Photo credit: U.S. Agency for Intemational Development production could increase by 20 million tons As fuelwood becomes more scarce, the burning of animal a year (4). dung increases, depriving the land of nutrients 46 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources bushes, especially during dry seasons when 1904 erosion resulting from deforestation was grasses provide poor fodder. People living in responsible for clogging the once-navigable Rio open woodlands use wood for cooking, boiling das Velhas in Brazil to such an extent that even water, heating, drying crops, and as fuel for canoes ran aground (87). Today, deforestation small industries. Open woodland dwellers, like is much more widespread in Brazil, and other the people of the closed forests, use trees and navigable rivers such as the Cuiaba and Sa˜o wild plants for medicines, soaps, and many Francisco have large parts filled with silt from other basic needs (86). eroded forest soils (3,8). Inland waterway transportation is further damaged by the seasonal Food from the forests—both closed and drying up of local streams that can be a con- open—meets a significant part of the world’s sequence of deforestation (18,88). nutritional needs. Meat from wild animals, fruits, nuts, honey, insects, fungi, and foliage Increased erosion caused by deforestation are all important forest food sources. At least has accelerated siltation of the Panama Canal’s 500 species of edible leaves are used in Africa system of reservoirs at the same time that accel- alone (42). “Bush meat,” including rodents and erated runoff has diminished water storage in reptiles as well as wild ungulates and other the Canal’s watershed. During a 1977 drought, mammals and birds, supply as much as 75 per- the canal was closed to large vessels because cent of the animal protein consumed in some of low water, a situation that experts believe tropical regions (20). may occur with increasing frequency unless Forest trees and vegetation are the main ma- watershed forest cover is restored (85). terials used in the Tropics to build homes and Another impact of deforestation on tropical buildings. In many rural societies, wood fre- waterways relates to the release of nutrients quently is preferred even when other materials from the forest biomass and soil. Organic mat- are available (91). Local wood also serves as ter production is sharply reduced under non- poles, fences, stakes, furniture, tools, and uten- forest conditions. Further, the soluble nutrients sils. Substitutes for these products are rarely from the ash of burned forests and from rapidly available in subsistence cultures. Various fibers decomposing soil organic matter are easily derived from forest vegetation are also impor- leached from soil by heavy rainfall. The result- tant, especially for household use. Rattans, for ing increased nutrient content of runoff can example, are climbing palms used for cane fur- accelerate the growth of noxious plants and niture, baskets, mats, and similar uses. algae in nearby lakes, canals, and rivers. Aquat- In the northwestern Amazon forest alone, at ic weeds block canals and pumps in irrigation least 1,300 plant species have been used by projects. Also, they interfere with hydroelectric native people as medicines and drugs (62). Tra- production, waste water through evapotran- ditional healers in Southeast Asia use some spiration, hinder boat traffic, increase water- 6,500 plants as treatments for malaria, stomach borne disease, interfere with fishing and fish ulcers, syphilis, and other disorders, and also culture, and clog rivers and canals so that as sedatives and emetics (50). A number of drainage is severely retarded and floods result. these plants identified and tested by native people through generations of trial and error yield In India, for example, plants reduce water flow in some large irrigation projects by as exceptionally promising compounds when screened in modern laboratories (21,24). much as four-fifths. Rafts of water hyacinth weighing as much as 300 tons float over rice Forests also protect both inland and coastal paddies in Bangladesh during floods. When the waters, providing another important benefit to water recedes, the weeds settle and kill the ger- people. After deforestation, increased runoff minating rice. Maintaining forested water- accelerates erosion and carries excessive sheds would reduce erosion and runoff, reduce amounts of sediment to nearby lakes, reser- populations of aquatic weeds, and reduce the voirs, and streams. For example, as early as cost of maintaining waterways. Ch. 2—lmpotance of Tropical Forests ● 47

Forests also act as a buffer against the force labor because site preparation usually involves of typhoons and other violent storms in coastal more cutting and tree removal than does har- zones. Tropical Asia, for example, suffers an vest (63). Table 2 is a summary of estimated average of 57 typhoons each year, causing annual person-day requirements for various storm damage that averages $2.8 billion (92). forest plantation operations in World Bank Forests reduce the destructive energy of these projects. storms by deflecting wind and reducing the Some tropical governments view tree plant- occurrence of landslides and other environ- ing as a way to reduce unemployment (33). For mental damage. example, planting programs are planned with Tropical storms are most violent in coastal employment as a major benefit in various areas areas, typically the areas that are most popu- of Brazil. In the states of Minas Gerais and lated. Yet coastal forests are being eliminated Espirito Sante, a large work force plants more rapidly than most other types of tropical 100,000 ha/yr by hand, and in the Amazon re- forests, with sometimes devastating effects (45). gion two large companies only do hand-plant- For example, Bangladesh has a coastal zone of ing. Similarly, large-scale, labor-intensive pro- 20,000 square kilometers that supports 20 mil- grams have been developed in Colombia, Vene- lion people. This nation’s coastal areas were zuela, the Philippines, the Republic of Congo, extensively cleared in the 1960’s, leaving little and other Asian and African countries, and protective forest. When a severe typhoon smaller programs are under way in Guatemala struck in 1970, 150,000 Bangladeshis drowned and Honduras (89). (35,65). Each year, typhoons and floods to- Forestry and agroforestry require protection gether claim the lives of 200,000 people and and management and so provide even more destroy many hundred thousand hectares of employment opportunities. Using agroforestry crops (92). A portion of these lives and crops systems including cultivated crops, several tree could be saved if forest cover were maintained crops, and livestock on a 100-ha farm in India, and enhanced (45). employment is estimated to rise from 20 to 50 About 15.5 million ha of mangrove forests people at the final, sustained yield stage. Thus, grow along coastlines and in estuaries in trop- agroforestry systems to reclaim 5 million ha of ical America, Asia, and Africa (31). These for- India’s degraded lands might employ 2 million ests have several important functions aside people (57). Furthermore, forest products could from acting as a coastal buffer against storms, serve as the basis for cottage industries, provid- seawash, and floods. They also process sewage, ing more employment and producing goods for absorb nutrients and heavy metals, and precip- domestic use and export. itate sediments, Most importantly, they provide ideal breeding and nursery grounds for various fish, molluscs, and crustaceans. Many valuable shrimp species breed at sea, after which the Table 2.—Estimated Annual Person-day Requirements for Various Forestry Operations young move into mangroves where they seek Plantation design food and protection. Mangroves also provide Spacing: 600-2,000 trees per hectare (ha) nurseries for such commercially important (more for energy plantations) fishes as mullet, grunts, and milkfish (66). Task Person-days Nursery work/1,000 plants...... 7-13 a Employment Land clearing and burning/ha ...... 10-50 Pitting for planting/ha ...... 3-15 Weeding/ha/yr a ...... 6-36 Forest management and forest products in- Pruning/ha ., ...... 5-15 dustries can be a major source of employment Thinning, , ...... 8-11 in tropical countries. Industrial wood harvest aThese measures vary greatly according to site conditions. in tropical forests takes about 60 person-days SOURCE: P.J. Wood, J. Burley, and A. Grainger, “Technologies and Technology Systems for Reforestation of Degraded Tropical Lands, ” OTA com- per hectare. Planting trees takes even more missioned paper, 1982, 48 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Mangroves Mangrove forests are important-economically and ecologically. However, mangrove ecosystems can be damaged by human activity. Deforestation of watershed areas can accelerate deposi- tion of sand, silt, and clay in alluvial areas; changes in the pattern and volume of freshwater runoff can be attributed to irrigation, roadbuilding, and other such projects; coastal engineering practices may bring about a change in tidal flushing regimes. Other major stresses include pollutants such as pesticides and insecticides used in large agricultural projects and recurring oil spills due to the exploitation and transportation of offshore oil. Several mangrove species are highly valued as firewood because they burn evenly with little smoke, and as charcoal because they have high caloric value. Charcoal for commercial sale is the main mangrove product in several Asian countries. Mangrove poles are used extensively for rural houses, foundations, and scaffolding of urban construction because the wood of many mangrove species is durable and resistant to termites (14). In recent years, mangrove has been harvested for woodchips to be used in chipboard manufacture, newspaper, and as a source of cellulose for rayon (71). The conversion of mangrove land to aquacuhure ponds also is increasing, which could have potential to increase fish production. However, improper site selection and poor design could have substantial negative impacts. Management of mangrove forests can be complicated. In clearcut mangrove areas, increased temperatures and evaporation can raise soil salinity so that mangroves are unable to regrow. Hand planting of seedlings is possible but costly. Selective felling systems that retain trees below certain diameters often involve rather complicated regulations that may be difficult to administer. Natural regeneration can be enhanced by clearcutting narrow strips so that nearby trees can provide seeds. The pressure to clear additional mangrove forest areas for agricultural, industrial, and aqua- cultural purposes will continue and the demand for fuelwood and poles will increase. Short- and long-term socioeconomic impacts of all alternative uses of mangrove forest areas must be evaluated to determine the optimum uses. It is only partly known, for instance, to what extent marine species are affected by removal of mangrove forests. Improved understanding of this important interaction could have significant forest management payoffs.

COMMERCIAL FOREST PRODUCTS Wood Value estimates exist for the 6 percent of the commercial tropical wood harvest that is ex- The principal commercial products of trop- ported. The total value of wood and wood prod- ical forests are timber and fuelwood. Tropical uct exports from the tropical nations has in- hardwoods are used to produce lumber for con- creased by about 500 percent in the past 10 struction, poles, pilings, railway ties, props in years (32). Indonesia’s wood exports in 1980 mines, and panel products such as plywood, earned some $1.9 billion, The value of wood veneer, fiberboard, and particle board. Hard- exports for Malaysia was $2 billion in 1980; for wood is also important for finished goods such the Philippines, $415 million; for Brazil, $8I6 as furniture and paper products. In addition, million; for the Ivory Coast, $415 million [32]. some softwoods from tropical forests are used World trade in tropical wood is significant for lumber and pulp. to the economies of both the producing and Most tropical forest wood is used within the consuming nations. The largest single importer country of origin and the economic value of is Japan. Several other large importers—e. g., this domestic consumption is difficult to assess. Singapore, Hong Kong, and South Korea— Ch. 2—lmportance of Tropical Forests ● 49 reexport most of the wood to industrialized na- housing industry, so industrial demand for tions after partial or complete processing. tropical wood has grown at a rate that generally follows housing starts. The paper industry is The United States is the second largest im- the other major wood user, but it primarily uses porter of tropical wood products and little of softwoods, for which the United States and this wood is reexported. U.S. hardwood im- Canada are major producers. Many tropical na- ports in 1978 amounted to $682 million, with tions import paper, and the papermills located tropical countries (principally Southeast Asia) in the Tropics still import most of their soft- supplying 82 percent of the total. Imports of wood pulp from the temperate zone. Some tropical wood (logs, lumber, plywood, and ven- tropical nations have begun to use their own eer) averaged $430 million annually from 1974 natural pine forests, pine plantations, and, in to 1978, Although the dollar value of these im- a few cases, hardwoods as a source of pulp. ports seems high, on a volume basis they ac- But tropical forests still produce no more than count for only 1 to 2 percent of all wood used 10 percent of the world’s paper and paper- in this country (85). U.S. demand for tropical board. wood has been growing at rates well above our population and the gross national product This is likely to change in the next few dec- growth rates. ades. New technologies, some developed by the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory and U.S. for- Both in the Tropics and in the importing na- est industry, make it possible to produce high- tions, industrial hardwood is used mostly in the quality paper pulp from 100 percent hard-

Photo credit: H. Bollinger

Wood, a major export item for Malaysia, is no longer restricted to sawlogs. Here 8-year-old Albizia falcataria trees (a legume species) are harvested for export to the Japanese pulp and paper market 50 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

woods and from a mixture of many hardwood Because tropical moist forests contain so species (84). International demand for tropical many species, each species must compete with hardwood chips is expected to rise substantial- and defend itself against many potential ene- ly as the new technologies are installed in mies, and one way to do this is by developing papermills in wood-scarce Japan and in Eur- alliances (e.g., symbiosis) with other species. ope, where wood shortages are anticipated. Thus, tropical forest species are highly interac- Japan already uses hardwood chips for over tive. The millions of plant and animal species half of its pulpwood needs (46). also have had time to develop complex chemicals that help them interact with other species. Demand for hardwoods for paper production It is because of these “biologically active” also will increase within those tropical nations that have growing economies. As income in- chemicals that the tropical forests are considered Earth’s richest storehouses of potential creases, demand for paper products rises rapidly among relatively poor consumers as long as drugs. wood supplies are abundant (17). Today, medical science is highly dependent on chemicals produced naturally by plants. Fuelwood and charcoal enter commerce for One-fourth of all U.S. prescriptions contain both household use and industry. Wood fuels ingredients from higher plants (27). In 1974, the have become much more important for indus- United States imported $24.4 million worth of tries in tropical nations since the rapid rise in medicinal plants to produce about $3 billion fossil fuel costs. Wood is the least expensive worth of drugs. The commercial value of these energy source available for many cottage in- products is over $8 billion per year. When non- dustries and charcoal the highest quality local prescription items are included, the value source for some uses. For example, Brazil has doubles (28). 1.5 million ha of eucalyptus plantations established to supply charcoal to the iron and steel Although chemical screening has been done industry in the state of Minas Gerais (31). on less than 1 percent of the tropical species, already some 260 South American plants have The Philippine Government is planning two large wood-consuming industrial facilities in been identified as having potential for fertility control. Some 1,400 tropical forest species are the province of Ilocos Norte. The first of a num- believed to have anticancer properties (7,16, ber of 3-megawatt “dendrothermal” electric 21,68,70). The National Cancer Institute has powerplants dependent on wood from fast- growing trees as boiler fuel is under construc- screened about 35,000 higher plant species for activity against cancer. As of 1977, about 3,000 tion. Another project that will involve two large of these had demonstrated reproducible activi- pig-iron blast furnaces and will rely on char- ty and a smaller number were appropriate for coal from local wood is being planned (36). clinical trials (23). Rotenoids from the roots of tropical trees, for example, are being tested Products for Medicine clinically in the United States as antitumor drugs. The importance of the tropical forests, especially the moist forests, as a source for medi- One tropical plant, the rosy periwinkle, has cines is largely a result of their high biological had a profound effect on treatment of leuke- diversity. Some of these forests contain com- mia. In 1960, people suffering this disease munities of species that have existed for 60 mil- faced one chance in five of remission. But be- lion years, making them the oldest continuous- cause of two drugs developed from the rosy ly established land ecosystems known. Their periwinkle, the chances of remission are now great age and ecological stability have allowed four in five (41). Tabebuia serratifolia, Jacaran- evolution to proceed in a relatively undisturbed da caucana, and Croton tiglium are tropical manner, and it is probably due to this stable trees, and each produces a unique anti-cancer history that tropical moist forests developed compound whose effectiveness has been their extreme biological richness (45). proved in the laboratory (51). Ch. 2—lmportance of Tropical Forests ● 51

Tropical forest plants are significant in treat- Other Forest Products ing other medical problems, notably hyperten- sion (2,41,44,67). D-tubocurasine, made from Tropical forests provide abroad array of non- the South American vine Chondrodendron to- wood products.z Some are produced in planta- rnentosum, is widely used as a muscle relax- tions of selected tree species. Others are gath- ant in surgery in the United States, Chemists ered in natural forests and brought to market have been unable to produce it synthetically through a diffuse system of collectors and in a form having all of the characteristics of middlemen. These are often called “minor for- the natural product (52). The drug’s supply, est products, ” although their importance fre- therefore, continues to rely on extracts from quently is greater than that term implies. For wild plants. example, tropical forests provide essential oils, exudates, gums, latexes, resins, tannins, sterols, Tropical forest animals are also necessary to waxes, esters, acids, phenols, alcohols, edible medical science. Primates are the most impor- oils, rattans, bamboos, flavorings, sweeteners, tant group. They are used widely in medical spices, balsams, pesticides, and dyestuffs. research and pharmaceutical trials.1 Tropical primates are especially important because of Few nations have collected data on the com- their similarity to humans. For example, re- mercial value of these nonwood forest prod- search into malaria, cardiovascular diseases, ucts. One exception is India, where nonwood cancers, hepatitis, and other diseases common- forest products are worth about $135 million ly uses rhesus monkeys, longtail macaques, per year, equivalent to one-fifth of the value of squirrel monkeys, chimpanzees, African green industrial timber (48,69). Indian forests also monkeys, and owl monkeys. produce a substantial quantity of animals used for food, scientific research, and other pur- Some 34,000 primates were imported into the poses. In Indonesia, rattans generate an export United States in 1977 for drug safety tests and trade worth up to $5 million per year. The drug production (5). Virus-free polio vaccine world trade in rattan end products now totals perhaps is the most important of the drugs pro- $1.5 billion (22,37). duced this way, using many thousands of trop- icaI forest African green monkeys, The Cen- World trade in essential oils and spices from tral and South American owl monkey is the tropical forest plants, such as camphor, cassia, only known nonhuman animal suitable for ma- cardamon, citronella, and cinnamon, exceeds laria chemotherapy and immunology studies $1 billion per year. The United States now im- (5). Few of these important animals are raised ports about 10,000 tons per year of these kinds in captivity; most are captured, and they are of oils and spices, with a value of over $100 becoming scarce as their forest habitat is be- million (24,54,55). A systematic investigation of ing destroyed. the many nonwood forest products used by the forest-dwelling people of the Tropics might lead to increased use of these materials and further enhance the economic importance of the forests.

‘See Workshop Proceedings on Plants: The Potentials for Ex- tracting Protein, Medicines, and Other Useful Chemicals(Wash- ‘See ongoing OTA assessment “Alternatives to Animal Use ington, D. C,: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, in Testing and Experimentation. ” OTA-BP-F-23, September 1983), for additional information. 52 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Endangered Species forests. Degradation and destruction of tropical forests and woodlands could precipitate a Tropical habitats contain a significant num- fundamental shift in the course of evolution ber of the world’s endangered species. As dis- (45). Of more certain concern is the loss of cussed earlier, tropical moist forests are both potential resources, not only chemicals and the most biologically complex and species-di- animals that may be used directly in medicine, verse* biome on Earth. The complexity is both agriculture, and other industries but also ge- dynamic (highly interactive) and stable (able to netic information with great potential for bio- maintain itself for long periods). Yet the stabil- technology development. ity depends on an important provision—that external forces do not exceed certain critical thresholds. Human intervention may easily ex- Migratory Animals ceed these thresholds. Tropical forests provide habitats for many of Because of geographic confinements and the world’s migratory and endangered species. specialized ecological requirements, tropical About two-thirds of the birds that breed in moist forest species are unusually susceptible North America migrate to Latin America or the to extinction (46). Many species are found in Caribbean for winter (74). In general, forest only one small area, so even a limited amount habitats are more important for migratory of deforestation can exterminate entire species. species than was previously thought. Many mi- Further, species are highly interdependent. For gratory species winter in tropical highlands— example, Brazil nuts are probably the most areas that have been rapidly preempted for commercially significant food gathered from agriculture. Since migratory species concen- forests. The nuts will grow only where a par- trate often in smaller areas in winter, the ef- ticular type of bee lives, as only this bee can fects of clearing 1 ha of forest in Mexico prob- pollinate Brazil nut flowers. The bee, in turn, ably are equivalent to clearing 5 ha in the lives only where a particular type of orchid is Northeastern United States (74). found, because it must obtain a chemical from the orchid to attract its mate. Thus, the tree has Migratory species have economic, environ- not been domesticated away from the forest mental, and esthetic values in the United where the bees and the orchids are found. Fur- States. For instance, some migratory birds play ther, for some of the nuts to serve as seeds, the an important role in integrated pest manage- nuts must be chewed by a rodent to soften the ment systems for agriculture in the Eastern fruit, allowing seed germination. Thus, Brazil United States, yet they could become more nut tree reserves must be large enough to sup- scarce as their wintering grounds in the Trop- port a breeding population of this rodent. Such ics are lost to deforestation. complex systems of interdependence are another reason why entire species can be Climate threatened by small changes (75). At least three-quarters of the projected ex- The question of whether tropical deforesta- tinctions worldwide until the end of the cen- tion can disrupt the stability of world climates tury are expected to occur in tropical moist is highly controversial. The scientific understanding of the climate effects of deforestation “Biological diversity includes two related concepts, genetic diversity and ecological diversity. Genetic diversity is the amount is still theoretical. When forests are removed, of genetic variability among individuals in a single species, more solar heat is reflected back into space (the whether the species exists as a single interbreeding group or as “albedo” effect). Some scientists believe that a number of populations, strains, breeds, races, or subspecies. Ecological diversity (species richness) is the number of species this can lead to changes in global patterns of in a community of organisms. Both kinds of diversity are fun- air circulation, with potential impacts on agri- damental to the functioning of ecological systems (17). culture (53,60). Ch. 2—Importance of Tropical Forests . 53

Another effect of forests on global climate is bon dioxide will produce a “greenhouse effect” their role as a carbon reservoir in the carbon leading to a global warming trend. Doubling cycle. As large areas of forest are converted to of the atmospheric carbon dioxide would prob- nonforest, the carbon that had been stored in ably raise the average global climate by several wood and in organic material in the topsoil is degrees centigrade. Some scientists hypothe- released to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. size that increased cloud cover and other en- When croplands, grasslands, or degraded vironmental change will confound the green- brush replace moist forest, the new vegetation house effect. The effects of such trends on stores much less carbon, Thus, net annual de- agriculture or on the world’s hydrological sys- forestation adds carbon dioxide to the atmos- tems are unknown. Likewise, the role of the phere (90). world’s forests and the effect of substantial deforestation are still uncertain. Some scien- The concentration of carbon dioxide in the tists consider deforestation to be a significant atmosphere has been increasing for several factor in the concentration of atmospheric car- decades, apparently more from burning fossil bon dioxide, while others do not (10,12,15,19, fuels than from deforestation, Scientists agree 34,90). that continued increases in atmospheric car-

POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS

Stability of the renewable natural resource human settlement, with relatively untapped base in tropical countries affects both the eco- supplies of natural resources, historically are nomic viability of U.S. investments overseas a source of new employment opportunities. To- and the political stability of the host nations. day, however, the remaining frontiers are most- Foreign assistance projects funded by the U.S. ly infertile or dry lands unable to support large Government and development projects funded numbers of people using current technologies. by the U.S. private sector are being undercut Thus, many rural unemployed persons migrate by flooding, siltation of reservoirs, pest out- to the cities. As unemployment climbs, changes breaks, and other problems associated with de- in the distribution of income within societies forestation. For example, the reservoirs used further aggravate social inequities and political to operate the Panama Canal are rapidly filling stresses (11). with silt (85), as are hydroelectric reservoirs in One consequence of the inability of develop- Pakistan, Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, ing country governments to create sufficient and many other nations (49). jobs is that people emigrate to countries with Food and jobs are critical for political stabil- slower population growth and greater per capi- ity in developing nations and both are reduced ta resources. The flow of refugees from Haiti by inappropriate deforestation. Food supplies to Florida is sometimes cited as an example of and employment can be increased in the long the economic and social disruption caused, in run, however, by reforestation of degraded part, by tropical deforestation and consequent land and by forest management. Frontiers of environmental deterioration (9).

IMPORTANCE TO FUTURE GENERATIONS

Tropical forests have particular importance without expensive inputs of irrigation water or to future generations. With few exceptions fertilizers. But scientific study of natural present agriculture systems cannot accomplish ecosystems, in concert with applied research sustained productivity on infertile or dry sites to develop technologies, possibly can discover 54 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

how sustainable agriculture can be achieved sects because of sticky hairs on its leaves, but on this land. Such research has hardly begun this resistance has not been useful to agricul- and it is a slow process. Thus, the tropical ture because the wild plant cannot be crossed forests serve future generations by the infor- with domesticated kinds of potatoes. Now the mation they reveal to science and by maintain- sticky-hair characteristic is expected to be ing the quality of the land until sustainable transferred with new biotechnology methods. systems for more intensive use are developed. If it works, the result could be new potato strains that have a much reduced need for pes- The Tropics are thought to be the repository ticide applications. This implies substantial of two-thirds of the world’s approximately 4.5 gains in production of this important food and million plant and animal species, only about attendant environmental benefits from reduced 500,000 of which have been named. That insecticide use, It is not possible to predict with means that about 2.5 million of the tropical accuracy what germ plasm will be needed in species are yet unknown to science (58). * These the future. unknown species are resources of incalculable importance for the future. Undoubtedly, new With the gradual consumption of fossil fuels sources of food, drugs, fuel, and products lie and other nonrenewable resources, the United undiscovered in tropical forests. States and other nations are expected to turn increasingly to biological systems for industrial Although vertebrates are generally thought and chemical feedstocks and for solutions to to be well known on a worldwide basis, only pollution and other environmental problems about 60 percent of the estimated 5,000 species (78,79). Some complex chemicals and some of fish in the fresh waters of South America more simple biological processes can be in- have been scientifically described and named, vented in the laboratory, but most have to be even though these comprise a large proportion found in nature. of the diet of local people. A principal source of meat for Paraguayan farmers is a peccary, Genetic materials and basic systems found made known scientifically only in 1977 (58). in nature can be reproduced or adapted with bioengineering techniques. New techniques for Tropical forests offer potential resources for cloning plants and micro-organisms already plant breeding, genetic engineering, and other are enabling laboratory biologists to screen ex- biotechnologies. Because farming environ- isting organisms for their production of useful ments are constantly changing as pests or plant chemicals much more rapidly and efficiently diseases threaten or as weather changes, agri- than in the past. The newly developing tech- culture relies on the continued input of genet- niques for genetic manipulation offer oppor- ic diversity for plant improvement. Germplasm tunities to adapt existing organisms to new is the resource to which plant breeders turn for uses (79). desirable characteristics—resistance to pests or stress, or improved growth qualities. A Peru- For example, tropical forests have a greater vian species, for example, contributed “ripe proportion of alkaloid-bearing plants than any rot” resistance to American pepper plants and other biome (6,39,56). Many of the plant species a wild melon in India was the source of resist- contain hydrocarbons as well as carbohydrates ance to powdery mildew that threatened de- in their tissues. These plant tissues can be re- struction of California’s melon crop (47). A newable sources for many chemicals, includ- wild relative of the potato from Peru has been ing fuels, now derived from nonrenewable fos- known for decades to be highly resistant to in- sil sources (13,38). Since tropical forest species usually are restricted to small geographic areas, opportunities are lost wherever the forests are *No one knows how many species exist. Some estimates put removed before their unique biota has been the figure as low as 2 million; many converge on a figure of 5 million to 10 million; if tropical insect species are included, the identified, screened, and assessed for useful- number could be closer to 30 million (40). ness (83). Ch. 2—Importance of Tropical Forests . 55

U.S. Stake in Tropical Forests Political Interests The United States has strong commitments programs are being affected adversely by to world peace, economic and social stabil- deforestation-related problems. ity, and maintenance of the Earth’s basic ● The United States and other nations have life-support systems, commitments that raised humanitarian concerns about indig- require concern about the integrity and enous populations whose cultures and very long-term productivity of the global natural existence may be threatened by destruction resource base, including the tropical forest of the forests. component. ● The United States increasingly is being The United States is party to a broad array requested by governments and internal of international resolutions, strategies, and tional development organizations to pro- agreements that call on all participating na- vide technical assistance and financial sup- tions to promote and undertake improved port for forest-related activities in develop- management of the forest resource. ing countries. U.S. public institutions and private firms Environmental Interests ● U.S. public institutions have statutory and policy responsibilities to protect and manage wisely the environment and natural resources of our Nation, as well as those of other areas within and outside U.S. jurisdiction in which U, S.-sponsored or U. S.- assisted activities are carried out. ● The United States shares, with South and Central America and the Caribbean area, hundreds of species of migratory animals, including birds, insects, marine turtles, and mammals, whose survival depends to varying degrees on tropical forests. The United States is committed to helping preserve the world’s flora, fauna, and vulnerable ecosystems by virtue of domestic legislation and national policies, and by being party to a large number of international conventions and agreements. Princi- pal among these measures are the Endan- gered Species Act of 1973, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spe- cies of Wild Flora and Fauna, and the Con- vention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere. ● Large-scale destruction of the Earth’s rain forests runs a risk of triggering global climate change, with uncertain but potentially adverse consequences for world food production and human well-being, 56 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

CHAPT~R 2 R~FmREHC~S

1, Aina, P. O., LaI, R., and Taylor, G. S., “Soil and 16. Cordell, G. A., “Alkaloids,” Encyclopedia of Crop Management in Relation to Soil Erosion Chemical Technology, vol. 1, 3d cd., pp. 883-943 in the Rain Forest of Western Nigeria, ” Soil (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978). In: Myers, Erosion Prediction and Control, G. R. Foster 1982.

(cd.), Soil Conservation Society of America, 174 Council on Environmental Quality, “The Global 1978. 2000 Report to the President” (Washington, 2. Altschul, S. von R., “Exploring the Herbarium,” D. C.: CEQ/U.S. Department of State, 1980). Scientific American 236(5):96-107, 1977. ln: 18. Dale, T., and Carter, V. G., “Top Soil and Civi- Myers, 1982. lization” (Norman, Okla.: University of Okla- 3. Anderson, A., “Farming the Amazon: the Dev- homa Press, 1981). astation Technique, ” Saturday Review, Sept. 19. d’Arge, R. C., “Climatic Change and Economic 30, 1972, Pp. 61-64. Repercussions,” paper presented at World Cli- 4. Arnold, J., “Wood Energy and Rural Commu- mate Conference, Geneva, Switzerland, World nities,” Proceedings of the Eighth World For- Meteorological Organization, 1979. In: Myers, estry Congress, Oct. 16-28, 1978, Jakarta, Indo- 1982. nesia. In: U.S. Interagency Task Force, 1980. 20. de Vos, A., “Game as Food,” UnasyZva 29(116), 5. Ashton, P. S., and Plotkin, M. J., “Technologies 1977. to Increase Production From Primary Tropical 21. Douros, J., and Suffness, M., “The National Forests and Woodlands,” OTA commissioned Cancer Institute’s Natural Products Antineo- paper, 1982. plastic Development Program,” Recent Results 6. Ayensu, E. S., “Medicinal Plants of West Afri- in Cancer Research 70:21-44, S. K. Carter and ca” (Algonac, Mich.: Reference Publications, Y. Sakurai (eds.), 1980. In: Myers, 1982. Inc., 1978). In: Myers, 1982. 22. Dransfield, J., “The Biology of Asiatic Rattans 7. Barclay, A. S., and Perdue, R. E., “Distribution in Relation to the Rattan Trade and Conserva- of Anti-Cancer Activity in Higher Plants,” Can- tion,” The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Con- cer Treatment Report 60(8):1081-1113, 1976. In: servation 179-186, H. Synge (cd.) (Chichester, Myers, 1982. Sussex, U. K.: John Wiley & Sons, 1981). In: 8. Belville, L. S., “They Are Destroying Brazil’s Myers, 1982. Paradise,” International WildZife, September- 23 Duke, J. A., personal communication, 1983. October 1971, pp. 36-40. 24 Duke, J. A., “The Gene Revolution,” OTA com- 9. Benge, M., “How To Put a Brake on the Haitian missioned paper, 1981. In: Myers, 1982. Exodus,” The Christian Science Monitor, Aug. 25. Eckholm, E., The Other Energy Crisis: Fire- 29, 1980, p. 23. wood, Worldwatch Paper 1 (Washington, D. C.: 10. Bolin, B., “The Global Carbon Cycle” (New Worldwatch Institute, 1975). York: John Wiley & Sons, 1981). In: Myers, 1982. 26. Falkenmark, M., and Lindh, G., “Water for a 11. Brown, L. R., “Redefining National Security,” Starving World” (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Worldwatch Paper No. 14, Washington, D. C., Press, 1976). In: Myers, 1982. 1977. 27. Farnsworth, N. R., and Loub, W. D., “Informa- 12. Bryson, R. A., and Murray, T. J., “Climates of tion Gathering and Data Bases That Are Perti- Hunger” (Madison, Wis.: University of Wiscon- nent to the Development of Plant-Derived sin Press, 1977). In: Myers, 1982. Drugs,” Workshop Proceedings on Plants: The 13. Calvin, M., “Hydrocarbons From Plants: Ana- Potentials for Extracting Protein, Medicines, lytical Methods and Observations,” Naturwis- and Other Useful Chemicals (Washington, D. C.: senschaften 67:525-533, 1981. In: Myers, 1982. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 14. Christensen, B., “Mangroves-What Are They ment, C)TA-BP-F-23, 1983). Worth?” Unasy]va 35(139):2-15, 1983. 28. Farnsworth, N. R., “The Consequences of Plant 15. Clark, W. C., Cook, K. H., Marland, G., Wein- Extinction on the Current and Future Availa- berg, A. M., Rotty, R. M., Bell, P. R., and bility of Drugs,” paper presented at AAAS An- Cooper, C. L., “The Carbon Dioxide Question: nual Meeting, Washington, D. C., Jan. 3-8, 1982, Perspectives for 1982,” Carbon Dioxide Review University of Illinois at the Medical Center, 1982, William C. Clark (cd.), p. 4. Chicago, mimeo. In: Myers, 1982. Ch. —Importance of Tropical Forests ● 57

29. Food and Agriculture Organization/U.N. En- Plantas Medicinales Utilizadas para Regular la vironment Program, Tropical Forest Resources Fecundidad,” Reproduction 2:163-183, 1975, Assessment Project (GEMS): Tropical Africa, In: Myers, 1982. Tropical Asia, TropicaZAmerica (4 vols.) (Rome: 45 Myers, N., “The Importance of Tropical Forest FAO, 1981). and Woodland Resources, ” OTA commissioned 30. Food and Agriculture Organization, Map of the paper, 1982. Fuelwood Situation in the Developing Coun- 46 Myers, N., “The Conversion of Tropical For- tries, 1981. ests,” Environment 22(6):6-13, 1980. 31. Food and Agricuhure Organization/U.N. Envi- 47. National Research Council, EcoZogicaZ Aspects ronment Program, “Tropical Forest Resources,” of Development in the Humid Tropics (Wash- FAO Forestry Report No. 30 (Rome: FAO, ington, D. C.: National Academy Press, 1982). 1982). 48. Pant, M. M., “Forestr~ Sector—Its Contribution 32. Food and Agriculture Organization, “Yearbook to Gross National P~oduct,” Indian Forester of Forest Products, 1969-1980” (Rome: FAO, 103(11):739-769, 1977. 1982). 49. Pereira, H. C., “Soil and Water Management 33. Gallegos, C. M., et al., “Technologies for Technologies for Tropical Forests, ” OTA com- Reforestation of Degraded Lands in the missioned paper, 1982. Tropics, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. 50, Perry, L. M., Medicinal Plants of East and 34. Gribbin, J., “The Politics of Carbon Dioxide,” Southeast Asia (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, New Scientist, Apr. 9, 1981, pp. 82-84. In: 1980). In: Myers, 1982. Myers, 1982. 51, Plotkin, M. J., “Conservation and Ethnobotany 35. Gupta, K. M., and Bandhu, D. (eds.), “Man and in Tropical South America, ” Progress Report to Forest: A New Dimension in the Himalayas” World Wildlife Fund—US (Cambridge, Mass,: (New Delhi: Today and Tomorrow’s Printers Harvard Botanical Museum, 1982). In: Myers, and Publishers, 1979). In: Myers, 1982. 1982. 36. Hyman, E, L,, “Analysis of the Demand for 52. Plotkin, M., and Schultes, R. E., “Tropical For- Woodfuels by Rural and Urban Households in ests as Sources of New Biodynamics Com- the Province of IIOCOS Norte, Philippines, ” En- pounds, ” Threatened Plant Newsletter, 1982. ergy Policy, submitted 1983. In: Ashton and Plotkin, 1982.

37. International Development Research Center, 530 Potter, G. L,, Ellsaesser, H. W,, McCracken, M. “Rattan: Report of a Workshop, Singapore, June C., and Ellis, J. S., “Albedo Change by Man: Test 4-6, 1979” (Ottawa, Canada: International De- of Climatic Effects, ” Nature 291(5810):47-49, velopment Research Center, 1980). In: Myers, 1981, In: Myers, 1982. 1982. 54. Princen, L. H., “New Crop Development for 38. Johnson, J, D., and Hinman, T. W., “Oils and Industrial Oils, ” Journal of the American Oil Rubber From Arid Land Plants,” Science Chemists’ Society 56(9):845-848, 1979. In: My- 208:460-464, 1981. In: Myers, 1982. ers, 1982. 39. Levin, D. A., “The Chemical Defenses of Plants 55. Pryde, E. H., Princen, L. H., and Mukherje, K. to Pathogens and Herbivores,” Annual Review D. (eds.), “New Sources of Fats and Oils,” Mon- of EcoZogy and Systematic 7:121-159, 1976. In: ograph No. 9 (Champaign, Ill.: American Oil Myers, 1982. Chemists’ Society, 1981). In: Myers, 1982. 40. Lewin, R., “No Dinosaurs This Time,” Science 56. Raffauf, R. F., Handbook of Alkaloids and Alka- 221:1168-1169, 1983. loid-Containing PZants (New York: John Wiley 41. Lewis, W. H., and Elvin-Lewis, M. P. F., Medi- & Sons, 1970). In: Myers, 1982. caZ Botany (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 57, Ranganathan, S., “Agro Forestry: Employment 1977). In: Myers, 1982. for Millions” (Bombay, India: TATA Press, 42. Martin, F., and Rubert6 R., EdibZe Leaves of the 1979). Tropics, Mayaguez Institute of Tropical Agri- 58, Raven, P. H., “Basic Research—A Necessary culture (Mayagiiez, Puerto Rico: AID, ARS/ Prerequisite for Adequate Development of USDA, 1975). Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest 43, Meggers, B. J., “Amazonia” (Chicago: Aldine- Resources,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. A~.~,,rson, Inc., 1971]. 59, Roose, E. J,, “Use of the Universal Soil Loss 44. Moreno, A. R., and Schwartzman, B., “268 Equation to Predict Soil Erosion in West Afri-

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Southeast Asia,” Proceedings of the 8th Tall A., Likens, G, E., Delwiche, C. C., and Botkin, Timbers Fire Ecology Conference, 1968, pp. D, B., “The Biota and the World Carbon Budg- 107-167. et,” Science 199:141-146, 1978. In: Myers, 1982, 89. Wood, P. J., Burley, J., and Grainger, A,, “Tech- 91. World Bank, “Forestry Sector Policy Paper, ” nologies and Technology Systems for Reforesta- Washington D. C., 1978. tion of Degraded Tropical Lands, ” OTA com- 92. World Meteorological Organization, Cyclones, missioned paper, 1982. Typhoons and Hurricanes: Survey Report, 90. Woodwell, G. M., Whittaker, R. H., Reiners, W. Geneva, Switzerland, 1979. In: Myers, 1982.

Highlights ...... 63 The Data Base...... 63 Extent of Remaining Tropical Forest ...... 64 Closed Forest...... 64 Open Forests and Shrublands ...... 67 Forest Fallow...... 68 Forest Management ...... Forest Legislation and Policy ...... 69 Forest Ownership ...... 70 Wood Production ...... 70 Natural Forest Management ...... 73 Plantations ...... $ ...... 74 Destruction of Forest Resources ...... 75 Deforestation ...... 75 Resource Degradation ...... 78 projection of Changes ...... 79 Chapter 3 References ...... 82

List of Tables Table No. Page 3. Estimates of Per Capita Closed Forest Areas and Deforestation Rates in Tropical Africa, America, and Asia ...... 76 5. Annual Deforestation, 1981-85 ...... 79 6. Forest Area Projections ...... 81

List of Figures Figure No. Page 12. Classification of Woody Vegetation ...... 66 13. Areas of Woody Vegetation in 76 Tropical Nations ...... 67 14. Overall Area of Tropical Woody Vegetation ...... 69 15. Comparative Production of Wood, 1980 ...... 71 16A. Wood Production in Tropical Africa, 1969-80 ...... 72 16B. Wood Production in Tropical America, 1969-80 ...... 72 16C. Wood Production in Tropical Asia, 1969-80 ...... 73 17. Plant Nutrient Loss Caused by Logging in Tropical v. Temperate Forests.. . . 80 Chapter 3 Status of Tropical Forests

HIGHLIGHTS

● The area planted with trees in tropical re- Ž The acreage within tropical forests that is gions each year is only about one-tenth of fallowed or abandoned is growing rapidly. the forest area cleared. Some of this will naturally return to forest

● cover, but most of it does not regain produc- Gradual resource degradation, especially in tivity without a concerted reforestation the drier open forest areas, may have a effort. greater long-term impact on human welfare than deforestation. ● Most tropical forest is owned by national or State governments, but locally recognized ● Landsat imagery has greatly improved rights to use the resources greatly complicate knowledge of closed tropical forests and this management efforts. is enhancing forest management. However, data on open forests and forest resource ● Tropical forestry historically has tended to degradation are still imprecise. neglect the basic needs of people who live

● in and near the forests. This is changing as Forest data aggregated by region may sug- laws, policies, and forestry professionals’ at- gest that no global problem exists. However, titudes give more attention to fuelwood, and country-by-country analyses show that rates to relationships between forestry and agri- of deforestation are high and forest area per culture. capita is already low in many tropical nations.

THE DATA BASE

Data on the extent and condition of tropical gramme (UNEP) (3,4). The FAO/UNEP study forest areas are abundant but widely scattered is the first where the definitions of forest types and frequently inaccurate. Some of this infor- and conditions are consistent across countries. mation is based on old, imprecise measure- It covers 76 nations; 73 nations are tropical or ments or estimates that have been updated partly tropical, and 3 nations are outside the through simple extrapolation. Accuracy is fur- Tropics but are directly influenced by tropical ther impaired by lack of standard definitions monsoons. It does not include the tropical and classifications of forest types; thus, the data regions of China, Australia, islands off the are difficult to compare across studies. Micro- coasts of Africa, the Pacific islands, or Puerto level studies of project areas or watersheds con- Rico. Some of the forests included are in places tain some of the most reliable and detailed in- where the climate is more temperate than trop- formation on forest resources and land use, yet ical. this information is hard to obtain because it is The FAO/UNEP study relies mainly on data poorly distributed, supplied by governments. Most measurements A comprehensive synthesis of data about the and estimates in various categories of forest world’s tropical forest resources was con- were made in the 1970’s. Then, using the ducted by the United Nations Food and Ag- estimated rates of change from one category riculture Organization (FAO) with the assist- to another, the figures were projected to rep- ance of the United Nations Environment Pro- resent the situation in each nation as of 1980.

63 64 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Several nations did not have complete data, forest cover over time. Hence, only a few of and for 13 of these FAO commissioned new the estimated deforestation rates given in the Landsat analyses. Some of the government FAO/UNEP study, presented later in this chap- estimates used by FAO are also based on Land- ter, are based on remote sensing data. The rest sat data. are mainly subjective estimates. In addition, since expertise and computers to analyze Land- Data gathered from the U.S. Landsat pro- sat data are not available in some tropical na- gram has greatly enhanced the accuracy of in- tions, many analyses have relied on visual information on the extent of forests. By using terpretation of images, This method is more computers to study Landsat data, investigators subjective and less sensitive to small-scale can distinguish primary forests from second- changes in forest area boundaries. In some ary forests, closed forests from open forests cases, images cannot be used because of cloud and grasslands, and dominant types of trees cover, (e.g., broadleaved, coniferous, mangroves). Unfortunately, Landsat data have not been collected long enough to reveal trends in the

EXTENT OF REMAINING TROPICAL FOREST

Closed Forest Another 14 percent of the total closed forest is productive forest that has been logged but Tropical nations contained some 1.2 billion is not under active forestry management. Ivory hectares [ha) of closed forest at the end of 1980, Coast, Togo, Benin, Sri Lanka, and Belize all Tropical America has 57 percent of the world’s have at least 60 percent of their closed forest closed tropical forests, while Asia has 25 per- in this condition. Some other countries have cent, and Africa has 18 percent (fig. 13). These had extensive logging but register little forest forests are unevenly distributed among the in the logged condition because farmers quick- tropical nations, Brazil alone has nearly two- ly convert the logged forest to temporary or fifths of the world’s total closed tropical forests permanent cropland. A prime example is Thai- and Indonesia and Zaire each account for near- land, which has had extensive logging but ly another tenth (table A-1 in app. A). shows no forest in the logged condition. The condition of closed tropical forests may be divided into several categories: undisturbed, Only about 3 percent of the total closed trop- logged, managed, physically unproductive, and ical forest is classified as managed. Much of protected areas. Table A-2 in appendix A this is in logged-over condition, but significant shows the percent of forest in each category investments are being made to manage natural for each of the 76 nations. regeneration. India classifies 63 percent of its closed forest as managed; Burma and Malaysia Over half (56 percent) of the total tropical each classify about 12 percent as managed. Ex- closed forest is classified as undisturbed forest. cluding these three countries, only 0.3 percent This forest has commercial potential, but most of the rest of the tropical closed forest is of it is relatively inaccessible to human popula- classified as managed. Most of that is in Ghana, tions. When Brazil and Zaire with their enor- Uganda, Kenya, Sudan, and Zambia. mous remote forests are excluded, the remaining tropical nations have two-fifths (41 percent) Another one-quarter (23 percent) of the of their closed forest in the undisturbed cate- closed forest is unproductive for physical gory. reasons. Much of this has not been disturbed Ch. 3—Status of Troplca/ Forests ● 65

Definitions of Forest Categories To dicuss; the status of the world's tropical fores? resources, the FAO/UNEP study divides forests into a number of categories (fig. 12). Those used in this report are: ● Closed forest includes land where trees shade so much of the ground that a continuous layer of grass cannot grow. The tree covrer is often multi-storied. Trees may be evergreen, semideciduous, or deciduous. Closed forests grow where the climate is relatively moist. The data on closed forest areas do not include the land which is forest fallow. which is accounted for separately. Forest plantations are also separate, ● Broadleaf forest is a subset of closed forest, where broadleaf species (dicotyledons or mono- cotyriedons] predominate. The broadleaf trees (especially the dicotyledons) are often referred to as "hardwoods.” The FAO/UNEP study makes a separate category for bamboo-dominated forests, but these are ioncluded with the broadleaf forests in this report. ● Conifer forest is another subset of closed forest. It includes only areas where conifer species (gymnosperms) predominate. These trees are often referred to as “softwoods. ” ● Open forest has trees that cover at least 10 percent of the ground but still allow enough light to reach the forest flour so that a dense, continuous cover of grass can grow. The grass cover ill creases the likelihood of grazing by livestock and the spread of fires. open forests .generally occur where the climate is relatively dry. The data on open forest areas do include the land which is forest fallow. For tropical Africa, data are also available to separate the open forest fallow from the total open forest. ● Productive forest is a term used to describe subsets of both closed and open forests. In productive forest, the characteristics of the trees, terrain, and forest regulations potenilly allow the productiun of wood for industrial purposes (e. g., sawlogs, veneerlogs, pulpwood, and industrial poles). The distance to consumption or export centers is not taken into account, so the category includes some forests that are not now economically accessible. ● Undisturbed forest is productive forest that has not been logged or cleared in the last 60 to 80 years. The category includes both primary forests and old growth secondary forests. It is not applied to open forests because nearly all open forests have been subject to cutting, burning, and grazing. ● Logged-over forest is productive forest area that has been logged or cleared at least once in the last 60 to 80 years but does not fit the criteria for managed forest. This is category is not appllied to open forests. ● Managed forest is productive forest wher harvesting regulations are enforced, silvicultural treatments are carried out, and trees are protected from fires and diseases. ● Unproductive forest for physical reasons is not suitable for industrial wood production due to rough or inundated terrain or poor growth characteristics of the trees (stunted or crooked). ● Legally protected forest is the category for forest where logging is prohibited by law. It includes a variety of parks and protected areas. Illegal logging does occur in some of these areas. ● Forest fallow is land that has been cleared for cultivation and subsequently abandoned so that it may again have some woody vegetation. This category. also includes patches of land t hat are being used to grow crops and some patches where forest has not been cleared but are too small to account for separately. The category is not supposed to include land where erosion or leaching have so degraded the site that only shrubs or grasses grow after the land is abandoned. Land in the forest forest fallow category is excluded from the definition of closed forest but included in the definition of open forest, ● Plantations are tree stands that have been established by human activity. The term includes reforestation (reestablishment of a tree cover on deforested or degraded forest lands) and replacement of natural forest by a different tree crop. ● Industrial plantations are sites wherc trees are planted to produce sawlogs, veneer logs, pulpwood and pitprops. This category excludes plantation that produce fuelwood forindust- trial use. 66 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

• Social and environmental plantations are designed for soil and water protection or to produce fuelwood and charcoal, polewood or construction wood for local use, or nonwood products, such as gum arabics. The category excludes plantations for nonwood commodities such as rubber, palm oil, coconuts, cloves, coffee, and cocoa. It also excludes trees planted to shade agricultural crops. ● Shrubland has woody vegetation covering at least 10 percent of the ground, but the main woody plants are bushy species with a height at maturity of 0.5 to 7 meters. Shrubland may be the natural vegetation under dry or otherwise stressful conditions, or it may result from severe degradation of open or closed forest land. The data on shrubland areas include some fallow agricultural land.

Figure 12.—Classification of Woody Vegetation

by cutting; it is either too steep or too wet for misleading, since much of’ this forest can be logging or farming, However, this category also productive for fuelwood and other nonin- includes forest where the trees have no poten- dustrial products and for essential environmen- tial for industrial wood production, in some tal services such as watershed protection, cases due to excessive cutting and consequent resource degradation, Brazil, Indonesia, Peru, Finally, about 3 percent of the closed tropical Mexico, New Guinea, and Zaire each have at forest has been given park or other legal pro- least 20 million ha of forest unproductive for tection status. Again, the percentage of the physical reasons. The name of this category is total hides an unequal distribution. Over half Ch. 3—Status of Tropical Forests • 67

Figure 13.—Areas of Woody Vegetationa in 76 Tropical Nations by Region (thousands of hectares, 1980 estimates) Tropical America

Plantation sed forest fallow 108,612 61,650 Open woodlands 216,997 Tropical Africa

Tropical Asia

Closed forest fallow 69,225 Open woodl and fallow 104,335 St ands Closed forest fallow . , 61,646 Plantation Open woodland Plantation forests fallow forests 5,111 3,990 1,780

(55 percent) of the protected forests are located land, grassland, or desert primarily depends on in just four countries—India, Zaire, Indonesia, how dry the climate is and on the moisture- and Brazil. Despite the legal status of park holding capacity of the soil. To an increasing lands on paper, many of these forests in fact extent, however, it also depends on human- do not receive much protection (3). caused factors (11). Generally, closed forests grow where average Open Forest and ShrubIands annual rainfall is above 1,600 millimeters (mm). Open forests are found where rain is from 900 Tropical nations contain some 746 million to l,200 mm. In areas with 1,200 to 1,600 mm ha of open forest and 624 million ha of shrub- of rain, the natural cover may be either open land. Whether the natural vegetation of a trop- or closed forest, depending on fire history, soil, ical area is closed forest, open forest, shrub- frequency of drought, and other environmen- 68 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources tal factors. Shrublands grow where rain is are important for nonindustrial products and below 900 mm. In transitional areas, fires and services. Much, perhaps most, of the open livestock grazing can convert closed forest to forest is used for livestock grazing and open forest and open forest to shrubland. Con- fuelwood collecting. These forests protect soils versely, closed or open forests can be reestab- and watersheds in the semiarid regions and lished in some places when fire and other pres- their wildlife is important as food. Further, sures are eliminated (4,11). many of the trees are legumes capable of converting atmospheric nitrogen to fertilizer, and Open forest and shrubland areas are uneven- so they are important for restoring the fertili- ly distributed among tropical nations. The data ty of abandoned croplands. describing these types of forests are much less accurate than for closed forests. This is partly Parks and protected areas account for 9 per- because boundaries between open forest, cent of the African tropical nations’ open for- shrubland, grassland, and fallow agricultural ests. Tropical America has given protected area land are difficult to determine. It is also be- status to just 1 percent, and tropical Asia has cause there has been less interest in measur- designated 2 percent for protection. ing or monitoring open forests and shrubland. Table A-3 in appendix A shows estimates for Forest Fallw areas of open forest and shrubland in each of the 76 nations. Together, the African nations The closed tropical forest regions include have most (65 percent) of the tropical open for- some 240 million ha of land in forest fallow. ests, but Brazil again dominates with 157 mil- Overall about 1 in 6 ha in the closed forests are lion ha. Zaire has 71 million ha; Angola has 51 being used for shifting agriculture. But in many million ha. nations, shifting agriculture has claimed a larger part of the closed forest. Sierra Leone has Shrublands also are mainly (7 I percent) five times as much forest fallow as closed for- found in Africa. Sudan has 87 million ha of est, Five other nations in tropical Africa, four shrubland, and other African nations with in tropical Asia, and four in tropical America large expanses of shrubland include Tanzania, have from 50 to 100 percent as much forest fal- Central African Republic, Zambia, and low as closed forest, Table A-4 in appendix A Ethiopia. In tropical America, Brazil has 61 shows the ratio of forest fallow to forest for million ha; Paraguay, Bolivia, and Mexico also each of the 76 nations. It is likely that much have extensive shrublands. Among the tropical of this fallow land will not be returned to forest Asian nations, Thailand, Kampuchea, Laos, uses. Under unfavorable site conditions and and Indonesia all have substantial shrubland short fallow periods, much of this land may areas. eventually become unproductive for agriculture as well. Since open tropical forests are more easily penetrable than closed forests, nearly all of Estimates of forest fallow areas are not ac- them have been cut, burned, or grazed by curate. However, shifting agriculture is by no livestock. Hence, no open forests are classified means limited to moist areas. In dry regions, as undisturbed. Two-thirds of tropical fallow serves to restore moisture as well as America’s open forest is classified as organic matter and plant nutrients to the soil. productive—having potential to produce wood The FAO/UNEP report estimates that about for industry, In Africa, where these forests are one-fifth of the land reported to be open forest generally drier, only one-third is classified as is in fact forest fallow. Livestock graze on both productive; just over one-fourth is classified the forest fallow and the open forest that has productive in tropical Asia. not yet been used for crops. Although few open forests fit the FAO/UNEP Figure 14 shows relative areas of each vegeta- definition for “productive,” these woodlands tion type for the 76 nations as a whole. Ch. 3—Status of Tropical Forests Ž 69 —

Figure 14.—Overall Area of Tropical Woody Vegetation Land surface of the Earth

Land surface of the 76 countries studied

- Conifer \ forests Plantations SOURCE: Food and Agriculture Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, Tropical forest Resources Assessment Project (GEMS): Tropical Africa, Tropical Asia, Tropical America, 4 VOIS. (Rome: FAO, 1981)

FOREST MANAGEMENT Forest Logislation and Policy Other prominent policy issues include accelerating reforestation on degraded lands, pro- Forest legislation and policy are evolving in tecting watersheds, increasing incentives for tropical countries to reflect a growing aware- industrial plantations and farm forestry, and ness of the social and environmental implica- legislative support for reforesting communal tions of forestry decisions. Many tropical na- land. Social issues, too, increasingly are being tions substantially revised their forestry laws recognized (e.g., the needs of slash-and-burn during the 1960’s and 1970’s. In many cases, cultivators and nomadic grazers, domestic fuel- however, the laws look good on paper, but are wood requirements, and release of forest lands not well-enforced (7). to settled agriculture). Many tropical countries now view conservation as important to eco- Some issues have become more prominent nomic development and, thus, are more aware in the last 5 to 10 years. For example, many of the need to sustain multiple-use of forests, countries have revised their logging laws and preserve biological diversity, maintain parks policies to be more restrictive regarding timber and protected areas, and guard against the loss allocation from public land, lease terms, con- of mangroves. cession fees and taxes, annual allowable cut limits, regeneration methods, and export of un- Some gaps, however, still need to be ad- processed logs. dressed. There is a need to evaluate tropical 70 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources forest resource policy, but no organization has the forest land for continuous cropping and such a program. The connection between grazing. State control over forest lands has forests and policies in other sectors such as been a gradual process, taking place mainly land tenure and agrarian reform also needs to over the past 30 years. The central government be assessed. in Nepal and some states in India such as West Bengal took control of all forested land from Forest Ownership the villages in the 1950’s. Papua New Guinea and most of the Pacific Islands are exceptions In order to understand the use and loss of to this general rule. There, forests are owned forest resources and to devise effective policies by clans and tribes and the government has to for managing forests, it is important to know negotiate with them for the right to use forest the legal and de facto ownership of forest lands resources. and trees. The legal status of land may not indicate who has practical control of land use. For example, owners of large properties may Wood Production appropriate adjoining public lands. Also, slash- The 76 nations covered by the FAO/UNEP and-burn cultivators and other landless poor study of tropical forests produce 1.4 billion may occupy communal forests. In fact, tree ten- cubic meters of wood annually (measured as ure may differ from land tenure. round logs extracted from the forest). As fig- The FAO/UNEP report (3) summarizes forest ure 15 indicates, this is about half of all the ownership by regions and provides some de- wood production in the world, and most (86 tails at the national level. In tropical America, percent) of it is used for firewood or charcoal. forest ownerships may be public, private, or The rest is “industrial wood” used for domestic communal. Most conifer forests in Brazil and and export production of sawlogs, veneer logs, in Central American nations are privately lumber, poles, pulpwood, wood panels, and owned. The much larger broadleaved forests other processed products. Figure 16 indicates are public property, but national laws regard- changes in wood production for each of the ing forest ownership often are contradicted by tropical regions over a 12-year period. local practice. The production of industrial wood varies The situation is more complex in tropical Af- with economic conditions. Generally economic rica where private ownership of forests is rare. development during the 1970’s, resulted in in- Traditional use rights in most forest areas are rec- creasing demand for industrial wood in all the ognized for hunting, gathering nonwood prod- tropical regions. Industrial wood production ucts, acquisition of fuelwood and construction increased most rapidly in tropical Asia and in wood, and shifting cultivation or grazing. Peo- West Africa with the growth of markets for ple may have exclusive rights over trees that sawlogs and veneer logs from those regions. they plant on communal lands. Local com- More recently, slowing economies have con- munity ownership of forest lands in many for- strained the growth in production. If rapid mer British colonies is recognized in national economic growth resumes, tropical America forestry laws. In former French colonies, local may experience substantial industrial wood rights are not recognized at the national level production increases. and all forests are considered state property. Significant investments were made in mills In tropical Asia, 80 to 90 percent of the forest and infrastructure during the 1970’s, but these land is state-owned and under the legal con- have operated below capacity because of weak trol of the forest departments. However, a large markets. In Asia and West Africa, depletion of part of this land is illegally occupied by forest resources is likely to constrain sawlog and farmers, both those who practice traditional veneer log production, but resurgence of shifting agriculture and those who try to use economic growth should create domestic Ch. 3—Status of Tropical Forests ● 71

5.—Comparative Production of Wood, 1980

3% Tropical Amer ica

5010 Tropical Asia 6 %

Fuelwood

/ Other \

Total roundwood SOURCE: Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, Tropical Forest Resources, Forestry Paper No 30 (Rome: FAO, 1982) markets for wood chips to produce pulp and dominance will become greater where eco- other wood products made from a wider varie- nomic growth continues to be slow. ty of trees, Looking at figure 16, one might expect that tropical forestry efforts would be concentrated The increase in total wood production is mainly on fuelwood production. However, un- driven by a steady increase in fuelwood pro- til recently forestry departments in tropical duction. However, the data on fuelwood appar- countries, international assistance agencies, ently are obtained by multiplying unchanging and multilateral development banks have con- estimates of per capita consumption by each centrated most of their efforts on industrial country’s population. Thus, the growth in pro- wood production. Industrial production at- duction is probably not so steady as figure 16 tracts investment in the forestry sector because suggests. Nevertheless, fuel is certainly the it can earn foreign exchange and concession dominant use for wood in the Tropics and that fees, and it can be taxed. Thus, industrial wood 72 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Figure 16/L-Wood Production in Tropical Africa, 1969-80

Fuelwood Sawlogs and Other Industrial veneer logs roundwood 400,000 I I

350,000

300,000 -

250,000 -

200,000 -

150,000 -

100,000 -

50,000 -

0 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 Years SOURCE Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, Tropical Forest Resources, Forestry Paper No. 30 (Rome: FAO, 1982)

Figure 16 B.–Wood Production in Tropical America, 1969.80 450,000t I Fuelwood Sawlogs and Other Industrial veneer logs roundwood 400,000

350,000

300,000

t 250,000 -

200,000 -

150,000 -

1oo,ooo -

50,000 -

0 - 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 Years SOURCE’ Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, Tropical Forest Resources, Forestry Paper No, 30 (Rome: FAO, 1982) Ch. 3—Status of Tropical Forests Ž 73

Figure 16C.–Wood Production in Tropical Asia, 1969-80 700,000 - Fuelwood Sawloas and Other Industrial veneer logs roundwood

600,000 [

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

o 1969I 1970 1971 1972 I 973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1979 1980 Years SOURCE dated from Food and Agriculture Organlzatlon/United Nations Environment Program me, Tropical Foresf Resources Forestry Paper No 30 (Rome FAO. 1982) - production probably will continue to dominate Much more wood is consumed in tropical tropical forestry activities. countries for fuelwood, however. Serious shortages of fuelwood, lumber, poles, paper, and The problem of ensuring an adequate indus- other forest products within nations are not be- trial wood supply for international trade* is ing met through international trade because of more tractable than problems associated with high transportation costs and persistent pover- fuelwood supply, impacts of deforestation on ty. Furthermore, conflicts between forest and soil and water resources, or maintenance of agricultural land uses are critical in many biological diversity. First, nearly 75 percent of countries. the world’s industrial wood is now produced in the temperate zone. Second, industrial wood supplies have grown at reasonably stable rates Natural Forest Management for 30 years (9). And third, a large proportion of the world’s future consumption of industrial Only small areas of tropical forests are under wood can come from plantations. One recent intensive management (3). In tropical America, estimate is that 140 million ha of well-managed management is increasing. For example, Mex- plantations could, theoretically, supply all the ico is managing watershed forests through con- industrial wood consumed in the world in the trolled logging. Belize, Brazil, Guatemala, and year 2000 (8). That would be an area equal to Paraguay are designing management plans for 5 percent of the present forested area in the natural resources. Silvicultural trials and world. research efforts to develop suitable technologies for managing natural forests are under way in Brazil, Costa Rica, French Guyana, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela.

25-287 0 - 84 - 6 74 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Some African nations, when they were Brit- Forestry plantations are usually monocul- ish and Belgian colonies, had developed har- ture, often of exotic species, planted not where vesting regulations and working plans for man- forest cutting is occurring, but rather on land aging natural forests, but these have been aban- that has been cleared for some time, such as doned over the past two decades. Nigeria, abandoned farmland (5). Most industrial wood Zaire, and Tanzania previously managed large plantations in East Africa are softwoods (pines areas of natural forest, but no longer do so. and cypress), while in West Africa hardwoods Uganda reports a large managed area, although (principally teak) are planted. In tropical it is doubtful that the management plans have America, pines are usually grown for saw tim- been implemented. The Congo also is prepar- ber, while eucalyptus and gmelina are planted ing plans that set the allowable cut for natural for pulpwood. Eucalyptus frequently is grown forests and indicate appropriate silvicultural for pulpwood in India, while teak is grown for practices. timber in India and Indonesia.

The deciduous and conifer forests of South Two-thirds of nonindustrial plantations in Asia—Burma, Bangladesh, India, and Paki- Africa are for fuelwood; the rest are mainly for stan—have a long history of intensive forest gum arabic production or watershed protec- management. India alone contains 60 percent tion. In tropical America, three-quarters of the of all the managed forest in the 76 tropical na- plantations classified as nonindustrial are euca- tions. However, the remaining tropical forests lyptus trees planted to supply charcoal to the of South Asia and the forests of Southeast Asia iron and steel industry in the Brazilian State are not intensively managed for a number of of Minas Gerais. Most of the rest is for produc- reasons. Information on forest ecology and dy- tion of forest fruit, such as “palmito.” Only namics is scarce. Forestry departments lack about 100,000 ha of plantations in tropical trained personnel to manage the forests. The America are intended primarily for soil and watershed protection; Mexico has most of emphasis in forestry has been on commercial exploitation so that little attention has been these. In Asia, most nonindustrial plantations given to silvicultural treatments (3). are intended to produce locally consumed firewood and these are being planted at a rate of about 1 million ha/yr. The rate of forest plantation establishment is much too low to replace the amount of forest being cleared. In tropical America, the ratio of About 11.5 million ha of tree plantations had area planted to area deforested annually is been established in the 76 nations by the end about 1 to 10.5; in tropical Africa it is 1 to 29; of 1980 (table A-5 in app. A). Most (68 percent) and in tropical Asia it is 1 to 4.5 (4). Further- of these are in just three countries: Brazil, In- more, most reforestation programs are not car- dia, and Indonesia. About 7 million ha are in- ried out where deforestation takes place. In tended to produce sawlogs, veneerlogs, pulp- Brazil, for example, plantations are concen- wood, or industrial poles. Only 4.4 million ha trated in the South, whereas forest clearing oc- have been planted for fuelwood and charcoal, curs mainly in the North. for environmental protection, and for nonwood products such as gum arabic. The greatest discrepancy between reforestation rates and the demand for wood and other The estimated rate of planting in the tropical forest products is in Africa. In Asia, reforesta- nations is about 1.1 million ha/yr (4). Current tion is closer to deforestation because planting is intended mainly (53 percent) for deforestation rates level off as the remaining lumber, paper, and industrial poles, but a grad- forest is left only in inaccessible areas and ual shift to fast-growing trees to produce fuel- because severe wood shortages in heavily wood and charcoal is occurring as a result of populated areas are leading to greater planting changing objectives in tropical forestry. efforts (4). Ch. 3—Stafus of Tropical Forests Ž 75

DESTRUCTION OF FOREST RESOURCES

Distinguishing between deforestation (also bandry practices were considered as well. called “clearing” in this report) and degrada- Table A-6 in appendix A shows estimated areas tion of forest resources is important. The FAO/ of closed forest converted to nonforest annu- UNEP study estimates deforestation rates for ally for each of the 76 countries. 1976-80 and projects rate estimates for 1981-85. The overall tropical deforestation rate is It does not, however, estimate degradation strongly affected by the status of the forests in rates. Unlike deforestation, degradation is not easy to identify through time-series Landsat or a few tropical nations that have very large forest areas relative to their population. Thus, the other remote-sensing analyses. 0.5 and 0.6 percent/yr figures obscure both substantial differences among nations and the Deforestation overall severity of tropical deforestation. Each year about 0.5 percent of the remain- Closed forest area per capita is already less ing closed tropical forests and 0.6 percent of than O.O5 ha in 17 of the 76 nations. Over half the remaining open tropical forests are con- the rest have deforestation rates between 1 and verted to nonforest land uses or to wasteland. 6.5 percent/yr. Table 3 indicates forest areas This is an aggregation of estimated deforesta- per capita and deforestation rate estimates for tion rates from the 76 countries covered by the each country. FAO/UNEP report. In some countries, the de- Table 4 shows the 76 nations divided into forestation rate has been estimated by compar- nine categories of closed forest area and popu- ing Landsat or other remote-sensing data from lation size. Several countries, including Gabon, two time periods; for some, information on Congo, French Guiana, Surinam, and Guyana, population growth, farming, and animal hus- have such large forests and so few people that their deforestation rates are very low. Clearly, closed tropical forests will exist in these na- Deforestation and Degradation tions for many decades, although even a Much of the confusion over rates of change relatively small population can cause resource in forest areas stems from the failure to dis- degradation over large areas. Other nations, tinguish between deforestation and degrada- such as Liberia and Honduras, have large tion. As defined here and in the FAO/UNEP amounts of forest but also have high deforesta- report: tion rates. If current rates of deforestation and population growth were to continue, these two ● Deforestation is the conversion of forests nations would, in just 15 years, reduce their to land uses that have a tree cover of less than 10 percent. Thus, logged-over areas, forest area per capita to half what it is. In some including clear-cut areas, are not classi- nations, deforestation can be expected to slow fied as deforested if the forest is in the as the forests are reduced to inaccessible areas process of regenerating. that are unattractive to farmers. However, ex- ● Degradation of forests refers to biologi- perience in nations such as Haiti, El Salvador, cal, physical, and chemical processes that Jamaica, Costa Rica, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Angola, result in loss of the productive potential and Ghana indicate that deforestation can con- of natural resources in areas that remain tinue rapidly even when only limited forests classified as forest. Soil erosion and Ioss remain. of valuable or potentially valuable genetic types are examples of degradation. In In tropical Africa, deforestation rates are some cases, forests can recover naturally highest in the West African nations. Nigeria from degradation within a few decades. and Ivory Coast together incur almost half (45 In other cases recovery may take much percent) of the continent’s total annual defor- longer, if it occurs at all. estation of closed forests, About 4 percent of the closed forests of the West African nations 76 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Table 3.—Estimates of Per Capita Closed Forest Areas and Deforestation Rates in Tropical Africa, America, and Asia

Closed forest Closed forest Percent Closed forest Closed forest Percent area area (ha) deforested area area (ha) deforested Country (1,000 ha) per capita per yeara Country (1,000 ha) per capita per yeara

Tropicai Africa: El Salvador ...... 141 3.2 Ivory Coast ...... 4,458 0.5 6.5 Jamaica ...... 67 3.0 Nigeria...... 5,950 O.7 5.0 Nicaragua ...... 4,496 1.6 2.7 Rwanda ...... 120 2.7 Burundi ...... 26 b 2.7 Ecuador ...... 14,250 1.6 2.4 Benin ...... 47 b 2.6 Honduras ...... 3,797 0.9 2.4 Guinea-Bissau ...... 660 0.8 2.6 Guatemala ...... 4,442 0.6 2.0 Liberia ...... 2,000 1.0 2.3 Colombia ...... 46,400 1.7 1.8 Guinea...... 2,050 0.4 1.8 Mexico ...... 46,250 0.6 1.3 Kenya...... 1,105 0.1 1.7 Panama ...... 4,165 2.0 0.9 Madagascar ...... 10,300 1.1 1.5 Belize ...... 1,354 5.0 0.7 Angola ...... 2,900 0.4 1.5 Dominican Republic . . 629 0.1 0.6 Uganda ...... 765 0.1 1.3 Zambia...... 3,010 0.5 1.3 Trinidad and Tobago.. 208 0.2 0.4 Ghana ...... 1,718 0.1 1.3 Peru ...... 69,680 3.6 0.4 Mozambique ...... 935 0.1 1.1 Brazil ...... 357,480 2.7 0.4 Sierra Leone ...... 740 0.2 0.8 Venezuela ...... 31,870 1.8 0.4 Tanzania ...... 1,440 0.1 0.7 Bolivia ...... 44,010 7.5 0.2 Togo...... 304 O.l 0.7 Cuba ...... 1,455 0.1 0.1 Sudan ...... 650 0.6 French Guiana ...... 8,900 129.1 c Chad ...... 500 0.1 0.4 Surinam ...... 14,830 37.1 c Cameroon ...... 17,920 2.0 0.4 Guyana ...... c Ethiopia ...... 4,350 0.1 0.2 18,475 23.1 Somalia ...... 1,540 0.3 0.2 Totals ...... 678,655 2.1 0.6 Equatorial Guinea . . . . 1,295 4.3 0.2 Zaire ...... 105,750 3.4 0.2 Tropical Asia: Central African Nepal ...... 1,941 0.1 4.3 Republic ...... 3,590 1.4 0.1 Sri Lanka ...... 1,659 0.1 3.5 Gabon ...... 20,500 29.3 0.1 Thailand ...... 9,235 0.2 2.7 Congo ...... 21.340 12.6 0.1 b c Brunei ...... 323 1.2 1.5 Zimbabwe ...... ’200 Malaysia ...... 20,995 1.4 1.2 Namibia ...... c b c Botswana ...... c b c Laos ...... 8,410 2.3 1.2 c b c Philippines ...... 9,510 0.2 1.0 Mali ...... b Upper Volta ...... c b c Bangladesh ...... 927 0.9 Niger ...... c b c Viet Nab ...... 8,770 0.2 0.7 Senegal ...... 220 b c Indonesia ...... 113,895 0.7 0.5 b c Malawi ...... 186 Pakistan ...... b c 2,185 0.3 Gambia ...... 65 0.1 Burma ...... 31,941 0.8 0.3 Totals ...... 216.634 0.6 0.61 Kampuchea...... 7,548 1.3 0.3 Tropical America: India ...... 51,841 0.1 0.3 Bhutan ...... 2,100 1.5 Paraguay ...... 4,070 1.2 4.7 0.1 Costa Rica ...... 1,638 O.7 4.0 Papua New Guinea . . . 34,230 11.0 0.1 Haiti ...... 48 3.8 Totals ...... 305,510 0.2 0.6 aFrom 1981-85. bLessthan 0.05 forest hectares per capita. cNo data; in most cases this is where the areas are very small. SOURCES: Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet Washington, D.C; Food and Agriculture Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, Tropical Forest Resources AssessrnenfF’reject (GEMS): Tropical Africa, Tropical Asia, Tropical Arnerica,4 vols. (Rome: FAO, 1981) are deforested each year. Other African regions Five nations in tropical America (Paraguay, with high deforestation rates include East Afri- Costa Rica, Haiti, El Salvador, and Jamaica) ca, where 1.4 percent of the closed forest ca- have deforestation rates of at least 3 percent/yr, pable of producing industrial wood is cleared while another six (Nicaragua, Ecuador, Hon- each year, and the nations of Burundi and duras, Guatemala, Columbia, and Mexico)con- Rwanda, where the rate is 2.7 percent/yr. Large vert atleast l percent/yr of their closed forest areas of closed forest in Zaire and Cameroon to other uses or to unforested wasteland. Al- are cleared—262,000 ha/yr together—but like though deforestation in Brazil is low when ex- Brazil these countries are forest-rich so the pressed as a percent of the remaining forest(0.4 rates do not seem so alarming as in the other percent), it affects a large area—about l.5 mil- African nations. lion ha/yr. That is one-third of all the closed Ch. 3—Status of Tropical Forests ● 77

Table 4.—Comparison of Tropical Countries’ Closed Forest Sizes, population Sizes, and Deforestation Rates — — Closed forest Population Deforestation Region/country slzea slzeb ratec Tropical Africa: Kenya, . . . ., Small Large 1 ,7% Uganda Small Large 1,3 Ghana . . Small Large 1.3 Mozambique Small Large 1.1 Tanzania ., ., Small Large 07 Sudan ... ., Small Large 06 Burundi ., SmalI Medium 27 Rwanda ., ., ., Small Medium 2.7 Benin ...... SmalI Medium 26 Sierra Leone . . . Small Medium 08 Chad SmalI Medium 04 Upper Volta Small Medium d Zimbabwe.... SmalI Medium d Mali . . . . ,, SmalI Medium d Niger . . . . SmalI Medium d Senegal. SmalI Medium d Malawi, ,. .,..,, .., ,. SmalI Medium d Guinea-Bissau . . Small SmalI 2.6 Togo, . . . . . Small SmalI 07 Equatorial Guinea . . . . . Small Small 0.2 Botswana . . Small SmalI d Gambia ...... Small Small d Namibia. , . . . . SmalI Small d ...... Ivory Coast. Mediurn Large 65 Nigeria, . Medium Large 5.0 Angola ..,. . Medium Large 15 Ethiopia . Medium Large 02 Guinea ...... Medium Medium 1.8 Zambia . . . . Medium Medium 1.3 Somalia Medium Medium 02 Liberia . . . ., . Medium Small 2.3 Central African Republic Medium SmalI 0.1 ...... Madagascar Large Large 1,5 Cameroon Large Large 0.4 Zaire ...... Large Large 0,2 Gabon ,., . Large Small 0.1 Congo, ...... Large SmalI 01 Tropical America: Cuba . Small Large 01 Medium 38 Medium 32 Medium 06

Tropica/ 78 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

forest clearing each year in tropical America. Based on current and planned rates of tree Colombia and Mexico together account for plantation establishment, the areas reforested another third. in the Tropics as a whole are about one-tenth of the areas deforested. Three-fifths of the closed forest cleared in tropical Asia each year is logged-over produc- Deforestation also occurs in open tropical tive forest and about one-quarter is previously forests, Trees are cut and burned both by tradi- undisturbed forests. The highest deforestation tional shifting agriculturists and by farmers in- rate in Asia is 4.3 percent/yr in Nepal, and a tending to establish permanent croplands. Ex- significant portion of this cutting occurs in tracting wood for fuel or industrial use, fires, temperate forests on mountain watersheds. In and excessive grazing all cause deforestation Sri Lanka, deforestation is 3.5 percent/yr, and by reducing tree cover to less than 10 percent. in Thailand it is 2.7 percent. Brunei, the Philip- The open forest area data are poor, however, pines, and Bangladesh also have very high and the estimates of deforestation rates are deforestation rates. even less precise. Deforestation in the dry open forests is typically a gradual process and thus Rates of deforestation are calculated as the is more difficult to see than in moist areas estimated area deforested per year divided by where the tree canopies are more dense. Fur- the estimated 1980 forest area. Thus, these ther, the open forest lands are often under the rates should not be confused with geometric jurisdiction of agencies that consider grazing rates of change, such as population growth to be the main use of this land. Thus, the land rates. Acceleration or deceleration of deforesta- is likely to be classified by its herbaceous cover tion rates are influenced not only by popula- rather than its tree cover. tion growth but also by many other factors such as rural to urban migration rates, land tenure The FAO/UNEP study does not list country- changes, and especially road-building activi- specific deforestation rates for open forests, but ties. Much too little is known about how these it does provide overall estimates of open forest factors interact to predict how deforestation clearing for tropical Africa, America, and Asia. rates will change over any long period. These are shown in table 5. As a rough indi- The FAO/UNEP study does draw some infer- cator of the pressure on open forest resources, ences about changes in the accessibility of the table A-7 in appendix A indicates open forest remaining forests. The area of closed tropical area per capita for each of the 76 nations. forest cleared each year may be decreasing slightly for tropical Africa as a whole during the first half of the 1980’s, since during the Resource Degradation , previous decade the closed forests in heavily populated countries of West Africa generally Resource degradation, the long-term loss of were reduced to sites that are unattractive to productive potential, is much more difficult to farmers. However, the rate probably is ac- measure than deforestation. Reduction of soil celerating in some nations. Deforestation in quality and loss of superior genetic types of Latin America, on the other hand, probably is trees have been documented for specific forest increasing because additional forested areas locations (6). But so little is known about the are becoming accessible as new roads and ecology of the tropical forests or the economic bridges are built. In tropical Asia, deforesta- potential of the many tropical forest species that tion is also thought to be increasing, but the degradation can be a highly subjective term. rate probably will level off in the 1990’s as the Forest resource degradation is undoubtedly oc- forests are reduced to inaccessible areas or curring (3,6) and, especially in the drier open sites where agricultural clearing is not worth- forests where recovery is slower, it may be a while. more important change than deforestation (12), Ch. 3—Status of Tropical Forests . 79

Table 5.—Annual Deforestation, 1981-85

Area Closed forests Open Total open and reforested Undisturbed Productive, logged Unproductive forests closed forests annually

- 0 0 (1,000 ha) (o/o) (1,000 ha) ( / 0 ) (1,000 ha) (%) (1,000ha) / 0 ) (1 ,000 ha) (%) (1,000 ha) Tropical America . 1,299 0.29 1,867 2.78 1,173 0.74 1,272 0.59 5,611 0.63 535 Tropical Africa . . . 226 0.19 1,032 2.31 73 0.14 2,345 0.98 3,676 0.52 126 Tropical Asia. . . . . 395 0.39 1,278 1.28 153 0.15 190 0.61 2,016 0.60 438 Total ...... 1,920 0.28 4,177 1.98 1,399 0.45 3,807 0.52 11,303 0.58 1,099 SOURCE Calculated from Food and Agriculture Organlz~lon/United Nations Ennvironment Programme, Tropical Forest Resources, Forestry Paper No 30 (Rome FAO, 1982)

Forest resource degradation has multiple with the logs. Machinery is available to harvest causes. Logging practices can cause degrada- whole trees and to use multiple species to pro- tion by damaging residual trees, damaging soil, duce pulpwood. Although these technologies or failing to create an environment where nat- are not yet widely used in the Tropics, they ural regeneration of valuable forest species can could accelerate the loss of soil fertility (2). Fur- occur. Forests in tropical America and Africa thermore, many tropical tree species seed irreg- typically contain a large number of tree species ularly or at long intervals (once in 5 to 7 years). per hectare, but just a few are commercially If clearcutting is practiced, natural regenera- valuable for timber. Logging in these areas usu- tion of these species may not occur. Clearcut- ally means felling and extracting only the best- ting also reduces regeneration of trees, such shaped, large individuals of selected species. as Dipterocarps, whose seedlings need to grow Yet, substantial and lasting damage is often in partial shade (l). done to the residual trees as a result of mechanized logging and skidding operations (10). As Conifer and mangrove forests in all three much as one-half of the residual stand may be tropical regions and certain other forests in damaged (e.g., broken stems and branches or tropical America (e.g., “cativo” and “sanjo” disturbed roots) and one-third of the logged forests of Panama and Colombia) also have a area may undergo soil damage (2). low diversity and often are clearcut or cutover so severely that soil conditions are unable to Some tropical forests, such as the Diptero- support natural regeneration. carp forests of South and Southeast Asia, have a large number of commercially valuable spe- Even where clearcutting is not practiced, log- cies per hectare and are clearcut. This can ging roads can lead to degradation, For exam- cause soil erosion that reduces the potential for ple, in Sabah and the Philippines, approximate- natural regeneration. In tropical moist forests ly 14 percent of forest concession areas are a large proportion of the ecosystem’s nutrients cleared for logging roads (3). Poorly designed are tied up within the biomass of trees rather or constructed roads cause erosion and water than the soils (fig. 17). Thus, a large share of drainage problems and may increase the sever- the nutrients may be exported from the forest ity of Landslides,

Projection OF CHANGES

The FAO/UNEP study provides some straight-line projection of the FAO/UNEP esti- estimates of rates at which forests are being mates, while not a forecast, can provide an changed from one category to another during understandable way to describe the magnitude the period 1980-85, although quantitative data of resource changes that may occur. Table 6 on natural resource degradation in areas that shows the projected forest areas for each of the remain classified as forest are not available. A three tropical regions. 80 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Figure 17.—Plant Nutrient Loss Caused by Logging in Tropical v. Temperate Forests Tropical Temperate

10 ”/0 Nitrogen harvest 2% loss

Phosphorus 390/0

7 “/0

Potassium 280/o 14 ”/0

Calcium 20% 50/0

57 ”/0 Ch. 3—Status of Tropical Forests • 81

Table 6.–Forest Area Projections (1,000 ha)

Tropical Africa Tropical America Tropical Asia Change Change Change over 20 over 20 over 20 a b a a Forest Category 1980a 1985 2000 years (O/. ) 1980a 1985 2000b years (o/o) 1980a 1985 2000b years ( 0 /0) Closed forests: Undisturbed, productive ., 118,450 114,134 101,186 –15 454,507 438,119 388,995 –14 101,352 89,087 52,292 –48 Logged, productive ., ., 42,848 40,911 35,100 –18 66,622 67,281 69,258 +4 59,847 60,424 62,155 +4 Managed, productive ... . 1,735 1,689 1,551 –11 522 522 522 0 39.790 40,032 40,758 + 2 Fallow In closed forests 61,646 66,705 81,882 +33 108.612 116,303 139,376 +28 69,225 73.729 87.241 +26 Physically unproductive or parks and protected areas 53,601 53,236 52,141 –3 157,004 151,140 133,548 –15 104,521 106,836 113,781 +9 Open forests: Productive ., ., . . . . 169,218 159,555 130,566 –23 142,887 136,787 118,487 –17 8,530 8,075 6,710 –21 Unproductive ... ., ., . 317,227 315,167 308,987 – 3 74,110 73,850 73,070 – 1 22,418 21,923 20,438 -9 Fallow In open forests, 104,335 111,520 133,075 +28 61,650 62,950 66,850 +8 3,990 4,100 4.430 +11 aSOURCE Food and Agriculture Organ!zat!on/United Nat Ions Environment Program me, Tropica/ Forest Resources, Forestry Paper No 30 (Rome FAO, 1982) ‘Extrapolated from current rates of change excludes plantations

This 20-year projection suggests that at cur- est land in tropical America in recent years has rent rates of logging and deforestation in trop- been to make cattle pasture, although this use ical Africa, the area of undisturbed forest generally is not sustainable in moist forest would decline 15 percent by the year 2000. areas. The area of closed forest that is unpro- Some of this is because timber harvest will con- ductive for physical or legal reasons is also de- vert undisturbed forest to logged forest. The clining significantly, suggesting that this land logged forest category also includes secondary is not so inaccessible as its definition implies. forest on land that is recovering from use for shifting agriculture. However, in spite of these The change rates for tropical America’s open additions, the logged forest area is decreasing forests imply degradation of forest from the because this category incurs most of the defor- productive category, simultaneous clearing of estation for agriculture, Since the land does not the unproductive forest, and a net increase in sustain continuous cropping, the forest fallow open forest fallow that can account for only a area is expected to increase over the 20-year fraction of the reduction in the forest catego- period by one-third. Changes in the open for- ries. Again, this means a net conversion of ests of Africa would be even greater. The open open forest into cropland, grazing land, and forest fallow is already larger than the fallow degraded land where forests do not regenerate area in Africa’s closed tropical forests. It would naturally, and it means a substantial decline increase by another 28 million ha as produc- in the quality of the remaining open forest. tive open forest is degraded to the unproductive category and both are cleared for shift- Tropical Asia shows the highest reduction ing agriculture. (21 percent) in undisturbed productive forest, although such forest has already been reduc- The projection shows a 14-percent reduction ed to an area much smaller than in tropical in the area of productive undisturbed forest in Africa and America. The logged-over area is tropical America, It also shows a 4 percent in- increasing slightly, probably because forestry crease in the area of logged forest, which sug- departments in several Asian nations have gests that logging of undisturbed forest out- some control over the spontaneous clearing for paces clearing of logged forest only slightly. cropland that follows logging operations, The Meanwhile, the forest fallow area in tropical area of forests unproductive for physical or America would increase by only about half as legal reasons is increasing in tropical Asia, many hectares as are lost from the forest cate- though whether this is a result of more parks gories, implying that large areas are being con- being established or of severe degradation of verted to nonforest uses other than shifting ag- the logged-over forests is not clear. Open for- riculture. The main reason for converting forests in tropical Asia are not so extensive as in 82 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources — the other regions, but the pattern of degrada- ficult to identify from aerial photography or tion and deforestation is similar. satellite imagery, and by no means easy to be sure about when one is actually there standing Reviewing the FAO/UNEP study’s findings in it. What is happening to these forests toon deforestation and resource degradation, day, under the impact of a variety of pres- westoby (12) declares that the situation is most sures, can best be visualized as a steady push- alarming in the drier areas, where the data are ing along the spectrum, a general downgrad- least precise: ing, with the result that very substantial areas every year slide out of sight and can no longer Among the one and a half thousand million be considered as forest on even the most gen- or so hectares of open forest and shrub land, erous definition. But what should be giving there is an infinite gradation of forest and concern is not so much the 4 million or so hec- shrub, ranging from less dry and reasonably tares that are sliding off the visible spectrum wooded forests at one end to extremely arid as the general degradation which is sapping shrub formations at the other, with the bor- away at the drier tropical forests through the derline between what can still be regarded as whole spectrum, forest and what is irretrievably lost, vague, dif-

REFERENCES

1. Abraham, F., “Practices and Experience of 6, Myers, N., Conversion of Tropical Moist For- NASIPIT Lumber Co., Inc., and Affiliates in Its ests (Washington, D. C.: National Academy of Natural and Artificial Regeneration of Forests Sciences, 1980), and Plantations, ” Proceedings of a Conference 7. Schmithusen, F., “Recent Trends of Forest on Improved Utilization of Tropical Forests Legislation in Developing Countries,” Pro- (Madison, Wis: U.S. Forest Service Forest Prod- ceedings: XVII IUFRO World Congress, Divi- ~~cts Laboratory, 1978). sion 4 (Vienna: International Union of Forest 2. Ewel, J., “Environmental Implications of Trop- Research Organizations, 1981). ical Forest Utilization, ” InternaticmaZ Sympo- 8. Sedjo, R., and Clawson, M., GZobaZ Forests sium on Tropical Forests Utilization and Con- (Washington, D, C,: Resources for the Future, servation, F. Mergen (cd.) (New Haven, Corm.: 1983). Yale University Press, 1981), pp. 156-167. 9. Spears, J., Tropical Reforestation: An Achievable 3. Food and Agriculture Organization/United Na- GoaZ? (Washington, D. C,: World Bank, 1983). tions Environment Programme, Tropical Forest 10. United Nations Economic, Social, and Cultural Resources Assessment Project (GEMS): Tropi- Organization, Tropical Forest Ecosystems (Par- cal Africa, Tropical Asia, Tropical America (4 is: UNESCO/UNEP/FAO, 1978). vols.) (Rome: FAO, 1981). 11. Weber, F., “Combating Desertification With 4. Food and Agriculture Organization/United Na- Trees,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. tions Environment Programme, TropicaZ Forest 12, Westoby, J., “Halting Tropical Deforestation: Resources, Forestry Paper No. 30 (Rome: FAO, The Role of Technology,” OTA commissiorltxl 1982). paper, 1982, 5. Gallegos, C,, et al., “Technologies for Reforesta- tion of Degraded Lands in the Tropics, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. Chapter 4 Causes of Deforestation and Forest Resource Degradation Page Highlights ...... 85 Historical Context ...... 85 Soil: Its Relationship to Deforestation and Land Degradation ...... 87 Visible Agents of Forest Change ...... 89 Subsistence...... 89 Shifting Cultivators ...... 89 Livestock Raisers ...... 90 Fuelwood Gatherers ...... 91 Fires, , ...... 93 Warfare, ...... 94 Commercial Resource Use ...... 95 Commercial Agriculturalists and Cattle Ranchers ...... 95 Loggers ...... 97 Underlying Causes of Forest Degradation ...... 98 Property Rights and Control of Forest Resources ...... 98 Transformation of Forestry Administrations ...... 99 Chapter 4 References...... 100

Table Table No. Page 7. The Main Soil Constra nts in the Amazon Basin Under Native Vegetation 88 Chapter 4 Causes of Deforestation and Forest Resource Degradation

HIGLIGHTS • Tropical deforestation and forest resource In many tropical areas, political, ecocomic, degradation are caused by subsistence and social forces lead to overexploitation agriculturalists, livestock raisers, firewood and underinvestment in management of collectors, and loggers. tropical forest resources. Regardless of what activities are responsi- ● The agents of tropical forest loss vary in ble-for forest removal from tropical lands, prominence among the three major tropical the soil plays a large role in determining forest regions (American, Africa, and Asia), whether agriculture, new forest growth, or Many times, the combination of these activ- barren wastelands will replace the forest in ities exacerbates forest resource problems. the long run.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Deforestation of tropical lands is not solely to replace the forests. Fire and axe were used a recent phenomenon, In fact, the main loss to clear forests for ranching as well. Forest of forests in some places occurred in the 19th cover had shrunk to 53 percent by 1900. with century, when forests were cleared to estab- the declaration of the Republic in 1902, and the lish plantations of export crops such as sugar, subsequent heavy influx of foreign capital into abaca, coffee, indigo, and tobacco (36). the Cuban economy, forests continued to shrink, Small farms were swallowed up by large plan- Sugar plantations swept away the Caribbean tations. The farmers were driven to eke out a forests in turn: first Barbados, then the Lee- living in the hills where their struggle for sur- ward Islands, Jamaica, and Haiti. The slave re- vival, together with the insatiable fuel demands bellion in Haiti left the country in ruins and of the sugar mills, took a heavy toll on the up- made possible the sugar boom in Cuba. land forests. By 1946, forest cover was down to 11 percent of the land area. The average Cuba’s story is typical and better docu- yearly deforestation had been 1.7 percent of the mented than that of other parts of the Carib- forest area that existed in 1900. bean (7). Upon reaching the northeast coast of Cuba in 1492, Christopher Columbus was im- The history of Brazil, which was the world’s pressed by the island’s rich forests. A few years largest sugar producer until the middle of the later, priest Fray Bartolome wrote that it was 17th century, illustrates the severe damage that possible to walk from one end of the island to deforestation can inflict. The northeastern re- the other without leaving the shade of trees. gion of the country is notorious for its pover- In 1812, forests still covered 89 percent of ty. The densely populated coastal region re- Cuba. But thereafter, fields of sugar cane began ceives substantial rainfall and when the area

85 86 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources was forest-covered, its soils were described as and depopulated hills and mountains in South fertile and rich in humus. But the forests were China attest to the severity of past land-use cleared for sugar plantations, which were aban- practices and the inability of the forest to doned as the soils wore out. Now the infertile, regenerate naturally (46). eroded soils only support savanna. Rainfall is rapidly shed as runoff so that streams and stor- In the African Sahel, resource degradation ages dry up during protracted droughts. As a of dry forests has for centuries been caused by consequence, the region frequently gives rise a combination of processes including dry and to mass emigrations (50). erratic climate, brush fires, trans-Saharan trade, gum arabic trade, agricultural expan- Similarly, little of South China’s tropical for- sion, and cattle. Herodotus and others, writing ests remain except in the extreme southwest around 450 B. C., described an active trans- and in the interior of Hainan Island. Fire and Saharan trade based on precious stones called cultivation took a heavy toll as these forests “carbuncles,” gold dust, and slaves. This trade came under increased human pressure about had great adverse impacts on the land. For in- 1,000 years ago (45). Fire was used widely to stance, large areas were cleared of Acacia rad- clear forests for grazing lands and croplands. diana to produce charcoal. In the late 18th cen- Overgrazing and poor agricultural practices tury, huge caravans of 4,000 camels and 1,000 further reduced the likelihood that forests men would stop at the desert margin and cut would ever reestablish naturally. Timber was wood for charcoal to cook and trade. The char- used to build houses, temples, and ships, and coal even was used as emergency rations for wood was cut to supply fuel for cooking and the camels (34). heating. Forests probably were eliminated in part to destroy the habitat of dangerous wild The resulting encroachment of the desert animals or to minimize the hiding places for margin encouraged a southward shift of bandits. Today’s partly grass covered, eroded, drysteppe vegetation. This, in turn, altered eco- Ch. 4—Causes of Deforestation and Forest Resource Degradation • 87 logical relationships and amplified the impact For centuries, tropical deforestation has been of hazards such as drought (27). Even though associated with poverty (17). People displaced the human populations in the Sahel had suf- by development processes are often the direct fered periodic droughts for centuries, far agent of deforestation. While peasant cultiva- greater harm was caused during the 1970’s tors and herders have done the actual tree cut- when drought was coupled with a seriously de- ting and burning, the causes lie in a chain of graded natural resource base. This is the ex- events that have left these people few options pected response of a resource system where but to destroy the forest or starve. there is self-perpetuating degradation. The problem increases gradually for a long time, but it is typically a logarithmic progression and can lead to catastrophe (11).

SOIL: ITS RELATIONSHIP TO DEFORESTATION AND LAND DEGRADATION

Soils, by themselves, are not a direct cause Although the soils on certain deltas, young of tropical deforestation. They do, however, set volcanic materials, and flood plains may be fer- the stage in many tropical regions for the prac- tile, most soils in hot, wetlands have signifi- tice of shifting cultivation, which causes defor- cant fertility problems. These soils are formed estation. When it is cleared, forest land com- by chemical weathering of rocks. High monly loses its fertility, produces declining temperatures and high rainfall combine to ac- crop yields, and ultimately is abandoned. If celerate leaching of nutrients from the rock and forest soils could sustain agriculture, continual soil mineral particles. The residual minerals relocation of farm fields would be less likely tend to be composed mostly of aluminum, sili- to occur and fewer forests would be cut down. con, iron, oxygen, and water, a chemical com- But few tropical forest soils can sustain pro- position so restricted that many food or tree ductive agriculture over the long term. The crops planted on such soils will have stunted presence of large areas of either heavily growth or will not survive. In some of the soils, leached soils of low fertility, thin erosion-prone silicon and iron concentrations are so low, and soils, or dry soils makes the establishment of aluminum so high, that the soil may approach permanent farming sites extremely difficult. or reach the composition of bauxite, an alumi- Therefore, regardless of what activities are re- num ore. * sponsible for cutting tropical forests, the under- These soils have other problems when fer- lying soil materials play a large role in de- tilized with certain essential plant nutrients. termining whether agriculture, new forest Phosphorus becomes so tightly held by certain growth, or barren wastelands will be the long- clay minerals, aluminum, iron, and manganese term results. oxides that plants cannot extract enough for A simple but useful way of discussing tropi- their own benefit (4,13). In the Amazon Basin, cal forest soil is to divide the forest lands into three categories: *See Van Wambeke (47) and Fripiat and Herbillon (12) for more 1. hot, wetlands; detailed information. These are good references on soils of the hot, wet tropics that not only contain the commonly cited infor- 2. arid/semiarid lands; and mation on agriculture, soil names, etc., but also provide discus- 3. mountainous lands. sions of mineralogical and chemical processes. 88 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources for example, 16 percent of the soils suffer this mus, the web of roots, and the recycling sys- problem. Overall, 90 percent of the Basin’s soils tem. (table 7) have a phosphorus deficiency (37). Some 15 percent of the Amazon Basin soils ‘ In hot, dry lands physical breakdown of have a poor ability to hold potassium and other rocks and soil minerals plays a larger role in common plant nutrients (low cation exchange soil formation. In this process, the particles be- capacity). If such nutrients are added to the soil come smaller, but the chemical composition re- as fertilizer, they can be expected to be leached mains nearly the same and leaching of soil nu- away rapidly (4,13). trients is low. Physical disintegration can occur in a number of ways; for instance, day and In addition, an estimated 2 percent of these night temperature variations cause rocks and soils will harden irreversibly upon drying (47), minerals to expand and contract and, in time, severely limiting reestablishment of vegetation crack. Salts and other substances collect in (21). In some cases, soil hardening is so com- cracks, expanding when wet and contracting plete that the hardened material can be crushed when dry, further breaking the grains (3). and used as gravel for road building (24). Another mechanical way particles become Undisturbed tropical forests have an efficient smaller is through impact of other windblown nutrient recycling system. As long as the forest grains. And, of course, the growth of plant is undisturbed, the nutrient supply remains roots is a powerful agent in breaking up and stable. Soil shaded by the closed forest canopy holding rock and soil particles. is cool enough for the abundant organic mate- In arid/semiarid areas, nutrients needed by rial to decay gradually. Thus, the forest soils many plants commonly are in the soil but be- typically have a substantial humus content and come available to the plants only if sufficient can hold the nutrients released by micro- water is available (6). If most of the water evap- organisms until they are absorbed back into the orates from the soil surface rather than perco- web of tree roots to be recycled again. Slash- lating down into the soil, dissolved solids or and-burn agriculture takes advantage of the salts can accumulate as crusts at or near the humus and of the rapid release of nutrients land surface in concentrations that few plants that occurs when the vegetation is burned. But can tolerate (16). as soil temperatures rise, the humus is oxidized rapidly, and as the forest is removed, the or- Mountainous lands, though generally cooler ganic inputs are reduced. Soil with less humus than the other two categories, exist in both wet is less able to hold nutrients, and when rain and dry climates and, thus, either chemical falls the soil fertility fades. If the land is re- or physical processes may dominate. Rather turned to forest fallow soon enough, a new than percolating into the ground to form thick growth of trees can reestablish the soil’s hu- soils through chemical weathering, much of the

Table 7.—The Main Soil Constraints in the Amazon Basin Under Native Vegetation

Millions of Percentage of Soil constraint hectares Amazon Basin Phosphorus deficiency ...... 436 90 Aluminum toxicity ...... 315 73 Low potassium reserves ...... 242 56 Poor drainage and flooding hazard ...... 116 24 High phosphorus fixation ...... 77 16 Low cation exchange capacity...... 64 15 High erodibility ...... 39 8 No major limitations ...... , ...... 32 6 Steep slopes (>30 percent) ...... 30 6 Laterite hazard if subsoil exposed ...... 21 4 SOURCE: P. A. Sanchez, D. E, Bandy, J. H. Villachica, and J, J. Nlcholaides, “Amazon Basin Soils Management for Continuous Crop Production,” Science 216:821-827, 1982. Ch. 4—Causes of Deforestation and Forest Resource Degradation . 89 rainfall runs off the land surface to streams. plant growth as well as helping to reduce The soils that do form are easily eroded. Con- erosion; sequently, soils in mountainous lands, in gen- ● releases essential nutrients as it decays; eral, are likely to be rocky and thin, except per- ● holds nutrients from fertilizer in storage haps on the lower slopes (6). Deforestation in until the plants need them; and mountainous regions is one of today’s most ● enhances the abundance and distribution acute and serious ecological problems (10). of vital biota (3 I). The presence of organic matter is an impor- Therefore, deforestation, by reducing organic tant factor in the soil’s productivity because it: matter, lowers the potential productivity of tropical lands. Thus, when tropical land is ● contributes to the development of soil ag- abandoned, natural regeneration of the forest gregates, which enhance root development may not occur, and replanting the forest may and reduce the energy needed to work the be difficult. soil; ● increases the air- and water-holding capacity of the soil, which is necessary for

VISIBLE AGENTS OF FOREST CHANGE

Subsistence In contrast, recent occupants generally are Shifting Cultivators less knowledgeable about local environments and apply farming systems that are more de- Shifting cultivation is common in the Trop- structive of resources (23). These people also ics. The techniques are basically similar every- cut and burn part of the forest. But unlike where: farmers fell and burn the woody vegeta- native populations, they may farm the same tion; then cultivate the cleared ground for 1, plot until the fertility of the soil is exhausted 2, or 3 years; and then abandon the site for a or shorten the fallow period so that the vegeta- long period to forest or brush cover (forest fal- tion cannot recover. This type of cultivator is low). There are four reasons for shifting to new often a “colonist” who comes to the forests for fields: decreasing soil fertility, reduced soil land because ownership there is ill-defined or moisture, pest outbreaks, or excessive weeds badly protected. that raise labor requirements. Long fallow pe- Generally, the new lands are only marginal- riods generally allow the land to recuperate ly productive for agriculture. In addition, re- and become productive once more. cent occupants bring with them dietary pref- Shifting cultivators fall into two broad classes: erences and agricultural technologies that are indigenous groups and recent occupants. In- suited to intensive culture of the more fertile digenous groups have long experience with the lowlands. By applying inappropriate farming local environment and use farming practices systems on fragile soils, they often destroy the that tend to be resource conserving. These land’s productivity. farmers traditionally have practiced shifting A large part* of the agricultural population cultivation using methods particular to them of Latin America farms on steep slopes. Pop- and woven into their family and tribal customs, ulation growth often leads to increased clear- and sometimes into their religion. Usually the ance of forested watersheds and forces many choice of land to be cleared is based on knowl- farmers to migrate down the slopes, clearing edge of nature and soils. The timing of various agricultural activities is determined by specific *In most of the tropical countries of Latin America, over 30 indications of nature, such as the blossoming percent of the agricultural population is on steep slopes, including 50 percent in Peru and Colombia, 40 percent in Ecuador, of wild plants, the emergence of particular in- 65 percent in Guatemala and Haiti, and 45 percent in Mexico sects, and so on. (33).

25-287 0 - 84 - 7 90 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

creased. These shorter cycles do not allow enough time for forests to restore adequate soil fertility. The result is even more extensive forest clearance and a gradual decline in human living conditions. It is easy to attribute recent increases in shifting cultivation to population pressure and inadequate land outside the forests. But other important factors are involved as well. In many places, good farmable land is reserved for the privileged and not used intensively to produce needed food crops for domestic consumption. Governments may build highways and promote colonization projects as alternatives to land reform (as has happened in Latin Ameri- ca). Some colonization projects are viewed as an effective way to occupy empty territory. This is especially true near frontiers in Brazil and Mexico (28). Still, indications are that forest clearing by peasant farmers will continue to expand with or without government encouragement and assistance.

Livestock Raisers Nomadic herders in open forests are analo- gous to shifting agriculturalists in wetter tropical forests. In arid and semiarid areas, nomad- Photo credit: H. Bollinger ic herding is a major land use (43). At one time, Forested hillsides such as this one in Guatemala are the nomadic way of life probably did not de- being cleared for agriculture throughout the Tropics grade the limited resources of dry regions sig- in part because of population increases and nificantly because there was a long fallow pe- inequitable land distribution riod before an area was reused. It is likely that an ecological balance among man, animals, the forests as they go, even into the inhospitable and the surrounding natural vegetation existed. humid lowlands of the Amazon Basin. In re- This has changed, however. cent decades, colonization by farmers who Livestock symbolize wealth and provide bar- practice shifting cultivation has taken place ter materials and insurance against future throughout tropical Latin America. Coloniza- disasters (44). Cattle herds have increased in tion was primarily spontaneous in the 1940’s the Sahel in response to economic conditions. and l950’s, but became more systematically For example, the French-speaking Sahel had planned by government agencies in the 1960’s a fivefold increase in cattle during the 25 years and 1970’s. preceding the 1968 drought (14). Cattle, how- Even traditional shifting cultivation practices ever, are poorly adapted to Sahelian condi- are breaking down under increasing populations: their conversion efficiency of plants to tion pressures. Commercial exploitation and animal products is poor; they require substan- subsequent colonization leave less land for tra- tial quantities of water; and they are highly ditional cultivators, With limited land and in- prone to stress, Further, their feeding habits creasing populations, fallow periods have de- are incompatible with the Sahelian environ- Ch. 4—Causes of Deforestation and Forest Resource Degradation • 91

ment. Since cattle are largely grazers, not forage sites. Meanwhile, parts of the remain- browsers, they must be moved very frequent- ing trees in the vicinity of the wells are lopped ly or they may completely eliminate perennial off for animal feed, and goats overbrowse grasses. The reduction of dry-season grasses shrubs. triggers a number of degradation processes These effects accelerate desertification, a once the seasonal rains begin. Raindrops strik- process that spreads desert-like patches around ing the soil surface raise mud spatters that seal villages or waterholes as a consequence of con- the soil surface to water infiltration. Then over- tinued excessive pressure on the natural envi- land waterflow erodes the soil. ronment. Desertification is serious in tropical High-yielding wells have been built during Africa, Latin America, and Asia. recent droughts to alleviate chronic livestock water shortages. This has led to a rapid in- Fuelwood Gathers crease in the number and size of herds of cattle and small ruminants, which in turn have Cutting trees and woody vegetation to meet overgrazed the land in the vicinity of wells. the growing demand for fuelwood has accel- Natural vegetation has disappeared in general- erated the process of deforestation and now ly concentric circles around the wells until the seriously threatens the environmental stabili- grazing resources are so distant from the well ty of large areas. Such situations prevail in Af- that animals nearly starve before they reach rica (especially in the arid and semiarid areas 92 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

south of the Sahara, in the east and southeast, Demand for wood fuels is concentrated in and in mountainous areas); in Asia (in the Hi- towns, cities, and densely populated farmlands, malayas and the hills of South Asia); and in so the impacts of fuelwood cutting and gather- Latin America (mostly in the Andean Plateau, ing are greatest around such areas. Eventual- the arid and semiarid areas of the Pacific coast ly, the intense pressures around urban places in South America, and in the Caribbean). can lead not only to destruction of the forest but also to complete removal of tree and shrub Wood provides two-thirds of all fuel used in cover. Africa, nearly one-third in Asia, and one-fifth in Latin America (z). Among the poor in tropi- It is the commercialization of fuelwood col- cal countries, it is often women and children lection that most threatens forests. As towns who collect subsistence firewood. When possi- grow, markets develop for traditionally non- ble, they avoid felling whole trees. Instead they commercial firewood and charcoal. The rela- lop off small branches, twigs, and roots and tively rich in small towns and fringes of cities, pick up dead wood from the ground. Men are create the demand, while the poor, who are more likely to collect wood for commercial sale often landless, take advantage of an opportu- and are more to fell whole trees. nity to gain income (38). However, if the mar- Ch. 4—Causes of Deforestation and Forest Resource Degradation ● 93 kets place a price on wood above the price of side or adjoining the forest meet their total fuel collecting and transporting it, the trees become requirements from the forest. At localities with- valuable. In this case someone is likely to claim in 10 km of the forest boundaries, about 70 per- ownership and to take over cutting from the cent of the fuelwood used comes from the for- landless poor (l). est; beyond 10 km, the use of fuelwood from the forests diminishes steadily until at about Fuelwood cutting and gathering often have 15 km it is almost nil (22). However, in nations adverse effects on the land. Maintaining tree such as Thailand, with developed road systems and bush cover in arid and semiarid areas is and adequate trucks, urban consumers may use important to prevent desertification. Where fuel or charcoal from much farther away. fuelwood is available, animal dung and crop residuals are used as fertilizers and compost, but when wood becomes too scarce, these ma- Fires terials are diverted to become fuels. For the Repeated burning has altered vast areas of very poor, wood scarcity may mean the elim- tropical forest and woodland. Natural fires are ination of cooked food, boiled water, and an caused by lightning, volcanic activity, sponta- essential minimum level of warmth. neous combustion, or sparks from rockfalls. Firewood gathering is not the major cause The majority of manmade fires are set inten- of deforestation in Latin America, but the im- tionally. Hunters use fire to drive game and to pacts are great on tropical mountain vegeta- clear bush so that game can be seen more easi- tion. Large circles around mountain settle- ly. Gatherers use it to encourage the growth of ments have been denuded of woody vegetation. desirable plants and to discourage the growth The use of wood and charcoal for industrial of others, and to smoke honey bees out of their fueI is particularly important in Brazil, where hives. Farmers use it to clear and fertilize land it provides 40 percent of the fuel used in the for planting. Pastoral people use fire to kill in- steel industry (42). sects and snakes and to discourage predators. Other people use fire to ease travel through Fuelwood gathering has had detrimental ef- densely vegetated areas, to make war on neigh- fects in Africa and Asia. In the sparsely popu- boring people, or for other reasons. The pri- lated Sahel, areas surrounding population cen- mary reason, however, is to improve the quality ters are largely deforested. The affected areas of grasses for grazing. continue to grow each year. Until recently, fuelwood was hauled as far as 50 kilometers Repeated fires generally impoverish vegeta- (km) to large Sahelian towns; now, it is com- tion and deplete soil through losses of organic monly hauled 100 km. Within 40 km of Ouaga- matter, reduced nutrient cycling, and reduc- dougou, the capital of Upper Volta, virtually tions in soil microbe populations. Regeneration all trees accessible to roads have been cut to may be rapid, but plant succession depends on provide fuel for the city’s inhabitants. Only a a host of factors including the frequency and few years ago, fuelwood could be collected in intensity of fire. After frequent burnings, fast- the immediate vicinity of most households; growing, light-loving second growth trees and now people must walk half a day to reach it. shrubs eventually are replaced by savannas (permanent grass-covered plains). Fires can Since collection and transport of fuelwood convert closed forests to savanna and can ex- in rural areas is mainly by human and animal tend conifer forests at the expense of the broad- labor, its free supply generally is limited to leaved forests. Such degradation leads to the areas within walking distance of the consumer. establishment of plant communities adapted to Rural people will seek fuelwood from more dis- physiologically drier conditions. tant locations until travel time becomes too great; then consumption may drop. A survey Seasonally dry forests are being more severe- of India showed that most villages located in- ly modified than wet forests. Many dry tropical 94 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

forests were converted to savannas by human visible years later (48). Forested areas of Cen- activities long ago. Some savannas are natural tral America, Vietnam, Laos, and Kampuchea grasslands, but these have been expanded be- more recently have suffered the effects of mil- yond their natural boundaries by forest clear- itary conflicts. Dense patterns of bomb and ing for agriculture and by manmade fires. In shell craters can eliminate forests or severely many places, it is difficult to determine what damage the trees. In some large areas, forests savanna is natural and what is derived from were removed by plowing and bulldozing to human activity, since all savanna vegetation eliminate protective cover for enemy troops. is adapted to frequent fires and appears similar Attempts were made to burn large tracts of regardless of origin. dead, defoliated forests, but these largely were unsuccessful (41). Warfare Between 1961 and 1971, about 14 percent of Warfare has adverse effects on tropical for- the land surface of Vietnam was repeatedly ests. Bombing and shelling of some islands in sprayed with herbicides and defoliants, ad- the Pacific during World War II nearly elim- versely affecting the forests and mangroves inated the forest cover and the effects remained (29). A recent examination of Vietnam’s forests Ch. 4—Causes of Deforestation and Forest Resource Degradation . 95 some 12 years after the war shows that the Commercial Resource Use long-term effect of spraying on inland forests depended on the dosage (30). An obstacle to re- Commercial Agriculture and forestation of these damaged lands, which now Cattle Ranchers are covered with coarse grasses, is uncon- Few data are available on the amount of de- trolled burning by village farmers even though forestation now caused by commercial farm- the land is more suitable for growing trees than ing, which usually involves permanent fields farm crops. with perennial bush and tree crops. This was once a major cause of tropical deforestation, The impact of defoliants has been most se- but now it is a less significant cause than shift- vere on mangrove forests, as much as 40 per- ing cultivation and ranching. cent of which were sprayed. Natural regeneration has brought the regrowth of some minor Cattle raising plays a major role in the loss “weed” species, but commercial species have of tropical moist forests in the Brazilian Ama- returned naturally on only about 1 percent of zon and in Central America. In contrast, it is the mangrove area (49). Some replanting has not a major factor in moist regions of tropical occurred, however, and commercial species Asia and Africa, where shifting cultivation and have been reestablished n some areas. logging are more important.

Photo credit: H. Bo//inger Conversion of moist tropical forest to temporary grazingland in Panama, a common scene throughout Latin America. Most of the beef is exported 96 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Pastures commonly are abandoned after 10 America that it is the act of deforestation, or to 15 years of grazing because of declining soil other “improvement,” which gives one the fertility, erosion, soil compaction, invasion of right of possession of land. The capital costs unpalatable weeds, and low productivity. In of ranching are low compared with commer- parts of the Brazilian Amazon, ranches only cial crop production, and the market for beef 5 years old fail because of pasture degradation is steady or expanding. Government incentives (19). Pasture instability and degradation result minimize the costs of credit, land, taxes, and in greater pressure to clear new forests. production for the conversion of rainforest to pastureland. Finally, strong export markets The area of pasture in Central America more have encouraged expanded beef production in than doubled between 1950 and 1975, almost this region of the world. U.S. companies an- entirely at the expense of undisturbed forests. nually import as much as 330 million lb of Cen- Between 1966 and 1978,8 million ha of Brazil’s tral American beef. That is 25 percent of the Amazon forests were converted into 336 cat- region’s annual beef production and 90 percent tle ranches supporting 6 million head of cat- of its beef exports (39), though this imported tle. In addition, some 20,000 other ranches of beef only amounts to about 2 percent of annual varying sizes have been established (25). U.S. beef consumption. There are several ways that forests are converted to pasture in Latin America. On large Several researchers have recommended that land holdings, forests are often leveled, burned, the United States ban beef imports from Latin and seeded with native or introduced grasses. American countries where cattle raising plays Owners of smaller holdings commonly clear a major role in tropical forest destruction [28, their land by making arrangements with peas- 39), or that the United States import no beef ant shifting cultivators whereby the peasants from Central America (26). A number of ques- clear the land, farm it for 1 or 2 years, and then tions would have to be answered before legisla- seed it to pasture and move on (9,32). In south- tion for the first suggestion could be seriously eastern Panama and probably elsewhere, pro- considered. How much time must pass between fessional deforesters move into national forests, forest clearing and cattle grazing to avoid the cut the forest, plant grass, and then sell plots proposed ban? How could it be proven that as “improved land” (28). beef from a particular country is produced primarily at the expense of tropical forests? Who Land consolidation, however, is probably the would make the judgment that the beef is pro- most common means of converting forest to duced primarily at the expense of tropical pasture. Agricultural colonists leave their fields forests? Who would monitor cattle grazing and move elsewhere when yields decline sig- operations day to day in each Latin American nificantly or losses to pests or weeds become country? Such questions need to be examined too severe. The land is abandoned or sold to carefully and answered in detail to deal fairly more successful neighbors, to a second wave with other countries. The second suggestion of settlers with more capital, to speculators, or is simpler than the first but the foreign policy to cattle ranchers. Small plots may then be implications are equally complex. combined into larger, more efficient units that sometimes are used for tree crops but more A variety of inducements for cattle opera- commonly for pasture. This process is wide- tions come from international organizations spread in tropical Latin America (8). and development agencies. For instance, inter- A number of factors account for the accelera- national agencies and governments provide tion of cattle ranch development. Cattle ranch- loans for cattle development, including credit ing, having its roots in Spain and Portugal, al- for individual ranchers. Between 1971 and ways has been a prestigious occupation in 1977, international and bilateral agencies pro- Latin America (32). Furthermore, a tradition vided more than $3.5 billion in loans and tech- exists in the Amazon and elsewhere in Latin nical assistance to Latin America to improve Ch. 4—Causes of Deforestation and Forest Resource Degradation . 97 livestock production and meat processing (28). already are depleted. Most of the remaining In sum, the growth of cattle ranching reflects timber is in the Amazon, where most of it re- not only markets but government and interna- mains inaccessible and unsuitable for current tional assistance, low cost loans, and other methods of selective logging. incentives. Logging practices in the tropical forests differ from those in temperate woodlands. Log- Loggers ging companies have markets for only a few tree species, and these are widely scattered in Commercial logging causes deforestation in highly diverse tropical forests. For example, in moist broadleaved and conifer forests, especial- the Ivory Coast only 25 species are regularly ly in Asia, West and Central Africa, and parts cut out of the hundreds available (25). Thus, of Latin America. It is expected that as the extensive areas must be worked to get enough Asian wood supply is exhausted, the Latin logs, and this can be quite destructive. Cutting American share of international trade in trop- one tree commonly brings down other trees ical wood will increase accordingly, from 16 around it. Additionally, species diversity de- percent today to about 40 percent by the year creases with repeated selective cutting. 2000 (25). Most tropical American softwoods— and the more valuable hardwoods of tropical Logging practices frequently influence subse- Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central America— quent natural regeneration and rarely are fol- 98 •Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources lowed by assisted regeneration or intentional removal reinforce one another. Networks of reforestation. For timber concessionaires in forest roads designed to transport timber pro- Asia, tropical silviculture has been a rational- vide entry for farmers. Through a sequence of ization for cutting economically valuable trees felling, burning, and cultivation, forest lands rather than a technique for securing forest re- are actively degraded to low productivity generation (35). National forestry departments farms, which in turn maybe converted to low- usually exercise only weak control over logging grade grasslands through further burning and concessionaires. grazing. An adequately trained forestry staff rarely is available to police either the logging Even though loggers may gradually degrade operations or the movement of cultivators into forest quality, the relationship between loggers the concession. and cultivators exacerbates the rapid depletion of forest resources. These two agents of forest

UNDERLYING CAUSES OF FOREST DEGRADIATION

In most of the Tropics sustainable forestry Properety Rights and Control Of and agriculture practices are not being devel- Forest Resources oped and applied. The underlying causes of this failure are institutional more than tech- Forests supply rural people with food, fuel- nical (8,15). wood, and fodder. A large portion of both moist and dry tropical forests is government Institutions include national, state, or provin- owned and people gather freely what they cial forestry departments as well as interna- need. Sometimes the government allows such tional donor and technical assistance agencies. gathering, but more often people take natural Institutions also comprise the broad set of rules forest products whether it is legal or not be- and arrangements that assign rights to re- cause the forests are not well policed. Although sources, define roles, and govern individual some forest land is owned by villages or tribes, and collective ownerships. Institutions define the individual quest for wood and fodder often what individuals can and cannot do, what they overwhelms the collective need to sustain can expect others to do or refrain from doing, forests. The same principles hold true for other and what they can expect the government to resources. As pressures mount to fulfill human do on their behalf (15). Institutions set the rules needs, overuse and mismanagement of re- by which policies are applied to produce de- sources lead to degradation and deforestation. sired results; policies and actions correspond to the extent that institutions are effective. Growing population is a major force behind this increasing demand, but property rights Forest degradation represents a case of status (or lack thereof) is an underlying cause chronic institutional failure. The two most im- of the failure to meet the demand with sustain- portant factors are: able production. Use without management is 1. the pattern of property rights and the ab- characteristic of natural resource systems that sence of effective common property insti- lack clearly defined property rights. When any tutions for forest-land management, and potentially renewable resource is used in com- Z. the ineffectiveness of State and national mon, no user will delay use or otherwise in- forestry agencies. vest in efforts to sustain the renewability of the Ch. 4—Causes of Deforestation and Forest Resource Degradation ● 99 resource unless some institution guarantees stood by villagers to support their goals, that that he will benefit from the investment. Thus, technology will not be used. With respect to tropical forests have been degraded because of villagers in or around public forests, effective institutional problems related to control over common property institutions would clearly access to forest land and forest products. define individual and group claims on the benefits that stem from the forest. However, what Uncertain institutional arrangements and in- generally prevails are claims on uses which, adequate administering agencies are at the root in the absence of control over rates of use, drive of many forest degradation problems. When the resource to depletion (5). Since privatiza- forests become nationalized, as in parts of Asia, tion of forest lands may not be possible in many traditional tenure and institutions for common parts of the Tropics, open access must be con- property management of forest lands are aban- trolled through such means as issuing licenses doned. National governments acquire formal for users, setting quotas, taxing users, or control, replacing local administrations and de- strengthening local social institutions (18). nying the validity of prior land-use arrangements. The rights of forest occupants to continue using forest land, acquired over genera- Transformation of Forestry tions, have been removed or reinterpreted in Administrations the national effort to control people and terri- The second part of the issue of institutional tory. change relates to changes in the forestry agen- Unlike commercial agriculture, which gen- cies themselves. Government forestry institu- erally takes place on lands where property tions typically have been designed to protect rights are understood, agreed on, and re- state or private logging and ranching interests. spected, forestry takes place on lands where In many countries, the forest has been a zone complex and often conflicting systems of land of tension between the state and the people. tenure apply. This difference creates the acute The pattern has been exacerbated by govern- contrast between investments in technologies ment insecurity with respect to its citizens and to increase agricultural productivity and the borders. lack of such investments in forestry, The lack Although agency attitudes and traditions are of clear land tenure will continue to constrain deepseated, they seem to be changing as gov- development initiatives in forestry and efforts ernment forestry institutions evolve from be- to reverse forest land degradation. Where com- ing custodians of public land to functioning as munal or national tenure is clear, the lack of managers of a development process. For exam- capable administration institutions is the maple, in many Asian nations increasing strength jor constraint. is being given to national forestry development The potential for forestry to support national corporations charged with managing forests economic development that brings benefits at according to sound economic principles. At the the village level is great, provided sustainable village level, small-scale forestry projects for resource-use systems are applied. But such sys- local community development are beginning tems depend on the establishment of institu- to be promoted by national agencies. These are tions to administer forest lands as common intended to create new income for villagers property. Developing these institutions will re- from degraded public forest lands and to require a better understanding of history, culture, duce pressure on the remaining or regenerat- and social organization than is now applied. ing public forest. Some nations have begun to provide forestry extension services for village To be effective, forest administrations need farmers. local support and participation, and this contrasts with how forestry bureaucracies typ- Many Asian nations also have begun to apply ically work. Unless the institutional component policies to encourage investment in wood-proc- of a forest management technology is under- essing facilities and to use forest industries 100 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources —

within broader strategies of regional develop- tive forestry systems with an equitable distribu- ment. Few African or tropical American nation of products. However, substantial obsta- tions have developed such policies, and very cles to participatory approaches exist within few nations in any region have developed feasi- the implementing agencies and at the local ble long-term plans for forest land allocation. community level. For example, many forestry departments tend to be hierarchical, with Even where appropriate policies exist, for- highly centralized decisionmaking and little est resource development is constrained by room for delegation. National programs seldom poor implementation and reluctance to enforce permit field officers to adapt techniques in the policies. The effectiveness of government response to local conditions and provide few control over logging concessionaires depends incentives for local initiative. Moreover, the on the degree to which national leaders are current generation of foresters often lacks the committed to maintaining long-term forest pro- necessary skills and resources to provide lead- ductivity. The real value of hardwoods from ership in this area. Asia and West Africa has made it difficult to restrain powerful individuals and firms from At the community level, common obstacles to participation are the absence of appropriate enriching themselves by sponsoring illicit cut- local organizations and shortage of leadership ting, by misrepresenting volume and grade of skills. Typically, even where community devel- legally cut logs, or by conferring the rights to opment is practiced, inadequate attention is exploit the remaining forest to others. Several paid to building community problem-solving national governments have banned export of capacities and to dealing with social diversity unprocessed logs to encourage forest conser- in highly stratified village social structures (20). vation and local employment. However, data Effective community organization can provide on tropical wood imports by industrialized some measure of control over corruption and countries indicate that illicit logging and ex- can restrict the opportunity for individuals in porting continue despite the bans (15). The per- positions of authority to take unfair advantage sistence of these problems is due to incentives of their positions at the expense of others (15). for rapid economic gains by elite groups and the lack of political commitments to conserva- The degradation of forests can in large part tion and development of public resources for be attributed to the failure of state and national the benefit of the general public. forestry agencies to change with changing conditions and to increase the effectiveness of for- Improving forest administration also de- estry in ways comparable to agriculture. Two pends on developing effective participatory ap- especially important tasks are the control of proaches to forest management. Through par- logging concessionaires, which will require ticipatory approaches, forestry programs may political backing from the highest level, and the adapt techniques and institutions to local en- development of effective participatory ap- vironments to develop productive and protec- proaches to forestry.

CHAPTER 4

1. Agarwal, A., personal communication, 1982, a Development Program in Asia, ” Working Pa- 2. Arnold, J. E. M., and Jongma, J., “Fuelwood and per No. 16, Center for Resource Policy Studies, Charcoal in Developing Countries, ” Unasylva School of National Resources, University of 29(118):2-9, 1977. Wisconsin, 1982. In: Gibbs, 1982. 3, Birot, P., General Physical Geography (New 6. Buringh, P., Introduction to the Study of Soils York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1968). in Tropical and Subtropical Regions (Wagen- 4. Brady, N. C., “Chemistry and World Food Sup- ingen, The Netherlands: Centre for Agricultural plies,” Science 218(4575):847-853, 1982. Publishing and Documentation, 1968), 5. Bromley, D., “Economic Issues in Forestry as 7, Cuban Delegation, report presented to the Sec- Ch. 4—Causes of Deforestation and Forest Resource Degradation ● 101

ond Session of the FAO Committee on Forestry 23. Moran, E. F., “The Trans-Amazonia: Coping Development in the Tropics, 1969. In: Westoby, With a New Environment,” Brazil: Anthropo- 1982, ZogicaZ Perspectives, M. L. Margolis and W. E. 8. Denevan, W., “Causes of Deforestation and Carter (eds.) (New York: Columbia University Forest and Woodland Degradation in Tropical Press, 1979), pp. 133-159. Latin America, ” OTA commissioned paper, 24. Morin, W. J., and Todor, P. C., “Laterite and 1982. Laterite Soils and Other Problem Soils of the 9. Dewalt, B., “The Big Macro Connection: Popu- Tropics,” U.S. AID report, AID/csd 3682, 1977. lation, Grain and Cattle in Southern Honduras,” 25, Myers, N., Conversion of Tropical Moist For- Culture and Agriculture 14:1-12, 1982. ests (Washington, D. C.: National Academy of 10. Eckholm, E,, Losing Ground (New York: W. W. Sciences, 1980). Norton & Co., 1976]. 26, Myers, N., “The Hamburger Connection: How 11. Forrester, J. W,, Principles of Systezns, 2d ed. Central America’s Forests Become North Amer- (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1968). ica’s Hamburgers,” Ambio 10(1):2-8, 1981. 12. Fripiat, J., and Herbillon, A. J., “Formation and 27. National Research Council, Environmental Transformation of Clay Minerals in Tropical Degradation in Mauritania, Board on Science Soils, ” Soils and Tropical Weathering, Pro- and Technology for International Development ceeding of Banding Symposium, Natural Re- (Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press, sources Research XI, UNESCO, Paris, 1971, pp. 1981), 15-22, 28. Nations, J,, and Komer, D., “Indians, Immi- 13. Fyfe, W. S,, Kronberg, B. I., Leonardos, O. H., grants and Beef Exports: Deforestation in Cen- and Olorunfemi, N,, “Global Tectonics and Ag- tral America, ” Cultural Survival Quarterly riculture: A Geochemical Perspective, ” Agricul- 6(2):8-12, 1982. In: Denevan, 1982. ture, Ecosystems and Environment, vol. 9, 1983, 29. Nei.lands, J. B., Orians, G,, Pfeiffer, E,, Ven- pp. 383-399. nema, A., and Westing, A., Harvest of Death 14. Gallais, J,, “La situation de l’61evage bovin et le (New York: Free Press, 1972). probleme des Eleveurs en Afrique de l’Ouest et 30. Norman, C., “Vietnam’s Herbicide Legacy,” Centrale,” Les Cahiers d’Outre Mer 126 (April- Science 219:1196-1197, 1983, June) :l13-138, 1979. In: Gritzner, 1982, 31, Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Con- 15. Gibbs, C., “Causes of Deforestation in Tropical gress, Impacts of Technology on U.S. Cropland Asia,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. and RangeZand Productivity (Washington, D. C.: 16. Goudie, A,, Duricrusts in TropicaZ and Subtrop- U.S. Government Printing Office, OTA-F-166, ical Landscapes (London: Oxford University 1982). Press, 1973). 32. Parsons, J,, “Forest to Pasture: Development or 17. Gritzner, J., “Deforestation and Environmental Destruction?” Revista de Biologia Tropical 24 Change in the West African Sahel, ” OTA com- (Supl. 1):121-138, 1976. In: Denevan, 1982. missioned paper, 1982. 33. Prosner, J. L., The Steep Sloped Areas of Trop- 18. Heal, G., “The Use of Common Property Re- ical America: Current Situation and Prospects sources, ” Explorations in Natural Resources for the Year zooo (New York: Agricultural Sci- Economics, V, K. Smith and J, Krutilla (eds.) ences Division, The Rockefeller Foundation, (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University 1981). Press, 1982). 34, Riley, J., Sufferings in Africa: Captain Riley’s 19 Hecht, S., “Deforestation in the Amazon Basin: Narrative (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1965). Magnitude, Dynamics, and Soil Resource Ef- In: Gritzner, 1982. fects,” Studies in Third World Societies 35. Romm, J., “An Institutional View of Forestry 13:61-108, 1981. Development in Asia,” Proceedings: Forestry 20 Korten, D. C., “Rural Development Programing: and Development in Asia, Bangalore, India, The Learning Process Approach,” RuraZ Devel- 1982. In: Gibbs, 1982. opment Participation Review 2(2):1-7, 1981. 36. Roth, D., “Philippine Forests and Forestry, 21. Kovda, V. A., “The Management of Soil Fertili- 1565 -1920,” paper presented to Symposium on ty,” UNESCO: Nature and Resources 8(2), 1972. International Economy and Changing Forest 22. Mathur, R, S,, “Certain Trends in the Consump- Use in the Nineteenth Century, Oakland Uni- tion of Wood in India,” Indian Forester, January versity, 1981, In: Westoby, 1982, 1975. In: Arnold and Jongma, 1977. 37. Sanchez, P, A,, Bandy, D. E., Villachica, J, H,, 102 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

and Nicholaides, J. J., “Amazon Basin Soils: and Proposals for Tree Planting, ” Report Management for Continuous Crop Production,” UNESCO-UNEP IPAL project, Nairobi, Kenya, Science 216:821-827, 1982. 1979. In: Wood, et al., 1982. 38. Shaikh, A., Qadri, T., and Hale, S., “Fuelwood 45. llegear, T. R., A Geography of China (London: Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Re- University of London Press Ltd., 1965). sources,” OTA commissioned paper, 1983. 46. I’uan, Y., China (Chicago: Aldine-Atherton Pub- 39. Shane, D., Hoofprints on the Forest: An Inquiry lishing Co., 1969). Into the Beef Cattle Industry in the Tropical 47. Van Wambeke, A., “Practices and Potentials Forest Areas of Latin America (Philadelphia, of Soils in the Amazon Basin, ” Interciencia Pa.: ISHI Publications, 1980). 3(4):233-241, 1978. 40. Shantz, H., “An Estimate of the Shrinkage of 48. Westing, A., and Pfeiffer, E., “The Catering of Africa’s Tropical Forests,” Unasylva 2:66-67, Indochina,” Scientific American 226:20-29, 1948. 1972.

41. Shapley, D., “Technology in Vietnam: Fire 490 Westing, A. H., “The Environmental Aftermath Storm Project Fizzled Out,” Science 177:239- of Warfare in Vietnam, ” Natural Resources 241, 1972. Journal 23:365-389, 1983. 42. Smith, N., “Fuel Forests: A Spreading Energy 50. Westoby, J. C., “Halting Tropical Deforestation: Resource in Developing Countries, ” Intercien- The Role of Technology,” OTA commissioned cia 6:336-343, 1981. paper, 1982. 43. Swift, J., “Pastoral Nomadism as a Form of 51. Wood, P. J., Burley, J., and Grainger, A., “Tech- Land Use,” Pastoralism in Tropical Africa, T. nologies and Technology Systems for Reforesta- Monod (cd.) (London: Oxford University Press, tion of Degraded Tropical Lands,” OTA com- 1975), pp. 443-454. In: Wood, et al., 1982. missioned paper, 1982. 44. Synnott, T., “A Report on Prospects, Problems Chapter 5 Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources Page Highlights ...... 105 The Role of Organizations ...... 105 Types of Organizations in Tropical Countries...... 109 Research Organizations ...... 109 Educational Organizations ...... 109 Regulating Agencies...... 110 Project-Implementing Agencies ...... 110 Nongovernmental Organizations ...... 110 International Organizations ...... 110 Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research ...... 111 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ...... 111 International Council for Research in Agroforestry ...... 112 International Union of Forestry Research Organizations ...... 112 United Nations University...... 112 The Role of the Private Sector ...... 113 Constraints ...... 114 Lack of Funds ...... 114 Lack of Knowledge About Resources and Adequate Technologies ...... 115 Political, Cultural, and Institutional Constraints ...... 116 Lack of Communication...... 116 Contradictory Efforts ...... 117 Opportunities ...... 117 Greater Cooperation Between U.S. Government Agencies ...... 117 Redirecting International Organizations ...... 118 U.S. Representation to the Multilateral Development Banks ...... 119 U.S. Representation to U.N. Agencies ...... 119 Increasing Coordination Among the U.S., Other Bilateral Donors, and Multilateral Aid Agencies ...... 119 Greater Reliance on NGOs and Universities...... 121 Encouraging Responsible Involvement by Private Corporations ...... 121 Overseas Private Investment Corporation ...... 122 Trade and Development Program ...... 122 International Executive Service Corps ...... 122 Strengthening Existing Organizations ...... 122 Chapter preferences...... 123

List of Tables Table No. Page 8. U.S. Government Organizations ● ...... ● . 106 9. Nongovernment Organizations Based in the United States ...... 107 1O.Consortia...... ● 107 11. Multilateral Development Banks ...... 107 12. Major International Nongovernment Organizations ...... 108 13. United Nations Agencies ...... 108 14. Private U.S. Foundations Funding Tropical Forestry Research and Projects . . . 108 15. Major Foreign Bilateral Organizations ...... 109 16. U.S. Forestry Firms Operating in Tropical Countries, 1981 ...... 114 Chapter 5 Organizations Dealing With Tropipal Forest Resources

HIGHLIGHTS

● Many organizations are involved in work to level is the role of the tropical governments. sustain tropical forest resources, but the ex- Development assistance agencies have done pertise, knowledge, and funds available are little to enhance the governments’ capabili- inadequate. This is partly because forestry ties for this task, but some promising new is a peripheral interest for most of the orga- programs, such as Cooperation for Develop- nizations. ment in Africa (CDA), are being developed. ● The limited funds available are not used effi- ● Because tropical forests are not the central ciently because the activities of the many or- interest of any major U.S. organization, U.S. ganizations do not complement one another expertise is widely scattered among many well. There is some prospect that the Inter- organizations. Cooperative agreements be- national Union of Forestry Research Orga- tween organizations (e. g., U.S. Agency for nizations (IUFRO) and the Forestry Depart- International Development/U.S. Forest Serv- ment of the Food and Agriculture Organi- ice) can bring together this expertise effec- zation (FAO) will begin to coordinate the tively. international efforts. ● Coordinating diverse organizations’ resource development projects at the national

THE ROLE OF ORGANIZATIONS

Substantial institutional activity is occurring technology development and transfer, institu- worldwide that directly or indirectly affect; tion building, and funding. tropical forest resources. The U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), the United U.S. and international organizations play a Nations agencies, the World Bank, and others variety of roles in developing and implement- have increased their attention to forestry in re- ing technologies to sustain tropical forests. The cent years (16,24). Private corporations and nature of each organization’s activities varies nonprofit organizations also have been in- with its objectives. Some organizations offer volved in the search for solutions to tropical grants or loans, while others carry out reforest problems. And most importantly, the search, technology transfer, or education. governments of tropical nations have come to Some work at the village level, while others are recognize that deforestation constrains their organized for international efforts. Many or- economies and their development options. This ganizations are mandated to focus on a par- chapter reviews the types of organizations in ticular region or a particular issue. Some sup- the United States and abroad that help sustain port the use of existing forests, others concen- tropical forest resources through research, trate on planting trees for immediate needs,

105

25-287 0 - 84 - 8 106 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources while other organizations conduct the basic or Table 8.—U.S. Government Organizations applied research needed to develop sustainable Agency for International Development, Washington, D. C.: in- forestry systems for the future. This institu- ternational development, institution building with congres- tional diversity ensures that there will be no sional mandate to address forest-related problems in the developing world. AID funding supports other organiza- unrealistic search for the “one answer” to tions listed in this table tropical forest resource problems. National Science Foundation, Washington, D. C.: Grants for U.S. scientists to do fundamental research in tropical This diversity of functions and goals, how- biology ever, can create problems and inefficiencies. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C.: Funds projects and research on sustaining tropical resources, pri- Different organizations sometimes work at marily through Board on Science and Technology for in- cross purposes, without knowledge of the ternational Development (BOSTID) other’s actions. Similarly, unnecessary duplica- Peace Corps, Washington, D. C.: Volunteers for development activities worldwide, including forestry and conservation tion of efforts can occur. On occasion, counter- Smithsonian Institution, Washington D. C.: Basic research on productive competition occurs between orga- tropical ecosystems nizations or between assistance-giving nations. Us. Department of Agriculture ● Office of International Cooperation and Development: Often, there simply is a lack of communication Grants for agricultural research, development between the various groups. Thus, many dif- assistance, and technical assistance ferent groups may carry out many necessary ● Agricultural Research Service: Soil and water conservation research; includes Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands actions, but no one determines whether all the ● Forest Service necessary actions are conducted or whether Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Sta. the activities are appropriately timed relative tion: U.S. tropical forests, Hawaii, U.S. Pacific territories Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry: U.S. tropical forests to one another. Institute of Tropical Forestry (Puerto Rico): Tropical timber management, plantation silviculture Tables 8 through 15 list a selection of impor- ● Soil Conservation Service: Soil management support for tant U.S. and international organizations that tropical countries are involved in tropical forest resource activi- Us. Deparment of the Interior: ● National Park Service (International Park Affairs): Park ties. For a more complete discussion of the var- planning, management, and conservation training ious institutions listed, see OTA Background ● Fish and Wildlife service: Assist management and plan- Paper #2, Sustaining Tropical Forest Re- ning for conservation (under the Endangered Species sources: U.S. and International Institutions. Act, etc.) U.S. Department of State: Research on tropical ecosystems through MAB (Man and the Biosphere). 1984 funding It is important not to be misled by the appar- uncertain ently large number of organizations. Even SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment. though a great many organizations are involved in tropical forestry work, in few of these are reforestation, forest maintenance, or con- rather than on-the-ground establishment and servation a high priority. These organizations management of forest stands. Continuation of devote far more staff and funds to other types this trend would exert greater pressure on existing forest reserves and contribute to the de- of development activity than to forestry. In fact, forestation problem (24). the total amount of funding devoted to forestry remains small relative to the needs. Also, Because the scope of forest problems and care must be taken to avoid double-accounting, opportunities is so extensive and is affected since the forestry funds for some organizations by many interacting economic, social, polit- come from the forestry funds of other organiza- ical, and ecological factors, sustainable de- tions. Despite the recent expansion of social velopment can only be achieved when major forestry, international assistance for forestry changes are instituted by the tropical countries is still dominated by industrial projects. Ana- themselves. Actual solutions to the forest lyzing the effects of that dominance, a recent resource problems generally will require ac- U.S. Forest Service report states: tions at the village level by local people. Industrial assistance projects cover heavily Nevertheless, national and international or- capitalized pulpmills and sawmill complexes, ganizations based outside the Tropics can af- Ch. 5—Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources ● 107

Table 9.- Nongovernment Organizations Based Table 12.—Major International Nongovernment in the United States Organizations

Arnold Arboretum, Cambridge, Mass.: Evolutionary biology BIOTROP: Information, training, and research institute in East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii: Graduate research, tropical forestry and biology education, and information exchange throughout Asia CARE: Renewable resources program promoting conserva- International Institute for Environment and Development, tion of forests and forest dependent resources in the Washington, D. C.: Studies sustainable economic and Tropics social development, including energy, human settlements, Centro Agronomic Tropical de Investigation y Ensenanza environmental impacts (CATIE): Improvement of annual and perennial crop and Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Me.: Tropical flora, plant production systems, and animal production on small botany, and research farms National Wildlife Federation (International Program), Wash- Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the ington, D. C.: Largest western conservation group: 4.5 Sahel (CILSS): Association of eight Sahelian countries million members. International initiative is recent (Cape Verde, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, The Gam- Natural Resources Defense Council, Washington, D. C.: Legal bia, Chad, and Upper Volta) to foster coordination of ef- assistance, monitors natural resource policies and deci- forts in the region sions Commonwealth Forestry Institute: Associated with Oxford The Nature Conservancy (international program} Washington, University; reforestation of degraded sites and promoting D. C.: Inventory, acquisition, and protection of natural areas fast-growing plantations The New York Botanical Garden, The Bronx, N. Y.: Taxonomic Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research: research, neotropical plant collection, economic botany Supports and promotes international system of agricul- Rare Animal Relief Effort, Washington, D. C.: Environmental tural research centers and programs. Thirteen research education and training in Latin America centers Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden, Kauai, Hawaii: Tropical Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas Management Program: Re- botany search, training, and field projects to strengthen local ca- Sierra Club International, Earth Care Center, New York, N. Y.: pacity to manage living natural resources An information clearinghouse including protection of International Council for Research in Agroforastry: Seven pro- fragile areas, tropical rain forest mangement and conser- grams: management, information services, training, re- vation searchlevaluation, technology research, field stations, and Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Arlington, Va.: Technical special projects assistance in development-oriented projects Institute for Terrestrial Ecology: A group of research labora- World Resources Institute, Washington, D. C.: Policy studies tories in the United Kingdom. Projects on regenerating on natural resources management, particularly in develop- hardwoods in West Africa and vegetative reproduction of ing countries tree species World Wildlife Fund-U.S., Washington, D. C.: Funding for con- Intermediate Technology Development Group: Nonprofit or- servation of living resources, international wildlife con- ganization that offers consultants to developing countries servation for improving social forestry, household energy, and in- SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment dustrial energy projects International Development Research Centen Canadian group for development research, including studies of social for- Table 10.—Consortia estry, agroforestry, and sustainable agriculture. Funded by Canadian bilateral aid Board for International Food and Agricultural Development: International Society of Tropical Foresters: Information trans- To increase involvement of U.S. agricultural universities fer. About 1,000 members in AID International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Nat- CamCore: Focus on industrial forestry in tropical America ural Resources: Six commissions: ecology, education, en- Organization for Tropical Studies: Consortium providing grad- vironmental planning, species survival, national parks and uate training and university research on tropical biology protected areas, and environmental policy, law, and ad- South-East Consortium for International Development: Con- ministration sortium providing development assistance International Union of Forest Research Organizations: inter- Universities for International Forestry: Consortium providing national cooperation in forestry research through corre- experience in forestry and forestry-related problems spondence, seminars. About 10,000 members SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment. Lutheran World Relief: Financial support to other agencies, including Lutheran World Service for tropical forest Table 11 .—Multilateral Development Banks projects Lutheran World Service: Community development services, including health care, education, agricultural develop- African Development Bank: Loans total $635 million; U.S. con- ment. Also reforestation, community forestry tributes indirectly through Africa Development Fund. in- World Wildlife Fund—lntemational: Largest nongovernmental volved in forestrty in Ethiopia, Liberia, Ivory Coast organization for conservation of tropical forests, species, Asian Development Bank: Growing attention to community and habitats forestry, including fuelwood and environmental protection Inter-American Development Bank: Investigating potentials SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment. for greater involvement in forestry activities World Bank: Loans for development, Trend away from monoculture and forest industry toward projects to sustain tropical resources SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 108 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Table 13.—United Nations Agencies feet the willingness and ability of tropical countries to take necessary steps. It is unlikely that Food and Agriculture Organization: Emphasizes agriculture: Has four forestry programs: forest resources and environ- bilateral and multilateral aid will fund enough ment, forest industries and trade, forest investments and tree planting and conservation to compensate institutions, and forestry for rural development for tropical deforestation and forest degrada- United Nations Environment Programme: U.N. coordinating agency for environmental activities tion. Instead, outside organizations can focus United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organiza- on improving the technical and managerial cation: Tropical forest research, protectd natural resources. pabilities of organizations in tropical countries. Includes MAB United Nations University (Natural Resources Program): inter- Following this view, the priority areas for as- national centers for research, post-graduate training, and sistance would be forest resource research and dissemination of knowledge. Programs in agroforestry, technology development, technology transfer, energy World Food Programme: Supplies food for disaster relief and institution building for forest-related education through Food for Work projects. Some reforestation and and planning, and measures to increase the woodlot establishment productivity and sustainability of agriculture. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment

Table 14.—Private U.S. Foundations Funding Tropical Forestry Research and Projectsa

1. Ahmanson Foundation 2. Andrew W. Mellon Foundation 3. Atlantic Richfield Foundation 4. Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation, Inc. 5. Exxon Education Foundation 6. Ford Foundaton Ford Motor Company Fund 8. Inter-American Foundation 9. John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation 10. Mobil Foundation 11. Morgan Guaranty Trust Co. of New York 12. Richard King Mellon Foundation 13. Rockefeller Brothers Fund 14. Rockefeller Foundation 15. Shell Companies Foundation 16. Tinker Foundation 17. W. K. Kellogg Foundation 18. Wallace Gerbode Foundation 19. Weyerhaeuser Foundation aln general,, few U.S. foundations have substantial international programs. Sup- port for all tnternatlonal and foreign projects amounts to only about 4 percent of the approximately $2.4 billion awarded each year by U.S. private foundations (20). Total U.S. foundation support for tropical forest projects, though difficult to calculate, probably averages between $10 million and $12 million a year SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment. Ch. 5—Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources • 109

Table 15.—Major Foreign Bilateral Organizations

Count-~ Organization Function Canada ‘- Canadian International Funds infrastructure for forest in- Development Agency (CIDA) dustries and conducts inventories and development plans for commercial wood production France Centre Technique Forestier Projects include technical Tropicals (CTFT) assistance, plantation operation, reforestation, and silvicultural research on tropical pines and eucalyptus Japan Japanese Overseas Afforestation Tests plantation establishment Association (JOAA) and maintenance techniques for exotic pulpwood species, mostly in Southeast Asia Sweden Swedish International Develops infrastructure for forest Development Authority (SIDA) industries. Supports community forestry and fuelwood projects, in part through a trust fund for FAO United Kingdom Overseas Development Tropical forestry research focuses Administration (ODA) on silvicultural techniques and genetic improvements of tree species, especially pine West Germany Bundesministerium fur Funding arm of bilateral wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbiet assistance (BMZ) Gesellschaft fur Technische Implements forestry projects. Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) Priority areas are forest conservation and production, institution-building, and timber technology and processing SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment

TYPES OF ORIANIZATIONS IN TROPICAL COUNTRIES

Research Organizations and 39 in tropical America (15 of these are in Brazil). In addition, tropical Africa has 59 tech- Some 40 organizations in tropical countries nical schools offering forestry courses, tropical conduct significant research related to forest Asia has 118 (49 are in India and 19 in the Phil- resources (23). The majority of these are weak ippines), and tropical America has 51 [19 are and have been severely constrained by lack of in Brazil and 14 in Mexico) (7). These numbers staff and funding. Nevertheless, most of these may give a misleading impression that there organizations are carrying out some research is sufficient capacity in forestry education and to support the recent shift in tropical forestry training. But most of these schools are new and priorities (e.g., research related to contribution small, producing few graduates each year. of forestry to rural development, energy production, and conservation and management of Some tropical countries, particularly in tropical forest ecosystems). Southeast Asia, have introduced commendable interdisciplinary resource management programs, A new forestry program in Bihar, In- Educational Organizations dia, has a sizable curriculum in related social sciences. Nepal’s Tribhuvan University sends There are 23 university degree programs in all of its graduate students to work in villages forestry in tropical Africa, 55 in tropical Asia, for 1 year, 110 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Regulating Agencies One weakness of many project-implementing agencies is that little long-range planning is Regulatory agencies with responsibilities re- done. There is a shortage of qualified person- lated to forests have proliferated in many coun- nel, good data, and funds for planning (15). In tries. In addition to forest departments, agen- some tropical countries, technical forestry cies concerned with planning and finance, skills are in short supply and many jobs remain agriculture, mines, water resources, energy, unfilled. The foresters often lack the special parks, wildlife, industrial development, and skills needed for social and environmental for- military matters and internal security have estry (e.g., communications, interpersonal rela- regulations and policies that affect forests in tions management, economics, sociology, and some way. In 1972, only 11 developing coun- ecology). In many forestry departments, the tries had environmental ministries or high-level new types of projects such as fuelwood or so- agencies; that number has now reached 102 (9). cial forestry do not have prestige or provide career advancement opportunities. Further, In many tropical countries, regulation is field work is generally left to the most inex- hampered by administrative structures, bu- perienced staff while the best workers are pro- reaucratic lethargy, low enforcement capability moted quickly to central forestry department due to remoteness and extensiveness of forest offices (17). lands, lack of vehicles or fuel, insufficient number or training of staff, and low pay. Where cor- Nongovernmental Organizations ruption occurs, the policing approach is unable to cope with illegal commercial logging, with (NGOs) excessive hunting and gathering, and with NGOS concerned with forestry, rural devel- spontaneous agricultural clearing within re- opment, and the environment have been estab- serve forests and protected areas. lished within tropical countries. Examples include the grassroots Chipko or “hug-a-tree” Project-Implementing Agencies movement in India, Green Indonesia, Earth- man Society in the Philippines, Fundacion Na- In most tropical countries, the agencies that tura in Ecuador, Pronatura in Paraguay, Grupo are responsible for regulation also implement Ecologico Tolima in Colombia, and the Peru- resource development projects. This can cause vian Association for the Conservation of Na- some problems in project implementation, ture. The Environment Liaison Centre in Nai- especially for social forestry. It is difficult to robi helps coordinate activities of environmen- create a dialog between foresters and local peo- tal NGOS, particularly in Africa. NGOS have ple if the forest department is perceived as a done important applied research in Kenya and paramilitary organization. Also, paramilitary Sri Lanka. In Gujarat, India, NGOS helped discipline can discourage innovation within spread farm forestry and fuel-efficient wood- the ranks of the Forest Department, particular- stoves and crematoria. NGOS in Malaysia, Costa ly if promotions are based mainly on seniori- Rica, and Haiti also have implemented projects ty (21). successfully.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Although a great many bilateral and multi- international organizations doing significant lateral development assistance agencies and work on tropical forest resource technologies national organizations have programs related is much smaller. Five international organiza- to tropical forest resources, the number of tions that have important potential for develop- Ch. 5—Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources Ž 111 ment and dissemination of technologies that CGIAR centers could expand into forestry can sustain the forest resources are briefly research. By increasing the productivity of described here. food crops, CGIAR research has the potential to reduce land conflicts between agriculture Consultative Group on International and forestry. However, CGIAR’S commodities Agricultural Researeh (CGIAR) approach and emphasis on input intensive methods might not be relevant to forestry. In CGIAR is an association of 13 international addition, CGIAR has not shown much interest or regional research centers concerned with in expanding into forestry; it rejected the Coun- increasing the quantity and quality of food sup- cil for Research on Agroforestry’s (ICRAF) re- plies. CGIAR also organizes conferences and quest for associated status in the CGIAR net- training courses and disseminates information. work (4). Established in 1971, it has a secretariat based at the World Bank and a technical advisory committee located at FAO. The secretariat co- Food and Agriculture Organization of ordinates with donors and channels funds to the United Nations (FAOI the centers. The total budget for the CGIAR centers exceeded $120 million in 1980. FAO, headquartered in Rome, has the largest concentration of tropical forestry expertise in The CGIAR centers are: the world. It also has a large number of spe- 1. International Center for Tropical Agricul- cialists on assignment in tropical countries. It ture (CIAT), Colombia. is important to note that the FAO Forestry De- 2. International Center for the Potato (CIP), partment is dwarfed by the size of the FAO Ag- Peru. riculture Department. Forestry receives less 3. International Center for the Improve- than 8 percent of FAO’S total funding, and ment of Corn and Wheat (CIMMYT), FAO Agriculture Department publications sel- Mexico. dom evidence concern for the relationships be- 4. International Board for Plant Genetic Re- tween agriculture and forestry. Nevertheless, sources (IBPGR), Italy. agriculture and forestry are interdependent, so 5. International Center for Agricultural Re- the agriculture activities of FAO are of critical search in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Leb- importance to forest resources. anon. FAO’S Forestry Department is divided into 6. International Crops Research Institute four programs. In decreasing order of size, they for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India. 7, International Food Policy Research Insti- are: 1) Forestry Investment and Institutions, 2) tute (IFPRI), U.S.A. Forest Industries and Trade, 3) Forest Re- sources and Environment, and 4) Forestry for 8. International Institute of Tropical Agri- Local Community Development. A Forestry culture (IITA), Nigeria. Policy and Planning Service sets overall 9. International Laboratory for Research on priorities. Animal Diseases (ILRAD), Kenya. 10. International Livestock Centre for Africa FAO’S primary mission is technical assist- (ILCA), Ethiopia. ance, not research or implementation of devel- 11. International Rice Research Institute opment projects. It compiles an annual year- (IRRI), Philippines, book of forest product statistics and, in con- 12. International Service for National Agri- junction with UNEP, has assessed tropical cultural Research (ISNAR), The Nether- forests resources and deforestation rates (ch. lands, 3). FAO also has a mandate to support a tree 13. West Africa Rice Development Associa- seed bank system, but this has not progressed tion (WARDA), Liberia, very far. FAO’S Investment Centre assists the 112 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

World Bank and the regional development ICRAF is governed by an international Board banks in appraising projects. Nearly all forestry of Trustees and is independent of all other su- projects of the United Nations Development pranational bodies. It receives its operational Programme are implemented through FAO’S funds from bilateral donor agencies and private field units. foundations. AID and Canada’s International Development Research Center are among the Although FAO responds to country requests, main donors to ICRAF. Since ICRAF is consid- it also sets priorities for assistance. Current ered a forestry organization, it is not a member priorities of the Forestry Department include of CGIAR, whose mandate does not include creating a world forest resources information forestry. However, ICRAF has indicated that system; improving techniques for the establish- it should be considered an organization devel- ment and management of plantations; develop- oping technologies for use on agricultural as ing upland forests for erosion control and well as forest land. watershed management; promoting wildlife and park policies; monitoring and evaluating International Union of Forestry social forestry projects; identifying ways to Research Organizations (IUFRO) generate more income from processing wood and nonwood forest resources; and facilitating IUFRO, based in Vienna, is a loosely knit as- education, training, and institution building in sociation of some 600 research organizations developing countries. FAO has recently de- involving some 10,000 researchers from 89 cided to revitalize its Committee on Forestry countries (3). It does not conduct research but Development in the Tropics and is expected helps to disseminate findings. It sponsors the to use more of its resources for tropical forest World Forestry Congress every 3 to 5 years, re- conservation and development. gional workshops, and a quarterly newsletter. Other than these activities, IUFRO’S role has International Council for Research been limited because its funding levels are low. IUFRO is a very decentralized organization, in Agroforestry (ICRAF) mostly dependent on voluntary cooperation ICRAF is a relatively small organization (18). IUFRO is concerned with six main areas (about 15 professionals) headquartered in of research: 1) forest environment and silvicul- Nairobi, Kenya. Its budget is only one-tenth of ture; 2) forest plants and forest protection; 3) the budget of individual CGIAR institutes. But forest operations and techniques; 4) planning, it is the only organization with a mandate to economic growth, and yield; 5) management work globally to stimulate, initiate, and support and policy; and 6) forest products. research for development of sustainable agro- In mid-1983, a research coordinator post was forestry land-use systems. ICRAF’S multidisci- established at IUFRO headquarters. In 1984, plinary team of scientists conducts its own re- IUFRO will sponsor four regional planning search and trains people from a wide variety workshops on forestry research and technology of disciplines and organizations in the develop- transfer. These include fast-growing tree ing world. In addition, it collaborates with species in Asia, fuelwood production systems other developing nation institutions on re- in Africa, and multipurpose tree species for search and development projects. Its long-term reforestation of degraded lands in Latin program involves: 1) developing interdisci- America. The total funding for these research plinary capacity and methods to assess con- coordination efforts is low. straints in land-use systems and to identify agroforestry solutions, 2) collecting and eval- United Nations University (UNU) uating existing agroforestry knowledge, and 3) establishing a program for disseminating infor- The UNU, chartered in 1975 under the joint mation about agroforestry. sponsorship of the U.N. and UNESCO, was Ch. 5—Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources ● 113 . created to be an international community of 4. to make information available to scholars scholars engaged in research, post-graduate and research results available to decision- training, and dissemination of knowledge. A makers in usable form; and central program and coordinating unit is based 5. to encourage mission-oriented, multidis- in Tokyo, but UNU activities take place through- ciplinary research and advanced training. out the world. It does not offer degrees. UNU The UNU functions through networks of has never received funds from the U.S. Gov- existing universities and research institutes ernment. around the world and provides participants The university has three principal programs: with access to a variety of courses, instructors, Natural Resources, Human and Social Devel- and research facilities. Special emphasis is opment, and World Hunger. In each of these placed on interdisciplinary research and train- areas, the UNU performs five major functions: ing and on disseminating information to international organizations, governments, scholars, 1. to identify and define pressing global prob- policy makers, and the public. UNU has sup- lems that can be alleviated through ported research relating to agroforestry ($200,000 research, advanced training, and dissem- per year, primarily in cooperation with ination of knowledge; C.ATIE), fuelwood consumption and supply, 2. to help fill gaps in knowledge and exper- and land use in arid and semiarid regions. tise through internationally coordinated research and advanced training; 3. to strengthen research and advanced training resources in developing countries;

THE ROLE OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR

Historically, the greatest involvement of U.S. by providing capital for development and by interests in tropical forests has been in the transferring technologies. private sector, U.S.-based commercial firms have had forestry operations in tropical regions Of all U.S. organizations, the U. S-based mul- at least since the early 1900’s. The value of trop- tinational forestry corporations have had the ical hardwoods (logs, lumber, plywood, and ve- most to offer and the most to gain in ensuring neer) imported into the United States totaled that tropical forest resources are maintained, $537 million in 1978. U.S. demand for tropical These companies are a great storehouse of in- hardwood sawtimber is expected to increase formation and experience in managing forests. dramatically over the next two decades. Also, Much of this experience was acquired in the because of the longer growing seasons and fast- temperate zone, but technical know-how can er growth rates possible in tropical forests, the be adapted and transferred in such fields as U.S. paper industry is expected to begin using nursery and seed orchard establishment, tree wood from the Tropics for its processes as well. improvement, pest control, fertilization, silviculture programs, harvesting, transportation, The extent of private sector involvement in and wood product processing. the Tropics has varied because each firm has its own perceptions of its needs and of the cur- Although U.S. forestry companies with op- rent and future economic climate. A few U.S. erations in tropical nations have in the past firms specializing in use of primary resources concentrated on producing sawlogs and veneer (e.g., timber or minerals) have contributed logs, some have recently begun applying their substantially to developing technologies for the expertise to managing the forests within their Tropics and have played an important role both concessions for production of a wider range .. .———

114 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources of products and sustainable yields. At least 23 parative advantage because they have longer U.S.-based forestry firms (table 16) have opera- growing seasons. But this is countered by high- tions in the Tropics. About half of these have er infrastructure and transportation costs. active forest concessions; the others are in- Although labor costs are lower in the Tropics volved in pulp and paper operations, research, than in the United States, it can be difficult to or have simply setup offices to explore the fea- find skilled workers for forest industries. sibility of establishing operations in the tropical The main obstacle to increased U.S. invest- country (l). ment, however, is the political and economic The extent of future investments in the Trop- situation in tropical countries. Some countries ics by U.S. firms is uncertain. Opportunities restrict the share of foreign capital in domestic exist for transfer of both technical and business enterprises, have unfavorable tax or monetary skills. In some ways, tropical areas have a om- policies, have institutionalized corruption, or involve high risks due to potential economic instability, Table 6.—U.S. Forestry Firms Operating in Tropical Countries, 1981 Other private industries could also make important contributions to maintaining tropical forest resources. The development of un- conventional energy sources could affect tropical forests. Biotechnology firms are improving food and tree crops through tissue culture and other propagation techniques. In the past, some pharmaceutical firms conducted systematic studies of exotic flora for compounds of pharmacological interest (11). Such programs added to the knowledge of tropical ecosystems and provided new, useful substances. Now, however, plant screening is seen as less productive than chemical synthesis of new compounds. Today there are no U.S. pharmaceutical manufacturers involved in a research program designed to discover new drugs from higher plants (6) and the major program, begun by the National Cancer Institute in 1956 to screen plants for antitumor activity, was ter- minated in 1981.

CONSTRAINTS

Lack of Funds heard from the field, from project designers, and from the organizations themselves when Constraints on tropical forest resources de- soliciting support from their governments or velopment occur at various levels: within de- contributors. velopment assistance organizations, within the recipient countries, and within the local recip- Forestry is a relatively cash-starved sector in ient communities. A constraint often cited at many countries where forests do not generate all levels is lack of funds. More money, it is so large foreign-exchange earnings. The slow often argued, will bring more results. This is growth of forests compared with the produc- Ch. 5—Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources . 115 tion of annual crops or manufactured goods makes forestry investments seem relatively un- Obstacles to Effectiveness of profitable. Even in wood-exporting countries, Organizations Involved in Forestry concession fees and excise taxes 011 commer- Activities in Developing Countries cial products are often so low that the govern- Few donors are involved in forest conser- ment does not obtain much profit from forest vation activities, probably because conser- exploitation. Consequently, finance and plan- vation projects often are not profitable, ning agencies in tropical countries tend to A number of donor projects are contribut- neglect forestry, Even the multilateral developing to deforestation or will fail in reducing ment banks provided little financing for efforts the problem because inadequate attention to sustain forest resources until just a few years is paid to ecological effects, Road building, ago. agriculture, hydroelectric dams, coloniza- Moreover, projects often are left unfinished tion, and industrial forest harvest projects can be causes of deforestation. or without proper followup because funding beyond initial budget commitments is inade- Donor agencies operating in the same coun- quate. This deterioration of projects over time try tend not to communicate with each occurs because donors fail to recognize the other. This leads to duplication of efforts or long-term nature of forestry activities (24). failure to learn from the mistakes and suc- Within countries, it is often easier to start a cesses of others. new project than to secure funds to continue Forestry projects are often imposed on local one. Thus, it may be appropriate for develop- residents rather than being based on what ment assistance agencies to plan fewer projects the community wants and needs. As a con- but to continue support for longer periods (8), sequence, many donor projects fail because of “lack of cooperation” from local resi- The problem is, of course, that the current dents. economic climate makes it exceedingly diffi- Donor organizations often exhibit little ac- cult to obtain increased or new funds. Many ceptance or understanding of the value sys- legitimate development issues needing finan- tems, cultures, and traditions of the recip- cial support must compete for a limited re- ient countries in the design and implemen- source—money. Thus, while continuing to seek tation of forestry projects. additional financial support organizations also need to search for more innovative and effec- It is possible to create a negative impact by flooding a country with excessive donor active ways to use the forestry and agroforestry tivities or funds. Donor organizations may funds they have. implement oversized projects in countries riot yet ready to absorb them into their ex- Lack of Knowledge About Resources isting political and economic structure. and Adequate Technologies Often, when project funding has ended, the country is ill-equipped to carry on because Tropical ecosystems are extremely complex. of bottlenecks in education, managerial tal- Further, forest resource problems—and their ents, and other factors. solutions—are commonly site-specific, Al- Projects are often started but left unfin- though some basic knowledge about the structure and functions of tropical forests has been known for decades, the kinds of information needed to analyze long-term effects of various management schemes are not available. Thus, site-specific research on biotic resources, soils, and hydrology is needed to plan action that can sustain land-use conversions, maintain the re- silience of forests, exploit the wide variety of 116 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources forest products, and reduce or mitigate offsite Ž provide necessary, continuous evaluation impacts. of projects so that they can be improved as needed; and Many experts believe that the major con- ● work to meet the needs of local popula- straints on sustained use of tropical forests are tions. institutional, social, and political, not technical. They argue that adequate techniques to man- Forestry projects imposed “from the top down” age natural forests and plantations, reforest without adequate community participation degraded lands, and sustain agroforestry al- commonly fail. ready exist. (Some techniques to reforest de- How these constraints affect organizations graded lands, for example, are reviewed in varies depending on the organization and its OTA Background Paper #1, Sustaining Trop- purposes. The effectiveness of regional and ical Forest Resources: Reforestation of De- international research organizations can be graded Lands.) greatly constrained where local organizations Why, then, are these techniques not widely to adapt technologies to local conditions are in use? One possibility is that although they are lacking. In some cases, capable local organiza- technically feasible, they are not economical- tions do exist but are under political con- ly attractive. Many of the techniques have not straints that limit their communication with in- been suitably adapted for developing nations. ternational groups. They are often capital intensive, require heavy National governments’ attitudes toward trop- or specialized machinery, highly skilled labor, ical forest resources are often a major con- or continuous inputs of imported chemicals— straint on investment to sustain the resource any one of which can make a technology inap- base. Forestry concessions are often viewed propriate. Additionally, poorly understood just as revenue-raising devices rather than also social or cultural factors often impede tech- as forest management tools. Political leaders nology transfer. Thus, many organizations’ ef- who may be voted out of office or deposed forts to develop forest resources fail to spread rapidly often have a short planning horizon, beyond the bounds of pilot project areas be- viewing forest land as a commodity rather than cause the knowledge needed to make the tech- a resource. Or some special interest may be nologies more attractive does not exist or has not been communicated to the project imple- able to get sizable short-term profits from destructive use of tropical forest resources. mentors. Legislation is needed to promote integration of forestry and land-use planning, but only a Political, CulturaI, and gradual education process can assure govern- Institutional Constraints ment backing for such policies. Many organizations’ efforts are constrained by social factors. Political commitment is often Lack of Communication lacking within development assistance organi- One constraint often emphasized is inade- zations or within the counterpart tropical gov- quate communication. Resource development ernment organizations to allocate more staff suffers when researchers or field staff do not and funds to: communicate with each other, when project ● conduct the necessary, long-term baseline planners do not communicate with recipients, ecological and social research; and when donor agencies do not communicate ● provide ecologically sound support for lo- with other agencies. And prospects for sus- cal populations during the lag between in- tained resource development are dim when vestments in trees and realization of the projects do not complement one another as se- benefits; quential steps in an overall strategy. But im- Ch. 5—Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources . 117 proving communications and coordination is of tropical forest resources with the need to more difficult, and more expensive, than might preserve biological diversity and other nonin- be expected. Distribution of timely informa- dustrial forest functions. This sometimes leads tion, especially when the most important au- to organizations working at cross purposes. At dience is in developing countries, can face times contradictory efforts are accidental; one many obstacles, both logistical (delivering in- donor agency simply may not know what other formation to appropriate recipients) and hu- agencies are doing. Occasionally an organiza- man (finding appropriate readers and induc- tion’s own efforts can seem confused—one ing them to read and use the information). branch financing a reforestation project while another finances the conversion of undisturbed Encouraging donor agencies to communi- forest into agricultural land. cate and coordinate with each other should be a less formidable task, but in reality it is not. Sometimes such apparent conflicts are the First, there are a great number of national, in- inevitable result of different organizations hav- ternational, regional, and local institutions to ing different goals. For instance, the CGIAR track. Many agencies simply do not have the institutions strive to increase and promote ag- capacity to do this. Communicating with other ricultural production and expansion. The ex- agencies is often seen as an inappropriate in- pansion often occurs at the expense of forests fringement on staff time simply because inter- and in conflict with organizations that are agency coordination is seldom an explicit ob- working to prohibit agricultural clearing on for- jective in agencies’ policies. In some cases, est lands that cannot sustain it. In times when donor organizations compete with each other development funds seemed more plentiful, co- for influence and thus avoid communication. ordination of effort may have been less impor- More often, there are simply too many other tant. But today coordination is essential to things for an organization to accomplish with assure efficient use of existing funds and staff. limited staff and funds,

Contradictory Efforts There is a lack of consensus and unified policy on how to reconcile economic development

OPPORTUNITIES The constraints discussed in the previous technologies to sustain tropical forest re- section are not insurmountable. Some of the sources. leading multilateral such as World Bank and FAO have begun to shift their forest develop- Greater Cooperation Between ment priorities from nearly total emphasis on U.S. Government Agencies industrial forestry to community forestry, agroforestry, and institution building. While there Because tropical forestry is peripheral to the is criticism that implementation of these new interests of U.S. organizations, the U.S. exper- priorities has lagged (24), the shift in policy is tise on tropical forests is widely scattered (13), an important beginning. Several strategies exist No one organization can assemble an adequate to further improve the capabilities of organiza- team for tropical forest resource development tions that develop, transfer, and implement from its own staff. However, cooperation be- 118 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

tween organizations can be fruitful. Two of the reimbursable cooperation between Federal most productive cooperative agreements are agencies. Although AID has some agreements the Forestry Support Program and the Forest of this sort with other Federal agencies, the full Resource Management Project. potential of their use in foreign assistance activities has not been realized (22). The Forestry Support Program is a joint effort of AID, Forest Service, and the Office of International Cooperation and Development. It provides forest service personnel to help AID Redirecting International in designing, managing, and troubleshooting Organizations field projects in forestry and natural resources. Multilateral development banks and some It maintains detailed files on hundreds of U.S. U.N. agencies provide capital and technical forestry and natural resources experts. It pro- assistance for forest resource development. But vides general forestry information and facil- their forestry efforts are small relative to their itates exchanges of technical information other rural development programs. Further, the among natural resource personnel on AID and unplanned impacts on forests of other projects Peace Corps projects. Evaluation of the pro- may well be greater than the effects of the for- gram has indicated that it has substantially estry projects. Some development projects con- enhanced the cost effectiveness of AID’s de- tribute directly to deforestation—for example, velopment assistance efforts in forestry (5). large hydroelectric plants, extensive cattle The Forest Resource Management Project, ranches, and resettlement schemes based on in which the Peace Corps and AID collaborate, unsustainable agriculture (2). Although the has assessed forestry activities for many trop- multilateral development banks have signed a ical nations, conducted regional forestry pro- joint “Declaration of Environmental Policies graming workshops for AID, Peace Corps, and and Procedures Relating to Economic Develop- ministry staff in several countries, conducted ment, ” little has yet been done to include compre-service and in-service technical training prehensive environmental assessment in the programs, and initiated several modest refor- project planning process (12). estation pilot projects. The Peace Corps efforts Through existing mechanisms, the United have been funded by AID and given technical States has considerable influence over activi- support from the Forestry Support Program. ties of multilateral development banks and Several existing laws can be used by U.S. U.N. agencies. However, the United States has agencies to transfer staff and resources and in- not fully exercised its influence to promote crease the coordination and cooperation of projects that sustain renewable resources and U.S. Government agencies in development as- to avoid projects that harm long-term resource sistance. The Foreign Assistance Act (22 U.S.C. productivity. Doing so would have a significant 2357(a)) provides several mechanisms for in- effect on tropical governments. Countries often teragency cooperation. Temporary duty assign- are able to obtain substantial cofinancing from ments (TDY) can be arranged for specific tasks other sources for activities supported partly by up to 6 months. Participating Agency Services multilateral development bank loans. Thus, Agreements (PASA) are for time-specific, reim- governments can be motivated to modify their bursable exchanges of staff for up to 2 years. development policies to harmonize with those Resources Supply Services Agreements (RSSA) of the development banks. allow for other types of reimbursable coopera- Some actions that U.S. representatives to the tion. Cooperative agreements allow exchanges multilateral banks and U.N. agenices could of staff and resources between agencies with- promote include: out charge. The Government Employees Train- ing Act (ch. 41, Title 5 U. S. C.) and the Economy ● instituting environmental impact assess- Act (31 U.S.C. 686) also provide authority for ment procedures, Ch. 5—Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources ● 119

● improving monitoring and evaluation of U.S. Represenation to U.N. Agencies projects for their environmental impacts, ● The International Development Cooperation increasing environmental staff and budg- Agency (IDCA) establishes the overall budget ets, ● and policies for U.S. participation in UNDP, reporting environment-related activities FAO, WFP, UNEP, UNESCO, UNICEF, OAS annually, and ● Technical Assistance Funds, U.N. Capital removing restrictions on information about Development Fund, U.N. Educational and projects-to allow greater outside scrutiny Training Program for Southern Africa, and the and accountability (19). U.N. Disaster Relief Organization. The State The mechanisms for accomplishing these re- Department’s Office of International Organiza- forms differ for each multilateral development tions and Programs has lead responsibilities bank and U.N. agency. relating to several U.N. agencies.

U.S. Representation To the The United States maintains permanent rep- Multilateral Dovelopment Banks resentatives to the U.N. agencies and has special delegations who present U.S. policy posi- The U.S. Treasury Department’s Office of tions and vote on specific country programs. Multilateral Development Banks oversees ad- Like all other countries, the United States has ministrative budgets and policy papers for the only one vote on the governing boards of U.N. multilateral development banks. It also evalu- agencies. However, the United States can ex- ates loans on the basis of legislated, political, ercise considerably more influence due to its and economic concerns. The predominant con- budget contribution. Until recently, UNDP’S cerns are human rights and the production of Governing Council voted on particular proj- citrus, sugar, and palm oil that could affect U.S. ects. Now these decisions have been decen- producers. Most of the office’s work is in re- tralized and the U.S. representatives no longer viewing the projected economic returns of even receive copies of project documents loans. Recently, this office sought advice from routinely. The FAO/UNEP Committee on tropi- U.S. embassies on loans in their respective cal forestry is another vehicle by which the countries. United States can participate in setting the pri- The United States has representatives on the orities of these two organizations. boards of directors of the multilateral banks. Voting rights are allocated in proportion to One way of increasing the role of U.S. ex- each nation’s contribution to the bank’s budget. perts is to begin participating in the U.N. As- The United States has 19 percent of the total sociate Experts Program. Under this program, voting power on the World Bank’s Board, 5 the U.S. Government would pay the salary percent at the African Development Fund, 13 costs of sending U.S. technical personnel to percent at the Asian Development Bank, and developing countries to work on U.N. agency 35 percent at the InterAmerican Development projects. Bank. However, a formal vote is rarely taken because decisions on projects generally are made by consensus. A country can push to Increasing Coordination Among the have formal votes recorded. Ordinarily, prob- United States, Other Bilateral Donors, lem projects are simply blocked from reaching and Multilateral Aid Agencies the agenda. In 1982, the U.S. Government opposed 17 projects proposed by the banks. The Coordination among the United States, other multilateral development banks can fund only bilateral donors, and multilateral aid agencies those activities requested by governments; can be improved. One vehicle for such coor- however, the banks can impose conditions on dination is the Development Assistance Com- project implementation in loan agreements. mittee (DAC) of the Organization for Economic 120 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Cooperation and Development (OECD).* DAC those of a coordinating organization. If a for- undertakes “Annual Aid Reviews” on the eign or multilateral organization attempts the volume and terms of assistance. Few agree- coordination role, recipient countries may feel ments have been reached through DAC, and that their sovereignty in negotiating with the those that have are not binding or are vague donors is being compromised. (14). Nevertheless, DAC provides a forum for Some attempts have been made to coordinate exchanging ideas. It has encouraged some country programing for forest resource devel- countries to establish new programs and opment. Nepal has tried to designate a lead change existing ones. donor for particular types of projects in cer- U.N. agencies seem to be appropriate orga- tain regions of the country, but this has not nizations for international coordination. The been accomplished. Honduras has a Govern- U.N. Commission on Trade and Development mental Department of International Coordina- has made efforts to coordinate but these have tion, but this has done little to improve coor- led to confrontation rather than constructive dination because the Department only reviews problem-solving. The U.S. Department of State projects after they have been approved by the believes that FAO is best suited to coordinate various implementing agencies (8). the international forestry activities that are not In response to pressing problems in one re- country-specific (8). However, AID does not ag- gion of Africa, the Club du Sahel was estab- gressively seek FAO coordination of its forestry lished in 1976 by donors in Paris. The United efforts. States provides some participants to this group. Coordination also needs to be improved at An African group, the Interstate Committee for the country programing level. Such program- Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) also ing should involve the preparation of multiyear works in this area. Enlisting the cooperation plans by the recipient countries or ad hoc com- of donors and recipient countries was made mittees of donors so that the various donors easier by the crisis situation in the Sahel. can support complementary projects. With Cooperation for Development in Africa such planning the development assistance (CDA) is an informal group of bilateral donors agencies would not compete for host country established in 1982 at the initiative of France. experts or other resources. Through DAC, the The participants include the United States, United States has advocated greater use of Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, the country programing since the early 1960’s (14), United Kingdom, and numerous African na- arguing that it would result in more cost-effec- tions. The multilateral development banks do tive development assistance. In the simplest not participate officially but may send observ- model, each donor would proceed separately ers to CDA meetings. CDA consists of ad hoc after obtaining a coordinating organization’s committees of representatives organized to ad- agreement on a project. However, another pos- dress particular development topics. The sibility would be for several donors to combine United States is the lead donor nation for the resources and expertise on joint projects. committee on forestry and fuelwood. The com- Successful coordination requires: 1) active in- mittees discuss the types, location, and timing terest and participation of the donors and the of projects. They do not undertake directly to recipient countries; 2) good planning capabili- exchange information on technologies or ty; and 3) strong leadership (8). In practice, evaluate lessons learned during projects. CDA securing cooperation is not easy. Donors are also is making an effort to find activities that often reluctant to change plans to conform to are too large for a single donor to take on but are appropriate as joint development assistance *OECD member countries are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Japan, Luxembourg, ventures. the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the The CDA Forestry and Fuelwood Technical United States. Yugoslavia has special status. Committee takes a national focus, not a region- Ch. 5—Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources ● 121 al one. It initially operates in only five coun- years between Federal agencies and univer- tries—Burundi, Malawi, Senegal, Somalia, and sities or nonprofit research organizations. Upper Volta—in order to demonstrate the Some U.S.-based NGOS are eligible for IPA ex- workability of the process (10). Criteria for changes, but transfers of U.S. Government per- selecting countries include: 1) commitment of sonnel to NGOS are uncommon. The Office of the country to coordination of assistance, 2) Management and Budget (OMB) has recom- potential for success, 3) need, and 4) existing mended that IPA arrangements with univer- multiple CDA-donor programs. The commit- sities be limited to tenured faculty, but this tee plans to add Mali and the Sudan and to con- seems likely to have detrimental effects on the sider inclusion of Cameroon and Kenya (4). availability and development of U.S. expertise More African countries are involved in other to solve forest resource problems. CDA technical committees. The Foreign Assistance Act (22 U.S.C. The CDA process is well under way in Sene- 2357(a)) allows Federal agencies to provide gal and Somalia, where it has been successful training to: 1) personnel or sponsored fellows because of government commitment. The proc- of international organizations in which the ess does take staff and resources from both U.S. participates, 2) certain quasi-public orga- donor and recipient country agencies. It has nizations such as the Red Cross, 3) voluntary not been so successful in Upper Volta, which nonprofit relief organizations approved by the is so flooded with development projects that Advisory Committee on Voluntary Foreign it is unable to implement them well. Upper Aid, and 4) personnel of foreign governments. Volta also lacks a national forestry plan. In Fulbright Grants provide opportunities for Burundi and Malawi, the process is barely faculty members from U.S. universities to under way, but appears to be working. There teach, study, and conduct research in develop- have been no major problems in CDA donor ing countries and for scholars from develop- competition (4). ing countries to work in the United States. This program could make a greater contribution to Greater Reliance on NG0s and the development and transfer of tropical forest Universities resource expertise. However, the Fulbright program has been cut back sharply in recent years. In the past few years, U.S. AID has channeled an increasing amount of money through AID has given one strengthening grant to a nongovernmental organizations (NGOS) in U.S. university to expand its international for- tropical countries, especially through private estry capability. This is a 5-year matching grant voluntary organizations. This appears to be an of $100,000 per year with the University of effective way to promote technology transfer. Idaho. There are no plans to award similar NGOS offer particular advantages for small- grants to other universities in forestry. In com- scale and innovative projects, since in some parison, AID has some 50 strengthening grants cases they can act with greater speed, more with U.S. universities in agriculture. midproject flexibility, or more public confi- dence than government agencies. Grass roots Encouraging Responsile Involvement environmental movements within tropical countries also may deserve increased interna- by Private Corporations tional support. Some development assistance The private sector can be an effective tech- programs explicitly exclude NGOS while others nology transfer agent and could play a more do not exclude but still underuse them. important part in efforts to develop and imple- U.S. NGOS could be made more effective by ment technologies to sustain tropical forests. using the Intergovernmental Personnel Act The U.S. Government has established three (IPA) of 1970 (ch. 33, Title 5 U. S. C., subch. 6) programs to increase the involvement of the to arrange exchanges of personnel for up to 2 private sector in fostering development: 1)

25-287 0 - 84 - 9 122 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Overseas Private Investment Corporation, 2) United States, and 4) export potential of imple- Trade and Development Program, and 3) In- mented projects. ternational Executive Service Corps. However, none of these programs has been used very International Exeutive Service Corps much in the forestry sector. (IESC)) IESC makes the expertise of volunteer retired Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) executives available to developing countries. IESC gives priority to assistance for small and OPIC, established in 1971, provides services medium businesses; services to governments to U.S. companies interested in investing in the are deemphasized. U.S. AID provided $5 mil- private sector in developing countries. These lion to IESC in fiscal year 1982, slightly over services include: 1) information on investment half of its funding. The rest comes from U.S. opportunities; 2) financial assistance for invest- corporations. ment missions, feasibility studies, and market research; 3) insurance for political risks; and Strengthening Existing Organizations 4) loans or loan guarantees. The eligibility criteria for assistance include per capita incomes Foremost among opportunities to strengthen in the host country; size of the participating existing development assistance organizations business and its degree of involvement in the would be to continue and expand support for venture; economic and technical soundness of forestry efforts by AID. AID has a clear man- the proposal; and the contribution of the busi- date from the U.S. Congress to develop and ness to the economy of the host country. En- strengthen “the capacity of less developed vironmental factors are also supposed to be countries to protect and manage their environ- considered. Forestry and biotechnology enter- ment and natural resources” (sec. 118 of the prises can be eligible for OPIC assistance. Foreign Assistance Act) with explicit authorization for assistance to “maintain and increase Trade and Development Program (TDP) forest resources” (sec. 103 b). In 1981, section 118 was further amended to express congres- TDP, established in 1980 under IDCA, aims sional concern “about the continuing and ac- to increase the exports of goods, services, and celerating alteration, destruction, and loss of technology by U.S. firms to governments in less tropical forests in developing countries. ” developed countries. The principal activities of TDP are: 1) sponsoring project identification AID could emphasize this policy mandate, and feasibility studies, 2) organizing technology translating it more often into action. This could workshops, 3) coordinating technical assist- include continuing education for AID person- ance from various U.S. Government agencies nel regarding the relevance of forestry con- to foreign governments, and 4) administering cerns. More project designs could allocate a technical training programs in the United percentage of funds to relevant environmen- States for foreign citizens. The latter two ac- tal protection measures—for instance, water tivities are on a reimbursable basis. TDP seeks development projects could include compo- reimbursement of the costs of feasibility studies nents to maintain forest cover on surrounding from the investors if the project proceeds and watersheds. Many of the development activi- it also tries to obtain some cost-sharing by the ties AID conducts have direct and indirect im- host countries. pacts on tropical forests, and AID does sometimes include forest-related components on The criteria for selection of TDP activities projects not specifically aimed at forest devel- include: 1) consistency with the development priorities of the host country, 2) availability of opment. funding for project implementation (other than Another way AID could enhance its effec- AID), 3) friendliness of the host country to the tiveness in this sphere is through the Food for Ch. 5—Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources ● 123

Peace program. AID administers some $1.6 bil- National Academy of Sciences (NAS) has pro- lion per year in Public Law 480 Food for Peace vided important support to AID and other or- activities, but now only about 1 percent of the ganizations that work to sustain tropical forest projects are concerned with forest resources. resources. These two agencies could be encour- More of these funds could be directed to re- aged to intensify their work on important in- forestation and assuring local involvement in ternational environment issues. forest and plantation management. Public Law Another opportunity to strengthen existing 480 foreign currency reserves could also be organizations concerns the UNESCO Man and used to fund forest research, perhaps including the Biosphere (MAB) program. MAB has sup- a greater involvement by the U.S. Forest Serv- ported some 1,000 field projects in 90 coun- ice. tries. Nearly one-fourth of its $2 million 1981-83 This redirection of existing efforts is a way budget is for activities related to humid tropical to increase U.S. involvement without adding zones and MAB has a commendable record of new financing, although substantial increases supporting innovative research on tropical this way could lead to reductions elsewhere. forest resources. It has a good international The international programs of U.S. Govern- reputation and has been successful in support- ment agencies other than AID also could be ex- ing small-scale and pilot project research. panded to play a more active role in sustain- UNESCO is the organizing agency for MAB, ing forest resources. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife but each country’s effort is funded independ- Service, the Forest Service, and the National ently. U.S. support for MAB has been dimin- Park Service, for instance, have much relevant ishing and much of the U.S. contribution now expertise and could be encouraged to increase comes from the Forest Service and the Depart- their international work. ment of State. The proposed fiscal year 1984 budget contains no funds for MAB. Research sponsored or financed by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) and the

CHAPTER 5 REFERENCES

1. Bethel, J., et al., The RoZe of U.S. &fzdtinatiorzaZ Plants: The Potentials for Extracting Protein, Corporations in Commercial Forestry Opera- Medicines, and Other Useful Chemicals, Work- tions in the Tropics, University of Washington, shop Proceedings (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Con- report for the U.S. Department of State, 1982. gress, Office of Technology Assessment OTA- 2. Bramble, B., National Wildlife Federation, Tes- BP-F-23, September 1983). timony Before the House Subcommittee on In- 7. Food and Agriculture Organization of the ternational Development Institutions and Fi- United Nations, World List of Forestry Schools nance, 1983. (Rome: FAO, 1981), Report 3 rev./l. 3. Buckman, R., U.S. Forest Service, personal 8. General Accounting Office, C’hanges Needed in communication, 1983. U.S. Assistance to Deter Deforestation in De- q. Catterson, T., FueZwood Research in Africa veloping Countries [Washington, D. C.: U.S. (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Agency for Interna- Government Printing Office, 1982), Report ID- tional Development, 1983), and personal com- 82-50. munication, 1983. 9 Goodland, R,, “Brazil’s Environmental Progress 5. Cliff, E., Gallegos, C., and McCarty, H., Evacua- in Amazonian Development, ” Changes i; the tion of Forest Resources Management Project, Amazon Basin, J. Hemming (cd.) (Manchester, No. 936-5519, for AID/S& T/FNR by the Society England: Manchester University Press, 1983). of American Foresters Evaluation Team, 1982. 10. Gulick, F,, PossibZe Additional Countries for the 6. Farnsworth, N., and Loub, W., “Information CDA Forestry Initiative (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Gathering and Data Bases That Are Pertinent Agency for International Development, 1983). to the Development of Plant-Derived Drugs, ” 11. Hansel, R,, “Medicinal Plants and Empirical 124 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Drug Research,” Plants in the Development of 18, Payne, B., U.S. Forest Service, personal com- Modern Medicine, T. Swaine (cd.) (Cambridge, munication, 1983. Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972), pp. 19, Rich, B., “Institutions That Deal With Technol- 160-174. ogies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, ” 12. Horberry, J., BMZ Working Paper on Status and OTA commissioned paper, 1982. Application of Environmental Impact Assess- 20. Teltsch, K., “Philanthropic Coalition to Expand ment for Development Projects (Gland, Swit- Aid Abroad,” The New York Times, Jan. 31, zerland: International Union for the Conserva- 1982. tion of Nature and Natural Resources, 1983). 21. Tewari, R., “Effective Policies and Legislative 13. Interagency Task Force, The World’s Tropical Needs for Stimulating Growth Through Com- Forests: A Policy, Strategy, and Program for the munity Forestry in Forest-Based Economies United States (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Govern- Within an Agrarian Environment,” Proceed- ment Printing office, 1980). ings: XVII IUFRO World Congress, Division 4 14, Kaplan, J., International Aid Coordination: (Vienna: International Union of Forest Re- Needs and Machinery (Washington, D, C.: search Organizations, 1981). American Society of International Law, 1978), 22. Wadsworth, F., “Secondary Forest Manage- Report No. 16. ment and Plantation Forestry Technologies to 15. McGaughey, S., “Prospects for Financing For- Improve the Use of Converted Tropical Lands,” est-Based Development in Latin America: An OTA commissioned paper, 1982. Issue for Sector Analysis,” Proceedings: XVII 23. World Bank/Food and Agriculture Organization IUFRO World Congress, Division 4 (Vienna: In- of the United Nations, Forestry Needs in DeveL ternational Union of Forest Research Organiza- oping Countries: Time for a Reappraisal? (Paper tions, 1981). for 17th IUFRO Congress, Kyoto, Japan, Sept. 16. McPherson, M. P., Administrator, Agency for 6-17, 1981). International Development, testimony before 24. Zerbe, J., et al,, Forestry Activities and Defor- the Subcommittee on Human Rights and Inter- estation Problems in Developing Countries, Re- national Affairs, Committee on Foreign Affairs, port to Office of Science and Technology, AID, U.S. House of Representatives, Mar. 30, 1983, Washington, D. C.; U.S. Department of Agricul- 17. Noronha, R,, World Bank, personal com- ture; and the U.S. Forest Service, 1980. munication, 1982. Chapter 6 U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific Page Highlights ...... 127

Introduction ...... * 127

Common Characteristics of Island Tropical Forests ...... 129 Species-Rich Forests ... **** ...... 129 Abundance of Endemic Species ...... 129 Vulnerability to Invasion by Exotic Plant and Animal Species ...... 130 Dependence of Water Resources on Forests ...... 131 Dependence of Coastal Ecosystems on Forests ...... 132 Vulnerability to Land Degradation ...... , . . ,0 ., . . . 6 ., ...... 132 U.S. Caribbean Territories: Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands ...... 133 Forest Resources: Status and Trends . **...,....,.****,**,...,*.,.**,.*.*.* 133 History of Forest Use ... .. , 135 Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forests...... 140 U.S. Pacific Territories: American Samoa, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, and Guam ...... 141 Forest Resources: Status and Trends . ..,..,,, 141 History of Forest Use .*** ...... 148 Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forests...... 149 Chapter 6 References...... , ...... 152

List of Tables . Table No. Page 17. Life Zones and Area in Puerto Rico ...... 133 18. Life Zones of the U.S. Virgin Islands ...... 134 19. Average Annual Sheet and Rill Erosion in the U.S. Caribbean ...... 136 20.1981 Lumber Imports into Puerto Rico by Species and Country of Origin . . . . 139 21. Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forests in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands ., * . . * . *, ...... 140 22. Pacific Territories of the United States ...... * . . . . . * . . . . * * . . *..***... 144 23. Land Use in American Samoa, 1977 , ,9, ...... 144 24. Island Types and Forest Areas of Micronesia ...... 145 25. Landownership in Guam ...... 147 26. Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources in the American Western Pacific .*** **. **** **. *.. **** *.** ...... 151

List of Figures

Figura No., Page 18. Land Use in Puerto Rico ● *********9****.*.******.*********.****....***. 134 19. An Idealized Transect Through a Caribbean Island in the Lesser Antilles. . . . . 135 20. Original Vegetation of Puerto Rico ...... ,.,.,.,,.. 136 21. Location of the U.S. Western Pacific Territores ● * * * * * . . * ...... 142 22. Geopolitical Breakdown of the U.S. Western Pacific Territories ...... 143 23. Diagram of a “Typical” Micronesian Island Indicating Some Relationships Between Land Development and Island Resources ...... 146 Chapter 6 U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific

HIGHLIGHTS

● Past poor land-use practices have degraded ● Only Puerto Rico has significant potential forest resources in the U.S. Caribbean and for commercial forestry, but both the Pacific Pacific tropical territories and have resulted and Caribbean territories could provide a in significant amounts of abandoned land greater share of their domestic forest prod- and relatively unproductive secondary for- uct needs. est. Related resources (e. g., water supplies ● The territorial governments all have desig- and coastal marine resources) are, in many nated natural resource agencies and have ex- places, threatened by forest loss. pressed their recognition of the need to in- ● Although not a problem at present, overex- tegrate forestry into development, but most ploitation of island forests is likely to occur of the agencies are small and lack adequate as populations grow and expectations rise. funding and personnel. Much of this could be avoided if forest resource development were integrated with economic development.

INTRODUCTION

Less than 1 percent of the world’s tropical million acres* is under forest cover, mostly sec- forests fall under U.S. jurisdiction. These are ond growth trees, fruit tree plantations, and located primarily in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Vir- shade covers in the remaining coffee regions. gin Islands, the U.S. Pacific territories of Amer- Despite this, Puerto Rico produces less than 1 ican Samoa and Micronesia (Guam, the Com- percent of its domestic wood requirements (43). monwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, The U.S. Virgin Islands are an unincorpo- and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands), rated territory east of Puerto Rico containing and Hawaii. Both the Caribbean and Pacific about 86,500 acres, including about 50 islands territories have a long history of land-use prac- and islets. They have been administered since tices that have created relatively large areas of 1951 by the U.S. Department of the Interior. degraded or abandoned forest land. For over The three largest islands—st. Croix, St. John, a century, Hawaii has restricted use of its forest and St. Thomas—are used extensively for areas, primarily to protect their watershed val- tourism and have effectively no forest products ues. industry. However, three-fourths of the island Puerto Rico includes the adjacent small of St. John is the Virgin Island National Park. islands. It includes the easternmost islands of the Greater Antilles in the West Indies. It is a *All land areas in this chapter will appear in acres, as this mountainous land with a variety of ecosystems. is the common measurement for U.S. lands. One hectare = 2.47 Today, at least one-third of Puerto Rico’s 2.2 acres.

127 128 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Water retention and control, protection of recreation, and wildlife habitat in the islands’ critical marine habitats, and esthetic values are forests. the primary purposes of the forests on these islands. Industrial forestry recently has become a focus of economic development in Hawaii. There The U.S. tropical forests in the western Pacif- are 47,000 acres of forest plantations in Hawaii, ic are located in Micronesia and American Sa- most of which are on public lands (7). How- moa. Micronesia includes some 2,000 islands ever, about 1 million acres have been desig- within 3 million square miles in the western nated as commercial forest land (areas suitable Pacific north of the Equator, southwest of Ha- for growing timber and with some forest cover waii, and extending west to within 500 miles but not necessarily stocked with timber trees). of the Philippines. They range in size from Of this, the State owns nearly 45 percent. An small, unoccupied coral atolls to large, popu- additional 290,000 acres of extensively grazed lated volcanic islands. American Samoa con- lands also are suited for timber crops, but now sists of seven islands located south of the Equa- have no forest cover (16). tor. Some wood products are harvested on these islands for local use, although on Hawaii also hosts a number of organizations American Samoa nearly all wood products ex- dedicated to sustaining tropical forest re- cept fuelwood are imported from nearby inde- sources in the islands and the tropical world. pendent Western Samoa, and from the United For example, an AID-funded project on States and New Zealand (5). nitrogen fixation by tropical agricultural legumes (NiFTAL), which produces inoculants Reliable information on the original extent on a pilot scale for researchers and legume of the forests on the U.S. western Pacific growers, is based in Hawaii. The East-West islands does not exist, but forests probably Center, created by Congress in 1960 to promote covered most of the island. On many islands— interchange among the United States, Pacific, such as Guam, Tinian, and Saipan—man and and Asian countries, is a regional center for nature have so changed the islands that it is discussion and study of natural resource issues. nearly impossible to identify the original forest The Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden, the types. only privately supported tropical botanical The State of Hawaii lies in the middle of the garden chartered by the U.S. Congress, is in northern Pacific Ocean between Mexico and Hawaii. Forestry research and education are Micronesia. Hawaii has 8 major islands and pursued by the University of Hawaii and the 124 smaller islands that cover about 4 million Bishop Museum. Hawaii also houses the U.S. acres. About half this acreage is forest- and Forest Service Institute of Pacific Island shrub-covered. Forestry (IPIF], which supports research on forest resources in Hawaii and the U.S. Since the late 1800’s, Hawaii has pursued a western Pacific, and a cooperative State and policy of protecting its forests for watershed Private Forestry division. values (16). A well-developed land-use plan was enacted in 1961. All lands were zoned accord- In 1979, the U.S. Forest Service and C. Brew- ing to allowed use: urban, rural, agricultural, er & Co. created the BioEnergy Development and conservation. Most forested lands are Corp., funded by the Department of Energy, under conservation zoning. Forests on agricul- to implement and demonstrate IPIF research tural land can be manipulated, but forests on activities. This joint venture has become one conservation land cannot without special per- of the largest forestry research and develop- mission by the Hawaii Board of Land and Nat- ment projects directed at biomass fuel produc- ural Resources (9). In 1962, the Hawaii Depart- tion in the United States. It is cultivating more ment of Land and Natural Resources produced than 200 acres of fast-growing eucalyptus the first of three lo-year multiple-use programs species on Hawaii Island that will be chipped for managing water, timber, livestock forage, for use as boilerfuel at two nearby sugar plan- Ch. 6—U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific . 129 tation powerplants. Plantings are planned for of tropical areas in that its institutional capaci- 400 acres of abandoned sugar cane land and ty for dealing with these problems is well- 500 acres of wasteland and undeveloped forest developed. Because of this, the expertise and areas (8). experience embodied in Hawaiian people and organizations working with tropical forest re- The problems that Hawaii has experienced sources can contribute to sustaining tropical related to forest resource management (e.g., forest resources in the U.S. territories and in increased runoff, severe erosion, inadequate the developing world. water supply) are similar to other tropical forested areas. However, the State is atypical

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF ISLAND TROPICAL FORESTS

Island forests share many common features Abundance of Endemic Species with continental tropical forests, yet display numerous unique ecological and historical at- Many rare species and unique ecosystems tributes. Some characteristics shared by many have evolved on these islands because of their U.S. Pacific and Caribbean island forests are: small size and geographic isolation. Hawaii and the western Pacific islands are especially ● history of species-richness; rich in rare, endemic species; for some tree ● abundance of endemic (unique, area- species only one or two individuals are known specific) species; (31). In many cases, the insular bird, mammal, ● great vulnerability to invasion by exotic and fish life also are endemic. Among the many plants and animals; endangered, endemic species are the Puerto ● dependence of water and coastal resources Rican parrot, the Micronesia megapode, and on forests; and the Yapese fruit bat. In Hawaii, 90 percent of ● severe pressure on land resources from human populations.

Species=Rich Forests Island tropical forests found near continents are rich in tree species (26,48). The 547 native tree species found in Puerto Rico (19,20) approximate the number of tree species found in all the continental United States (18). Some 500 native tree species and several hundred introduced or exotic species grow in the U.S. Virgin Islands (30). Smaller islands and islands farther from continents have fewer native species, but many exotic species have been introduced to these areas, For example, about 800 tree species were planted in the State of Hawaii between 1908 and 1960 (16). The western Pacific islands have Photo credit: J, Bauer varying numbers of species depending on their Endangered Puerto Rican parrots nesting at artificial distance from Asia and their history of distur- nest site; these parrots remain only in the Caribbean bance and replanting. National Forest 130 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources the species in many plant and animal families many species for botanical and zoological in- are endemic and as many as 2,000 plants and vestigation. Their clearly defined boundaries animals may be endangered (36). facilitate study of species migration, competition, adaptation, and extinction. General prin- Local endemism is highly developed in cloud ciples of evolution can be distilled from island forests. These are, in a sense, islands within studies and applied to, for example, the design islands (28). Cloud forests (also called dwarf or of parks and reserves. moss forests] occur on steep slopes and hill crests extending into the cloud zone. Thin, leached soil and steep, windswept terrain limit tree growth so trees have a low, bushy ap- Vulnerability to Invasion by Exotic pearance, some with bare trunks and branches Plant and Animal Species and broomlike tufted tops. Much is known The survival of native plants and animals in about cloud forests in Puerto Rico (28), but in- the U.S. tropical islands is threatened by the formation on these forests in Micronesia (on conversion of forests to agriculture and urban Ponape and Kosrae) is meager. This type of uses. Introduced plants and animals also pose forest is very sensitive to disturbances (15). a great threat because they prey upon or out- Island ecosystems provide values to science compete native species. The result has been a disproportionate to their small size. Because continuing decline in the quality of the forests of the high rates of endemicity, islands provide and a selective elimination of native species.

Photo credit: J. Bauer Cloud or dwarf forests are important for water retention and as habitat for many endemic species in both Puerto Rico and the U.S. western Pacific islands Ch. 6—U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific ● 131

Introduction of pigs, goats, cattle, rats, and some birds and insects, affects both the Pacific and Caribbean islands. In the western Pacific islands, for example, introduction of the Rhinoceros beetle contributed greatly to the decline of coconut plantations, and the Giant African snail inhibits nursery production for horticulture and forestry (15,22). In the Carib- bean, animals have affected dry ecosystems to a greater degree than moist ecosystems. Mammals are being introduced to Hawaii by man at 90,000 times the natural rate: one species or population has been successfully introduced every 11 years for the last 200 years. For land birds, the rate is one successful species or population every 4 years. Most of these species are successful at the expense of endemic or indigenous forms (39). Research performed during the 1970’s documented the heavy impacts by feral animals on both wet and dry native Hawaiian forests. Results from this research have led to a decision to reduce or eliminate these animals in some areas (17).

Dependence of Water Resources on Forests On all of the islands, the primary value of forests is their regulation of water regimes. Trop- Photo credit: J Bauer ical oceanic islands, except coral atolls, are La Mina Falls: Regulation of water regimes is the most important function of forests on tropical high islands. usually small with steep slopes. The natural Most upper watersheds have steep slopes and should freshwater habitat is streams rather than lakes remain forest-covered to reduce erosion and siltation (38). Streams and forests are concentrated in of reservoirs and coastal ecosystems the interior highlands and stream ecology is closely linked with forest ecology. Diversion destroy a population that must migrate through of water for domestic purposes, plantation it to reach its normal adult habitat upstream agriculture, and industrial needs can leave in- (38). sufficient waterflow for riverine fauna and On many islands, deforestation has resulted flora. in turbid, erratic, and seasonally disappearing Island ecosystems often host animal popula- streams (11). For example, the U.S. Virgin tions that depend on local freshwater and for- Islands have no remaining permanent streams est habitats. Many species spend part of their (30). Aquifer water levels are declining as pop- early lives in the ocean but migrate through ulations pump out more than is recharged. Be- streams to complete their lifecycle. In the cause of inadequate freshwater resources, wa- natural state, much of the stream where they ter in the U.S. Virgin Islands is expensive, rang- live and migrate lies within the forest. But ing from $10 per 1,000 gallons from a desalina- when forests are altered or removed, stream tion plant to as much as $12 per 1,000 gallons habitats change. Any uninhabitable stretch can for water barged in from Puerto Rico (32). -

132 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Dependance of Coastal Ecosystems on Forests Disruption of water regimes in tropical islands has considerable influence on coastal marine environments. when forested watersheds are cleared, waterflow and erosion accelerate, depositing a blanket of sediment on coral reefs. This deprives corals of light and oxygen and causes the bottom to become soft and unstable, thereby preventing recolonization. The addition of large amounts of freshwater runoff also is damaging because corals can only live within a limited salinity range (29). Photo credit: E. Petteys Normally, mangrove forests along the coast- Coastal mangrove forests capture, filter, and line act to filter and chemically buffer the chemically buffer sediments from runoff. Little is sediments. Seagrass meadows also can filter known about the operation and carrying capacity of these communities and their relation to fish sediment that escapes the mangroves. Unfor- nurseries and the coral reef community tunately, little is known about how these filtering and silt-adjusted biotic communities operate, how they are affected by and affect the duction and tourist value but also as a basis for nutritional levels of lagoon and reef waters, or industry built around scientific research (6). how they affect fish nurseries and the coral reef community. Vulnerability to Land Degradation The approximately 31,000 acres of man- Because of small land areas, rapidly grow- groves in the U.S. Micronesia territories pro- ing populations, and transportation barriers, vide food and building materials for local peo- appropriate land-use is especially important for ple and are important to traditional Microne- island development. Lacking enough land for sia life. Mangroves also are found along the shifting cultivation, indigenous peoples on coastlines of American Samoa, Hawaii, and the small tropical islands developed land-intensive U.S. Caribbean islands. Here, too, they are the systems of agriculture. Small-plot land-use sys- spawning grounds and nurseries for many tems were common in both the U.S. western forms of marine and reef life. Coral reefs, pro- Pacific and Puerto Rico. Today, these agricul- tected by mangroves, are basic in the food tural systems can no longer support the grow- chain of shallow waters, affecting fish and ing populations. Because of limited land, farm- other marine resources of both subsistence and ers displaced by residential or commercial con- commercial importance to island people of the struction move to the more easily eroded island U.S. tropical territories (23). Reefs have eco- hillsides, and roads may be routed through sus- nomic importance not only from their food pro- ceptible mangrove forests (6). Ch. 6—U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific ● 133

U.S. CARIBBEAN TERRITORIES: PUERTO RICO AND THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS Forest Resources: Status and Trends Table 17.—Life Zones and Area in Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico Percent Life zone Total acres of total Puerto Rico’s total land area, including that Subtropical moist forest ...... 1,314,582 59.2 of adjacent small islands, is 2,198,000 acres. Subtropical wet forest ...... 524,830 23.6 Subtropical dry forest ...... 346,936 15.6 Originally, most of Puerto Rico was forested, Subtropical lower montane forest . . 26,950 1,2 but agricultural colonization reduced forest Subtropical rain forest ...... 3,260 0.1 cover to only 9 percent by 1950—4 percent Subtropical lower montane rain forest ...... 3,040 0.1 government forests and 5 percent privately SOURCE: Adapted from: J. J. Ewel and J L. Whitmore, The Ecological Life Zones owned forests. Today, at least one-third of of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, USDA Forest Service Research Paper ITF-18, 1973, In: Schmidt, 1982, and S. I. Somberg, Vir- Puerto Rico is again under forest cover, most- gin Islands forestry Research: A Problem Analysis (St Croix: College of ly second growth trees, fruit tree plantations, the Virgin Islands, Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment Station, 1976). and shade cover in the remaining coffee agricultural or forest crops and still exist in regions. Original forest cover is found only in their natural state. Most of these lands are in a few inaccessible regions, Some 98,000 acres public forests and are important for watershed are public forest, divided between Federal and protection. Commonwealth administration. Abandonment of coffee plantations and farmlands, particular- Subtropical dry forests support a forest cover ly on steep slopes, released 1.1 million acres rich in tree species, but they do not have good now potentially available for forestry activities, potential for commercial forest production. In Puerto Rico and throughout the Tropics, dry Some of this land is probably too steep to use, forests often are converted to grazing land (fig, although some recreation and gathering activ- 18), The southern coastal plain of Puerto Rico ities might be allowed. Some acreage will be and associated small islands contain most of required for future development; nevertheless, the dry forests, limiting the potential for com- a considerable amount of land could be used mercial forestry and increasing their need for for productive forestry, Some 200,000 acres are effective conservation programs. estimated suitable for commercial forestry (42, 44) and some could be used for forestry-agri- The subtropical moist life zone, with 1,000 culture combinations. to 2,000 mm of rainfall per year, covers most of Puerto Rico. Agriculture, urban, and indus- Pronounced differences in natural vegetation trial uses are common in this zone, Subtropical occur because of sharp variations in altitude, wet forests are found higher in the mountains climate, and soil characteristics. Using the of Puerto Rico where rainfall is above 2,000 Holdridge Life Zone system, six zones are mm. Pasture is common in this zone, which found in Puerto Rico (12). At least 98 percent is cooler, and coffee, bananas, plantains, and of the land area is covered by three of the life other fruits grow well. * zones (table 17). The other three are found only at or near mountaintops and are very wet. *Ewel and Whitmore (12) provide more detailed descriptions Generally, they are unproductive for of all life zones in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. 134 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Figure 18.— Land Use in Puerto Rico

This wet forest life zone presents a substan- (15,000 acres), and St. Croix (55,000 acres). tial management challenge. Forests composed Only two Holdridge ecological life zones are of abandoned coffee shade trees, in particular, found in the U.S. Virgin Islands: subtropical contain some commercially valuable trees, but dry forests and subtropical moist forests (table most of their volume is in three legumes (Inga 18). The subtropical dry forest zone occupies vera, I. laurina, and Erythrina poeppingiana) almost three-fourths of the islands’ land. There and other marginally valuable species (e.g., are no permanent rivers or streams in the U.S. Guarea guidonia) (2). These forests supply lit- Virgin Islands outside the Virgin Islands Na- tle useful timber, but they offer excellent water- tional Park. All water retained in aquifers shed and soil protection, wildlife habitat, and comes from rainfall (30); these are depleted and recreational and esthetic opportunities. many wells are dry. Despite the high costs of desalinating water or importing it from Puer- U.S. Virgin lslands to Rico by barge, little attempt has been made The U.S. Virgin Islands are part of the Lesser to institute a revegetation program to increase Antilles Archipelago. Its three largest islands water retention and to prevent the flooding and are St. Thomas (17,000 acres), St. John Island marine siltation (32).

Tabie 18.—Life Zones of the U.S. Virgin isiands

Subtropical dry Subtropical moist Percent of Island Square miles Acres forests (acres) forests (acres) total area St. Croix ...... 84 54,563 45,469 9,094 63.9 St. Thomas...... 28 17,984 7,001 10,983 21.1 St. John ...... 20 12,835 8,214 4,621 15.0 Total ...... 132 85,382 60,684 24,698 — Percent of total . . 71.1 28.9 100.0 SOURCE: S. I. Somberg, Virgin Islands Forestry Research: A Problem Analysis (St. Croix: College of the Virgin Islands, Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment Station, 1976). Ch. 6—U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific “ 135

These islands were once largely forest cov- agement of watershed forests, and roadside ered (fig. 19). Less data are available on forest and urban forestry. use and potential in the U.S. Virgin Islands than for Puerto Rico. However, an estimated History Of Forest Use 35,300 acres of forest and brushland exist, including 5,000 acres of commercial forests and Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands share 15,800 acres of noncommercial forests. The re- a similar forest-use history. Essentially all of maining 14,500 acres are unclassified and are Puerto Rico was forested on the arrival of Co- mountainous. Most of the forested area outside lumbus in 1493 (fig. 20). Then agricultural and the Virgin Islands National Park is in private urban expansion into the forests gradually took ownership (30). place. Until the early 20th century, most wood harvested was used for fuel or construction, but The majority of land considered suitable for construction wood was being imported as early agriculture (including forestry) is on St. Croix. as the 1700’s. The only exports were rare and Two high-value timber species, mahogany and valuable native species such as lignumvitae and teak, are grown at the U.S. Forest Service satinwood (Guaiacmn officinale and Zanthox- Estate Thomas Experimental Forest on that ylum flavwn). The economic depression in the island. Teak can be established on marginal 1930’s, combined with increased population, land common in central St. Croix and has had heavy adverse impacts on Puerto Rico. Ag- proved compatible with grazing. riculture was pushed farther up the hills across the island. By 1935, only about 2 percent of the A combination of high land prices, compet- land area—the most inaccessible and infertile ing land uses, and certain adverse soil and areas—had not been deforested at some time. topography factors probably preclude most commercial forestry on the U.S. Virgin Islands In the 1920’s and 1930’s, the Federal Govern- (30). However, potentials exist for agricultural ment acquired about 50,000 acres of mountain tree crops (e.g., coconut, mango, limes), man- land in Puerto Rico for forest and watershed

Figure 19.—An Idealized Transect Through a Caribbean Island in the Lesser Antilles

Montane zone \\’\\y> with abundant rainfall \ mostly still forested \. Seasonally dry zone m. now mostly cleared and used for ~ agriculture Littoral -& and mangrove woodlands ~P Under the influence 1of the sea and fresh Ad” “

SOURCE: Adapted from J. S. Beard, The Natural Vegetation of the Windward and Leeward Islands (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1949). In: Schmidt, 1982 136 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Figure 20.—Original Vegetation of Puerto Rico

6715 6700 6645 6630 6615 6600 6545 6530 6515 I I I I I I I I I Puerto Rico 18 18 30 30

18 18 15 15

18 — 18 )0 00 i

18 10 18 05

SOURCE: Rafael Pico, The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1974), p. 180,

protection. In the late 1930’s and early 1940’s, The Natural Resource Inventory performed the Civilian Conservation Corps planted some by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1977 25,000 acres of timber trees that survive today, estimated average annual soil loss for different mostly in public forests. Today 100,000 acres land uses in the Caribbean (Puerto Rico and are in public forest lands, divided between Fed- the U.S. Virgin Islands), all of which are con- eral and Commonwealth administration. Carib- siderably higher than the average annual soil bean pine (Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis) loss for the United States (table 19). These ero- was first established on the island in 1962. sion rates reflect the extensive historical Through the 1960’s and 1970’s, from 100 to 500 deforestation of the islands and the continu- acres per year of timber trees, mostly pine, ing cultivation and inadequately managed graz- were established on private lands. About 200 ing of lands unsuitable for permanent acres per year of various species were planted agriculture. on public forest lands. Planting records of the Institute of Tropical Table 19.—Average Annual Sheet and Rill Erosion in Forestry indicate that 95,000 acres of trees have the U.S Caribbean (tons/acre) been planted in Puerto Rico (2), but no forest Land use U.S. Caribbean average U.S. average plantation inventory has been conducted. The Cropland...... 49 5.1 1973 land-use inventory (10) and the 1980 forest Rangeland ...... 50 2.8 resources survey (2) indicated that there are Forest Iand: 800,000 acres of secondary forest in Puerto Grazed ...... 6 3.9 Not grazed . . . . . 10 0.6 Rico. About half of Puerto Rico consists of land SOURCE: Adapted from USOA, 1977 Natural Resources lnventory, Washington, abandoned from farming or grazing. D.C, Ch. 6—U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific ● 137

Geoclimatic Regions in Puerto Rico Five basic rock types are present in Puerto Rico. Composition within each rock type varies and there are hundreds of soil types (3,21). However, changes in forest growth and composition are noticeable only across the major rock types. These five rock types can be overlayed with Holdridge Life Zones to form 17 geoclimatic regions (14). The regions with potential for commercial forestry use include: ● Moist-alluvial region. —This is the zone of mechanized agriculture, urban development, and protected coastal mangroves and wetlands. These uses are considered higher priority than ● forestry and probably will preclude it in this zone in the future. ● Moist-volcanic regioin. —This extensive zone is very important for forest development. It is a prime zone for growing Caribbean pine, mahogany, teak, blue mahoe, and eucalyptus. Where soils are poor, degraded, or on moderately steep slopes, agricultural practices have ceased. Native pastures, especially where ferns invade, can be of very low productivity. Regenerated native forests can be developed for conservation or timber production. However, most abandoned land in this region is deforested and is not regenerating into secondary forests of native species (27). ● Moist-limestone region.—This is an area of extensive agricultural abandonment in northwestern Puerto Rico. Mahogany, teak, and Eucalyptus deglupta grow well on the lower slopes of the rounded hills of this region; blue mahoe (Hibiscus elatus) grows well in moist valley bottoms. Well-managed plantations of these species are grown in three Commonwealth forests in this zone. ● Moist-granodioritic region.—Large areas of abandoned farms are common throughout this region. Caribbean pine is one tree species that thrives on these deep, infertile sands. ● Moist and wet serpentine region.—This region in southwestern Puerto Rico has shallow soils that are low in nitrogen and phosphors and very permeable. Agriculture fails on these lands and tree growth is slow (45). Two Commonwealth forests covering 17,300 acres located in the region contain important watersheds. Some areas can support plantations of Caribbean pine, maria (Calophyllum calaba), and, with heavy fertilizers, avocados. ● Wet-volcanic region. —Most of the wet life zone in Puerto Rico is found over volcanic soil and the main crop is coffee. In the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, many coffee plantations were left untended due to a shortage of laborers, and shrubs and trees invaded. From the late 1970’s to the present, the coffee crop area has again expanded, apparently because of a shade- less coffee production system that uses nets for harvest (41) and a $2 million incentive program offering up to $1,000 Per acre for coffee planting. Since the new production is more intensive, cosiderable areas of abandoned coffee shade still exist.

In 1981, Puerto Rico produced about 100,000 million to $8 million, 1950—$20 million, board feet of hardwood timber with a retail 1970—$144 million (27). value of about $200,000, while the island’s imports of forest products totaled $410 million. Forest cover in Puerto Rico has increased softwoods were imported largely from Canada from 9 percent in 1950 to 40 percent of the total and the United States, and hardwoods deriv- area today because of a complex set of social, ed primarily from the United States and Brazil economic, and cultural factors. Agricultural ex- (table 20). The growth in forest product im- ploitation of tropical lands is often cyclical. ports, now increasing by $25 million per year, Lands of marginal agricultural productivity are has been rapid over the past 40 years: 1940–$5 exhausted by cropping, then abandoned to nat- 138 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

ural succession. If and when some measure of Beginning in the 1950’s, industrial develop- fertility is restored, the lands maybe cleared ment led to more attractive employment and cropped again. A peak of agricultural ac- opportunities in industry than in agriculture, tivity in Puerto Rico in the 1930’s and 1940’s lower priority for agricultural programs, and severely degraded the productivity of large increased abandonment of land from farming. areas of land and led to their abandonment. The growth of tourism also attracted capital and labor away from agriculture, Comple- In both Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin menting the increased availability of alternative Islands, the abandonment of the sugar cane in- employment were easy air transportation to the dustry decreased the amount of land under cul- mainland United States and social support pro- tivation and some of this has reverted to brush. grams (e.g., food stamps) offered by the Federal Brush and nonwoody species associated with Government. Thus, the need to scratch out a forest and brush lands are important for soil meager living on steep infertile slopes was and water management and have esthetic im- greatly reduced, These activities continue to portance to the tourism industry in the drier reduce dependence on marginal agricultural areas of the Caribbean. activities. Ch. 6—U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific • 139

Table 20.—1981 Lumber Imports Into Puerto Rico by Species and Country of Origin

Totals Species Country Quantity (MBF) Wholesale dollar value softwoods: Cedar (other) ...... Canada 599 $ 144,000 United States 468 149,000 Douglas fir...... Canada 6,733 1,330,000 United States 764 357,000 Hemlock ... , ...... Canada 30,544 5,973,000 United States 31 15,000 Pine ...... Canada 1,928 391,000 Honduras 1,240 336,000 United States (Southern Ponderosa White) 31,986 10,770,000 Redwood ...... United States 220 314,000 Spruce ...... Canada 7,548 1,212,000 Western red cedar ...... Canada 535 179,000 Other softwoods...... United States 765 666,000 Brazil 39 12,000 Colombia — 51 3,000 Subtotal ...... 83,451 $21,851,000 Hardwoods: Mahogany ...... Brazil 3,261 2,096,000 Maple ...... United States 1,417 815,000 Spanish cedar...... Brazil 260 87,000 Colombia 291 55,000 Honduras 98 95,000 Surinam 10 5,000 Walnut ...... United States 42 35,000 White oak ...... United States 2,075 478,000 Other hardwoods ...... Brazil 1,255 731,000 Colombia 459 117,000 French Guiana 64 10,000 Malaysia 23 15,000 United States 1,829 1,349,000 Subtotal ...... 11,084 $5,888,000 Total ...... 94,535 $27,739,000 SOURCE R C Schmidt, “Forestry: Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982

In addition, the price of rural land has long useful forest products in the future. However, since come to reflect scarcity rather than pro- the total volume of wood in the secondary ductivity. Forest land in Puerto Rico may cost forest in Puerto Rico is not great—22 cubic $1,000 to $2,000 per acre, and land values in meters per acre (m3/acre) in abandoned coffee the U.S. Virgin Islands have exceeded $10,000 plantations and 18 ins/acre in secondary forests per acre. Consequently, land speculation is (2). Undisturbed moist tropical forests often common and much land lies idle awaiting support more than 80 m3 of wood per acre. development. Puerto Rico maintains a law Trends in the growth of forest area or volume against private individuals or corporations are not yet known. In 1980, field work was owning more than 500 acres and, in general, done for the first comprehensive inventory of the land is in small holdings. Nearly 90 percent Puerto Rico’s forests, and future inventories in of the land ownerships are less than 48 acres 1985 and 1990 will begin to show trends. Ob- (33). servations indicate that forest area is increas- The potential for plantation forestry in Puer- ing slightly or is stabilized (27). The only cut- to Rico has been greatly increased as lands pre- ting occurring in these secondary forests is for viously used for agriculture have become avail- fence posts, which probably does not decrease able. Also, natural secondary forest may supply overall volume growth significantly. 140 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Organizations Dealing With Table 21.-Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forests in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands Tropical Forests Agency/Responsibilities Although several Commonwealth and Fed- Federal Government: eral agencies are involved in tree planting in ● Forest Service: Administers the Caribbean National Forest, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, the participates in the Cooperative Forest Management Act, and conducts research in forest management, recreation, U.S. Forest Service, the Virgin Islands Depart- wildlife, and tropical tree culture. ment of Agriculture (VIDA), and the Puerto ● Soil Conservation Service: Advises landowners about land- Rico Department of Natural Resources (DNR) use alternatives, including forestry practices. ● Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service: Ap- are the agencies with primary responsibility for proves incentive applications for forestry practices in- forestry (table 21). U.S. Forest Service activities cluded under the Rural Environmental Assistance Program include research at the Institute of Tropical Act. ● Agricultural Extension Service: Handles island-wide educa- Forestry (ITF), administration of the Caribbean tion campaign promoting tree-planting for ornamental, rec- National Forest, and cooperative programs reational, environmental, and commercial purposes. with the DNR and VIDA. ● Mayaguez Institute of Tropical Agriculture: USDA agricultural research station specializing in developing and testing ITF uses the Luquillo Experimental Forest, crops suited for tropical areas including fruit trees and cacao. several Commonwealth forests, and the 120- ● National Park Service: Administers San Juan National His- acre Estate Thomas Experimental Forest in the toric Site, Puerto Rico; Virgin Islands National Park, St. Virgin Islands as sites for research. Even John; Buck Island Reef National Monument, St. Croix; Christianstead National Historic Site, St. Croix. though timber management has been ITF’s ● Federal Highway Authority: Develops specifications regu- main research objective, cooperative programs lating tree-planting along roads built with Federal funds. have been under way with AID, the Peace Commonwealth and Territory Governments: Corps, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and ● Forest Service, Department of Natural Resources, Puerto Rico: Manages the 13 Commonwealth forests for water- several universities and Caribbean nation shed, recreation, research, wildlife, and timber. Under the governments. Cooperative Forest Management Act, conducts field work related to private reforestation programs. Produces and Neither the land grant University of Puerto distributes seedlings from three nurseries. Rico nor the College of the Virgin Islands has ● Agricultural Services Administration, Puerto Rico: Grows forest, ornamental, fruit, and shade tree seedlings at the a forestry curriculum or an integrated natural Monterrey Nursery in Dorado, Puerto Rico. resource management curriculum. The Virgin Ž Forestry Program, Department of Agriculture, U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture’s Forestry Islands: Operates a nursery, manages urban forestry on public lands, and runs a rural reforestation program for pri- Program, with five staff members, operates a vate landowners. nursery, an urban forestry program, and a rural ● Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs, U.S. reforestation program. Nearly 400 acres have Virgin Islands: Administers territorial parks, Earth Change Permit System restrictions on earth-moving, and Sediment been reforested since the program’s inception Reduction Program managing watersheds related to marine in 1967. sedimentation. Universities and colleges: Changing public attitudes toward Puerto • University of Puerto Rico: Offers undergraduate and grad- Rico’s forests is the primary focus of DNR’s uate programs in biology, ecology, agronomy, and admin- Forest Service. It has begun a media campaign, isters system of agricultural experiment stations. ● College of the Virgin lslands: Offers undergraduate pro- trained field agents in each of the five regions grams in biology and chemistry and administers the Virgin of Puerto Rico, and recently embarked on a Islands Experiment Station which maintains Forest Serv- program to bring private landowners into com- ice experimental plots. SOURCE: Adapted from L. H. Liegel, “Woodland Conservation in Puerto Rico: mercial forestry. State and private forestry pro- Its Past, Present, and Future,” New York College of Environmental Sci- grams administered by the U.S. Forest Service ence and Forestry, Syracuse, NY., thesis, 1973. provide technical assistance to guide the DNR Forest Service’s forest management, utilization, and extension programs. Ch. 6—U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific ● 141

U.S. PACIFIC TERRITORIES: AMERICAN SAMOA, TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS, COMMONWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS, AND GUAM

American Samoa is the only U.S. territory United States. The Commonwealth of the Nor- that lies south of the Equator. The Trust Ter- thern Mariana Islands was established and ritory of the Pacific Islands, Commonwealth separated from the Trust Territory in 1978, of the Northern Mariana Islands, and Territory although some relations between the Marianas of Guam constitute most of Micronesia, * which and the U.S. Government continue under the lies north of the Equator between Hawaii and jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior. the Philippines (fig. 21). Micronesia covers an The remaining polical entities—the Republic area of the western Pacific roughly equivalent of Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia to that of the conterminous United States (3 (Yap, Truk, Ponape, and Kosrae), and the million square miles) embracing some 2,000 Republic of the Marshall Islands—now must islands lying in three major archipelagoes: the decide whether or not to become nations in Marianas, the Carolines, and the Marshalls (fig. free association with the United Staes. Free 22). association would allow them free control of internal affairs while assuring them fiscal aid American Samoa and Guam are unincor- and national defense provisions from the porated territories (to which the U.S. Constitu- United States. tion has not been expressly extended) under the administration of elected Governors. American By January 1981, each emerging nation had Samoa has been administered by the United installed a constitutional government with States since 1900 and by a Governor appointed democratically elected officials (table 22). All by the Secretary of the Department of the In- of these provisional entities are weak terior specifically since 1951. Although rela- economically and have existed almost entire- tions between the government of Guam and the ly on Federal funding since world War 11. U.S. Federal Government also are conducted under appropriations for the Trust Territory, ex- the jurisdiction of the Department of the In- cluding Federal categorical programs, exceed- terior, residents of Guam elect their own ed $100 million in fiscal year 1980 (40). The officials. government employs 56 percent of the work force, and provides 76 percent of the wages (37). The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), which originally included the Northern Mariana Islands, was established under U.N. sanction after World War II. Administration of the Trust Territory has been the responsibili- Considerable differences exist in the topog- ty of the Department of the Interior through raphy among the islands. Some are rugged, an organization composed of the High Com- high islands, some with active volcanoes, while missioner and District Adminstrators. TTPI is others are low islands and coral atolls. treated as domestic except that the Peace Corps has special congressional authorization to The original vegetation of the high volcanic operate there. islands included rain forests on the windward slopes, and drier forests on the leeward slopes. Under an executive order signed by Presi- On some of these islands, grass or fern savan- dent Ford, each district was given the oppor- na naturally occurred. The natural cover of tunity to determine its own form of govern- elevated coral limestone areas is dense forest ment and degree of independence from the with species composition different from the *Other islands in Micronesia are Wake, Marcus, Volcano, high volcanic type. High coral islands are Benin, Nauru, and Kiribati, floristically much richer than the forests of low 142 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Figure 21 .—Location of the U.S. Western Pacific Territories

Hawaii

9 ●

Equator

American Samoa

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment. coral islands. Even an elevation change of a The current extent and condition of forests few feet results in a much richer flora. The in the U.S. Pacific vary greatly from one island natural vegetation of low coral islands is a to the next. A long history of disturbance by “beach” type, adapted to highly saline water man and natural forces left little undisturbed and soils. Some of the drier islands have little forest. A decline in agricultural production for more than coconuts, scrub, and bunch-grass export, plus urban migration and dependence savanna, or salt flats. on U.S. Federal income supports and imported Ch. 6—U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific • 143

Figure 22.—Geopolitical Breakdown of the U.S. Western Pacific Territories

Western Pacific

Samoa Islands Micronesia

American Samoa

Mariana Islands Caroline Islands Marshall Islands

\ \

Political entity

I Geographical entity SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment. products are probably the reasons why agricul- tain forest production to help meet local needs, ture has lost prominence. Most abandoned although there is little potential for export. Rap- agricultural land naturally revegetates to savan- idly increasing populations will consume any na or to secondary forest. Little of the second- available forest products produced within short ary forest is suitable for commercial timber ex- land or sea hauls. ploitation due to poor quality and low volume of commercial tree species. Amarican Samoa Timber exploitation has declined since American Samoa is comprised of the seven World War II. Much of the choice timber had eastern islands of the Samoan group, with a been cut by 1950. Most of the islands could sus- total land area of about 50,000 acres. Two 144 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical forest Resources

Table 22.—Pacific Territories of the United States

Approximate number Dryland 1980 Current (C) or projected (P) Territory or island of islandsa (acres) population relationship with the United States American Samoa ...... 7 49,200 32,400 Unincorporated territory (C) Guam ...... 1 135,000 105,000 Unincorporated territory (C) Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands ...... 21 76,000 16,900 Commonwealth of the United States (C) (established 1978) Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (except Northern Mariana Islands). 2,182 291,340 116,345 Federated States of Micronesia. . . . . 607 165,095 73,500 Free association, U.S. funded (P) Kosrae ...... 5 26,270 5,500 — Ponape ...... 165 90,000 22,300 Truk...... 290 20,950 37,500 Yap ...... 149 27,875 8,200 Republic of the Marshall Islands. . . . 1,225 17,945 31 ,045b Free association, U.S. funded (P) Republic of Palau ...... 350 108,300 11,800 Free association, U.S. funded (P) Total ...... 2,211 551,540 275,645 —

OTA commissioned paper, 1982. islands are coral atolls, whereas the others rise has been destroyed or damaged by man’s ac- steeply from the sea. Tutuila Island, with a land tivities, leaving undisturbed forests only on area of 34,000 acres, has approximately 90 per- steep slopes. Plantations (primarily taro and cent of the population. It has one flat coastal coconut) are the most extensive land use, cov- plain of about 3,200 acres where urban growth ering 34 percent of the land. Secondary forest is concentrated. outside of Tutuila, the covers 20 percent and includes all of those suc- economy is classified as subsistence. At least cessional vegetation stages present after 95 percent of American Samoa is communal- agricultural land has been abandoned. The ly owned (25) and land disputes are common, only types of vegetation left relatively undisturbed are cloud forest, montane scrub, and Through massive infusion of Federal money littoral (coastal) vegetation. Unlike elsewhere from the United States, American Samoa has in the Pacific, disturbed vegetation and second- in recent years developed a cash economy. ary forest in American Samoa are not dom- This has resulted in less land used for cultiva- inated by exotic plants (4). tion and subsistence. Most land in American Samoa is classified as undeveloped (table 23). Trust Territory Of the Pacific Islands The original forest cover for most of Ameri- can Samoa was dense tropical rain forest. The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands However, nearly two-thirds of the rain forest (TTPI) includes roughly two-thirds of Micronesia: the Caroline and Marshall ar- Table 23.—Land Use in American Samoa, 1977 chipelagoes. TTPI includes high volcanic

- islands of varying ages, elevated platforms of Land use” Acres coral limestone, and low flat coral islets and Developed land ...... 7,830 Residential ...... 2,475 atolls (table 24). Coral atolls are characterized Subsistence agriculture ...... 1,620 by the coconut palm and its related plant American Samoa Government ...... 1,087 associates—breadfruit, pandanus, and shore Other ...... 2,648 Undeveloped land ...... 40,930 plants. The high volcanic islands usually have Total land area...... 48,760 mangrove swamps on the tidal flats, coconut SOURCE American Samoa Government, Economic Development Plan for Amen- vegetation inland and on the slopes, and mix- can Samoa, FY 1979-1984 (Pago Pago’ Development Planning Office, 1979) ed forest growth on the uplands (fig. 23). Photo credit: C. Hodges

Subsistence agriculture, a major land use in the western Pacific, is one cause of American Samoa’s forest loss

Table 24.—island Types and Forest Areas of Micronesia (acres) 146 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Figure 23.—Diagram of a "Typical” Micronesia Island Indicating Some Relationships Between Land Development and Island Resources

SOURCE: N. H. Cheatham, “Land Development: Its Environmental Impact on Micronesia,” Micronesian Reporter, Third Quarter 1975, pp. 8-10

Soil fertility is sufficient for the subsistence Marianas have a land area of 76,000 acres. The farming that is practiced—coconut culture and largest islands of Saipan, Rota, and Tinian manmade taro pits on coral islands, and taro (covering 30,000 acres; 25,000 acres; and 21,000 swamps, agroforestry, and garden culture on acres respectively) are high limestone/volcanic the volcanic and limestone islands. Where pro- combinations. duction is intensified, fertilizers must be used The steep ash slopes of the volcanoes are to sustain continuous production. generally covered by a dense, coarse grass Leaching of plant nutrients is considered a Miscanthus). Mixed forest and coconut plan- more severe land-use problem than erosion. tations cover the flatter areas near the sea. The combined loss of soil fertility from leach- Volcanic areas can be quickly colonized by ing and crop harvest has so depleted the avail- exotic nitrogen-fixing Casuarina and other able plant nutrients that certain areas in the trees, but the common practice of burning high islands no longer can support sufficient maintains these areas in grasslands (4). The vegetation either to protect against erosion or limestone regions of the older islands are pre- to provide enough nitrogen and organic ma- dominantly covered with dense secondary for- terial for crop growth (35). est. Some sugar cane is grown where the soil is deep enough. Commonwealth of the Northern Man has influenced the vegetation of the Mariana Islands Marianas for at least 3,500 years. On old vol- The Commonwealth of the Northern Mari- canic soils, accelerated clearing and burning ana Islands comprises 14 islands of the Mari- in recent centuries have created a secondary anas archipelago, excluding Guam. The archi- forest in some areas and much secondary pelago can be divided into a group of young, savanna. Erosion and soil deterioration have mostly active volcanoes and a group of older accompanied the process, making natural islands of elevated limestone and old, regeneration of the savanna a slow process. On weathered volcanic rocks. The Northern fertile limestone soils, the forest has been Ch. 6—U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific ● 147 replaced by coconut plantations, pastures, open fields and gardens, or secondary forest.

Guam Guam is the largest and southernmost island of the Marianas chain, covering 135,000 acres. The northern half of the island is mostly flat or gently sloping limestone with a thin lateritic soil. In contrast, the southern half is composed of ancient, deeply weathered volcanic material. Except for a coastal plain on the western side, this southern area has a generally rugged terrain with a thick, acidic clay soil that contains little humus. More fertile soils occur on the coastal plains and valley mouths. Once forest covered the entire island, but human disturbances and frequent typhoons, together with military activities during and after World War II, has left little undisturbed forest on Guam. Only scattered patches remain 148 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources of the island. They are mostly in small parcels lower slopes. On Ponape, yams are planted and titles are often uncertain. below trees which they climb. The tree drops some or all of its leaves as the yam grows, pro- Little land on Guam is used intensively. No viding green manure. Many species of food more than 2 percent of the land is actively trees grow on Yap, and their harvest is alter- cultivated (46). About 70,000 unmanaged acres nated with produce from taro patches and yam (52 percent) have a cover of brush or trees in- gardens. Burning is used to open up small cluding some 10,000 acres of abandoned coco- garden areas and to produce ash fertilizer nut groves. About 50,000 acres (37 percent) of under trees and bamboo patches (13). open or grass-covered land exist, little of which is grazed. In the southern part of the island, Forests began a gradual decline following some of the open land is barren and actively the arrival of the Spanish on Guam some 300 eroding. Significant portions of both wooded years ago. As the Spanish, and later the Ger- and grass-covered lands are under military mans, gained control, many islands—especially control, which restricts or prevents other uses. atolls—were eventually cleared, primarily for In general, Guam’s forests typify those of coconut plantations. The Germans also intro- Micronesia; they remain unmanaged and their duced teak, kapok, and a few other forest tree productivity is relatively low. Local popula- species during their administration from 1887 tions seem little concerned with productive to 1914. land use as imports provide more desirable In 1914, the Japanese occupied nearly all of substitutes (46). Growing populations are grad- Micronesia except Guam and a few small ually generating pressures that will lead to con- islands. Within a few years, the Japanese had version of the native forest to agriculture and cleared all lands considered suitable for urban areas. Eventually, however, agricultural agriculture, and new crops such as pineapple lands will be largely depleted of nutrients and and sugar cane were introduced. Copra pro- will be abandoned. These lands, and those al- duction was increased, forests were cut for ready converted to nonproductive wasteland or lumber and charcoal, and thousands of labor- scrub forest, may be designated “forest land,” ers, tradesmen, and their families came from but foresters can only make such lands produc- Japan and Okinawa. Refineries, packing plants, tive with great ingenuity, patience, and sub- large towns, and fortifications were built. Ag- stantial investments. riculture and forest experiment stations were established and research was conducted, in- History of Forest Use cluding studies on nitrogen-fixing legumes and forest tree species introductions. Pre-U.S. Administration Most of these developments were destroyed The original inhabitants of Micronesia made during World War II. Commercial agriculture few modifications of their environment. Tradi- ceased and most fields were abandoned. Now tional agriculture activities caused only they are covered with brush, grass, or trees, minimal soil erosion. Low areas just inland of and are degraded from erosion and fires. By the coastal mangrove forests have been used the middle of this century, most of the forests of for taro patches, changing the mangrove’s spe- Micronesia had been at some time either de- cies composition but retaining their capacity stroyed, cut, or converted to agriculture. Many to filter and retain sediment. forests are recovering and trees are approach- Traditional agroforestry practices still found ing merchantable size. However, these fre- on the islands of Truk, Yap, and Ponape prod- quently are species of limited use and commer- uce food while maintaining a cover of trees to cial value. Remaining native forests and some protect and stabilize the soil. Coconut and secondary forests in Palau, Ponape, and Kosrae breadfruit are interplanted on Truk’s steep contain useful native species. Ch. 6—U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific ● 149

Centuries of colonial rule and great distances Fire is the biggest technical problem to over- between Micronesia islands have resulted in come in rehabilitating grass lands. Each year, many different forms of landownership. Much fires are started and allowed to burn uncontrol- landownership is communal, and in some led. They sweep through the grasses to the edge places items such as buildings or individual of the forest, destroying forest along the mar- trees may be owned separately from the land. gin. This deforestation is disrupting island Land transfer and management authority may hydrology. For example, older inhabitants of be vested in a family member, a village officer, Northern Babeldaob (Palau) remember when or a village group. Individual ownership is rel- the streams ran all year long. Now, due to re- atively new. This leads to landownership dis- peated burnings, the forest cover has been des- putes that have major impacts on the status of troyed and the streams run only when it rains, forest lands, especially the mangroves. and then they are often fast and muddy (11). In the 1960’s, the TTPI agriculturists brought U.S. Administration thousands of improved varieties of coconuts Administration of forest resources in Micro- from Yap to the Marshalls and other islands. nesia has been conducted by the U.S. Navy, However, this rehabilitation project was not Department of the Interior, Territory Govern- completed. Local economies now suffer and ments, and now the emerging semi-indepen- two new processing plants, one in the Mar- dent governments. During the 37 years of shalls and one in Palau, have had low produc- American control, the forest resource tion and low profits because of a copra short- “managers” at various times have been Ameri- age. In fact, it has been necessary to import can foresters, agriculturists, biologists, conser- copra from Papua New Guinea to keep the vationists, military planners, and local island Palau plant operating. foresters. Some have initiated, while others The condition of coconut plantations on have ignored, forest management practices and many islands is of serious concern. Many were forestry-related research. Political changes and planted by the Germans around the turn of the frequent personnel turnover have eventually century and they are now senescent. For many negated much of the constructive work started inhabitants of the U.S. Pacific, coconut grow- over the years in Micronesia. Other factors also ing is the only nongovernment source of cash have played important roles in determining the income. Despite its importance, the copra in- present condition of the forest lands, including dustry in Micronesia and American Samoa is World War II destruction, fires, typhoons, van- in trouble on three fronts: 1) the world price dalism, timber theft, neglect, noxious weeds, is low (in competition with other copra produc- impoverished soils, and inadequate funding of ing areas and other vegetable oils); 2) yields are conservation programs. low and most of the plantings are old, well One of the more successful U.S.-supported beyond the productive life of the palm; and 3) efforts in Micronesia has been the work of ag- while copra is not the only product derived riculturists. Specialists have come and gone from the coconut, the other major potential over the years, but a dedicated core accom- product–coir fiber–is wasted (34). plished some important work with limited budgets, staff, and facilities. Technologies such as those available through the U.S. Agency for Organizations Dealing With International Development programs to lesser Tropical Forests developed countries were seldom funded to any significant extent in Micronesia. Conse- Forestry programs in the U.S. Pacific con- quently, little is known about such things as sist primarily of localized extension efforts and soil nutrient deficiencies and crop nutrient re- limited nursery activities. Industrial forest use quirements under the islands’ conditions (46). is limited to harvesting small commercial mangrove forests on Ponape and Kosrae. In- ing cooperative research and information ex- dividual trees are used by the crafts industry change with the U.S. Pacific Islands. Support on most islands. The forests also provide some is provided by the Forest Service Northwest home construction materials on many islands. Forest Experiment Station and the Hawaii Div- Forest use is being included in the economic ision of Forestry and wildlife. The State and development plans by the new governments. Private Forestry branch of the Forest Service provides technical assistance and cooperative The only forest research activities in the U.S. funds to the forestry programs in the western Pacific since the 1930’s have been those con- Pacific. ducted during the past 15 years by the Ameri- can Pacific Islands Forestry Research Work The Forestry and Soil Resources Division of Unit of the U.S. Forest Service. This Unit is the Department of Agriculture in Guam has one of three research teams that make up the three professional foresters and two techni- Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry (IPIF) cians. The land grant University of Guam has located in Hawaii. The Institute, in turn, is part designated an experimental forest area, but no of the Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Ex- school in the U.S. Pacific has a forestry or in- periment Station. The Pacific Islands Forestry tegrated natural resource management curricu- Research Work Unit is responsible for conduct- lum. Ponape State passed a Forest Manage- Ch. 6—U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific Ž 151 ment Act in 1978 that provided for the protec- ern Pacific are either small or nominal. The ex- tion and management of its forest and water- tant and emerging governments have ex- shed areas. No forestry program exists in pressed an intent to include forestry in develop- American Samoa. In 1983, the Commonwealth ment and have designated forest agencies, but of the Northern Mariana Islands initiated a they lack funding and adequate professional forestry program (47). Each emerging island personnel. Also, IPIF is attempting to address government, with the exception of Palau, has the forest research problems on 2,000 islands a research memorandum of understanding with only three professional staff and annual with the IPIF and includes forestry in propos- funding for only 2 scientist-years (table 26). ed development plans. The forestry agencies responsible for forest protection and management in the U.S. west-

Table 26.—Organizations Dealing With Tropical Forest Resources in the American Western Pacific Agency/Responsibilities Federal Government: ● Territory of American Samoa: Department of Agriculture ● Forest Service; Conducts research and cooperative re- ● Territory of Guam: Department of Agriculture, Bureau of source inventories; provides State, Territorial, and private Planning landownership support, and manages Pacific Islands For- ● Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands: Department estry Information Center. of Natural Resources ● Soil Conservation Service; Advises landowners about land- ● Republic of the Marshall Islands: Department of Resources use alternatives including forestry practices; conducts co- and Development operative soil surveys. • Republic of Pa/au: Deparment of Natural Resources, Nek- ● Fish and Wildlife Service: Administers Rose Atoll Wildlife ken Forestry Experiment Station Refuge, American Samoa: conducts cooperative terrestrial ● Federated States of Micronesia: Kosrae State, Department inventories. of Resources and Development; Ponape State, Department ● National Park Service: Administers the National Historic of Conservation, Metalinin Forestry Experiment Station; Park in Guam. Truk State, Department of Resources and Development; ● Department of Defense: Maintains a chief conservation of- Yap State, Department of Resources and Development ficer on Guam overseeing DOD activities in the Pacific; Universities and colleges: maintains Patti Point Natural Area. . American Samoa Community College.” Designated a land ● Peace Corps: Sponsors volunteers to aid village develop- grant college in 1983. ment, forestry, etc. - ● College of Micronesia. Designated a land grant college i n ● Pacific Basin Development Council: Partnership among 1983. U.S. Federal Government, American Samoa, Guam, North- . University of Guam.- Land grant COIIege. ern Mariana Islands, and State of Hawaii to determine the future development needs and priorities of the American Other: Pacific Islands. . South Pacific Commission.” Provides technical assistance, training, and some monetary assistance for agroforestfy Island Governments: and ecology. These territorial agencies conduct programs in agriculture, . Yap Institute of Natural science.- Identifies flora and fauna forestry, fire prevention, fish and wildlife management, and of western Pacific islands and traditional uses of medicinal outdoor reaction. Two forestry stations test nursery tech- plants on Yap. niques and methods of rehabilitating and reforesting degraded grasslands and woodlands.

SOURCE Adapted from C D. Whitesell, C W Philpot, and M. C. V. Falanruw, ‘rCongressional Action to Improve the Sustainability of U S Tropical Forest Resources in the Pacific, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. 152 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

CHAPTER 6

1. American Samoa Government, Economic De- 13, Falanruw, M. V. C., “Marine Environment Im- velopment Plan for American Samoa, FY 1979- pacts of Land-Based Activities in the Trust Ter- 1984 (Pago Pago: Development P1anning Office, ritory of the Pacific Islands,” Marine and Coast- 1979). al Processes in the Pacifi”c, Proceedings of 2. Birdsey, R, A., and Weaver, P. L., “The Forest UNESCO Seminar, July 14-16, 1980, Papua, Resources of Puerto Rico,” U.S. Forest Service New Guinea, pp. 21-47. Southern Forest Experiment Station Resource 14. Figueroa, J. C., and Schmidt, R. C., “Species Bulletin, New Orleans, La., 1982. In: Schmidt, Diversity and Forest Structure in Lower Mon- 1982. tane Wet Serpentine Forest in Puerto Rico, ” 3, Briggs, R, P., and Akers, J. P,, “Hydrologic Map Seventh Symposium of Natural Resources, of Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands,” U.S. Geo- Department of Natural Resources (in prepara- logical Survey, Hydrologic Investigations Atlas tion). In: Schmidt, 1982. HA-197, 1965. In: Schmidt, 1982. 15. Fosberg, F. R., “The Vegetation of Micronesia,” 4. Byrne, J. (cd.), Literature Review and Synthesis Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural of Information on Pacifi”c Island Ecosystems, History 171:1-361, 1960. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Bio- 16, Harpole, B. G., Opportunities for Marketing logical Services, FwS/OBS-79/35, Washington, Hawaii Timber Products, USDA Forest Service D. C., 1979. Research paper PSW-61, Berkeley, Calif., 1970. 5. Chandrasekharan, C., “A Report on the Forests 17< Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Re- of American Samoa, ” prepared for the Food sources, “Hawaii Forest Conservation Research and Agriculture Organization of the United Na- Plan for the Eighties,” Honolulu, Hawaii (photo- tions, Regional Office for Asia and the Far East, COPY), 1981. Bangkok, Thailand, 1977, 18, Little, E, L., Jr., Checklist for United States 6. Cheatham, N. H., “Land Development: Its En- Trees (Native and Naturalized), USDA Forest vironmental Impact on Micronesia, ” Microne- Service Handbook No. 541, Washington, D. C., sia Reporter, third quarter, 1975, pp. 8-10. 1979. In: Schmidt, 1982. 7. Clayton, R. V., “National Progress Report on 19. Little, E. L., Jr., and Wadsworth, F, H., Common Forestry: Hawaii,” prepared for the Asia-Pacific Trees of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Forestry Commission Eleventh Session, Hono- [slands, Agricultural Handbook No. 249, USDA lulu, Hawaii, 1981. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1969. In: 8 Crabb, T., “Two Years Later—The BioEnergy Schmidt, 1982. Experience,” Moving Forestry and Wildlife into 20. Little, E. L., Jr., Woodbury, R. O., and Wads- the 80’s, proceedings of Hawaii Forestry Wild- worth, F. H., Trees of Puerto Rico and the Vir- life Conference, USDA Forest Service, Hono- gin 1sZands, Second Volume, USDA Handbook lulu, Hawaii, 1981. No. 449, USDA Forest Service, Washington, 9. Daehler, R. E., “Conservation District Lands— D. C., 1974. In; Schmidt, 1982. Best Possible Use?” A40ving Forestry and Wild- 21. Lugo-Lopez, M. A., and Rivera, L. H., Updated life into the 80’s, proceedings of Hawaii Forest- Taxonomic Classification of the Soils of Puer- ry Wildlife Conference, USDA Forest Service, to Rico, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1981. and the Agricultural Experiment Station Bul- 10. Department of Natural Resources, Puerto Rico, letin No. 258, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, 1977. Inventory of Land Used and Natural Resources In: Schmidt, 1982. in Puerto Rico (unpublished report), 1973. In: 22, Owen, Robert, Chief Conservationist for the Schmidt, 1982. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (retired], 11, Emmons, B. R,, “Forestry in Micronesia” (un- personal communication, 1982. published paper, located at Library of the Of- 23. Owen, R. P,, “Remarks Concerning Tropical fice of Territorial Affairs, Department of the In- Forests in Micronesia,” prepared for OTA Ad- terior), 1971. visory Panel Meeting (unpublished), 1982. 12. Ewel, J. J., and Whitmore, J, L,, The Ecological 24 Owen, R. P., “A Conservation Program for the Life Zones of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Trust Territory,” Micronesia Reporter, the [slands, USDA Forest Service Research Paper /ourna] of Micronesia 27(1):22-28, 1979. ITF-18, 1973. In: Schmidt, 1982. 25 Patton, H. M., “The Pacific Basin: Toward a Ch. 6—U.S. Tropical Forests: Caribbean and Western Pacific Ž 153

Regional Future,” State Government, 53:68-76, 38. U.S. National Park Service, “Forest Streams spring 1980. and Estuaries on Tropical, High, Oceanic 26. Richards, P. W., The Tropical Rain Forest (Lon- Islands” (unpublished report). don: Cambridge University Press, 1966). In: 39. U.S. National Park Service, memorandum on Schmidt, 1982. status of U.S. tropical forests from Acting Re- 27. Schmidt, R. C., “Forestry: Puerto Rico and the gional Director, Western Region, to Associate virgin Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, Director, Science and Technology, National 1982. Park Service, Mar. 25, 1981. 28. Schmidt, R. C., personal communication, 1983. 40< U.S. Congress, Senate, hearings of the Commit- 29. Shepard, F., “Coral and Other Organic Reefs, ” tee on Energy and Natural Resources, June 3, Submarine Geology (2d cd.) (New York: Harper 1980 (photocopy). & Row, 1963). In: Whitesell, et al., 1982. 41, Vicente-Chandler, J., Conceptos, plan y pro- 30. Somberg, S. I., Virgin Islands Forestry Re- grama para una agricultural moderna en Puer- search: A Problem AnaZysis (St. Croix: College to Rico, Special Report to the Secretary of Ag- of the Virgin Islands, Virgin Islands Agricul- riculture of Puerto Rico, 1978. In: Schmidt, tural Experiment Station, 1976). 1982. 31. South Pacific Commission and International 42. Wadsworth, F. H,, “Timber,” In Vicente- Union for the Conservation of Nature and Nat- Chandler, J., Conceptos, plan y programa para ural Resources, “Regional Ecosystems Survey una agricultural moderna en Puerto Rico, Spe- of the South Pacific Area, ” Second Regional cial Report to the Secretary of Agriculture of Symposium on Conservation of Nature, June Puerto Rico, 1978. In: Schmidt, 1982. 14-17, 1976, p. 179. 43 Wadsworth, F. H., “Island’s Lack of a Wood In- 32. Towle, Edward, Island Resources Foundation, dustry,” San Juan Star, June 29, 1981, p. 13. St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, personal com- 44 Wadsworth, F. H., “Timber and Forest Energy munication, 1983. Development Potentials for Puerto Rico,” Sym- 33. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “1978 Census of Ag- posium on Biomass Production in Puerto Rico riculture,” Washington, D. C., 1980. (in preparation). In: Schmidt, 1982. 34. U.S. Department of Agriculture, USDA Survey: As. weaver, P. L., Tree Growth in Several Tropical Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Guam, Forests of Puerto Rico, USDA Forest Service American Samoa, Washington, D. C., 1975. Research Paper SO-152, Southern Forest Ex- 35. U.S. Department of State, Trust Territory of the periment Station, New Orleans, La., 1979. In: Pacific Islands, 1980, report to the United Na- Schmidt, 1982. tions on the Administration of the Trust Terri- 46. Whitesell, C. D., Philpot, C. W., and Falanruw, tory of the Pacific Islands, Washington, D. C., M. C. V., “Congressional Action to Improve the 1981. Sustainability of U.S. Tropical Forest Resources 36, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, “Endangered in the Pacific, ” OTA commissioned paper, Wildlife Research Program: Tropical Fore~t Re- 1982. search” (unpublished document). 47. Whitesell, C. D., personal communication, 1983. 37 U.S. Forest Service, International Forestry Re- 48. Whitmore, T. C., Tropical Rain Forests of the search Plan for Oceania, Asia and Western Pa- Far East (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, cific, U.S. Forest Service Pacific Southwest 1975). In: Schmidt, 1982. Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, Ca]if., 1980.

25-287 0 - 84 - 1 I PART II Technology chapter 7 Technologies for Page Highlights ...... 159 Maintaining Sample Ecosystems ...... 159 Making Undisturbed Forests More Valuable ● ***...... 159 Introduction ...... 159 Maintaining Sample Ecosystems ...... **. ...**...... 160 Why Protect Tropical Forests ...... 160 Status of Protected Areas ...... 160 Techniques to Design, Establish, and Maintain Protected Areas ...... 160 Conclusion ...... ● **.***. .*****.* ...... ,... . . 166 Making Undisturbed Forests More Valuable ...... 167 Nonwood Products ...... ● 0..,,,. **..***...... ,, ...... 167 Forest Food Sources ● ...... 168 Innovative Forest Products .... ● .,...... 171 Conclusion ● ...... 173 Chapter preferences ,..,...... 173

List of Tables Table No. Page 27. Wildland Management Categories ...... 163 28. Steps in Planning a Park or Protected Area ...... 164

List of Figures Figure No. Page 24. Terrestrial Biogeographic Realms of the World ...... 162 25. Design of Protected Areas ...... 163 26. A Typical Biosphere Reserve ...... ● 166 Chapter 7 Technologies for Undisturbed Forests

HIGHLIGHTS

Maintaining Sample Ecosystems preach that emphasizes these components. It, however, suffers from the lack of strong, ● Preserving samples of undisturbed tropical consistent U.S. commitment and support. forests can help protect representative flora, fauna, and habitats and thus maintain biological diversity and goods and services pro- Making Undisturbed Forests vided by forests. But there is a disparity in More Valuable the distribution of protected areas. ● The value of tropical forests could be in- ● It is essential to improve the management creased by developing new products or by of existing protected areas, since many are encouraging the collection and processing protected only on paper. The United States of existing products. This could be done with can contribute by providing increased op- investment to analyze traditional uses of portunities to educate and train resource forest products, develop markets, and pro- managers and technicians. mote sustainable management systems.

● There is growing recognition that protected ● Improved assessment of the value of non- area management should include more socio- wood tropical forest products, especially in economic and institutional considerations. subsistence economies, could provide incen- The UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Pro- tive to include development of these re- gram system of biosphere reserves is one ap- sources in economic development planning.

Proven methods and techniques to sustain portunity arises regardless of whether ade- undisturbed tropical forests* are few. Of these, quate, continuing protection will be available establishing parks and protected areas prob- to care for the land and its resources. Many ably is the most common method. A few other protected areas exist only on paper and in fact examples exist where selected renewable re- continue to undergo destruction. sources are extracted from a tropical forest to Resource conserving technologies that tap generate income while the forest and its re- the potential of undisturbed forests, such as sources remain essentially intact. butterfly and crocodile farming (see p. 172), are Political expediency often determines when rare. while these two examples affect few peo- and where a park or protected area is establish- ple, they are important illustrations of how ed. The rapid loss of forests in most tropical human well-being can be linked directly to countries forces people to try to establish pro- maintaining the productivity of tropical forest tected areas whenever and wherever the op- resources. Such systems can work, but a great “Undisturbed tropical forests are defined as areas where trees need exists to develop other integrating ap- are the dominant woody vegetation covering more than 10 per- proaches if such methods are to provide signifi- cent of the ground and where trees have not been cut during the past 60 years. This definition includes both primary and old cant benefits while sustaining undisturbed secondary forest, both closed and open forest (22). tropical forests,

159 160 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

MAINTAINING SAMPLE ECOSYSTEMS

Why Projecct Tropical Forest? tunately, some of the designated areas are pro- Parks and protected areas can fulfill a varie- tected only on paper. No data are available on ty of objectives. These vary according to the what portion of the parks and protected areas character of the area, but can include: worldwide suffer illegal hunting, logging, farming, and livestock grazing, but anecdotal evi- 1. protecting and maintaining representative dence suggests that such illegal use is a com- samples of major biogeographical prov- mon problem in the tropical nations. inces to support evolutionary continuity and the health of the Earth’s life support Substantial increases in the area given pro- system; tected status over the past two decades indicate 2. protecting representative, as well as that the values of undisturbed forest resources unique, samples of natural systems, land- are being more widely recognized. This prog- scapes, and life forms; ress is due at least in part to a growing aware- 3. protecting natural areas needed to support ness among nations of the social, economic, development activities (e.g., watersheds and ecological benefits accruing from appro- and ground water recharge areas); priately managed protected areas (7,8). 4. providing in situ* protection of plants and An FAO/UNEP study indicates about 3 per- animals that may make substantial, though cent of the closed tropical forest has been given perhaps currently unforeseen, contribu- park or other legal protected status (see app. tions to human development (e.g., supply table A-2). Such protected lands are unequal- new food or drug sources); ly distributed; at least half are located in just 5. providing sites for research and education four countries–India, Zaire, Indonesia, and to increase scientific knowledge that can Brazil. In addition, the International Union for be used to develop new technologies to the Conservation of Nature and Natural Re- manage such systems; sources (IUCN), which monitors the worldwide 6. protecting cultural, archeological, or distribution of protected areas, reported in natural monuments; landscapes of 1981 that some ecological types are either not historical or cultural interest; or unusual represented or are underrepresented by ex- geological formations; and isting protected areas. 7. providing esthetic pleasure, opportunities - for healthy and constructive recreation, Techniques to Design, Establish, and and revenues from tourism (11). Maintain Protectedd Areas Status of Protected Areas Siting Protected Tropical Forests Establishment of parks and protected areas Many of the first tropical parks and reserves in the world has burgeoned in the last two dec- were established for esthetic and recreational ades. The greatest increase in the number of purposes (14). Lands were set aside because of protected areas has occurred in developing spectacular scenery or unique land forms, fol- countries. Nearly one-half (160 million hectares lowing the precedent set by the United States. (ha)) of the worldwide total of protected natural Although such lands can provide income from areas are found in the Tropics (3,21). Protected tourism and recreation, they may not be de- areas in Central America, for example, grew signed or located to sustain other important rapidly from 24 units (1.7 million ha] in 1969 values associated with undisturbed forests. to 124 units (4.8 million ha) in 1981 (2). Unfor- Park borders in the past usually ignored animal migration routes and important adjacent *Protecting stock in the original habitat rather than in places ecosystems. Some areas in Africa, for example, such as gene banks or botanical or zoological gardens. protect important watering areas for wildlife Ch. 7—Technologies for Undisturbed Forests ● 161

Photo credit” H Bollinger

Forest clearing for agricultural settlement often proceeds in spite of the site’s legal status as a protected area. This settlement is in a Kenyan forest listed officially as a preserve by the Forest Department but do not protect the upland watersheds that inces” (21). Realms are continent or subconti- are necessary to maintain water supplies. Fur- nent-sized areas with unifying features of geog- thermore, rural people living in or near parks raphy, fauna, and vegetation. Provinces are have often been disregarded or displaced. more detailed subdivisions, each characterized by a major biome type such as “tropical humid More recently, planners have begun to look forest,”” tropical grasslands, ” or “tundra com- beyond simple scenic values to emphasize a munities.” Ideally, selection of protected sites broad range of biological resources and envi- should include representative samples from ronmental services in protected area designa- each realm and province. tion. Techniques for siting areas to be protected are becoming more scientific and integrative. Within a province, the location—as well as the number, size, and shape of protected A classification system used to identify ap- areas—is important to biological conservation. propriate locations for protected area estab- The scientific basis for determining these char- lishment worldwide is based on ecological acteristics is theoretical. Few studies have categories. This system divides the Earth into tested the theories with species other than birds eight large “realms” (fig. 24), which in turn are (18). Two criteria have emerged for selecting subdivided into 193 biogeographical “prov- sites to safeguard biological diversity. One is 162 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Figure 24.-Terrestrial Biogeographic Realms of the World

SOURCE: M. Udvardy, World Biogeographical Provinces, IUCN Occasional Paper No. 18, 1975. the relative degree of species endemism of a For example, the minimum viable population particular site. Areas of high species endem- size for long-lived organisms with low natural ism are those containing many highly localized mortality rates is believed to be about 50 indi- species. A related criterion is the number of viduals in the short term (50 to 100 years) and species, or species diversity, at the site. All else 500 in the long term (6). Ideally, sites should being equal, the more biologically diverse a contain at least this number of their rarest spe- site, the greater its potential value. cies. The size required to do this varies with type of species and ecosystem, but determin- A number of inferences about how park size ing actual size is an area of great scientific un- and shape affect maintenance of biological di- certainty. Recently, scientists in Brazil have be- versity have been drawn from studies of trop- gun a series of experiments to measure rates ical island biogeography (fig. 25). These studies of loss of biological diversity that occur with have found that the risk of species extinctions variations in protected area size and shape within a protected area—in essence a biolog- under various tropical forest conditions (12). ical island—can be minimized through careful Such research produces results slowly. In the design of the site. An appropriate size can be meantime, some scientists have suggested determined by including all the natural features 2,500 square kilometers as the minimum area that constitute a self-sustaining ecological sys- of tropical rainforest needed to safeguard most tem. However, to maintain their full comple- species (20). This suggested rule-of-thumb often ment of plant and animal species, most sites is impractical, given the socioeconomic and need to be large. This is because many tropical political situations of many tropical countries. species occur naturally at low densities. Below a certain minimum population, these species Biogeographical considerations are only are more vulnerable to problems of population some of the factors needed to determine the instability and the risk of extinction. appropriate shape of protected areas. where Ch. 7—Technologies for Undisturbed Forests ● 163

Figure 25.— Design of Protected Areas Table 27.-Wildland Management Categories Better Worse Management category/Characteristics 1. National Park: Wild or primary ecosystems with little evi- A dence of human intervention; contains unique features of national or international significance. o 2. Natural monument: An area generally encompassing only one natural feature that is of national or international significance. B 3. Scientific or biological reserve: Lands that are generally 0 not altered by man-and contain floral and)or faunal species of national or international importance. Size depends on habitat needs of target species. 4. Wildlife sanctuary or refuge: Land encompassing the vital • habitat resources of animal species or communities of 00 national or international significance. c 5. Resource reserves: A transitory state where a primary eco- 00 system will be maintained in a natural state until more • definite management goals are determined. 6. National forest: Extensive forested lands important for wood production and watershed protection. 0 7. Game reserves: Lands containing populations of native D wild species of fauna and/or habitat suitable for the pro 00 duction of wild fauna protein, animal products, or for viewing or sport hunting. 8. Protection zones: Generally small areas that do not meet the objectives of other wildland categories but that re- E quire the kinds of strict land-use control provided by wildland management techniques. 9. Recreation areas, scenic rivers, and highways: Relative- ly large areas with outstanding natural or seminatural 0 F scenery and the physical potential to be developed for a variety of outdoor recreational uses. Suggested geometric principles, derived from island biogeographic studies, for 10. Seen/c easements and rights-of-way: Regions outside of the design of protected areas. In each of the six cases labeled A to F, species park or reserve boundaries that merit protection, usually extinction rates WiII be lower for the reserve design on the left than for the reserve for esthetic reasons—i.e., access roads, shorelines, design on the right. mountains, scenic overviews, etc. SOURCE International Union for the Conservation of Nature, The World (Conser. vation Strategy (Gland, Switzerland: IUCNWNEPNVVVF, 1980). 11. Cultural monuments: Sites or areas containing historical, archeological, or other cultural features of national or international significance. 12. Integrated river basin regional development programs: maintenance of specific environmental serv- Integrated regional land-use planning that includes wild- ices is a high priority, it should be reflected Iands conservation as an integral component of develop- in the area’s shape. For example, watershed ment. SOURCE: K. Miller and D. Glick, “Methods for the Establishment and Manage- catchments have specific shapes. In addition, ment of Protected Areas for Tropical Primary Foreat and Woodland the needs and interests of local people also Resources,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. should help determine the shape, size, and location of protected areas. minimum of human manipulation (sometimes called strict nature reserves or national parks); Establishment and Management and 2] lands where particular resources or Techniques parts of the ecosystem are protected, but where collection of some products and some manipu- Different categories of protected areas such lative research is allowed and managed, par- as national parks, biological reserves, and cul- ticularly for education and training (11). tural monuments serve different objectives and purposes. The management strategy chosen Simply designating protected areas on a map depends on the particular combination of does not assure that the land will be managed benefits that are desired (table 27). Protected to provide the greatest possible benefits. A areas should include two types of reserves: 1) management plan is needed. A planning pro- lands where ecosystems are protected with a cedure that has proven effective for a variety 164 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources of tropical wildland conditions is shown in tion by many individuals and groups. The prin- table 28. This process is continuous and in- cipal participants include: teractive with built-in monitoring and evalua- 1. Planning Team. tion components. Thus, the procedure helps —Establishment and management planning is best conducted by a ensure that data on how management affects team of specialists representing both en- the resources within the designated site, how vironmental and sociological fields (e.g., it affects the surrounding area, and how the park planners, ecologists, foresters, wild- surrounding area affects the site will be col- life biologists, rural developers, anthropol- lected and continually used to improve man- ogists, sociologists, economists, environ- agement. mental educators, and community devel- The traditional approach to park establish- opers). ment and management has often failed to take 2, Rural People.—The people living in or ad- into account local cultures and has excluded jacent to proposed or established protected local people. Consequently, protection of areas must play an active role in park plan- designated areas has often not been effective. ning, establishment, and management. Local people, with no incentive to protect the Meeting their resource needs is an impor- park, ignore the area’s legal status. Given in- tant factor in the success of a protected creasing needs to develop rural lands in recent area. years, protected area planning has begun to in- 3. National Decisionmakers.—Government corporate more economic and social considera- and nongovernment leaders must support tion (14). Although some socioeconomic and conservation activities if adequate finan- other social science analyses are being incor- cial and legislative support for forest pro- porated into the planning process, methods to tection is to be procured. use these data as yet are not fully used. 4. The General Public.—If widespread public Appropriate management of tropical forest support exists for the creation of parks and protected areas necessitates active participa- reserves, government leaders are more likely to support such efforts, 5. The Global Community,—International po- Table 28.—Steps in Planning a Park or Protected Area litical and development agencies can-be instrumental in promoting wildland pro- 1. Gather background Information, Including analysis of administrative, organizational, legal, and political con- tection. Development of tropical forests in text for the park. many cases is directly affected by multi- 2. Conduct a field inventory of natural and cultural resources national businesses and global political and land-use and development aspects of the area. 3. Analyze constraints on planning the park. bodies (14). 4. State specific objectives on planning the park. 5. Divide the area into management zones, identifying sites This broad approach, although it can be un- where specific activities and developments are to take wieldy, facilitates involvement by both those place. people who directly or indirectly will affect or 6. Draft preliminary, practical park boundaries. 7. Design management programs for protecting, using, and be affected by the forest resource (generally administering the park. rural people) and the people and agencies that 8. Prepare an integrated development program for the plan: must support or implement the management what is to be built; what supplies, equipment, and materials are needed; what infrastructure and utilities are re- programs. quired; and what staff and institutions will be involved. 9. Analyze and evaluate the proposal. Support from local citizens can be increased 10. Design the development schedule. if protected areas are designed so benefits ac- 11. Publish and distribute the management plan. crue to local inhabitants (25). An example is 12. Implement the plan. 13. Analyze and evaluate the plan. Nepal’s Royal Chitwan National Park. Chitwan 14. Solicit feedback and revise the plan as needed. was declared a park in 1973 to demonstrate SOURCE: K. Miller and D. Glick, “Methods for the Establishment and Manage. rnent of Protected Areas for Tropical Primary Forest and Woodland that the conservation of nature was an integral Resources, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. part of Nepal’s plans for economic develop- Ch. 7—Technologies for Undisturbed Forests • 165 ment. The park’s conservation record is im- increasingly is appreciated as protected areas pressive: its population of rhinoceroses rose are incorporated into broader regional and from about 100 in 1968 to at least 300 in 1978, local development plans and into development and its tiger population increased from 25 in projects to enhance their economic perform- 1974 to as many as 60 in 1980 (15). But that suc- ance. cess created conflicts with local residents. They The UNESCO-MAB Concept. Few innova- suffered loss of crops, livestock, and occasional tive conservation actions have been developed loss of life caused by park animals and they en- to integrate protected areas directly with the countered other conflicts with park regula- surrounding biophysical and socioeconomic tions. But as part of a broad program of resettle- setting. One program with this objective is the ment, public participation in the park’s man- United Nation’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) agement, and compensation for losses, the gov- Program initiated by UNESCO in the early ernment decided to allow villagers to use the 1970’s. The goals of MAB are to encourage the park to collect tall grasses for building study of human impact on natural renewable materials. Since most of the needed thatch resources and promote the application of ap- grasses outside Chitwan had disappeared, the propriate knowledge and experience to main- people realized that the park protected their tain these resources for long-term develop- interests, too, and relations have improved con- ment. The MAB program also provides a siderably (15). network for information exchange among It is also important to ensure that once areas developed and developing countries. have been designated, their status should not The MAB biosphere reserves program at- be changed except for some compelling higher tempts to integrate conservation of protected public interest. Because of the need for coor- areas with surrounding socioeconomic needs. dination and top-level decisionmaking, the The biosphere reserves use management and power to establish any protected area should zoning to facilitate human activity within cer- be by law. Approval should be required of the tain sections of the reserve (5). This concept highest body responsible for legislative matters emphasizes the needs of local populations and in the country or region—e.g., parliament or seeks to define ways where specific economic legislative assembly. Similarly, amendment or benefit in the form of revenues and products abolishment of any protected area should be from the reserve can be returned to the local through superseding legislation and determina- people. tion of this highest authority. This may not be politically or administratively possible in some Biosphere reserves are intended to be a countries. In cases where the highest legislative worldwide network of protected land and coast level of approval is not possible, review and ap- environments linked by international under- proval should be required at least from a com- standing of purposes and standards and by ex- petent authority at a level higher than the agen- change of scientific information. Ideally, the cy which is responsible for managing the pro- network should include significant examples tected area (11). of all the world’s biomes. Each biosphere reserve also should be large enough to be an ef- Finally, even if all elements of appropriate fective conservation unit and to accommodate tropical forest management are met, the de- different uses without conflict. struction of adjacent ecosystems can seriously affect resources within the reserve bound- The zoning concept applied to a biosphere aries. Therefore, protected areas management reserve normally includes a well-protected must broaden its scope of concern from pro- “core area” surrounded by one or several tecting “patches” of natural areas to implemen- “buffer areas” where manipulative research or tation of environmentally appropriate land-use ecologically sound land uses are allowed. This practices in nonpark areas (18). The com- buffer acts as a transition zone integrating the plementarily of conservation and development reserve into the surrounding region. The de- 166 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources sign of a reserve (fig. 26) can be adapted to dif- experts to provide technical assistance in coun- ferent geographical, ecological, or cultural situ- tries where they are needed. ations, including, for instance, cases where In the comparatively short life of the MAB animals migrate from one part of the reserve biosphere reserve effort, the concept behind to another or where a cluster of core areas need biosphere reserves—the improved integration protection. This concept differs from tradition- of long-term conservation and socioeconomic al designs because it is an open, rather than needs—has become increasingly recognized as closed, system. It considers the management an important and, in some areas, a critical tool problems of the surrounding areas and pro- for effective conservation of natural systems. vides for needs of local populations (l). However, additional field experience and Each participating country designs its own monitoring are needed to evaluate the suc- program under the minimum requirements of cesses of existing biosphere reserves. Current MAB. Thus, practices vary from country to indications seem to be that biosphere reserves country depending on available manpower, re- suffer from some of the same problems as other sources, and political commitment. Represen- protected areas—lack of adequate institutional tation to MAB, however, may provide a tool support, lack of adequate staff and funds, and for developing-country experts to improve the poor coordination with other activities and national and international visibility of their with government concerns. conservation work. To a limited extent, the UNESCO-MAB program can sponsor outside Conclusion Actions to establish and manage protected areas could help protect undisturbed forest re- Figure 26.—A Typical Biosphere Reserve sources and prevent some resource degradation in the Tropics. Protecting sample ecosystems in some system of protected areas can be an important technique to preserve representative flora, fauna, and habitat and, thus, maintain ecological diversity and a range of goods and environmental services in tropical areas. An unknown number of the Tropics’ protected areas are inadequately managed and suffer deforestation and other resource degradation. Factors that contribute to these problems are a lack of commitment at the government level, insufficient funds, and scarcity of trained personnel in tropical countries to carry out the many tasks involved in planning, designing, and managing protected undisturbed tropical forests. If the first two factors persist, it may be preferable to improve the management of existing protected areas through appropriate institution-building activities rather than create new areas on paper which would further Core area R Research station overextend the limited funds and human Buffer zone 1 T Tourism resources. Since lack of appropriately trained X X Human settlements personnel is an important constraint, the . Buffer zone 2 xx United States can make a significant contribution by making U.S. expertise more readily Ch. 7—Techno/lgies for Undisturbed Forests Ž 167

available—through universities, nongovernmental stage in both tropical and temperate mental organizations, and government agen- zone countries. The U.S.-MAB effort, while ef- cies such as the National Park Service. fective considering the minimal funding it has The objectives of protected areas have evolved received, is constrained by a reduction of sup- from strict protection to a broader approach port and a lack of a strong, consistent U.S. that considers socioeconomic and institutional Government commitment. Stabilizing the U.S. factors. Thus, the need to develop and test commitment to MAB would enable U.S. scien- methods based on the latter approach grows. tists to contribute their skills and expertise to Few such conservation techniques have been develop further this innovative conservation developed. The MAB biosphere reserves are option. This might encourage additional inter- one attempt to integrate conservation with national support for various MAB programs as well. development. However, development of the biosphere reserve concept is still at the experi-

The environmental services provided by un- Nonwood Products disturbed forests frequently are not enough incentive for individuals to maintain uncut Nonwood products include those obtained forests. One way to clarify the importance of from the wood, bark, leaves, or roots of trees uncut tropical forests is to document the value as well as products obtained from other vegeta- of their environmental services and use this in- tion and from animal and insect life in the for- formation to convince government decision- est. These products obtained near and in for- makers to invest in protecting the forests. ests are directly or indirectly dependent on for- However, while this is important for parks, it est ecosystems. Examples include gums, resins, has not proven a practical method to protect drugs, dyes, essential oils, spices, naval stores large forest areas in less developed countries. (turpentine, rosin, and derived products), and Another approach is to enhance the value of livestock forage as well as a wide variety of fi- forests by managing them for wood produc- bers used to make baskets, mats, ropes, and tion, However, cutting trees is disruptive of the buildings. The value of some of these products forests’ ecology and, for many types of tropical is not well quantified. Some, such as certain forests, wood harvesting technologies that are specialty oils, may be relatively unimportant profitable and yet do not degrade the resource economically. Others, such as natural-base base have not been demonstrated. Thus, both pharmaceuticals and certain fibers used in for legally protected areas and for certain other household goods, serve currently irreplaceable undisturbed areas, sustaining the forest functions, either locally or internationally. depends on making it more valuable without One example illustrating the potential of non- cutting the trees. wood tropical forest products is siIk, a product Many useful and valuable forest products are gathered for thousands of years in some areas, produced with little or no associated wood yet having considerable potential for develop- harvest. More organized harvesting, process- ment. Most silk is produced by domestically ing, and marketing of these products, coupled reared caterpillar larvae on a strict mulberry with development of new products, markets, leaf diet. In India, however, an extensive cot- and management infrastructures (including tage industry produces silk from wild tasar silk- organization of local institutions to regulate worms that feed on a variety of wild trees. For harvesting) could greatly enhance the value of centuries, forest-dwelling people have pro- undisturbed forest [17,23). duced this coarse, strong, tan silk. Tasar silk 168 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Photo cradit: S. Bunnag for FAO

Bamboo has many subsistence and commercial uses, including village handicrafts. Here Philippine villagers make “birdcage” Iampshades for the tourist market export earnings in India totaled US $4.4 mil- The main tasar silk-producing countries to- lion in 1976 and the industry employed at least day are China and India. However, the food 100,000 families (9). plants that can support tasar silkworms cover 7.7 million ha in the Tropics. This seems to of- Tasar silk is secreted by several species of the fer significant opportunity for other develop- genus Antheraea. India alone has at least eight ing countries to develop industry, employment, species, but only one, A. mylitta, has been ex- income, and a raised standard of living for for- ploited commercially. The little research that est-dwelling people while encouraging main- has been done to improve production shows tenance of forest ecosystems that are habitat great promise: breeding experiments have pro- for the silk-producing species (9). duced a 169-percent increase in silk weight. Similarly, tests of rearing techniques have shown potential to increase the average income per family from $30 per year to $250 in 45 days Meat from wild animals and fish, fruits, nuts,

(10)0 honey, insects, fungi, and vegetables are all im- Ch. 7—Technologies for Undisturbed Forests ● 169 — portant forest food sources. Despite the impact tant sources of much-needed protein. Further, of modern agricultural techniques and crops, the development of some of these food sources in many parts of the world these wild food could provide incentives to sustain tropical sources continue to contribute significantly to forests, local diets. In regions that are unsuitable for Capybara, for instance, are the world’s 1arg- conventional animal husbandry, “bush meat” est rodents—they weigh up to 100 lbs. Cap- is often a main source of animal protein. For ybara live in family groups on the edges of example, in Ghana nearly three-quarters of the ponds, lakes, rivers, and swamps in Central meat consumed is from wild animals (4), Even and South America. They eat only plants—pre- where cultivated crops such as cassava or corn ferring coarse swamp grasses, aquatic plants, are staples, the great variety of food types avail- and weeds such as water hyacinth. Wild and able from the forest is important for adequate semidomesticated capybara has been a meat nutrition. source for centuries, but only recently have Venezuelans begun farming them. Researchers there report that capybara digest food 3% times Small Animals more efficiently than cattle. They are fecund, Giant rats, turtles, capybara, grasscutters, producing six young in a year. Further, their and other small animals are sought-after foods leather commands a high price and is sought in some developing countries, with scientific by glovemakers because it stretches in one husbandry, these animals could become impor- direction only (4,24).

Examples of Nonwood Products Various essential oils are obtained from natural sources. For instance, sandalwood oil is one of the best known of all perfume oils. It is produced mainly in India from both wild and cultivated trees. Attempts to synthesize the oil have been unsuccessful. Chemicals, including drugs, are important forest products for both local and world populations. Various modern pharmaceuticals—e.g., quinine from cinchona bark—are of tropical origin. Another useful forest chemical is lac used in shellac, waxes, and binding and stiffening agents. Lac is secreted by a tropical insect that feeds on tree sap. Gums such as chicle are obtained from wild trees in forests of Central America. Natural gums are primary ingredients of chewing gum and are used in many processed foods. They contribute both to export revenue and to local employment. Naval stores—turpentine, rosin, and derived products—can be produced from tropical pines by a technically simple process without damaging the trees. Forage is another traditional benefit provided by forest resources. Ground and tree vegetation are both used-though tree fodder is particularly important in areas with a prolonged dry season. In the past, there has been little active management of forest fodder resources. Fibers obtained from forest vegetation are especially important in subsistence cultures, where they are used for making baskets, mats, rope, furniture, and in construction. Some fibers are marketed (e.g., for wicker-work). Spices are found in and around most forests, though commercial production is usually in plantations. Pepper, clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, and vanilla typically are plantation crops but do exist in the wild. Cardamom is harvested both in the wild and from plantations. The plant thrives in the shade and might increase the per-hectare return from tropical forests. 170 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Examples of Forest Food Sources One of many forest fruits is the multipurpose Borassus palm. The milk of the unripe fruit is marketed as a nourishing and popular drink. The ripe, yellow fruit is eaten. Finally, some fruits are left to sprout cotyledons that are eaten fried (16). More well-known tropical fruits include mango, papaya, guava, banana, pineapple, coconut, avocado, and breadfruit. Amidst all the greenery of the forest exists a great variety of edible vegetables and foliage. An estimated 500 species are used in Africa alone (13). Forest rivers, coastal areas, and mangrove forests harbor an abundance of fish, crustaceans, and molluscs that make significant contributions to local diets. Wild animal protein-from mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates-contributes to diets in many cultures. Rodents and ungulates are particularly common meat sources. Palm oil is produced from the fruit of wild palms. The trees also supply palm wine and fibers. A forest species with great potential for oil production is Raphia palm, which thrives in swampy, high rainfall areas. Other species, including the tallow and neem trees also are, or could be, sources of oil products (16). Honey and wax production is another function of the forests that provides essential products for local populations. The introduction of modern beekeeping methods could expand this use with only moderate inputs. Nuts are a common and protein-rich food source in forests important both locally and for trade. Betel nut, cashew nuts, and Brazil nuts are examples.

Gamo Ranching’ natural environment and, thus, tend to require less water and be more resistant to disease than About three-fourths of the citizens of Zaire exotic livestock. Native species thrive on local and Ghana rely on wildlife as their main meat vegetation and typically may be better suited source (4)—a situation common in some other to arid and semiarid ranges than conventional tropical nations. As pressures on wildlife popu- livestock. Further, native species’ efficiency of lations and habitats increase, more attention food use usually compares favorably with live- is being given to the idea of game ranching. stock (19). In national parks of Zaire and Ugan- Problems could arise, however, because creat- da, for instance, each square kilometer of land ing commercial markets for these new food can support 24 to 37 tons of wildlife (10 species) sources could induce subsistence gatherers to compared with only 3 to 5 tons of cattle (23). exploit wild game for income. Unless these activities are carefully regulated, this could result Much remains to be learned about the hus- in overexploitation of wild game. bandry of wild species. Further, there are drawbacks to this technology. Wild meat can Husbandry of indigenous wildlife offers contain parasites, making inspection, for com- some potential to provide incentives to sustain mercial markets a problem. Initial costs to ac- the quality of dry open forest and shrubland quire, stock, fence, and manage a range of ade- habitats where most ungulates are found. Na- quate size can be high, and questions remain tive wild species generally are adapted to their about whether such operations can be profit- ‘See Water-Related Technologies for Sustainable Agriculture able and sustainable. However, in time game in Arid/Semiarid Lands: Selected Foreign Experience—Back- ranching might be developed to act as an in- ground Paper (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Tech- nology Assessment, OTA-BP-F-20, May 1983), for more informa- centive to preserving wild species and their tion on game ranching in Africa. habitat. Ch. 7—Technologies for Undisturbed Forests ● 171

Innovative Forest Products forest, and exploiting the economic value of its organisms is helping to safeguard this habitat. A wide variety of forest products that are not Papua New Guinea has developed manage- now harvested or are only gathered on a small ment systems to domesticate, propagate, and or subsistence scale might have commercial po- harvest cassowaries (for feathers), megapodes tential. Development of markets for such prod- (for eggs), wallabies and deer (for meat and ucts can provide income for rural people, thus hides), and a number of other species. Because reducing their need to overexploit forest re- insect collection is profitable, the government sources, and can provide incentives to protect has declared insects a national resource and wild populations and their habitat. To develop is the only country in the world to specify in- these alternative forest products, wild breeding sect conservation a national objective in its populations must be retained, habitat managed, constitution (23). These projects demonstrate and gathering activities regulated. a strategy that could be applied in other areas or to other organisms. Papua New Guinea is a forerunner in efforts to take advantage of tropical forest biological Production strategies dependent on wild resources. Much of Papua New Guinea re- breeding populations of threatened species face mains covered by undisturbed tropical moist a serious constraint. unless expansion of the 172 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Examples of Innovative Approaches to Tropical Forest Resources Managment Butterfly farming is an example of development of a commercial product from an unusual tropical forest resource. Once thought of as pests if common, or collector's items if rare, butteerflies have become a profitable forest resource for villages in Papua New Guinea. Butterflies provide a high value, low capital outlay investment: no tree clearing, fences, or veterinary services are required. Each year, millions are sold to museums, entomologists, craftspeople, and collectors. Collectors have paid as much as $1,00 for a specimen of the brilliantly coloreed birdwing butterfly. &

markets for nonwood forest products is accom- Fruitbats area much sought after food source panied by strict regulation of gathering activ- on Guam. But habitat destruction and over- ities and preservation of habitat, the oppor- hunting have exhausted their populations to a tunity for profit will induce people to gather point where one species is probably extinct and without regard for maintaining the breeding the other endangered. The demand for this del- populations. Animal populations may decline icacy, however, remains high and fruitbats are precipitously. This occurred, for example, in now being imported from islands in the U.S. fruitbat populations on the U.S. Pacific island Trust Territory, further increasing hunting of Guam. pressure in these areas. On the island of Yap, Ch. 7—Technologies for Undisturbed Forests . 173 fruitbats have cultural significance which in nonwood and subsistence food products gath- the past had limited their harvest. But the at- ered from tropical forests have rarely been traction of Guam’s markets has increased il- accounted for in economic analyses. Such legal hunting and export. Hunters will shoot products generally are used in subsistence into nesting colonies, disregarding the wounded economies and have no easily defined “market or lost bats. Thus, the indigenous Yapese fruit- value.” Where they are commercially exploited, bat is being harvested unsustainable and may it is in a marketing system so diffuse that the become extinct if management and enforceable product flows are seldom measured. Improved regulation are not instituted. assessment of the role of forest products in subsistence economies and improved development Conclusion of markets for nontimber forest products could cause decisionmakers to associate greater value Forest ecosystems house complex associa- with undisturbed forests. tions of vegetation, wildlife, and other potential resources. If methods were developed to use Creation of new markets for previously un- these nonwood forest resources more fully— used tropical forest plants and animals or ex- either by discovering new, valuable products pansion of local markets for previously under- or by facilitating collection and processing of used products could present new opportunities established products—some of the incentives to overexploit forest resources. Unless manage- for deforestation would be reduced and more ment and regulatory systems are instituted forests might escape conversion to unsustain- along with market development, wild breeding able uses. stock may be depleted to fill market demand. To do this, some marketable advantage must The various opportunities that exist to in- be identified in the local environment, then crease the value of the standing forests offer developed to provide sustained economic re- significant benefits to people as well as to turns. This process calls for improved manage- forests. The management systems under devel- ment of the resource system, which best comes opment in Papua New Guinea are examples of from using modern science to build on a foun- how such systems can provide employment op- dation of traditional knowledge. But govern- portunities, income for local residents, new ments often have too little information on the sources of food or other human needs, and op- long-term value of their forests and invest very portunities for exports and increased foreign little in development of forest products other exchange. Increasing commitments from U.S. than timber. U.S. expertise could be applied to and other assistance agencies to develop sus- this problem, especially from the fields of ecol- tainable management systems and markets for ogy, botany, business administration, and for- nonwood products could act to alleviate a est management. variety of social problems. The lack of development of nonwood forest products may result partly from the fact that

CHAPTER 7 REFERENCES

1. Batisse, M., “The Biosphere Reserve: A Tool Latin America and the Caribbean (Gland, Swit- for Environmental Conservation and Manage- zerland: IUCN, 1981). merit, ” Environmental Conservation, vol. 9, 3. Commission on National Parks and Protected summer 1982. Areas, International Union for the Conservation 2. Commission on National Parks and Protected of Nature, United Nations List of National Parks Areas, International Union for the Conservation and Other Protected Areas, IUCN, unpublished of Nature, Conserving the Natural Heritage of draft report, 1981. 174 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical forest Resources

4. de Vos, A., “Game as Food,” Unasylva 29(116): 15. Mishra, H., “Balancing Human Needs and Con- 2-12, 1977, servation in Nepal’s Royal Chitwan Park, ” Am- 5. Franklin, J. (cd.), Selection and Utilization of bio, X1(5), 1982. Biosphere Reserves, Pacific Northwest Forest 16. Poulsen, G., “The Non-Wood Products of Afri- and Range Experiment Station, U.S. Forest can Forests, ” Unasy]va, 34(137), 1982. Service, Portland, Oreg., 1976. 17. Robbins, S,, and Matthews, W., “Minor For- 6. Franklin, I. R., “Evolutionary Change in Small est Products: Their Total Value is of a Major Populations,” M. E. Soule and B. A. Wilcox Order,” Unasy]va, 26(106), autumn 1974. (eds,), Conservation Biology (Sunderland, Mass.: 18. Soule, M., and Wilcox, B. (eds.), Conservation Sinauer Associates, 1980). Biology—An Evolutionary-Ecological Perspec- 7. International Union for the Conservation of Na- tive (Sunderland, Mass,: Sinauer Associates, ture, 1980 United Nations List of National Parks 1980), and Equivalent Reserves, Gland, Switzerland, 19. Surujbally, R., “Game Farming is a Reality,” 1980. In: Lausche, 1980. Unasylva, 29(116):13-15, 1977, 8. International Union for the Conservation of Na- 20, Terborgh, J., “Preservation of Natural Diversi- ture, The World Conservation Strategy (Gland, ty: The Problem of Extinction-Prone Species,” Switzerland: IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1980). Bioscience 24:715-722, 1974. 9. Jolly, M., Sen, S., and Das, M., “Silk From the 21. Udvardy, M., World Biogeographical Prov- Forest,” Unasyka, 28(114):20-23, 1976. inces, IUCN Occasional Paper No. 18, 1975. 10. Jolly, M., “A New Technique of Tasar Silkworm 22. U.N. Environment Program, “Tropical Forest Rearing” (Bombay: Central Silk Board, 1973), Resources,” FAO Forestry Report No, 30 In: Jolly, et al,, 1976. (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, 11. Lausche, B., Guidelines of Protected Areas Leg- 1982). islation, IUCN Environmental Policy and Law 23. Vietmeyer, N., “Sustaining Tropical Forest and Paper No. 16., Gland, Switzerland, 1980. Woodland Animal Resources,” OTA commis- 12. Lovejoy, T., “Discontinuous Wilderness: Mini- sioned paper, 1982. mum Areas for Conservation, ” Parks, 5(2): 24 Vietmeyer, N,, “Underexploited Plant and Ani- 13-15, 1980. In: Miller and Glick, 1982. mal Resources for Developing Country Agri- 13. Martin, F., and Rubert4 R,, Ed”ble Leaves of the culture,” Background Papers for Innovative Tropics, Mayaguez Institute of Tropical Agri- Technologies for Lesser Developed Countries, culture (Mayaguez, Puerto Rico: AID, ARS/ Office of Technology Assessment Workshop USDA, 1975), prepared for the U.S. House of Representatives, 14. Miller, K., and Glick, D., “Methods for the Committee on Foreign Affairs, September 1981. Establishment and Management of Protected 25, Western, D., “Amboselli National Park: Enlist- Areas for Tropical Primary Forest and Wood- ing Landowners to Conserve Migratory Wild- land Resources,” OTA commissioned paper, life,” Ambio, XI(5), 1976. 1982. Chapter 8 Technologies to Reduce Overcutting Wing Page Highlights ...... 177 Industrial Wood ...... + ...... 177 Wood Fuels ...... 177 Introduction ...... 9 ...... ,...... 177 Industrial Wood: Expanding Number of Species and Sizes Harvested ...... 178 Background ...... 9 ...... 178 Harvesting, Transporting, and Handling...... : ...... 178 Use of More Tree Species and Sizes ...... 179 Markets ...... 179 Preservatives...... 180 Processing ...... ,.,. ● ...... 181 Conclusion ...... 0.... 182 Wood Fuels ...... 182 Background ...... > ...... 182 Technologies ...... ! ...... 183 Fuelwood and Charcoal Conservation Technologies ...... 183 Resource Substitution ...... 185 Conclusion ...... 190 Chapter preferences...... 191 Chapter Technologies to Reduce Overcutting

Industrial Wood ated by enhancing the efficiency of wood use and by substituting alternative energy ● If the world demand for wood is to be met sources. without eventually depleting all the accessible tropical forests, practical alternatives to ● Improved stoves and more efficient charcoal cutting extensive areas must be developed. production can conserve wood supplies, but effective technology diffusion requires ex- ● To implement alternative approaches, prof- tensive field testing and careful considera- itable technologies to harvest, process, and tion of social and economic factors. market a wider range of tree species and sizes must be developed. The U.S. Forest ● Efforts to develop and apply nonwood Products Laboratory has made and can con- renewable energy sources are uncoordinated tinue to make significant contributions in and generally underfunded, but have consid- developing such technologies. erable potential to reduce fuelwood demand. ● Intensive harvesting schemes, such as har- ● Widespread implementation of fuelwood vesting all merchantable-size trees from a plantation techniques is constrained by narrow band of forest, need experimentation sociocultural and economic factors. and evaluation for economic and silvi- ● Actions that reduce demand for fuelwood cultural feasibility and environmental effect. can also reduce incentives to invest in future wood supply. Thus, such actions must be planned carefully with respect to efforts to increase supply through fuelwood plantations. ● Overexploitation of forests for firewood and charcoal is increasing. This could be allevi-

INTRODUCTION

Exponentially increasing demand for wood settlement by farmers. More species are used for both commercial and fuel uses is contrib- for fuelwood, but fuelwood is being cut much uting to deforestation and resource degrada- faster than it is grown. tion in both undisturbed and secondary tropical forests. Industrial wood users will buy only Technical solutions to these problems in- a few of the many species that grow in tropi- clude methods to increase the efficiency and cal forests. As a result, extensive areas must intensity of harvesting industrial wood so that be “selectively cut, ” causing severe damage to less extensive areas need to be cut and meth- the unharvested trees and to the soil. The prac- ods to make wood use more efficient so as to tice also opens extensive areas to inappropriate reduce demand.

177 178 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

INDUSTRIAL WOOD: EXPANDING NUMBRR OF SPECIES AND SIZES HARVESTESTED

Background Clearcutting, on the other hand, could increase nutrient depletion and reduce biological If the world demand for wood is to be met diversity. Erosion is likely to be severe on clear- without eventually depleting or degrading all cut sites during and immediately after logging, the accessible tropical forests, alternatives to and if logging is followed by fire, erosion is extensive selective cutting must be found. Tree harvesting and management on small areas can even greater (6). In addition, the quality of secondary forests and their suitability for both eco- reduce the need to cut wood on other sites. nomic use and as habitat capable of maintain- This requires profitable technologies to harvest, ing biological diversity are largely unknown. process, and market a wider range of tree spe- Intensive logging of tropical forests has signifi- cies and sizes than is the case today. Using a cant adverse impact on animal life that is sen- wider range of tree species could lead to de- sitive to microclimate and food supply struction of tropical forests and the depletion changes. Other animals, however, can survive of soil fertility. in logged forests (12). Harvesting, Transporting, and Opportunities exist to experiment with vari- Handling ous practices that would minimize negative impacts of intensive harvesting. A technique that Improvements in harvesting methods, trans- warrants field testing is the harvesting of all portation, and handling can make substantial merchantable size trees from narrow bands of contributions to the improved use and manage- forest followed by natural and/or artificial re- ment of tropical forests. Likewise, the availa- generation. If harvested strips are oriented bility of technologies, the amount of planning, along contours and kept quite narrow (approx- and the commitment to management all can imately 100 meters), many of the disadvantages reduce the logging damage to residual forests. of clearcutting may be avoided, Animals still would have access to a large forest habitat, The residual vegetation left in a tropical recolonization of plants from surrounding forest after logging is often severely dam- forest would be enhanced, and the soil micro- aged—usually about 50 percent of the remain- organism populations, which play a crucial ing forest is adversely affected. Considerable role in the physical-chemical properties of trop- loss occurs during felling and extraction. Fur- ical soils, probably would be quickly reestab- thermore, about one-third of the logged area lished after logging. This method, however, has typically suffers erosion as a result of soil com- economic and engineering drawbacks that lim- paction by heavy equipment (6). A major im- it its commercial appeal (7). provement in harvesting practices is possible simply by matching the appropriate practice Harvesting technologies that can reduce for- to particular site conditions to minimize en- est damage include the use of improved cable vironmental damage. logging systems, hand tools, self-loading trucks, and large skidder vehicles to reduce the need Intensive harvesting (clearcutting) of small for crawler tractors. Efficiency in handling can areas reduces the number of roads built, and so reduces road-induced erosion and access by be improved if equipment is selected to match the character of the particular site. agriculturalists. If fewer roads are built, more capital could be available to improve existing Simply applying existing knowledge about roads and to purchase suitable trucks and haul- the transport and storage of logs and lumber ing vehicles. could reduce losses from mold, stains, insects, Ch. 8—Technologies to Reduce Overcutting . 179 —

Photo credit: Dr. Miedler, FAO Selective logging to remove only the most commercially valuable trees can lead to resource degradation because the remaining trees are typically damaged by felling and extraction operations. Also, as more roads are built, erosion problems increase and new areas are opened to shifting agriculturalists splitting, decay, improper drying, and damage Use of More Tree from poor handling practices (32). At present, and Sizes large quantities of logs deteriorate at roadsides. This occurs in Burma, South India, Bangla- Markets desh, and other places where roads are im- A variety of factors—some biological, some passable during the rainy season (11). commercial, and some logistical—interact to To encourage responsible management, trop- determine how intensely a forest is exploited, ical countries could institute longer term li- including the composition of the forest, the censing agreements with logging concessions, form of the trees, and character of their wood together with tax incentives. With longer agree- (11). Selective logging is common in closed ments, for instance, operators would have in- tropical hardwood forests in part because use centive to build roads to a higher standard be- of such forests has been export-oriented. Ex- cause they could amortize the costs over two port markets require large quantities of a logging cycles (11). uniform product, preferably a single species of 180 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources good appearance. Thus, very few species and product cost, and increase the profitability of only large logs were acceptable. intensive forest management. When only select individuals of a few tree A prospect for increasing the use of lesser species are logged in most tropical forests, known species and smaller trees is to group forest resources are degraded. This damage species according to their capacity to meet spe- could be reduced if more species were used cific end use requirements—e.g., group all spe- and if the size and form criteria were less cies suitable for construction material together limiting. (11). Species could then be marketed by group instead of by species name. But first, perform- Considerable research has been conducted ance requirements for various end uses must on lesser known tropical tree species. The be identified and systems of matching proper- physical and chemical properties of tropical ties to those requirements must be developed. timbers are assessed according to their wood processing use. However, the results of this Firms in Australia and Great Britain are ex- work are scattered and frequently unknown to perimenting with end-use grouping of timber. wood users (26). The Australians devised 12 general end-use categories, each referenced to a well known Many lesser known tree species have disad- and widely used wood species to compare new vantages that are difficult to overcome, such species or species groups with the reference as poor form, extreme hardness or abrasive- wood (14). The British classification system is ness, unacceptable loss of quality in drying, more elaborate. It identifies the specific wood and lack of durability (11). The rectification of properties required for each major wood use these features can be costly. Thus, importing and identifies the available timbers with re- countries are reluctant to take such species quired properties at acceptable and preferred when well-known tropical woods and temper- levels. Flexibility is provided by indicating ate softwoods are available at acceptable special processing technologies that can be ap- prices. plied to species rated below the preferred level. Standardized descriptions of wood proper- Timber lists can be expanded as available tim- ties and units of measurement, together with bers with established properties become avail- some classification system that distinguishes able (4). degrees of suitability for specific purposes, are In the short term, the end-use approach may basic marketing requirements. Standardization be better for local timber markets in tropical and grading are complicated because wood countries, particularly in those countries where products have a great degree of variability and the forest resources are small or have been de- versatility. Inadequate lumber standards con- pleted. Demand from the export market will tribute to inefficient tropical lumber market- come when other sources cannot meet the ing and use in both producing and importing price, quantity, and quality specifications (11). countries. Without a grading system directed toward efficiency of use and without prices Preservatives that correspond to quality, the tendency is for local wood users to demand higher quality Some tropical woods with generally satisfac- material than the end use requires. This puts tory physical properties are not used, or they added demand on forests for high-quality give poor service, because they are suscepti- material and often unnecessarily removes trop- ble to attack by termites, other insects, or fungi. ical forest products from export markets. It also For example, the sapwood of many durable limits local markets from fully using lower species is perishable and usually is cut away. grade lumber and contributes to high prices With smaller size trees, the portion of sapwood (26). Thus, improved standardization of dimen- is greater and the waste in conversion is often sions and grades could minimize waste, reduce so large that they are not used. Ch. 8–Technologies to Reduce Overcutting Ž 181

Many wood preservatives are available, to- and flooring, thus reducing waste (11). In the gether with a range of techniques for applying philippines and Sri Lanka, low-cost solar them, to counter different degrees of hazards. heated kilns designed by the U.S. Forest Serv- Some of these technologies—e.g., impregnation ice Forest Products Laboratory have demon- with creosote through pressure cylinders—are strated the ability to reduce waste in drying. effective for timber in contact with the ground. The percentage of high-density wood in trop- But they require considerable expenditure on equipment and chemicals, and creosote is now ical forests exceeds that from temperate for- difficult to obtain. Other techniques, such as ests. However, most processing technologies pressure treatment with water soluble copper- were developed in the temperate countries. chrome-arsenic compounds, though less cost- Thus, processing technology will need to be ly and suitable for wood in some forms of con- modified to accommodate high density timbers struction, are still considered expensive (11). as a wider range of tropical tree species is used. This confines their application to public works Milling close to the harvesting site is another and to higher cost construction. way to reduce waste. Portable sawmills are rel- Simple and inexpensive preservative treat- atively inexpensive compared with equipment ments for wood used at the village level and for permanent mills. However, existing port- in low-cost urban housing need to be developed able machines include heavy components that and promoted. At the village level, the social are difficult to handle. Also, by reducing the and economic benefits of wood treatment could inaccessibility of forests to processing centers, be considerable. In the hot, wet Tropics, a treat- it could allow deforestation in areas now un- ment that increases the life of a simple wooden touched by commercial leggings. house from 5 to 10 years could reduce by half An important development would be the use a villager’s time spent on building and rebuild- of a small unit set up to mill logs at the stump. ing (17). For simple techniques that already ex- Milling at the stump, and transporting the ist, information is needed on the performance timbers to roadside manually, could be more of wood so that cost effectiveness can be profitable and cause less environmental dam- evaluated (18). age than hauling logs to mills. Such mills for use at the stump are still in the research and Processing development stage. The use of smaller sizes of both currently de- Great progress toward making intensive har- sirable tree species and of lesser known tree vesting profitable has occurred where multispecies raises some problems. For example, species wood chips are produced for wood sawmills in tropical countries are often de- pulp or fuel. The market for wood chips from signed to deal with large logs. Output and prof- tropical hardwood forests has been limited its from existing facilities would be reduced if because softwood chips, which come mostly small logs were used. from temperate forests, make better paper. Investments are needed in equipment for However, a new papermaking process prom- small log sawmills and for separate, small log ises to increase greatly the world markets for lines in the mills normally used for large logs. hardwood chips. This is the “press-dry paper Machines for sawing small logs are available process” developed at the U.S. Forest Products and could be manufactured locally in many Laboratory. The process is successful on a tropical countries. Existing machines and mill pilot-scale, and U.S. firms are working to designs need to be appraised, tested, and develop it on an industrial scale. When that is demonstrated. A further contribution could be done, a decade or more should still remain made by installing small sawing and planing before markets for tropical wood chips are machines that convert defective material into greatly affected because of the long investment small dimension stock for furniture, joinery, lag in paper mills. 182 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

If in the meantime forest departments can garding road building, site protection, and for- develop management and enforcement tech- est restoration would be more feasible if the nologies to complement the opportunities for amount of land to be regulated were reduced. clearcutting, the impact on tropical forest However, without strict enforcement of such resources could be beneficial. Otherwise, this regulations, intensive harvesting could prove technological breakthrough could result in in- far more destructive than current practices. creased deforestation. Efforts to market a greater variety of tropical timbers are increasing. Much, however, remains to be done. Some species have characteristics that make them difficult and costly to Fuller use of the tropical forests can lead to harvest and process and that severely limit increased revenues per unit area of forest cut their end-uses. For such species and for forest and to development of a wide range of rural residues, improved technologies and markets industries, including construction and manu- are needed for products for which species, size, facture of furniture and agricultural tools. Use and shape are not critical (e.g., charcoal, wood of many tree species and sizes can supply chips for pulp, and reconstituted wood panels). growing domestic markets without reducing For poorly known but potentially marketable foreign exchange earnings from export. lumber species, the emphasis should be on Current logging practices are often environ- more efficient technologies for processing and mentally destructive and wasteful. Yet existing for improving use characteristics (preservation technologies for harvesting, transportation, and drying) at an acceptable cost, and on mar- and handling methods could substantially im- keting techniques, such as grouping of species prove management of tropical forests. Some of by end-use requirements. these have been developed in the United States, Although preservative treatment can and and U.S. expertise could play a significant role does expand international marketability, it is in the continued development and promotion particularly important in moist tropical nations of these technologies. where wood deterioration is greatest and Intensive harvesting that would accompany where wood substitutes are often used because fuller use of tropical forest trees could result of this problem. More consideration needs to in reducing the areas degraded by extensive be given to preservation technologies that are logging. Enforcement of strict regulations re- cheap, technologically simple, but effective.

WOOD FUELS

keted, it is often collected, without payment to landowners, from trees and shrubs near roads, Although wood is the fourth largest source around houses, on farms, or in poorly policed of fuel in the world (after petroleum, coal, and public forests. Fuelwood gatherers often take natural gas), knowledge regarding its produc- limbs rather than felling whole trees, so quan- tion and consumption is very imprecise. Most tities taken are difficult to estimate. fuelwood is used in tropical nations, and for many it is in short supply. This is a hidden Thus, much of the wood fuels data available energy crisis. It does not enter GNP accounts for country-level planning and policymaking and statistics on it are poor for several reasons. come not from actual measurements but rather Wood often is gathered locally by users rather from multiplying the population size times per than being marketed. Even where it is mar- capita consumption figures derived from small Ch. 8—Technologies to Reduce Overcutting ● 183 sample studies. In some cases, the source of conditions of the population drawing on the consumption figures cannot be found, forest resources (e.g., population, land much less checked for accuracy. tenure, etc.). The ability to design and implement effec- The third category influences the wood fuel sit- tive policies and projects for solving the wood uation only indirectly and is beyond the scope fuels problem requires a thorough understand- of this assessment, even though in the long run ing of local consumption patterns and produc- it may be the most important. tion possibilities. Many wood fuel projects of development assistance agencies and national Technologies governments have been unsuccessful because insufficient effort was devoted to studying Fuelwood and CharcoaI Conservation these factors in advance (22]. Fortunately, in- Technologies terest in wood fuels has increased greatly in Four-fifths of the fuelwood consumed in de- the past decade. More studies are being done veloping countries is used for domestic pur- and the estimates of wood fuel use are improv- poses: cooking, space heating, and hot water ing. FAO’S Forestry for Local Community De- (27). The form of fuel chosen, and method of velopment Programs has recently published a use, can affect the total amount of wood con- useful collection of such studies (9). sumed. For instance, many traditional cooking Approximately 80 percent of the estimated stoves and open fires use wood inefficiently 1 billion cubic meters (m3) of wood removed because they focus the flames poorly on the annually from tropical forests is used for fuel cooking surface or give relatively incomplete (27). Thus, the sustainability of wood fuel pro- combustion. Most stoves or open fires in trop- duction is inseparable from the sustainability ical areas deliver only 5 to 15 percent of the of tropical forests. Whereas in the past fuel- fuel’s energy content to the food being cooked wood has been gathered mostly from natural (15). stands, in the future it must come increasing- Charcoal production is also energy ineffi- ly from tree plantations (30). The rate of tree cient. Traditional earth-covered pit or mound plantings for firewood production throughout kilns can require 10 tons of air dried wood (15 the world will have to be increased at least percent moisture) to make 1 ton of charcoal fivefold if fuelwood shortages are to be eased (8). Three categories of actions could affect the imbalance between the demand and supply of wood fuel products: 1. Actions that directly influence the present and future demand for wood fuels (e.g., introduction of improved wood use or conversion technologies and substitution of nonwood-based energy sources). 2. Actions that affect the production of wood for fuel and, thus, reduce the pressure on natural stands (e. g., woodlots, plantations, and integrated land-use man- Photo credit’ OTA staff agement). 3. Actions that do not directly affect produc- The three-stone fireplace—shown here in the Philippines—wastes much of the heat from the wood, tion or use of woodfuel products but that but has esthetic and cultural appeal that inhibit have an impact on the socioeconomic acceptance of enclosed stoves 184 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

(24). Because a ton of charcoal has roughly The Indian Junagadh stove is also simple and three times the energy content of a ton of wood, cheap and is reportedly 30 percent efficient. this equals about 30 percent energy conversion It is made with bricks or mud to absorb more efficiency (27). However, this loss is offset heat, is designed with a tighter fitting hole for somewhat because traditional charcoal stoves the pot to reduce heat loss, and in some cases tend to be more efficient than traditional wood is equipped with a metal damper to control stoves. combustion (22). Reducing heat losses during conversion of Few such stoves, however, have been readi- wood to energy, including during conversion ly accepted by local populations. Acceptance to charcoal, can conserve wood supplies. In is determined not only by fuel efficiency but other cases, simply changing from open fires by cost, simplicity of operation and main- to stoves increases efficiency. In many cases, tenance, availability of materials, cultural fuelwood savings can be realized simply by preferences and patterns, and the mechanisms drying (seasoning) wood before burning (27). chosen to promote the new stoves. These fac- Moist wood produces only half as much heat tors vary from region to region, so a stove as air dried wood. However, this seemingly designed in one place may not be accepted or simple change may not be feasible where ter- used efficiently elsewhere (20). mites and fungi infest wood rapidly; or where Obtaining the widespread use of an im- there are heavy, frequent rains; or where peo- proved stove design is more important than ple cannot afford to purchase or store an in- design details if the improvements are expected ventory of wood. to have a significant impact on fuelwood de- Improvements in stove design could reduce mand. Many programs to design improved wood requirements fivefold to tenfold by in- stoves have failed to meet expectations because creasing stove conversion efficiency from the they underestimated the economic and social 5 to 10 percent achieved now to an efficiency constraints involved. Further, claims about ef- of 20 to 30 percent (20). Improved stoves typ- ficient stoves have seldom been adequately ically are designed to provide better draft and documented. Thus, it is especially important more complete combustion and to concentrate to field test (onsite) a design before promoting heat on the cooking surface. Most improved its widespread use (19). A strategy to design stove designs use various insulating materi- and promote any new stove should include: als—for instance, a ceramic or clay-vermiculite lining–to reduce heat loss through the stove 1. a survey of traditional cooking practices walls. In addition to increasing the efficiency to ascertain sociocultural criteria that the of wood use, the wide dissemination of such stoves must meet, stoves, if properly maintained and used, could 2. field testing of existing stoves, reduce the time, energy, and money that trop- 3. assessment of alternative designs, ical country women now spend collecting fuel 4. laboratory testing of alternative designs, (20). 5. design work or modification of existing stoves, More than 100 stove models, both traditional 6. limited, followed by extended, field testing and experimental, are described in a recent of the improvements, and compendium of stove designs (5). These stoves 7. national or regional extension programs represent a broad spectrum of candidates for and support (13). improving fuel-use efficiency. For example, the Lorena stove used in Guatemala can cut fuel- Introduction efforts have focused on low- wood consumption in half. It is molded from cost, owner-built stoves. Two models that have mud and sand, fitted with a metal damper and achieved some acceptance are the Louga stove pipe, and costs the equivalent of only US$5. (Senegal) and the Lorena stove (Central Ameri- Ch. 8—Technologies to Reduce Overcutting • 185 ca and various African countries). Because a much economic benefit from improved conver- relatively lengthy period is needed for the in- sion. itial promotion and for household training to However, these kilns have been used success- build, use, and maintain the stoves, the exten- fully in conjunction with large-scale agricul- siordtraining cost per stove is high and the dis- tural land clearing and on large plantations semination rate is slow (limited by availabili- where periodic portability is desired. For ex- ty, skills, and mobility of extension staff’). Con- ample, the “Char-Lanka” project in Sri Lanka sequently, more attention is being given to takes advantage of an expanding market for using existing artisans and their marketing net- charcoal to make beneficial use of the timber work to speed the dissemination process. cleared from a large agricultural development Charcoal production can be improved on a project area. A major U.S. bank helped finance large or small scale. As traditional earth-cov- both small-scale artisans to fabricate portable ered kilns give way to improved designs, in- metal kilns and small-scale charcoal producers cluding kilns built of brick, concrete, or metal, to lease such kilns. Eventually over 200 kilns there is better carbonization control, higher will be built locally (27). conversion efficiencies, and production of a In some tropical countries, charcoal already cleaner end product. The conversion efficien- accounts for a significant fraction of total wood cy of a traditional earth kiln can be improved fuel use and it is increasing its market share, 50 percent at low cost simply through im- particularly in urban centers. Given the low proved kiln operation: use of only dense, dry conversion efficiency of most charcoal produc- wood chopped into relatively uniform pieces; tion, the increasing substitution of charcoal for assuring that the wood is packed as tightly as wood with its attendant energy losses will ex- possible; assuring the earth covering the kiln acerbate problems of wood supply/demand is sufficiently thick to prevent complete com- imbalance. bustion; proper spacing of initial air vents; and careful monitoring of combustion and later car- Because most charcoal is produced part-time bonization conditions (27). by small cottage industry laborers, many or most of whom operate illegally or extralegal- At minimal cost, flattened metal cans or ly, it is particularly difficult to launch national other scrap sheet metal can be inserted be- or regional campaigns to improve charcoal pro- tween the stacked wood and the insulating duction efficiency. Char-Lanka is one potential- earth layer, reducing dirt contamination ly promising model that could help small-scale (which in some kilns reduces the efficiency of kiln producers function more effectively. The 20 to 30 percent of the charcoal produced) (27). peace Corps and others sponsor many local More sophisticated designs and building mate- efforts to improve traditional charcoal pro- rials (brick, concrete, or metal) can be even ducers’ operating efficiencies, but so far sub- more efficient but may require substantially stantial improvements in forest resource deple- higher capital investment. tion rates have not been demonstrated. A relatively expensive alternative is the portable steel charcoal kiln, which consists of two Resource Substitution cylindrical steel shells, a conical lid, and four chimneys. It has been used throughout the Resource substitution can be used to protect world for many years. The chief advantages of forests in two ways: by substituting alternative such kilns are ease of operation, increased rates energy sources for fuelwood, or by substituting of recovery (15 to 20 percent), relatively short fuelwood cultivated in plantations for fuel- production cycle (72 hours), and relative port- wood collected from natural forests. Nonwood ability (by truck or animal-drawn cart). The energy substitutes can be conventional (kero- high capital cost makes it prohibitively expen- sene, electricity, or natural gas) or innovative sive for traditional producers who do not reap (solar, wind, small hydro, or biogas). Detailed

25-287 0 - 84 - 13 I&3 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

analysis of these technologies is outside the energy sources from their range of possibili- scope of this assessment. ties” (31). Substituting Nonwood Fuels. Through the Fuelwood Plantations. The idea of growing 1950’s, 1960’s, and early 1970’s, large-scale fuelwood in plantations is not new. But there shifts occurred from traditional fuels (wood is not extensive technical experience growing and charcoal) to petroleum fuels—primarily trees for firewood because foresters traditional- kerosene. It is unlikely, however, that substitu- ly have planted trees primarily for timber and tions will usurp the primary place of fuelwood pulpwood (19). Most fuelwood produced from in developing countries while wood resources plantations is used for cooking, with some for still exist. Further, it is unlikely that financial heating and charcoal manufacture. Some large- subsidies of such fuels can continue indefinite- scale plantations do, however, supply fuelwood ly. However, such subsidies can be a way to for industry and transportation. achieve important temporary reductions in Three different types of plantations can be wood demand, while the productivity of natur- envisioned: plantings by individual farmers, al forests is recovering or while fuelwood plan- more concentrated village woodlots, and large- tations are being established. scale plantations for concentrated demand. Many efforts to develop and apply alternative Individual plantings—increasing emphasis energy sources are under way worldwide, but in forestry development programs has been fo- they seem to be widely scattered, uncoordi- cused on technologies aimed at bringing rural nated, and generally underfunded (32). Actual populations into direct participation in forestry adoption of these technologies is constrained and fuelwood production projects. This can in- by their financial and managerial feasibility clude farm forestry, where individual farmers and by the enormous logistical difficulty in grow just enough trees for their own fuel needs changing the habits of millions of dispersed or for a cash crop, and agroforestry, where and often isolated villagers. The substitution trees are combined with food-producing sys- of various forms of energy for fuelwood by tems in the form of shelterbelts, windbreaks, these people probably will be influenced largely or more complex mixtures. by changes in their lifestyle, standard of living, the location of their settlements, and access to Individual tree planting can make use of available technologies. Conscious policy deci- otherwise little-used areas. Because wood for sions to affect fuelwood consumption, produc- fuel need not be large, fast-growing and cop- tion, or substitution will have a much greater picing shrubs can be used along roads and field prospect for success if the policies build on the edges. Multipurpose trees that provide fuel- energy and economic changes already occur- wood as a byproduct of food or forage produc- ring throughout the rural areas of the Tropics tion may be accepted even by rural people with (27). little land. Where water is adequate and a market for fuelwood exists, closely spaced plant- Still, the energy demand/supply imbalance ings of fast-growing, coppicing shrubs or trees must be met mainly through improving the sup- can be grown on relatively small areas to both ply, distribution, and use of fuelwood and char- provide domestic needs and generate income. coal. A preparatory committee for the U.N. Conference on New and Renewable Sources In many countries, fuelwood is becoming of Energy concluded that there is “no alter- part of the market economy providing farmers native source of energy that could provide a with income that offsets the costs associated viable substitute for fuelwood on a scale which with establishing or maintaining tree cover for could permit a major reduction in dependence environmental stability or rehabilitation. Tree on it by the world’s poor in the next quarter planting by individual farmers in Gujarat, In- century. Their poverty, and the remoteness of dia, has spread to such an extent that the 50 many of them, will inescapably remove other million seedlings distributed by the Forestry Ch. 8–Technologies to Reduce overcutting Ž 187

The management techniques for many species suitable for village woodlots are relatively well-known. But sociocultural and economic problems can affect acceptance. Constraints that can impede village forestry include: ● heterogeneous social structure that hinders village-level decisionmaking and cooperation; ● competition with other village priorities for limited village resources; ● loss of whatever production currently comes from the woodlot site (especially grazing); ● lack of government and forestry department support for promotion, extension, free seedlings, technical advice, etc.; ● lack of an institutional structure to define ownership and distribution of woodlot products; ● shortage of labor for plantation maintenance; and ● tendency of foresters or other outsiders to dictate what species to use in village woodlots with too little consultation with villagers, especially women, who are most likely to tend, harvest, and use woodlot prod- Photo credit: OTA staff ucts (22). Eucalyptus fuelwood supplied by Farm Forestry Projects in India. Farmers are encouraged to plant trees Too little is known about how village people to supply their fuelwood needs as well as provide make decisions about land use, land tenure, income from sales and tradeoffs in production of different goods and services. In a World Bank project to estab- Department in 1980 (equivalent to an annual lish 500 ha of village woodlots in Niger, for ex- planting of at least 25,000 ha) were insufficient ample, village people either pulled out seed- to meet demand (22). lings as fast as the trees were planted or allowed uncontrolled grazing to take place. The Village Woodlots—Village or communal villagers had not been involved in formulating fuelwood plantations are larger in scale than the project and perceived the woodlot area as individual plantings. Management of these a traditional grazing ground (22). plantations resembles conventional forestry in many respects, except that even existing low- Trees in some fuelwood plantations (e.g., quality coppice trees are exploited. Trees may Eucalyptus camaldulennsis) in some Sahelian be multipurpose or for energy production only. countries have not been well accepted local- Rotations vary between 5 and 30 years, depen- ly. Fast-growing plantations generally supply ding on species and site conditions. Because fuelwood only. But the native brushland they the area cropped generally is larger than where replace also supplied other products such as trees are in individual holdings, and because gums, medicines, food, and forage. In some cases the land is dedicated entirely to tree crops, native brush could be managed to maximize harvesting techniques can be similar to those fuelwood production while sustaining produc- used in conventional forestry. tion of other products. One opportunity is interplanting native brushland with fuelwood- work, and economic needs, and 5) design of producing, nitrogen-fixing shrubs. Develop- a program understandable to village people ment of such systems will require more re- that caters to their needs and provides incen- search on subjects such as management tech- tives effective within the particular sociocul- niques and species compatibility (2). tural framework (e.g., improved agricultural practices, monetary incentives, improved in- There is no complete package that can be frastructure, employment) (22). universally applied to encourage participation in a village woodlot program; each must vary Industrial fuelwood plantations–Although according to the needs and priorities of a much more wood is consumed for household village. Several general guidelines can be ex- use in tropical countries, wood fuel used for tracted from recent experience. For village processing and service activities is still very woodlot programs to succeed, there must be: substantial. According to available surveys, 1) strong government commitment to village these uses account for between 2 and 15 per- forestry, 2) perception of the forestry depart- cent of total wood fuel use in Africa and Asia. ment’s role in rural forestry, 3) villager par- Though some of these uses are scattered (e.g., ticipation (especially village women) in pro- charcoal for commercial food preparation, fire- gram formulation, 4) understanding of village wood for brickmaking and cement), others give perceptions, priorities, sociocultural frame- rise to vary large demands concentrated in Ch. 8—Technologies to Reduce Overcutting • 189

single locations or small areas. For example, Large-scale energy plantations are also used tobacco-curing is estimated to have required by forestry agencies to protect timber reforesta- 1.1 million m3 of fuelwood in Tanzania in 1970 tion sites and protected areas from illegal fuel- and, together with rubber preparation fuelwood gathering. In Indonesia, 341,000 ha of Cal- wood, nearly 300,000 m3 in Thailand (23). In- liandra have been established as a buffer zone dustrial demand is growing much faster than around national forests to protect the natural household demand (3). trees from fuelwood gatherers. In Brazil, about 2 million ha of plantations The removal of trees for fuel eventually can produce an estimated 3 million tons of char- exhaust the soil. In energy plantations, the nu- coal from Eucalyptus wood to support the trient drain may be more severe than in con- country’s metallurgical industry. The planted ventional timber plantations because younger area is expected to exceed 4 million ha by the trees contain a proportionately larger share of year 2000 (16). In Kenya, large-scale charcoal some nutrients. Furthermore, wood chipping production is a byproduct of the use of bark machines shred leaves and twigs as well as to produce tanning extract. trunks and branches. This depletion could be alleviated in industrial energy plantations by Recently, opportunities to run factories on spreading furnace residues around the trees. wood have been enhanced by the availability Nitrogen fertilizer would still be required for of wood chips and pellets. These standardized trees that do not have nitrogen-fixing micro- forms are more convenient to store and use organisms. Growing several kinds of trees in than logs or split wood and, thus, are gaining plantations could alleviate some of the wildlife acceptance as a source of industrial energy. disruption problems. In theory, this and the use High-speed chipping machines have been de- of indigenous species could also make planta- veloped that make standard, matchbox-sized tions less susceptible to catastrophic damage wood chips and then shoot them into a waiting by insects and disease. van. The chips are suitable to use in woodfired boilers for industrial applications. Wood-chip Eucalyptus, Acacia, Calliandra, Leucaena, machines are especially advantageous along- and Prosopis are among many potentially use- side logging operations, since they can make ful trees that are beginning to be used in planta- a useful product from the debris left by loggers. tions, village woodlots, and individual sites wood chippers also can cull old, diseased, or (20), The trees most likely to prove useful for contorted trees from forests managed for tim- fuelwood plantations are fast-growing species ber. that can withstand degraded soils, exposure to wind, and drought (20). The ability to coppice Wood chips are bulky and contain about 50 (regrow from cut stumps or root suckers) is im- percent water so they cannot be profitably portant for fuelwood species because this al- hauled over long road or rail distances for use lows repeated harvest without the cost and ef- as fuel. Wood chips can be transported over fort of replanting. For example, Leucaena long distances by ships, however, as the per IeucocephaJa is a legume tree that supplies mile cost is relatively low. Wood pellets are fuelwood, fodder, and timber and enriches the smaller than wood chips; they are made from soil. On favorable sites yields of 40 to 100 wood waste bound together under heat and 3 m /ha/yr can be expected from selected strains pressure. These can be used in coal or char- of Leucaena. These trees can be harvested coal furnaces without modifications. Since every 3 to 6 years and the seedling generation pellets are drier and denser than wood chips, rotation can be followed by three or more cop- they can be transported economically over pice generations, all of which give comparable greater distances. The use of wood chips and yields (21). pellets is confined largely to North America, but the practice is spreading to other countries To achieve sufficient profits at all levels, from (30). farm forestry to large-scale projects, the aver- 190 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

age net energy harvested needs to be high per growing for other purposes. In other words, al- area and per time unit. Since labor costs may though it maybe socially worthwhile to plant be formidable, productivity must be sufficiently more trees, the incentives to do so will be in- high to make product prices competitive with fluenced by how well those trees serve as in- available commercial fuels. But high produc- come-producing assets (28). Increased supplies tivity usually needs high-quality land. This can of fuelwood, therefore, maybe best promoted lead to conflicts between wood fuel production by recognizing the secondary financial impor- and food production (29). tance fuelwood holds relative to other forest products (27). The following types of land are likely to be most readily available for forestry because they Development or expansion of fuelwood mar- are least in demand for agriculture: abandoned kets, however, may induce relatively powerful farmland, low-grade coppice forest, sedge or villagers or people from cities to gain control cane-growing coastal or riverine areas, saline of fuelwood supplies. This would then deny land, mountain slopes, dry areas; sludge depos- landless people access to needed subsistence its, other types of unproductive land. Few of resources (l). these are suited to high-input, short-rotation forestry. In many cases, low-input, fuelwood forestry may offer a better prospect. Unless it is clearly profitable within a few The rate at which forests are converted to years, growing wood for fuel, whether on a other, less sustainable uses can be reduced by large or small scale, demands social and politi- decreasing the demand for wood. This can be cal commitments that may be difficult to ob- done by enhancing the efficiency of wood use tain and maintain. High investment costs for or by substituting alternatives for wood from fuelwood plantations also serve as a disincen- foresters. tive. In areas where substantial forest or brush The efficiency of domestic wood use can be cover remain, it is cheaper to harvest wood improved through better stove and kiln tech- from the forests (even though they may be bad- nologies. Since most fuelwood and stove proj- ly overcut) than to pay for plantation-grown ects have been initiated only recently, it is wood. premature to stipulate which techniques are Gathering wood from natural forests, as long most likely to achieve widespread diffusion. as they remain, requires no investment outlays. Several observations, however, can be made. In such situations, fuelwood plantings are ● To develop effective methods of technol- more likely to succeed if natural forests are pro- ogy dissemination, high priority must be tected from cutting and if plantations provide given to social and economic research and additional marketable products, serve some ad- to field evaluation of the technologies. ditional desired function, or are integrated with ● Farmers, artisans, and entrepreneurs are agriculture. In areas where no natural forests most likely to adopt and spread improved remain within a considerable radius of a town, techniques for wood growing, charcoal village woodlots or wood fuel plantations can production, and stove design if they can be highly profitable. profit from the improvements through ex- Evidence throughout the developing nations isting market channels. shows that cash incentives are among the most ● Improvements in charcoal production widely and readily received. Recent studies should generally be introduced as incre- have shown that the economic and financial mental changes in existing methods. (primarily cash) benefits of tree growing derive ● Dissemination strategies for fuelwood from products other than fuelwood (25,28) and technologies must take into account the that the increased availability of fuelwood is differences in male and female roles and almost always a byproduct of stepped-up tree incentives as they relate to how house- Ch. 8—Technologies to Reduce Overcutting ● 191

holds’ land and labor resources are used, driers, small hydropower, etc.) are widespread. who makes purchase decisions, who bene- Such technologies are not yet able to substitute fits from alternative tree products, etc. (27), for wood use, however, and their adoption is ● The greatest potential for farmers to prof- inhibited by economic and managerial con- it from tree growing comes not from straints. Further, it will be difficult to achieve single-purpose fuelwood plantations but widespread adoption of these technologies be- rather from sale of other forest products, cause of the problems inherent in trying to for which market development may be change the long-held habits of large, diverse, needed, and from agroforestry, which not and often isolated rural populations. only produces wood but also improves Similarly, substituting nonwood fuels (kero- yields of associated crops. sene, bottled gas, electricity, etc.) for fuelwood Improved stoves may reduce the range of has potential to reduce demand temporarily for fuels that can be used, may be too expensive, forest wood while plantations are being estab- or simply may be outside the abilities of local lished and while the natural forest is recover- craftsmen. Improved charcoal production does ing. However, the costs of obtaining and dis- not necessarily lead to expected reductions in tributing these fuels are often prohibitive. Sub- the wood consumed to make charcoal. Unless sidies to facilitate the adoption of nonwood there is an effectively enforced ceiling on the energy sources may be necessary in regions of exploitation of woodlands, charcoal makers critical deforestation, but they cannot be seen may use the time they gain from using more as a long-term remedy. Substituting plantation- efficient kilns to make even more charcoal, grown wood for natural wood is the more sus- thus accelerating the depletion of wood tainable option for many tropical regions. resources rather than slowing it. Tree planting is constrained where access to Securing future wood supplies is a political, “free-for-the-taking” forest wood is not re- economic, and social problem. It is affected by stricted. In such cases, people are unlikely to problems of land ownership, local customs, invest land and labor in fuelwood plantations and social organization. until these are re- even if other inputs are government-subsidized. solved, measures to reduce demand will fail to The economic feasibility of fuelwood planta- reach the root of the problem. Demand reductions can be improved if they also are designed tion creates no incentives for increased sup- to provide marketable products other than ply; it may even achieve the reverse. where woods, such as fodder, or to provide some ad- fuelwood has sufficient commercial value ditional service, such as shelterbelts. However, above the cost of harvesting and transport, it even in these cases, the regulatory controls on is more likely that someone will be prepared fuelwood gathering from the natural forest to invest in planting trees (10). must be enforced. Interest and experiments in the use of small- scale, renewable energy technologies (solar

REFERENCES

1. Agarwal, A., OTA Technology Transfer Work- 3. Arnold, J. E. M., and Jongma, J., “Fuelwood and shop Comments, Nov. 17-19, 1982, Charcoal in Developing Countries,” Unasylva 2. AID/USDA Bioenergy Team, “Energy Potential 29(118):2-9, 1978. From Native Brushland in Niger: The Econom- 4. Brazier, J, D., “Property Requirements for Use— ic Perspective, ” report prepared for the Office A Basis for Timber Selection and a Contribu- of Energy, AID, 1979. tion to Marketing,” Proceedings IUFRO Divi- 192 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

sion 5 Conference, Oxford, England, 1980, pp. for Efficient Wood Burning,” Development Di- 117-126. gest, XIX(3), July 1981, Report by an ad hoc ad- 5. De Lepeliere, G., et. al., A Woodstove Compen- visory panel of the Advisory Committee on dium (Eindhoven, The Netherlands: Eindhoven Technology Innovation, University of Technology, 1981). ln: Shaikh, et 20. National Academy of Sciences, Firewood al., 1983. Crops: Shrub and Tree Species for Energy Pro- 6. Ewel, J., “Environmental Implications of Tropi- duction (Washington, D. C.: National Academy cal Forest Utilization,” International Sympo- of Sciences, 1980). sium on Tropical Forests Utilization and Con- 21. National Academy of Sciences, Leucaena: servation, F. Mergen (cd.) (New Haven, Corm.: Promising Forage and Tree Crop for the Trop- Yale University Press, 1981), pp. 156-167. ics (Washington, D. C.: National Academy of 7. Ewel, J., and Conde, L., “Environmental Impli- Sciences, 1977). cation of Any Species Utilization in Moist Trop- 22, Noronha, R., “Village Woodlots: Are They a ics,” Papers for Conference on Improved Utili- Solution?” paper prepared for the panel on the zation of Tropical Forests, Madison, Wis., 1978, Introduction and Diffusion of Renewable Ener- Pp. 63-82. gy Technologies (Washington, D. C.: National 8. Food and Agriculture Organization, Map of the Academy of Sciences, 1980). Fuelwood Situation in [he Developing- Coun- 23, Openshaw, K., “Energy Requirements for tries, 1981. Household Cooking in Africa With Existing and 9 Food and Agriculture Organization, Wood Fuel Improved Cooking Stoves,” paper presented at Surveys-GCP/INT/35/SWE (Rome: U.N. Food the Bioenergy 1980 Conference, Atlanta, Ga., and Agriculture Organization, 1983). Apr. 22, 1980. ~n: Shaikh, et al,, 1983. 10 Foley, G., “The Future of Renewable Energy in 24. Openshaw, K., “Charcoal Stoves, Charcoal Con- Developing Countries,” Ambio, X(5) 200~205, version and Biomass” (Washington, D. C.: Agen- - 1981. cy for International Development, 1982). In: 11. Hughes, J. F., Plumptre, R. A., and Burley, J., Shaikh, et al., 1983. “Technologies to Improve the Use of Tropical 25, Poulsen, G., “Important Forest Products in Af- Forest and Woodland Products,” OTA commis- rica Other Than Wood and Wood Extractives” sioned paper, 1982. (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, 12. Johns, A., “Wildlife Can Live With Logging,” 1981). In: Shaikh, et al., 1983. I’Vew Scientist, July 21, 1983, pp. 206-211. 26, Preston, S., “Needs for Effective Utilization of 13. Joseph, S,, and Shanahan, Y., “A Design Strate- Natural Tropical Forests,” Proceedings IUFRO gy for the Implementation of Stove Programmed Congress, Division 5, Japan, 1981, pp. 103-116. in Developing Countries, ” Energy From Bio- 27. Shaikh, A., Qadri, T., and Hale, S., “Fuelwood mass (Allied Science Publishers, 1980). Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Re- 14. Keating, W, G., “Utilization of Mixed Species sources,” OTA commissioned paper, 1983. Through Grouping and Standards,” Proceed- 28. Shaikh, A., “The Economics of Village-Level ings IUFRO Division 5 Conference, Oxford, Forestry: A Methodological Framework” (Wash- England, 1980, pp. 135-156. ington, D. C.: Agency for International Develop- 15. Knowland, B., and Ulinski, C., “Traditional ment, 1981). Fuels: Present Data, Past Experience and Possi- 29, Siren, G., “Silviculture for Energy,” Unasylva ble Strategies,” prepared for the Agency for In- 34(138):22-28, 1982. ternational Development, September 1979. 30, Smith, N., Wood: An Ancient Fuel With a New 16, Lanly, J. P,, and Clement, J., Present and Future Future, Worldwatch paper No. 42, 1981. Plantation Areas in the Tropics (Rome: Food 31. United Nations General Assembly, Report of and Agriculture Organization, 1979). the Technical Panel on Fuelwood and Charcoal, 17. Levy, C. R., “Why Treat?” Proceedings of a A/CONF: 100/PC/34 (New York: United Na- Seminar on Utilization of Timber in the Tropics tions, 1981). Through Wood Preservation in Papua New 32, U.S. Interagency Task Force on Tropical For- Guinea, 1975. In: Hughes, et al., 1982. ests, “The World’s Tropical Forests: A Policy, 18. McQuire, A. J., “Wood Preservation in the Strategy, and Program for the United States,” Rural Sector–Research Needs,” 8th World For- A Report to the President by the U.S. Interagen- estry Congress Paper FID 11/22-12, 1978. In: cy Task Force on TropicaZ Forests, Department Hughes, et al., 1982. of State, Publication No. 9117, Washington, 19. National Academy of Sciences, “Stove Design D. C., 1980. Chapter 9 Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests Page 195 195 195

Introduction ..s,4.. .0....., ● ,**.**. ● ...,**. ..,..,...... *..*., ,.. 195 196 196 196 196 196 Constraints and Opportunities ● .***** ??.0.0.0 ..00.... ● ***,..* .***.... .,,. 200 Reforestation of Degraded Lands ****,*...... , . . . . 200 Background ● ..... ● , . . . . 200 Technolologies ...... 201 Land Preparation .... ●☛✐✌✎✎✎ ● ...**...... *..*. 201 Species Selection ...... ****** ● *.*$*** ...... ,.* 203 Planting Materials ...... 206 Tree Care and Maintenance...... 210 . Investment Analysis .*..*.* ...... ● ...,,* ● .** 211 Constraints and Opportunities ...... 211

Chapter preferences ● *****9 ● *****.* ...**.,...... ,*. 213

Figure Chapter Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests

HIGHLIGHTS

Management of Secondary Forests Reforestation of Degraded Lands ● About 400 million hectares (ha) of poten- ● Approximately 2 billion ha of tropical tially productive closed secondary forests lands are in various stages of degradation. exist in tropical nations. If managed prop- Opportunities exist to increase productivi- erly, secondary forests could satisfy the ty of these extensive areas and, at the same growing wood needs in the tropical na- time, meet the growing need for forest tions that have substantial closed forests. products and environmental services. ● Plantation management, like secondary ● Technologies to manage secondary forests forest management, is constrained by a are not yet adequate to assure suitable re- lack of investment. Again, the solution turns on investment. Technologies are seems to lie in reducing costs and increas- needed to reduce costs and increase yields. ing benefits.

INTRODUCTION

Growing populations and increasing needs The selection and application of forestry for fuel, food, fodder, building materials, and technologies on these lands will vary depend- work opportunities have caused selective log- ing on the vegetation. If enough valuable trees ging and tropical deforestation. When cleared exist in the secondary forest and the site is not forest land cannot sustain the new land use, too degraded, some form of canopy or under- the consequences include land degradation, story manipulation can be applied. If the site abandonment, and varying degrees of recov- is severely degraded and natural tree regenera- ery. After either logging or agricultural clear- tion is difficult, complete clearing foIlowed by ing, the type of vegetation that returns general- site preparation and field planting may be more ly depends on the intensity of land use and de- appropriate. The following describes various gree of degradation that have occurred and on forestry technology options according to veg- whether the site has been grazed or burned. etative cover. Usually, second growth forests appear; sometimes grasses invade, sometimes only barren wasteland is left.

195 196 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Background Technologies Where tropical forests have been exploited Desription by wood harvesting and/or by shifting cultiva- There are several technologies that could be tion, the land is commonly “returned to na- used to improve the productivity of secondary ture” and secondary forests are allowed to forests. These technologies vary in intensity of develop. Secondary forests, for the purpose of treatment. The choice depends on the quality this report, include both residual forest that has and quantity of tree species found in the forests been cut once or several times during the past as well as the management objectives. The fol- 60 to 80 years and second growth forests that lowing technologies are presented from least invade after periodic cultivation. This includes to most intensive: the “logged” and “forest fallow” categories discussed in chapter 3. ● No Treatment—No silvicultural treatment is applied. The success of regrowth is dic- In the past, foresters considered tropical tated by the duration and severity of past secondary forest trees of little use because the forest modifications and by soil quality, trees were perceived as having poor form, be- moisture availability, and access to the ing inferior species, or simply too small. Most area by missing components of the former of these trees are not used except as poles or forest, including tree seeds and animal life. fuel. Unless an especially good market for fiber ● Refining-This is also known as improve- or fuelwood exists, secondary forest land usual- ment felling and timber stand improve- ly is left idle or converted to marginal crop- ment. Some trees are removed to give lands. more growing space to other, more desir- These reasons for not investing in secondary able trees. The underlying premise is that forest management technologies are being potentially valuable trees, unless tended, dispelled as knowledge of secondary forest spe- will be constrained by competition with cies improves. Secondary forests often are less valuable trees for light, moisture, or more homogeneous than mature forests nutrients. It is justified only in forest because the vegetation that grows after a site stands that already contain enough valu- has been cleared usually is dominated by a few able trees to promise an economic crop. pioneer tree species. This can simplify manage- ● Tropical shelterwood—This treatment ment, harvest, and use of the secondary forest. consists of removing the upper layer of Furthermore, pioneer tree species are fast- canopy in one or more cuttings to promote growing, their wood is uniform and light, and either germination or the growth of exist- their stems tend to be straight and dominated ing understory seedlings or saplings. Pe- by a single leading shoot. Such characteristics riodic weeding is necessary. can make these species marketable. Since the ● Underplanting—Trees are planted under leaves of these species usually are large and some living portion of the former forest to thin, adequate light can reach the understory ensure a rapid-growing new crop of ac- to permit development of dense undergrowth. ceptable tree species. This understory frequently includes late suc- cessional hardwood species that are valuable Assesment for timber–e,g., Meliaceae. Finally, the wood of the secondary pioneer species usually lacks Each of these secondary forest management resins and silica and this facilitates wood proc- technologies has certain technical, environ- essing, although it makes the trees vulnerable mental, economic, and sociopolitical con- to damage (19). straints. Ch. 9—Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests ● 197

No Treatment.—Untreated secondary forests Strip logging, like clear-cutting, has econom- are low-input/low-output. The attractiveness of ic problems because many of the tree species no treatment, with its lack of initial expense cut do not have well-developed markets. and investment, is offset by low harvestable Refining. —Forest refinement has advan- yields (61). For instance, a 20-year record from tages and disadvantages. Few good trees are unmanaged residual forests in Puerto Rico needed for this treatment. As few as 100 sapl- showed an annual yield less than 5 cubic ings per hectare, if refined, could produce meters per hectare (m /ha) (5). This calculation 3 a fully stocked crop of mature trees (11). But is based on merchantable timber. Thus, yields logging damage and post-logging mortality might be increased by expanding the market can limit the use of this treatment (49,55). for the materials produced. The application of logging controls throughout Repeated harvesting may cause an eventual the Tropics might greatly increase the area of decline in site productivity due to nutrient forest meriting refinement. For instance, suc- losses. Harvesting all the stemwood from a cessful control of logging damage in the Philip- moist tropical forest can remove 10 percent of pines has enabled the use of refining in large the ecosystem’s nitrogen, 39 percent of the areas (22). phosphorus, 38 percent of the potassium, 20 Refined moist secondary forest produces percent of the calcium, and 57 percent of the 3 about 6 m /ha/yr of merchantable wood (14), magnesium (20). However, development of har- a quantity similar to that from untreated forest. vesting systems that leave forest structure* and There is an improvement, however, in wood its nutrient-cycling mechanisms intact is con- quality. Results vary widely with forest stand strained by financial considerations. For in- history. Although yields are low relative to stance, although small-scale clearings recover those of more intensive management technol- more quickly than large disturbed areas, this ogies, the required investments are also low approach often is not suitable for commercial and often in line with available financial forestry because of higher costs incurred in the resources (38,51). Thinnings seem to shorten transportation of labor and machinery. the time between harvests (31). Also, when the Nevertheless, harvesting systems are being full costs of more intensive technologies are designed to reduce nutrient loss. A harvesting taken into account, refining may compare fa- method used with some success in the United vorably with the intensive treatments (38). States has been proposed for adaptation to the Nevertheless, more research data are needed, Amazon forests (34). In this scheme, a strip of especially about costs and financial returns, for forest is harvested on the contour of a slope. complete analysis of this treatment. A haulage road is built along the upper edge A variation of the refining practice is known of the strip. After harvesting, the area is left as “liberation thinning.” In this technique, alone until saplings appear. Then a second desired trees are identified and liberated from strip is cut above the road. Nutrients washed competition with less desired tree species, It downslope from the freshly cut second strip is an important element in the silviculture of can be captured and used by the new trees in residual Dipterocarp stands in Sarawak (31). the original strip. The remaining mature forest However, in general, only large clearings are can provide seeds for regeneration. Once a net- needed to stimulate understory growth, and work of roots is reestablished in a strip, another sometimes even these fail (12). The selected strip farther up the slope can be cut, the timber trees, if subordinate in canopy position in early used, and the newly cut strip then regenerates life, may be incapable of later accelerated naturally (fig. 27). growth. *Forest structure: distribution and arrangement of trees in a Another variant of the refining practice is the forest stand. polycydic system (or selection silvicultural 198 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Figure 27.-Harvesting Scheme

1 ye

c yea Cu yea

SOURCE: C. F. Jordan, “Amazon Rain Forests,” American Scient/sf 70(4): 394-401, 1982. system), which preserves the natural forest age to surrounding trees. The growing local structure. Mature trees are harvested periodi- marketability of many additional species cally, thus liberating immature trees. It has should increase the feasibility of more com- been successful in some Dipterocarp forests of plete fellings. the Far East because those forests are domi- Yet another variant of the refining practice nated by a single type of tree and natural is the monocyclic system. The objective is to regeneration of that type usually occurs (41). have all trees reach maturity simultaneously Sometimes all the high-quality tree species are for a single harvest. It starts with the removal extracted, thereby leaving behind a commer- of all undesired species down to 10 cm in diam- cially useless forest. Also, the widespread use eter at breast height (15). Drawbacks to this of girth limits for determining maturity means treatment are the initial sacrifice of larger trees that the most vigorous, rapid-growing trees are and a lack of intermediate harvests for added removed, leaving behind what could be poorer income. Moreover, monocyclic management seed-bearers. leads ultimately to more complete harvests The criticisms of the polycyclic system with greater prospects for erosion. Heavy cuts should not, however, preclude its future use. from monocyclic management can be expected Markets are developing for trees with smaller to lead to periodic interruption of nutrient crowns, and felling these should do less dam- recycling, since large volumes of logging slash Ch. 9—Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests ● 199 will be decomposing at a time when an effec- In addition, this treatment may lead to loss tive network of roots to capture the nutrients of nutrients by leaching or erosion because the is lacking. canopy is kept open for a number of years. If the technology were used for several rotations, Refinement directly reduces an ecosystem’s there would be progressive simplification of the diversity, gradually eliminating as many as half forest ecosystem. of the tree species, especially those small at maturity or with extremely light or heavy Underplanting. —This practice is interme- woods. It calls for ranking species in order of diate in intensity between natural regeneration desirability. Consequently, criteria must be and plantations. The objectives are the reha- determined for selection that consider not only bilitation of cutover forests after selective fell- marketability but also the capacity of the sys- ing of marketable trees and the assurance of tem to capture and conserve energy and nu- full stocking, species control, crop uniformi- trients, and the risks of catastrophic damage ty, short rotations, and competitive yields (6). following reduction of biological diversity. There are several variations of underplant- At present, the case for refining secondary ing. In forests containing most of the trees reforest can best be made where the need for soil, quired for a future crop, individual trees are water, and wildlife conservation is critical and planted to fill small vacant areas. This is called where soils are unsuited for other purposes. If “enrichment” planting. The main disadvantage carefully coordinated with land-use planning, is that uneven growth rates between the natural forest refining may provide seasonal employ- forest and the underplanted trees produce an ment in farming regions. uneven stand that is difficult to manage and harvest. “Gap” planting of trees spaced at 2 to Tropical Shelterwood.-This complex prac- 3 m inside openings of 20 m or more in diam- tice stimulates growth of existing seedlings and eter is another variation. It seems to have the saplings chiefly by removing unwanted mature same disadvantage as enrichment planting. trees (58). It requires a reasonable number of “Group” planting is made up of closely spaced existing seedlings, and a new seedling crop clusters of 9 to 25 trees in openings as small rarely appears unless there are at least 2 or 3 as 10 m in diameter. Only one tree per cluster mother trees (7,10,27,40). A variation, the Ma- is intended to survive. layan Uniform System, is applied chiefly in the lowland Dipterocarp forests of Peninsular Ma- In forest stands with an insufficient number laysia, where there are at least 2,500 seedlings of trees to form a significant portion of the next of good species. It requires nearly complete re- crop, underplanting maybe done systematical- moval of all trees except desirable species of ly in rows or lines. This provides more tree/site less than 30 cm in diameter. selectivity and requires less planting stock. The practice, so far, is not profitable. Aver- Line planting seems to be the successor to age expected timber yields are about the same most of the other underplanting techniques; as from refining, about 6 m3/ha/yr. However, however, it also has problems [61). Not only labor costs are higher because the treatment must overhead shade be removed initially but requires removal of the overstory and contin- weeding must be so drastic that most of the uous weeding before harvest. It has been aban- former forest quickly disappears (8). Clearing doned in Malaysia, Borneo, and India because lines and keeping them open until the new of labor costs (23,32). Better techniques are trees are well established also can be expen- needed to reduce treatment costs and improve sive. Since most failures in the past have been economic returns. At present, tropical shelter- a result of competition with natural trees, self- wood is applicable only in places with low pruning tree species capable of 1.5 m/yr of labor costs, extensive secondary forests, and straight growth are suitable (63). The list of little capital to invest in plantations (61), marketable species that meet the growth re- 200 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources quirements is limited. Also, line plantings typ- ply reducing logging damage can increase the ically are of a single species, producing a loss number of trees available for a future crop as of stand diversity, even though natural re- well as improve natural regeneration. This can growth may be permitted between and below be accomplished through the use of appropri- the crowns of the planted trees. Finally, maxi- ate harvesting equipment. In addition, regula- mum yields to be expected from line plantings tions to control logging practices need to be are about 12 m3/ha/yr (13). The constraints may developed and enforced. Perfection of these make line planting a risky investment. practices requires additional research on the relationships between harvesting intensity and Underplanting, however, is less costly and growth of the residual forest. less intensive than plantations. It requires less planting stock and may rehabilitate poor sites Another opportunity to increase yields and and degraded forests. The problem of having enhance the value of secondary forests is to a longer wait before harvest may be amelio- develop markets for lesser-known tree species. rated where a planted understory can be har- Market development requires information on vested on a relatively short rotation for poles, wood properties of lesser-used species, the fur- fiber, or fuelwood. ther development of processing techniques, and juxtaposition of wood production areas, processing plants, and market outlets. Ex- Constraints and Opportunities panded markets would then justify more complete and efficient harvesting. Developing mar- Existing secondary forests, if managed prop- kets for underused species and size classes may erly, could satisfy the wood needs of the grow- do more to enhance the value of secondary for- ing populations in tropical nations for many ests than silvicultural improvement (61). decades. However, the various technologies for Finally, management of secondary forests managing secondary forests are often complex, may be made more attractive by reducing the slow, and laborious. Yields are often too low cost of various silvicultural treatments. For ex- relative to costs, which discourages invest- ample, survivorship and yield of planted trees ments. New technologies are needed to reduce can be increased by developing less expensive management costs and to sustain and increase and better quality forest tree planting stock. the yields of secondary forests. Labor costs could be reduced by developing An often appropriate technical approach to less expensive and longer-lasting methods of increasing yields is improved harvesting. Sim- weed control.

REFORESTATION OF DEGRADED LANDS

Background drought risk, as well as the establishment of undesirable weedy plants. There is a strong re- Tropical nations have about 650 million ha lationship between inappropriate land-use of cropland compared with 2 billion ha of land practices and land degradation. In some places, in various stages of degradation (21,59). Deg- degradation is manifest (e.g., desertification), radation of tropical land is a physical, chemi- where in others it is inferred (e.g., declining cal, and biological process set in motion by ac- crop yields). tivities that reduce the land’s inherent productivity. This process includes accelerated ero- Deforestation in mountainous regions is one sion, leaching, soil compaction, decreased soil of the most acute and serious ecological prob- fertility, diminished natural plant regeneration, lems today (17). Disturbance of vegetative cover disrupted hydrological cycle, and possible sa- on montane areas with thin soil and steep linization, waterlogging, flooding, or increased slopes results in land instability (e.g., land Ch. 9—Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests . 201

slides) and soil erosion. Excessive erosion not In some cases, salts can be leached from up- only impairs site productivity but may also ad- land soils and bedrock, raising the salinity of versely affect other sites or water bodies far- runoff from deforested slopes. The increased ther down the watershed. No precise estimates runoff harms agricultural soil in lowland areas of the scale of the problem exist. However, data by causing temporary or lasting waterlogging from the Food and Agriculture Organization and salinization (4). (FAO) and other agencies indicate that some The best solution to such problems is to pre- 87 million ha of tropical montane watershed vent inappropriate land-use practices on for- land need reforestation (63). ested lands. Where it is too late for this ap- Conversion of tropical moist forest into farm proach, reforestation is an alternative. Trees or grazing land commonly results in rapid de- planted on degraded lands will not give such pletion of the soil’s plant nutrient supply and high yields as trees planted on rich, fertile accelerated soil erosion. In some places the de- lands. However, it maybe the only way to raise gradation process leads to takeover by persist- the productivity of the most degraded lands. ent, aggressive weed species of low nutritive Furthermore, in many countries, fertile sites value (3). Often the combined problems of low are reserved for agricultural activities. Given soil fertility and weed infestation become so the dwindling reserves of good land and the great that the land is abandoned. Such lands increasing amount of degraded tropical lands, are subject to frequent uncontrolled fires and reforestation is a technology with potential to are often covered by coarse grasses. Whenever rehabilitate soils and to provide many goods the vegetation is burned, erosion may increase and services for industrial and local needs. For and productivity may be reduced further. The example, fuelwood plantations can alleviate the extent of these grasslands is not well worsening shortage of firewood in some areas documented. Imperata, the main invader grass and prevent shortages from occurring in in Southeast Asia and part of Africa, occupies others. some 16 million once-forested hectares in In- donesia (36]. If the percent coverage of the rest of Southeast Asia is similar to that of Indonesia, Technologies there may be 40 million ha of Imperata grass- An OTA background paper, Reforestation of lands in the region. Degraded Lands, covers this subject in detail. In many arid and semiarid open woodlands, This section summarizes the mechanics of re- overgrazing and repeated fires have converted forestation and focuses on pertinent issues and the vegetation to a degraded fire climax stage. problems that may prevent reforestation Consequently, soils become dry and little success. woody plant regeneration occurs. Fire-tolerant vegetation—commonly unpalatable to ani- Land Preparation mals—persists, leading to a desert-like state. An Many degraded sites need some type of pre- estimated 20.5 million ha of tropical arid lands, planning preparation, such as clearing stumps an area about the size of South Dakota, become and competing weedy vegetation, loosening the desertified every year. To date, an estimated soil, or applying fertilizers or lime. Under some 1.56 billion ha of tropical land have undergone circumstances, site cultivation controls weeds human-caused desertification (63). and improves soil aeration, soil biochemical ac- Each year, approximately 500,000 ha of ex- tivity, percolation of water, pH regulation, nu- cessively irrigated lands become saline or trient application, and surface evenness. The alkaline as a result of inadequate drainage or degree and type of land preparation depends use of salty irrigation water (63]. Capillary ac- on several factors: site and soil conditions, veg- tion draws moisture to the soil surface where etative cover, species to be planted, and avail- it evaporates, leaving salts in or on the topsoil. able capital and labor.

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Land preparation can be done by hand or by Historically, tropical foresters have relied machine. Manual methods are less constrained more on seed provenances and thinning prac- by the rainy season, they require few skills, and tices than on commercial fertilizers to increase the capital cost is relatively low. They also pro- productivity (52). But the benefits of fertilizers vide temporary employment to laborers and have been impressive in some forest planta- cause minimal damage to soil. A disadvantage tions. Fertilizer placed in the planting hole may of manual clearing, however, is the need to re- accelerate early height growth and thus reduce cruit, manage, and provide logistical support weeding. Carton de Colombia, a timber grow- in remote areas for large numbers of laborers. ing company in Colombia, has experimented Mechanical clearing, on the other hand, re- successfully with the application of about 50 quires high capital inputs for equipment main- g of commercial fertilizer in planting holes on tenance, supplies of fuel and spare parts, and extremely nutrient-poor soils (39). Since small operator training and supervision. And heavy amounts of fertilizer can produce significant machines degrade the site through topsoil dis- results, further research is justified to deter- ruption. Yet, in general, mechanical clearing mine the best types and quantities of nutrients is cheaper than manual clearing (18). The to apply for various species under various soil choice between manual and mechanical land conditions. preparation must be made on a case-by-case The use of commercial fertilizers in forestry basis, determined by all these considerations. generally has been based on a presumed or pre- Sometimes physical structures must be built dicted shortage of nitrogen, phosphorus and and heavy machinery must be used to prepare potassium. Dosage has been based on experi- sites. Artificial barriers of brushwood or other ence from trial and error experiments. How- materials constructed in a grid pattern, or ever, some highly weathered tropical soils are grasses and trees planted in a similar pattern, difficult to fertilize effectively with essential can be used to immobilize drifting sand. Plow- plant nutrients such as phosphorus and potas- ing the soil surface to increase water infiltra- sium. For instance, phosphorus can become so tion, ripping across the slope to retain water, tightly held by soil minerals that plants can ex- plus construction of bench terraces on steeper tract little for their benefit, whereas potassium slopes, and funneling moisture onto a smaller is not held by the soil and is easily leached area are all conservation measures used to away by tropical rains (24,37). Use of the wrong maximize planting success. Minicatchments fertilizer, or incorrect amounts of fertilizer, can built to concentrate water into the rooting reduce yields. Application of 100 g of potassi- zones of individual trees are a particularly im- um chloride per Pinus caribaea tree depressed portant technique in arid zones. growth and increased mortality on Nigerian savanna sites (35). Moreover, fertilizer use may It maybe necessary to add nutrients during cause water-associated environmental prob- land preparation. Several techniques exist in- lems, such as increased eutrophication that cluding mulching with organic matter, plant- hampers navigation (29) and may trigger the ing nitrogen-fixing trees, applying green ma- onset of health problems. Thus, fertilizers can nure (especially herbaceous legumes), and combe both beneficial and detrimental, so the im- mercial fertilizers. Mulching suppresses pacts of applications need to be examined thor- weeds, improves soil moisture conditions, and oughly before widespread use. augments soil organic matter (53), but it may increase problems with rodents or other pests. Some experts adamantly believe commercial Nitrogen-fixing trees can improve soil with fertilizers should not be promoted for the their ability to produce nitrogen fertilizer. Fo- developing world on the grounds that they liage dropped by legumes is nitrogen-rich and must be imported and are not, or soon will not will augment soil fertility as it decays. be, affordable. Certainly, sustainable nonchem- Ch. 9—Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests “ 203 ical techniques to enhance fertility should be areas that have been deforested by the highly investigated. For example, one of the less ob- variable degree of site degradation. Inadequate vious soil deficiencies, occurring particularly information on planting sites is a major cause in eroded soils in the drier climates, is the lack of plantation failure (61). of necessary micro-organisms. An ancient and Exotics and Monocultures. Plantations can- effective method to add micro-organisms is to not substitute wholly for natural forests as res- inoculate either nursery soils or planting holes ervoirs of germ plasm or as components of the in the field with a few grams of topsoil from natural environment—they are really an agri- well-established plantations. The method is not cultural crop. Plantations contribute to pres- practical, however, where well-established ervation of the natural environment because plantations do not exist. they concentrate wood, food, and forage pro- It seems unlikely that timber crops can be duction within a minimum area, thus reliev- harvested repeatedly from the same site with- ing some demands on natural forests. How- out replenishing soil nutrients. Significant de- ever, where plantations are established on land cline from successive timber crops has not yet with good potential for annual agricultural been observed (16,42,44). The quantities of nu- crops, the effect actually may be to increase trients removed with tree harvests have been pressure on the natural forests. measured, however, and they are sufficient to Most large-scale tropical industrial timber suggest that with repetitive cropping a decline plantations use species that are indigenous to in yield eventually will occur. Nutrient drain the Tropics but are exotic to the planted area can be more rapid in fuelwood plantations (24). The widespread use of exotics maybe a where the cutting cycle is every 5 to 10 years result of the preponderance of information, ex- in contrast to commercial forests that are cut perience, and research on them, especially on every 30 to 100 years. This difference is even Pinus, Eucalyptus, and Tectona. Also impor- greater than the time difference implies, since tant to their use is the abundance, availabili- younger trees contain a proportionally larger ty, ease of storage, and germination of seeds share of phosphorus, potash, and calcium (56). of these exotic species. The use of exotic tree Nutrient levels and fluxes in plantations should species involves risks. One of these risks is the be monitored to determine the prospective ben- susceptibility to pests and diseases. Proponents efits and cost effectiveness of soil amendments. point out that exotics may be at an advantage because they have left behind pests and dis- Species Selection eases that evolved along with them in their na- Tree species selection is important to plan- tive habitats. Opponents disagree, saying that tation success. If a tree is grown under unsuit- exotics may have no resistance to pests and dis- able soil or site conditions, it will be stressed eases in their new environment. A third side and thus become susceptible to attacks from believes that the risk of pest and disease prob- insects or competition from weeds. Several fac- lems depends on plantation size more than geo- tors influence species selection, including the graphic origin of species. Native pests and dis- objectives of reforestation, seed availability, eases tend to switch to plantation crops (where and costs associated with reforestation alter- resources are more uniform and abundant) (57’). natives. For many degraded sites, the species The evidence still is inconclusive. Because of need to be those that can add nitrogen to the the high yields possible with exotic species, soil as well as provide products wanted by local however, the risks will continue to be taken. communities. The potential of using native species in plan- The importance of matching tree species tations has been largely ignored. Reasons for with site cannot be overstated. The problem of this vary from lack of familiarity with many species selection is complicated in the Tropics tropical tree species to lack of seed supplies. by intricate climatic and soil patterns, and in A reason often cited is the slower growth of 204 . Technologjes to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources native species. Nevertheless, the growth rates of exotics and native species usually are similar in the arid and semiarid parts of Africa (62]. Native species are adapted to the local environment and, thus, may be less susceptible to stress, serious disease, and pest damage. Local people are more familiar with their native plants and have more uses for them (30). Nearly all tropical plantations are grown in monoculture. * The main reason is that silviculture** for such plantations is simple and thus more cost effective. Since monoculture plantations may be susceptible to rapid spread of pest and disease outbreaks, some diversity Photo cradt: J. Bauer can be achieved by alternating species, or ge- In the Caribbean National forest, Kadam netic varieties of the same species, in blocks (Anthocephalus chinensis) is intercropped with mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) of land being planted. This method might prevent pests that develop and multiply in one tracted from multiple species under different plantation block from spreading rapidly to harvesting regimes. Information is lacking on other blocks having the same genetic make- the optimum species mixtures and spacings. up (64). Little is known about the relative benefits of different species or canopy densities and Multiple species (polyculture) plantations, in whether the density that is best for high yields theory, mimic the natural forest, yield a greater is also satisfactory from other standpoints. variety of products, and are less susceptible to Potential benefits from compatible mixtures of pests than are monoculture. However, little trees suggest that new concepts and combina- actual experience has been gained dealing with tions should be tested. polyculture plantations either on an industrial scale or in village forests (63). Only recently Forest plantations in the past usually served have projects been established where mixtures industrial purposes and grew only one product, of species are planted for a variety of end uses. usually sawtimber, pulpwood, or fuelwood. Legume trees are interplanted with commer- Now, with an increasing demand for food, fuel, cial tree species to reduce the amount of ferti- and fodder, plantations are needed to serve a lizer required after successive rotations. In ex- wider variety of objectives. Thus, the use of perimental plantations, Indonesians are inter- multipurpose trees is becoming increasingly planting Calliandra with Pinus merkussi and important, especially in areas with high pop- with Eucalyptus deglupta to yield firewood for ulations. For example, Acacia mangium, which local use. Calliandra and other legume trees are has potential for sawtimber, veneer, furniture, sometimes used as “nurse trees” for timber firewood, pulp, and particle board, outper- such as teak, which requires shade initially for forms other species on degraded lands in Ma- better growth (46). laysia. Its leaves also can be used as forage for livestock (48). The foliage of species such as Managing mixtures of tree species for wood Calliandra is readily eaten by cattle and goats production is biologically complex, especial- and its flower provides rich nectar to produce ly for more than two species. It becomes even honey (47). Because of its fast growth, Callian- more difficult where multiple products are ex- dra competes with and can eventually suppress Imperata cylindrical, a tough perennial grass “Monoculture: one species planted over a large area. * *Silviculture: the science and art of cultivating forest crops, that invades and dominates many cutover based on a knowledge of forest tree characteristics. areas of Southeast Asia. Ch. 9—Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests ● 205

Thousands of other tropical trees exist whose A well-established technique to match races potentials are unknown. Little is known of the with sites is called provenance testing. * Seeds variability in growth and performance of mul- of the desired species are collected from vari- tipurpose tree species. Variation is related to ous sites and tested at the site to be reforested habitat so that each planting site should be or at a site with a similar environment. Once tested with a variety of species and with ge- the best provenance has been identified, sev- netically different varieties of the same species. eral options are available to obtain planting Even when correct species and provenances materials. Seeds from the desired provenance are known, there is still a major gap in the sometimes can be purchased. Alternatively, in- knowledge of silvicultural techniques for mul- dividual trees from the provenance test can be tipurpose tree plantings. selected as parent material and used to establish seed orchards or to produce rooted cut- Tree Selection and Breeding. Since most tree tings for planting materials. species used in reforestation are found over broad geographic ranges, different races* with- Another technique is to use superior trees in the same species can be adapted to different from an environment similar to the reforesta- environments. Thus, the species’ suitability to tion site to establish a seed orchard without a particular site varies depending on the races provenance testing. If the desired species al- used. Increases in yield and resistances to ready grows on the reforestation site and if disease can be achieved through selection and superior trees have not been eliminated, it is use of appropriate seeds. Only by planting spe- possible to obtain planting materials adapted cies and races on the sites for which they are to the site from those trees. This is probably adapted can maximum yields be obtained. the fastest and least expensive approach. How- Most plantations in the Tropics use seeds with- ever, seed orchards established from phenotyp- out testing them to see whether they are genetically* * selected trees ideally should be prov- ically appropriate for the site. enance-tested. Selection of tree species for each site contin- Conventional provenance testing is a major ues to be too arbitrary in spite of, or possibly undertaking. For proper statistical analysis, because of, long experience and tradition. Plan- hundreds of trees from each seed source are tation yields within large regions with exten- planted in replicated blocks and grown to ma- sive plantations of the same tree species, such turity. The process generally takes so long that as southern Brazil, vary widely from place to the original seed source may be unavailable by place with no technical explanation. Even the time results are available. When that hap- large, long-established planting projects con- pens, the test plots must be developed as seed tinually encounter new sites where results are orchards, further prolonging the process. This unlike those of past plantings. Within genera usually takes too long for an individual refor- such as Eucalyptus, selection among species estation program to accommodate. Many prov- and races should be made on the basis of nat- enance tests do not yield results because of pre- ural range and corresponding climate and soil mature termination of the project or departure conditions for which each has proven acclima- of the investigator. Therefore, provenance test- tized, and on the basis of demonstrated adapting must be carried out by established institu- ability to altered environments and growth tions that can maintain long-term programs. habits (9).

*Race: subdivision of a species distinguished by heritable phys- *Provenance testing: testing populations of the same species iological or morphological characteristics resulting from adap- to study their performance under a range of site and climatic tation to a specific environmental condition. Tree species races conditions. are often described by referring to the geographic location where * *Phenotype: detectable expression of the interaction between the race is found naturally. the tree’s genetic characteristics and the environment. 206 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Potential to shorten the time needed for tree brids that at 4 years show an improvement of selection is increasing as new techniques are 30 percent in height growth and 80 percent in tested. Tissue culture can rapidly mass-pro- diameter at breast height (dbh) growth over the duce clones of chosen individuals from a prov- parent trees. Yields of more than 100 m3/ha/yr enance test. The clones can then be tested for are projected from the combination of selec- particular microsites or planted at the reforest- tion and breeding. Hence, genetic tree im- ation site. Establishment of international net- provement may promise larger gains in yields works of cooperating scientists to collect seeds than refinement of silviculture techniques. or planting material and to record environ- In addition, tree selection and breeding could mental data for each parent tree can reduce the accelerate genetic improvement of trees for number of provenances to be evaluated for characteristics other than yield. For example, each test. Another technique, by which many with pines, improvements similar to the euca- provenances are planted in one stand (single lyptus yield gains are expected in straightness, tree randomized plots), allows the testing of reduction in forking, and other characteristics. many more provenances without a correspond- Further, the risks of forestry investments on ing increase in budget or personnel. Then, degraded land could be reduced. For example, propagation of clones can ensure that the drought-resistant species could be improved provenance with the exact genetic materials is through genetic programs designed to identify, used, thus allowing more types to be tested. breed, and propagate the most productive of The U.S. Forest Service, in experiments with the drought-tolerant provenances. Eucalyptus, successfully used single tree randomized plots and cloning to shorten the time for screening provenances. Planting Materials After the initial selection of parent trees, To reforest lands, seeds of various species breeding for desired characteristics can greatly must be available in great quantities. Today, accelerate tree yields and survivability on de- quantity falls short of need. The seed supply graded sites. Plant breeding has been respon- for species most commonly used in tropical, sible for about half of the spectacular gains in industrial plantations is adequate. However, agricultural crop yields accomplished in the the seed supply for multipurpose, agroforestry past three decades. Tree breeding takes longer species is small. Often the seed that is used because generations are longer than with an- does not have its source identified. This makes nual agricultural crops. Nevertheless, tree it impossible to trace the origin of seeds that breeding programs in industrialized nations produced a promising stand or a stand of bad have already achieved important productivity form to be avoided. Full records of all forest gains—10 to 20 percent gains in first genera- seedlots should be made and copies should action and 35 to 45 percent in second generation company all seed distributions. Most impor- seed orchard progeny in industrial timber plan- tantly, every seed shipment should show how tations (50). For energy plantations, breeding the species was identified, where and when the has produced gains of as much as 50 percent seed was collected, and specific site and stand (54). information about the seed source. In that way, the recipient would know the quality and origin With Eucalyptus in Brazil, selection alone of a seedlot if problems or opportunities were has nearly doubled yields (60). Additional gains to develop later. from the use of parent trees selected by strict criteria are predicted at 5 to 10 percent and the The customary way of raising planting stock use of seed orchards of these trees should add in the Tropics is to grow seedlings in a forest 10 to 20 percent more. Tests to match the seed nursery either in open beds for bare-root plant- orchard progeny to specific microsites are ex- ing or in containers. Good nursery practices pected to provide further gains of 35 to 45 per- are essential to produce a hardy plant with a cent. Eucalyptus breeding has produced hy- well-balanced, straight root system. Bare- Ch. 9—Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests Ž 207

Photo credit: A. Isaza for WFP/FAO

These 200,000 Eucalyptus seedlings will be used to reforest some 700 hectares of overgrazed land in Colombia rooted seedlings are susceptible to desiccation. air layering, budding, grafting, and tissue cul- Containerized seedlings are more costly and ture. Rooted cuttings remain the most popular bulky to handle in the field and are subject to of these. Once the technique for a particular root coiling if closed-bottom containers are species is developed, the production cost is used. The latter can be avoided if the con- modest. tainers have an open bottom and are suspended Vegetative propagation has the advantage of above the ground. Recent developments with hastening massive reproduction of genetically cardboards and plastic tubes used as seedling superior plants, ensuring that all are of the containers are increasing the efficiency of re- desired genetic type. It has the disadvantage forestation projects. of increasing plantation risks due to lack of ge- Another technique for producing planting netic diversity. Tissue culture is another tech- material is vegetative propagation—reproduc- nique that can produce thousands or even mil- tion of planting stock without the use of seed. lions of plants rapidly from a single parent. Vegetative propagation is widely used for tree This technology is established in tropical crops such as rubber, coconut, tea, coffee, agriculture and horticulture, but it is still in the cocoa, and oil palm. Methods include cuttings, developmental stage for most tree species. The use of tissue culture can shorten the time mineral and organic soil particles (43). Trials necessary to reproduce a large stock of plant- have shown that seedlings inoculated with fun- ing material with exactly the necessary char- gi show improved growth and survival over acteristics. The cost of plantlets and the sophis- uninoculated controls (33). populations of tication of the technique, however, make it un- mycorrhizae are found naturally in soils, but likely to replace the use of cuttings for large- these can be depressed after long-term clear- scale reforestation in tropical areas. Its nearer- ing and/or topsoil removal, making reestablish- term use is likely to be in establishing “super- ment of vegetation on degraded lands difficult. tree” orchards to produce seeds or cuttings. Various methods for reinoculating damaged soils with mycorrhizal fungi are being de- Seedling survival and growth rates in the veloped. nursery and at the planting site sometimes can be improved by using special kinds of fungi Legume trees can grow well on degraded and bacteria. For most tropical trees, associa- land because their roots can be a symbiotic host tions between tree roots and mycorrhizal fungi for Rhizobium bacteria which produce nitro- are essential for healthy growth. The fungi are gen fertilizer, an essential nutrient for plant active in the transport of nutrients and water growth. The bacteria convert nitrogen gas in to plant roots, and in some cases are impor- the soil into a form the plant can use. Most soils tant for the release of nutrient elements from contain Rhizobium, but degraded soils prob- Ch. 9—Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests Ž 209

them up, and use the product to inoculate other trees of the same species. The newer technologies using inoculants from laboratory produced cultures are relatively simple to use and cheap, costing only a small fraction of a cent per tree. Inoculation of legumes with Rhizobi- um has been practiced in agriculture in industrialized nations for many years. Inoculants for some tropical legume trees, such as Leucaena and Calliandra, are available commercially. The roots of some nonlegume trees also can be infected by micro-organisms that produce nitrogen fertilizer for the tree. Techniques to culture these micro-organisms are not yet available. However, the use of ground-up nodules from already established trees is possible and practical for areas where these trees are native. The major limiting plant nutrient in arid and semiarid regions is likely to be nitrogen; hence, the use of nitrogen-fixing trees can be extremely valuable. An alternative to using seedlings in nurseries is to plant or sow the seed directly at the reforestation site. This method is feasible where Photo credit: T. Wood seed is plentiful and where seed and seedlings Nitrogen-fixing nodules formed on the roots of Acacia mortality is low. Direct sowing of drought-re- Pennatula by Rhizobium bacteria enable legume trees sistant species is sometimes preferred, espe- to grow well on degraded lands cially for species that have long and fast- growing taproots that may be damaged in a ably contain fewer types and lesser amounts nursery or in transfer to the field. The advan- of the bacteria. Thus, the appropriate type of tage is that no nursery is required and plant- Rhizobimn may not be present at the site of a ing costs are low. On the other hand, seedling reforestation effort, or present in enough quan- survival may be low because of weed competi- tity to infect the tree roots. tion, lack of tending, poor weather, or animal Inoculants are living organisms that must be damage. transported and stored carefully and used cor- Coating seeds with pest repellent may be nec- rectly to retain their viability. These require- essary to avoid damage by small mammals, ments can be difficult to satisfy, especially at birds, or insects. Thus far, few species have remote tropical sites needing reforestation. been planted this way in the Tropics. Sowing Most importantly, inoculants for tropical leg- seeds from the air is unproven in the Tropics, ume trees usually are not available because of but shows promise in accelerating reforesta- lack of production. Even where inoculants are tion programs through its ability to seed large available, they may not be used because tree- areas quickly (45). It is a tool to consider when planters are not convinced that they will be reforesting remote, rugged sites. The technique helped. These constraints are being overcome has many logistical problems, including lack slowly. of aircraft and logistic, administrative, and An old inoculation technique is to collect communications support, and lack of large root nodules from a vigorous legume tree, grind quantities of seeds. 210 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Tree Care and Maintenance pete directly with seedlings for light, soil Proper care and maintenance of the planted nutrients, and water. Their shade can smother site is essential to ensure that trees survive to and eventually kill young trees. They also can maturity. Once grown, there is the problem of increase fire hazards and shelter harmful ani- monitoring timber harvests and of systematic mals (18). There are three main methods of replanting. The main causes of reforestation weeding—manual, mechanical, and chemical. failure, other than inappropriate technologies, The manual method is the most common and are uncontrolled grazing and fires, competition requires little skill or capital. Mechanical from weeds, and uncontrolled cutting for fuel, methods may be used in large plantation proj- fodder, poles, and lumber. ects but generally are not considered profitable in the Tropics. In many tropical countries, Direct protection through fencing or guards chemical weed control techniques have been tends to be expensive. Other, less costly meth- tested and found successful, but because of ods include planting unpalatable trees (e.g., safety and cost problems they seldom become Cassia samea) or thorny trees (e.g., Parkinsonia) the main means of weed control (1). as barriers around the plantation. The use of living fences is becoming a more widespread Whatever the type and location of tree plant- practice because they provide a number of aux- ing, the cooperation of local people is essen- iliary benefits including shade, fodder, wind- tial if newly planted trees are to survive (2). break, fuel, and wildlife habitat. Another alter- Because most trees do not yield much benefit native is subsidizing farmers with livestock for several years, the options offered must dem- feed or with cash to purchase feed during the onstrate explicit benefits to the people. Tree period when trees are most susceptible to ani- planting programs are most successful when mal damage. Grazing beneath the tree canopy local communities are involved and when the sometimes can be beneficial as a means of people perceive clearly that success is in their weeding. However, livestock grazing on re- self-interest. cently reforested watersheds can be harmful In local communities, support can be gener- because animals compact the topsoil, leading ated through local involvement in project de- to poor tree growth and increased runoff. sign, demonstration plantings, commercial Weeding is an important aspect of plantation plantings by entrepreneurs with larger land establishment and maintenance. Weeds com- holdings, education of community leaders, extension and training programs working directly with farmers or laborers, and direct financial assistance or provision of substitutes (63). Village woodlots provide an alternative to cutting in larger areas reforested for other purposes. Subsidizing kerosene is also an option until wood can be harvested on a sustainable basis in reforested areas. Incentives must be created to encourage people to care for and maintain the reforested area until the benefits can be reaped. For example, a village woodlot project in the State of Gujarat in India that involved tree planting on degraded communal grazing lands was able to Photo credt: K. Parker meet people’s needs by allowing grass to be cut Using trees as living fence posts in the Dominican for fodder and carried to livestock during the Republic has several benefits. The fence itself provides protection and shade for animals, while the foliage can second year of tree growth. This approach en- be harvested for forage, fuelwood, or green manure abled people to continue feeding their livestock Ch. 9—Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests ● 211 and simultaneously to care for and maintain Constrains and Opportunities the reforested area (2). Reforestation technologies are available to be Other incentives include guaranteed provi- applied directly to degraded lands. However, sion of inputs, credit, and technical assistance forestry has low priority in many tropical coun- when required. Where land tenure is a prob- tries. Tree planting sometimes does not com- lem, measures can be formulated to offset the pete well, in economic terms, with other land- risk to participants caused by the lack of secure use activities. The solution seems to lie in creat- ownership of the trees—e.g., giving title to the ing better economic terms by reducing the land or title to the trees, short-term licenses, costs and increasing yields of plantations, by or improved financial incentives. reducing plantation failures, and by developing methods to quantify indirect benefits of Investment Analysis reforestation. Reforestation projects may fail to receive adequate funding and support because benefiticost Overall costs could be reduced if land prep- analyses do not include indirect benefits such aration were adequate to prevent weed inva- as environmental services, import substitution, sion and ensure a favorable environment for and higher productivity of rural labor. Planta- the seedlings. The use of nitrogen-fixing tree tions have substantial technological require- species can add fertilizer to degraded soils. The ments which, combined with the long-term na- use of native species may reduce the risk of ture of forestry, often result in low short-term disease and insect outbreaks and increase local profits when compared with those of alterna- enthusiasm for reforestation. Plantation yields tive investments. This is often in conflict with can be increased through selecting high-yield- government priorities for projects that produce ing, fast-growing, soil-enriching, and stress- quick returns (for which leaders receive more tolerant species and provenances. Multipur- political credit) and with bankers who use dis- pose tree species can increase the diversity of counting methods that assign low value to re- products yielded. Development and implemen- turns that occur 10 years or more in the future. tation of tree selection and improvement programs can produce high-yielding varieties as Adequate analysis requires comprehensive well as other characteristics for particular tree data on costs, benefits, and man- or machine- species. Careful provenance testing, matching times and productivities. Yet much of this in- the appropriate race to a particular site, should formation is unknown when projects are be- improve species performance and reduce mor- ing planned. Price estimates often are unreli- tality. Perhaps most important is the proper able and do not account for inflation. Informa- maintenance of reforested sites. Incentives for tion on labor requirements is usually missing local people should be created to minimize the as well. Forestry yields are difficult to predict incidence of fire, grazing, and fuelwood because of the long-term nature of the enter- cutting. prise, climate and management uncertainty, and, more importantly, a lack of accurate in- Shortage of seeds is a major technical con- formation on site/species interactions. Al- straint to reforestation. No mechanism exists though technologies such as tissue culture to to control the quality of planting stock. It is accelerate vegetative propagation and bacterial often difficult to trace the origin of seed that inoculation to increase seedling survival are in- does perform well to obtain more. Some mech- creasing yields on reforested degraded lands, anism needs to be developed to coordinate col- methods are not yet developed to measure the lection, certification, and international distri- important but indirect benefits that could help bution of quality seeds in commercial quanti- justify investment in reforestation. ties. This could be accomplished through 1) the 212 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Photo credit: J. t?auer Mahogany seed sun-drying for storage. Shortage of seeds is a major constraint to forestry. Implementation of programs to collect and disseminate seeds could increase reforestation efforts creation of a new institution, 2) expansion of provide incentives to publish local research the FAO seed program, and/or 3) expansion of and management techniques. the seed banks of the CGIAR system to work Furthermore, information on planting sites with private tree seed production enterprises. often is inadequate. The need exists for inter- Oftentimes, inappropriate tree species are se- national coordination to disseminate what is lected because information on optimum spe- already known about sites and species/site in- cies and provenances for specific sites is teractions so there is some uniformity of ap- unavailable. Much information on proven plan- proach, at least at the regional level. Follow- tation establishment techniques and silvicul- ing this, there should be application of a com- tural data exists and some of it is being pub- parable site classification to those areas most lished. Yet, such information is seldom easily eligible for planting. There may be reason to available to or studied by those who embark establish two intensities of classification, one on planting projects. FAO could provide ab- generic to narrow down the choice of prospec- stract/microfiche/hard copy services for pub- tively adapted tree species, and one more spe- lished literature to operational and research cific to distinguish good, fair, and poor produc- personnel, especially at the field level; provide tivity within each broad class. Given the pres- bibliographies, monographs, and manuals on ent large uncertainties in selecting the best relevant species, techniques, and systems; and method for reforestation of a degraded site, it Ch. 9—Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests ● 213 may be advisable to try out several approaches makers have an understanding of the economic (28). value of reforestation. Reducing the frequency of plantation failures Successful reforestation requires sufficient may attract more investors to forestry and, funds, strong political will, massive popular thus, increase the extent of land reforested in support, and cooperation among all involved the future. Also important are the indirect parties. A technical package, once accepted by benefits from reforestation efforts. Interna- funding institutions and the host-country gov- tional development banks treat many of the ernment, may solve certain problems, but nonmarket considerations qualitatively rather many obstacles to its acceptance usually than trying to develop artificial values for them remain. Foresters and policy makers must (25), However, simply listing nonquantified remember that “forestry is not, in essence, variables may serve to remove them from con- about trees. It is about people. It is only about sideration. So increased effort must be ex- trees so far as they serve the needs of the peo- pended to develop, test, and refine methods of ple” (26). quantifying indirect benefits so that decision-

CHAPTER 9 REFERENCES

1. Allen, T. G., “Plantation Planting and weeding 8, Catinot, R., “Results of Enrichment Planting in in Savanna, ” Savanna Afforestation in Africa the Tropics,” Report of the Second Session, [Rome: FAO, 1977), pp. 139-148. In; Wadsworth, FAO Committee on Forest Development in the 1982. Tropics (Rome: FAO, 1969), pp. 38-43. In: Wads- 2. Arnold, J. E. M., “Community Participation in worth, 1982. Forestry Projects,” prepared for Conference on 9. Cromer, D. A. N., “The Value of Eucalyptus— Forestry and Development in Asia, held in World-Wide, Particularly Australia,” Final Bangalore, India, Apr. 19-23, 1982. Report World Eucalyptus Conference, Rome, 3. Batchelder, R. B., and Hirt, H. F., “Fire in Trop- 1956, pp. 3-18. In: Wadsworth, 1982. ical Forests and Grasslands, ” U.S. Material 10. Danso, L. K., “Enrichment and Management of Command, U.S. Army Natick Laboratory, Tech- the Ghana Tropical High Forest,” special sub- nical Report 67-41-IN, 1966. ject, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford, 4. Bettenay, E., “Trees for Managing Land for England, 1966. In: Wadsworth, 1982. Water Yield and Quality, ” Integrating Agricul- 11. Dawkins, H, C., “New Methods of Improving ture and Forestry, K, N. W. Howes and R. A. Stand Composition in Tropical Forests,” Carib- Rummery (eds,), CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia, bean Forester 22(1/2):12-20, 1961. In: Wads- 1978, PP. 33-38. worth, 1982. 5. Briscoe, C. B., and Wadsworth F., “Stand Struc- 12. Dawkins, H. C., “The Productivity of Tropical ture and Field in the Tabonuco Forest of Puer- High Forests and Their Reaction to Controllable to Rico,” A Tropical Rain Forest, H. T. Odum Environment,” Ph. D. thesis, University of Ox- and R. F. Pigeon (eds.), U.S. Atomic Energy ford, England, 1963, In: Wadsworth, 1982. Commission, 1970, pp. B79-89. In: Wadsworth, 13. Dawkins, H. C., “The Productivity of Lowland 1982. Tropical High Forest and Some Comparisons 6. Britwum, S. P. K., “Natural and Artificial Re- With Its Competitors,” Forest Society Journal generation Practices in the High Forest of (Fifth Series), No. 12,1964, pp. 15-18. In: Wads- Ghana,” Ghana Forestry Journa] 2:45-49, 1976. worth, 1982, In: Wadsworth, 1982. 14, Dawkins, H. C., “Wood Production in Tropical 7. Burgess, P. F., “Silviculture in the Hill Forests Rain Forest,” Journal of Applied Ecology, Lon- of the Malay Peninsula, ” research pamphlet, don, England 4(1):20-21, 1967. In: Wadsworth, Forest Research Institute, Kepong, Malaya, No. 1982. 66, 1975. In: Wadsworth, 1982. 15! Earl, D, E., “Latest Techniques in the Treatment 214 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

of Natural High Forest in South Mengo Dis- Fuelwood and Other Renewable Fuels in Afri- trict,” Papers gth British Commonwealth For- ca, Paris, 1979. estry Review, 1968. In: Wadsworth, 1982. 31. Hutchinson, I. D., “Processes of Optimizing and 16. Earl, D. E., “Does Forestry Need a New Ethos?” Diversifying Uses of Resources: Approach to Commonwealth Forestry Review 52(151):82-89, Define Interim Guidelines for Silviculture and 1972. In: Wadsworth, 1982. Management of Mixed Dipterocarp Forest in 17. Eckholm, E., Losing Ground (New York: W. W. Sarawak,” International Forestry Seminar, No- Norton & Co., 1976). vember 1980, University of Malaysia, Kuala 18. Evans, J., Plantation Forestry in the Tropics Lumpur, 1980. In: Wadsworth, 1982. (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1982]. 32. Iyppu, A. L, “The Silviculture and Management 19. Ewel, J. J., “Secondary Forests: the Tropical of Evergreen Forests of Kerala State, ” Indian Wood Resource of the Future,” Simposio Inter- Forester 86(9):509-519, 1960. In: Wadsworth, national sobre Zas ciencias forestalls y su Con- 1982. tribution al Desarrollo de la America Tropical, 33. Janos, D. P., “Mycorrhizae Influence Tropical San Jose, Costa Rica, 1979, pp. 53-60. Succession,” Biotropica 12 (supp1ement):56-64, 20, Ewel J,, “Environmental Implications of Trop- 1980. ical Forest Utilization, ” International Sym- 34. Jordan, C. F., “Amazon Rain Forests,” Amer- posium on Tropical Forests Utilization and ican Scientist 70(4):394-401, 1982. Conservation, F. Mergen (cd.), Yale Universi- 35. Kadeba, O., “Nutritional Aspects of Afforesta- ty, 1981, PP. 156-167. tion With Exotic Tree Species in the Savanna 21 FAO, Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Region of Nigeria,” Commonwealth Forestry Project (GC-MS): Tropical Africa, Tropical Asia, Review 57(3):191-199, 1978. TropicaZ America (4 VOIS.) (Rome: FAO/UNEP, 36. Kamsilan, —, “The Place of Agroforestry in 1981). Land-Use Planning in Indonesia,” Observations 22. Fox, J. E. D., “Selective Logging in the Philip- on Agroforestry on Java, Indonesia, J. F. Wier- pine Dipterocarp Forest,” MaZayan Forester sum (cd.), Department of Forest Management, 30(3):182-190, 1967. In: Wadsworth, 1982. University of Wageningen, The Netherlands, 23, Galinato, P. F., “Management and Silviculture 1981, pp. 49-55. In: Wood et al., 1982. of Philippine Dipterocarp Forests,” special sub- 37. Keller, W. D., The Principles of Chemical ject, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford, Weathering (Washington, D. C.: Lucas Bros. England, 1966. In: Wadsworth, 1982. Publishing Service [Item 990, No. 5967, January 24 Gallegos, C. M,, Davey, C. B., Kellison, R. L., 1961], 1962), pp. 540-657. Sanchez, P. A., and Zobel, B. J., “Technologies 38. Kio, P. R. O., “What Future for Natural Regen- for Reforestation of Degraded Lands in the eration of Tropical High Forest? An Appraisal Tropics,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. With Examples From Nigeria and Uganda,” 25 Gregersen, H., “Valuing Goods and Services Commonwealth Forestry Review 55(4):309-318, From Tropical Forests and Woodlands,” OTA 1976. In: Wadsworth, 1982. commissioned paper, 1982. 39. Ladrach, W., forester for Carton de Colombia, 26. Gribbin, J., “The Other Face of Development,” personal communication, 1982. New Scientist 96(1334):489-495, 1982. 40, Lancaster, P. C., “Investigation Into Natural Re- 27. Griffith, A. L., “India’s Tropical Wet Evergreen generation in Tropical High Forest in Southern Forests,” Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun Nigeria, ” Nigerian Forestry Information (5th British Empire Forestry Conference, Great Bulletin, No. 2, 1960. In: Wadsworth, 1982. Britain, vol. 2), 1947. In: Wadsworth, 1982. 41. Liew That Chin, “The Practicability of Climber 28. Hirschman, A. O., Development Projects Ob- Cutting and Tree Making Prior to Logging as served (Washington, D. C.: The Brookings Insti- Silvicultural Tool in Sabah, ” Malaysian tution, 1967). Forester 36(2):5-19, 1973. In: Wadsworth, 1982. 29. Helm, L. G., Weldon, L. W., and Blackburn, R. 42. Lundgren, B., “Soil Conditions and Nutrient D., “Aquatic Weeds,” Man’s Impact on the En- Cycling Under Natural and Plantation Forests vironment, T. R. Detwyler (cd.) (New York: in Tanzanian Highlands, ” Report No. 31, De- McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969). partment of Forest Soils, Swedish University of 30. Hoskins, M., “Community Participation in Afri- Agricultural Sciences, Uppsaler, 1978. can Fuelwood Production, Transformation, and 43. Menge, J., “Mycorrhiza Agriculture Technol- Utilization,” paper prepared for workshop on ogies,” Background Papers for Innovative Bio- Ch. 9—Forestry Technologies for Disturbed Forests ● 215

logical Technologies for Lesser Developed 54. Ranney, J. W., Cushman, J, H., and Trimble, J. Countries, Paper No. 9, Office of Technology L., “The Short Rotation Woody Crops Program: Assessment Workshop (Washington D. C.: U.S. A Summary of Research Sponsored by Biomass Government Printing Office, 1980), pp. 383-424, Energy Technology Division of Oak Ridge Na- 44, Muir, W, D., “The Problems of Maintaining Site tional Laboratory, ” U. S. A., draft, 1982. Fertility With Successive Choppings, ” Aust. J. 55. Redhead, J. F., “An Analysis of Logging Dam- Science 32:316-324, 1970. age in Lowland Rain Forest, Western Nigeria, ” 45. National Academy of Sciences, Sowing Forests Nigeria Forestry Information Bulletin (N, S.) No. From the Air (Washington, D. C.: National Acad- 10, 1960, In: Wadsworth, 1982. emy of Sciences, 1981). 56. Smith, N,, “Fuel Forests: A Spreading Energy 46. National Research Council, Innovations in Resource in Developing Countries,” Intercien- Tropical Reforestation V: Calliandra (Washing- cia 6(51):336-343, 1981. ton, D. C,: National Academy Press, forthcom- 57, Strong, D. R., Jr., “Rapid Asymptotic Species ing). Accumulation in Phytophagus Insect Commu- 47 National Research Council, Innovations in nities: The Pests of Cacao, ” Science Tropical Reforestation W: Casuarina (Washing- 185:1064-1066, 1974. ton, D. C.: National Academy Press, forthcom- 58, Synnott, T. J., “Tropical Rainforest Silviculture: ing). A Research Project Report,” Department of For- 48. National Research Council, Innovations in estry, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Uni- Tropical Reforestation VII: Mangium and Other versity of Oxford, England, Occasional Paper Acacia of the Humid Tropics [Washington, No. 10, 1979. In: Wadsworth, 1982. D. C.: National Academy Press, forthcoming), 59. U.N. Conference on Desertification: Round-Up, 49. Nicholson, D, I., “An Analysis of Logging Dam- Plan of Action, and Resolutions (New York: age in Tropical Rain Forest in North Borneo, ” United Nations, 1978). Malaysian Forester 21:235-245, 1958. In: 60. Venekatesh, D. S., “Expected Genetic Gains Wadsworth, 1982. From Forest Tree Breeding, ” Indian Forester 50. Nienstadt, H., “Tree Improvement and Its Place 102(6):402-407, 1976. In: Wadsworth, 1982. in Intensive Forest Management, ” Proc. 8th 61. Wadsworth, F., “Secondary Forest Manage- WorZd Forestry Congress, Jakarta, )? ID-1/17-28, ment and Plantation Forestry Technologies to 1978. In: Evans, 1982. Improve the Use of Converted Tropical Lands,” 51 Palmer, J. R,, “Towards More Reasonable Ob- OTA commissioned paper, 1982. jectives in Tropical High Forest Management 62. Weber, F. R,, forestry consultant, personal com- for Timber Production,” Commonwealth Forest munication, 1982. Review 54(3/4):273-289, 1975. In: Wadsworth, 63. Wood, P. J., Burley, J., and Grainger, A., “Tech- 1982. nologies and Technology Systems for Reforesta- 52. Pereira, H. C., “Soil and Water Management tion of Degraded Tropical Lands, ” OTA com- Technologies for Tropical Countries,” OTA missioned paper, 1982. commissioned paper, 1982. 64. Zobel, B., tree geneticist, North Carolina State 53. Poulsen, G., Man and Tree in Tropical Africa, University Department of Forestry (professor International Development Research Center emeritus), personal communication, 1982. (IDRC), 1978. Chapter 10 Forestry Technologies to Page Highlights ...... 219 Agroforestry...... 219 Watershed Management...... 219 Introduction ...... 219 Agroforestry ...... 220 Background ...... 220 Agroforestry Systems ...... 220 Description ...... 220 Classification and Assessment ...... 224 Technology Issues ...... 226 Constraints and Opportunities ...... 228 Watershed Management ...... 229 Background ...... 229 Watershed Management...... 230 Description ...... 230 General Technical Principles ...... 231 Specific Technologies ...... 232 Constraints and Opportunities ...... 237 Chapter IO References...... 238

List of Tables Table No. Page 29.Some Prominent Agroforestry Systems in Developing Countries ...... 221 30. Organizations That Work on Agroforestry Systems ...... 6..... 228

List of Figures Figure No. Page 28. Effects of Poor Watershed Management~ ...... 230 29. Slopes and Appropriate Conservation Measures ...... 231 30. Cut-Off Drain to Protect Steep Forested Scarps From Landslip Hazard ...... 232 31. Cross-Sectional View of Eight Types of Conservation Structures ...... 234 Chapter 10 Forestry Technologies to Support Tropical Agriculture

● The medium- and long-term maintenance of Watershed Management tropical forest resources may depend more ● on sustaining lands under cultivation than Damage to tropical watersheds is most eco- on refining the use of the remaining forest. logically and economically significant where subsistence farmers and their livestock move Agroforestry onto steep uplands. Improved farming systems are needed that can ensure and en- ● Agroforestry, systems that use trees, crops, hance farmers’ short-term returns and at the and/or animals on the same land, holds great same time modulate water flow. promise for improving and sustaining the ● Where flood protection for large populations productivity of lands under cultivation, in lower reaches of river valleys depends on ● Genetic improvement of multipurpose tree protecting the vegetation on steep upper wa- species has great potential to increase the tersheds, costs for conservation practices in productivity of agroforestry systems, the uplands should be subsidized by the lowland communities. ● Rigid boundaries between disciplines have deterred agroforestry development. There is ● More research on the relationship between a need for a thorough rethinking of the ap- land use and hydrological systems is neces- propriate institutional homes for agrofor- sary to give watershed managers a better un- estry, derstanding of various management systems and their tradeoffs. ● Implement at ion of agroforestry systems relies on removing obstacles to adoption, improving extension services, and creating incentives to encourage farmers to adopt agroforestry practices.

INTRODUCTION

The major cause of deforestation and forest Many of the technologies discussed in this degradation in most countries is land clearing report can help to sustain forests by making for agriculture. In many places, the quality of forested land more productive and thus can land is degraded by conventional farming or help reduce the need for converting the land grazing practices, so the farmers and herders to nonsustainable uses. However, increasing must keep clearing more and more forest. This the productivity of forests alone is unlikely to practice continues because people have no al- provide enough jobs or income for rapidly ternatives. growing rural populations, For that, the pro-

219 220 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources ductivity of agriculture has to be sustained and 1. to enable farmers on marginal soils to con- increased. tinue farming in one location and to maintain or gradually increase land productivi- Agricultural productivity can be increased ty so they can stop clearing more and more by enlarging the area farmed, maintaining the forest, and quality of the land already in use, and increas- 2. to protect and allow improvement of agri- ing the per hectare yields. Chapter 11 addresses culture in the more fertile river valleys by planning technologies to direct land clearing modulating waterflows and reducing ero- onto sites that are appropriate for agriculture. sion and siltation from upland watersheds. This chapter addresses forestry-related technologies for the other two approaches. The objectives of these technologies., are:

AGROFORESTRY

Background woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliberately grown on the same Traditional farming methods used in tropi- land with agricultural crops and/or animals in cal countries were developed to reduce the risk either spatial arrangements or temporal se- of crop failures more than to provide maximum quences. Agroforestry is a new word, not a production. As a result, the traditional crop- new concept. The novelty lies in formally rec- ping and grazing systems used on relatively in- ognizing that many different tree-based land- fertile, dry, or erosion-prone sites often involve use systems possess certain common features multiple crops, intercropping, and complex that hold great promise in the Tropics. crop rotation schedules. However, the traditional systems are not productive enough to On fertile lands, intensive agroforestry sys- provide for the rapidly expanding populations tems, like intensive agriculture, can support of the Tropics. They need to be modernized dense populations. Agroforestry, however, is and further developed. probably more important for improving and sustaining the productivity of the lands with On fertile and well-watered alluvial soils soil fertility and soil moisture problems, and where traditional farming was based on mono- where lack of rural infrastructure and cash cropping of rice or wheat, it has been possible make it necessary for people to produce most to increase yields by adapting modern temper- of their own basic needs for food, fodder, fuel, ate-zone technologies, including applications and shelter. of fertilizers and pesticides. But in the less well situated sites, many attempts to replace com- Agroforestry Systems plex, traditional farming systems with modern monocrop agriculture have failed, apparently Description because of high risks from climate, pests, and difficult soils and because of the complex so- Agroforestry encompasses many well-known cioeconomic conditions that often prevail. So, and long-practiced land-use systems on culti- in recent years, some scientists have begun de- vated or grazed lands in the Tropics (table 29). veloping modern technologies to improve, Traditional shifting cultivation, bush fallow rather than replace, the traditional farming sys- systems, and all forms of “taungya” afforesta- tems (26). This approach to tropical agricuhure tion* fall under this term, as do the home gar- development is still promoted by only a small dens of the wet tropics and the use of fodder number of agricultural scientists. trees and shrubs in the dry Tropics. Agroforestry is a name for a collection of *Taungya: Burmese for hill cultivation. Agricultural crops are land-use systems and technologies where planted with trees used for wood production. Table 29.—Some Prominent Agroforestry Systems in Developing Countries

Mediterranean and Eastern, Central, and Arid and semiarid Southeast Asia Southern Asia Middle East Humid West Africa West Africa American Tropics 1. Agro-silviculture 1. Commercial trees 1. Taungya 1. Olive + cereals 1. Taungya 1. Use of trees on farm- 1. Trees in perennial among crops 2. Plantation crops + (on terraces, ‘ban- 2. Cacao/food crops/ lands for protective cash crops (coffee, 2. Fruit/shade trees arable crops quettes’, ‘cuvettes’, forest complex role (windbreaks, cacao, tea) among crops 3. Commercial trees and etc.) 3. Plantation crops (oil dune fixation) 2. Trees for organic 3. Live fences fruit trees with crops 2. Poplars along irriga- palm/rubber) and root 2. Productive + protec- matter and mulch 4. Shelterbelts 4. Live fences + shel- tion canals crop complex tive role of trees on with annual crops 5. Taungya terbelts 3. Trees for sand dune 4. Coffee + banana farms (A. albida/Leu- 3. Tree live fences 6. Shifting cultivation 5. Various trees on farm- reclamation 5. Mixed perennial crops caena + agriculture 4. Windbreaks and shel- systems lands for productive 4. ‘Huertas’ - small plots 6. Gum arabic + millet crop systems) terbelts 7. Intercropping in plan- functions irrigated crops + 7. Shifting cultivation/ 5. Trees as support for tation crops (rubber, 6. Various forms of fruit trees bush fallow systems climbing commercial oil palm, coconut) shifting cultivation 5. Aromatic, medicinal crops 7. Medicinal plants + arid fruit trees with 6. Taungya agriculture species crops 7. Shifting cultivation systems 2. Silvo-pastoral 1. Pasture in forest 1. Pasture under trees 1. Oak forest + grazing 1. Gum arabic + 1. Nomadic/semi- 1. Trees in pasture plantation 2. Plantation crops + 2. Pig breeding and livestock nomadic/transhuman 2. Pasture in natural 2. Pasture in secondary cattle grazing forestry 2. Plantation crops 2. Sedentary livestock regeneration forest forests 3. Fodder trees and 3. Range land (coconut/cashew + grazing systems/ 3. Trees lopped for 3. Commercial trees in shrubs improvement pasture browsing systems fodder pastures 4. Fruit trees and com- 3. Fodder tree/shrub 4. Trees used for 4. Fruit/shade trees in mercial trees in systems browsing pasture pastures 5. Fodder trees 6. Coconuts + pasture 3. Agro-silvo-pastoral 1. Crops and grazing in 1. Plantation crops + Range land manage- 1. Coconuts/other plan- 1. Forestry dominating 1. Agriculture plantation plantations arable crops + ment tation crops + food (forest lands) crops (coconut, rubber, 2. Agriculture tree crops livestock crops + grazing 2. Agriculture dominating fruit, trees) with + grazing in forest 2. Agriculture tree crops 2. Coffee + banana + (crop lands) crops and pastures plantation + grazing in forest dairying 3. Livestock dominating 3. Multipurpose trees 3. Horticultural complex (crop lands) with crops/animals systems 4. Integrated farming 4. Plough culture com- systems with agricul- plex systems ture plantation crops (rubber, coconut, oil palm) Table 29.—Some Prominent Agroforestry Systems in Developing Countries—Continued

Mediterranean and Eastern, Central, and Arid and semiarid Southeast Asia Southern Asia Middle East Humid West Africa West Africa American Tropics 4. Home gardens Various forms of 1. Multistory plant Mainly in large cities Various forms Various forms Various forms multispecies canopies in humid combination regions 2. Arid/semiarid systems 5. Others 1. Silviculture in 1. Mixed perennial 1. New system in 1. Pastoral systems 1. Oasis Mixed perennial mangrove forests cropping Morocco (spice plan- with corral farming 2. Irrigation systems cropping 2. Agri-silvi-fishery 2. Irrigation systems tation for erosion (highland/lowland)_ 3. Various site-specific 3. Trees on bunds in 3. Various site-specific control) 2. Mixed perennial systems fish breeding ponds systems 2. Agriculture + cropping 4. Swidden farming 4. Fuelwood systems forestry 5. Fuelwood agroforestry 3. Fruit trees in deserts 4. Mushroom cultivation in forest SOURCE: Anonymous, “A Global Inventory of Agroforestry Systems,” Biomass :241-245, 1983 Ch. 10—Forestry Technologies to Support Tropical Agriculture ● 223 —

Rubber trees interplanted with a cover crop of Pueraria phaseoloides and grazed by cattle is one type of agroforestry system

Agroforestry systems attempt to optimize ● increase and improve food production ecological and economical interactions be- yields; tween various components (trees and shrubs/ ● produce firewood and a variety of other crops and animals) to obtain a higher, more raw materials from shrubs and trees for diversified, and/or more sustainable total pro- farmers’ subsistence, for local sale, and duction than is possible with any single land sometimes for export; use. Typical characteristics of such systems ● protect and improve the soil’s productive are: 1) two or more species of plants (or plants potential; and animals), at least one of which is a woody ● improve social and economic conditions perennial; 2) two or more outputs; and 3) a pro- in rural areas by creating jobs and income duction cycle of more than 1 year. and reducing risks; and Agroforestry can provide many goods and ● develop land-use systems that draw on services. Depending on the particular situation, both modern technologies and traditional it may: local experience and that are compatible 224 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

plantation trees has attracted much attention as a promising way of increasing total yield from the land. An example is the Jari Project in Brazil, where seeding the pine plantation (Pinus caribea) with forage grass (Panicum maximum) reduced the need for weed control. The cattle then increased the total income from the system (21). Many commercial timber and pulpwood plantations in the Tropics have been established through the “taungya” system. Farmers or forest laborers are allowed to grow crops for a few years during land preparation and early plantation phases. In exchange, they weed and care for the young trees. After an agreed-upon period, the farmers move on. Taungya has been used for more than a century and has been applied throughout the Tropics. Although well- planned taungya can provide a sequence of new ground for shifting cultivators, it removes the land from agriculture for a period dictated by the biology and economics of the forest crop and not by the needs of farmers or forest laborers. The widespread use of this system and its many local variations is a clear indication of its success (25). The practice has been successful with Terminalia, Triplochiton, and several Meliaceae in West Africa; Cordia in Surinam; Tectona in Trinidad; and Swietenia in Puerto Rico (45). In Nigeria, the system has been applied in both wet and dry zones for tree and food production. In that country, it has been credited with providing enough food for about 700,000 people, or about 1 percent of Nigeria’s food needs (13). The increased use of commercial, commodity-oriented agroforestry is attractive in theory. However, the areas under perennial agricultural tree/shrub crops occupy about 8 percent of total arable area in developing countries today (27). Of this, only a minor part is used for intercropping or grazing. Another 2 million hectares of perennial agricultural tree plantations could be established by the year 2000 without encountering serious marketing problems (38). But this approach has limited potential for substantially alleviating land problems. Since commercial agroforestry will be intro- Ch. 10—Forestry Technologies to Support Tropical Agriculture ● 225 duced only where opportunities for profits are countered when expanding permanent cash clearly perceived, it is unlikely to be used on crops into less favorable areas, where infra- infertile land or by people who are not entre- structure and markets are underdeveloped, preneurs. This objection applies less to timber where land tenure is uncertain, or where the plantation land, where small improvements in environment imposes serious restrictions on taungya could produce significant increases in intensive land use. Still, there is promise for food production. Forest plantation lands could improving existing systems through the intro- then support considerably more people than duction of improved varieties of tree crops, they do now. fruit trees, and compatible food crops, as well as application of fertilizers. Intermediate agroforestry systems are where farmers with small to medium sized landhold- Subsistence agroforestry systems are ings combine production of perennial crops for oriented toward satisfying the basic needs of cash with annual crops for subsistence. Some farmers for food, fuel, and shelter, with some of these systems are oriented toward commer- products sold for cash income. Such systems cial production, but they are small and the land are practiced by a large portion of the popula- is operated by individual farmers. Others are tion of the tropical world, from livestock herd- similar to subsistence systems. An example is ers in semiarid areas to shifting cultivators in the combination of gum arabic trees (Acacia rain forests. These systems usually are prac- senegal), which can provide good cash income ticed where serious ecological and/or socioeco- to farmers, with millet in the Sudan. Another nomical constraints exist. Infertile soils, ero- intermediate level agroforestry system occurs sion, and/or drought can be major physical lim- when commercial firms enter into contracts itations. Insecure land tenure and lack of in- with small- and medium-scale farmers to pro- frastructure, capital, extension services, and duce raw materials. The British-American education are common socioeconomic con- Tobacco Co. in Kenya has contracts with straints. farmers who grow tobacco and the fuelwood needed for curing it, together with their own Many different subsistence agroforestry sys- food crops. tems exist. Shifting cultivation and bush fallow Coffee forms the economic basis for many are practiced in many forms throughout the integrated land-use systems in this category, tropical world. One well-known form of per- particularly on fertile soils in tropical uplands. manent traditional agroforestry is the home In the East African highlands, multistory pro- gardens of Southeast Asia, characterized by a multistory mixture of many species of trees, duction is common. Timber trees such as Al- bizzia and Grevillea shade coffee interplanted shrubs, climbers, palms, tubers, and often an- with bananas and beans (33). Similarly, in Cos- imals (pigs and poultry) (16). Other agroforestry in Asia integrates rice production with trees ta Rica coffee is grown under the shade of both timber trees (Cordia alliodora) and multi- for windbreaks, boundary demarcation, and purpose trees (Erythrina spp.) (7,8). Another fuelwood production (6,16). important crop in tropical small-holder agro- Oases are a prototype of agroforestry in arid forestry is coconut. Planting food crops and lands. They contain ponds to water livestock grazing cattle under coconuts are common as well as an upper story of multifunctional practices in the wetter parts of Sri Lanka, India, trees and a lower story of agricultural or hor- Southeast Asia, and the Pacific regions (28). ticultural plants. Though only comprising a Most of the economically and ecologically small area endowed with water and fertile successful examples under this category are soils, they can be extremely well-balanced hu- found in areas having relatively fertile soils, man ecosystems with species mixture, multi- good communications, and existing market in- story structure, and near-perfect recycling frastructure. But many obstacles can be en- processes (44). 226 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Photo credit: K. Parker Chinarnpas in Mexico are centuries-old food production systems used where water is available year round. Narrow irrigation/drainage canals surround the plot and control water supply; mud dredged from canals serves as organic fertilizer; aquatic vegetation serves as “green manure;” fish that colonize the canals provide additional protein; trees planted along the canals hold the soil in place as well as providing other products

Millions of people practice agroforestry in great potential for improving land use but has areas with serious physical and socioeconomic urgent need for technology improvement. constraints. The problem of improving the productivity and sustainability of these people’s Technology Issues agriculture and agroforestry methods is of an In general, the concept of agroforestry as a entirely different magnitude than that of im- sustainable approach to land use is sound. The proving commercial and intermediate agrofor- aim is to create productive farming systems estry systems. Reaching farmers can be diffi- able to supply an increasing and sustainable cult, and where subsistence farmers can be output of basic needs, including cash. Main- reached, they need to be convinced that the taining soil fertility, preventing erosion, costs, risks, and benefits of new technologies moderating microclimate, and other environ- are favorable. The time between planting a tree ment-enhancing roles of the tree/shrub compo- and achieving significant yields may involve nent apparently do help sustain production. risks that subsistence farmers cannot take. It also can be difficult to convince land users to A growing body of information exists on the make long-term investments when land tenure various agroforestry technologies, but this is is uncertain. Subsistence agroforestry holds mainly descriptive and qualitative. Most scien- Ch. 10—Forestry Technologies to Support Tropical Agriculture . 227 tists’ interest has been in the tree/shrub com- produces tannins, insecticidal chemicals, and ponent (e. g., potential tree species, their use, fuel/lubricant oil (35). and management) because of the novelty of The greatest potential for improving agrofor- using trees and shrubs in agricultural and pastoral lands, estry systems lies in the practically unexplored field of genetic improvement of multipurpose During the last 5 years, many agroforestry trees and shrubs (26). Selecting the species and research projects have been initiated at univer- varieties that are best adapted to particular pur- sity forestry departments and forestry research poses and site conditions for which the agro- institutes. These generally study the long-term forestry systems are intended is the first step. economic and ecological productivity of vari- Traditional agroforestry systems have been ous trees, planted at different spacings, and doing this gradually for centuries, but now with combined with a food crop, which is often used modern communications and techniques for as a “test” crop to quantify the competitive or reproducing, transporting, and testing varie- soil-improving influences of the tree. ties, it is possible to greatly accelerate the Only certain trees and crops prove to be com- process. patible, Rubber trees, for instance, produce so Because the scientific attention to multipur- much shade that underlying pasture often be- pose trees is so new, examples of the gains that comes useless within 3 years. Oil palm soils are can be achieved by this selection and matching often clayey and wet and animals tend to com- process are rare. The interest in single-purpose pact the soil and damage tree roots (17). Some use of trees is older, and gains with these il- crops such as sorghum, millet, and pigeon pea lustrate the potential for multipurpose trees. are highly competitive with other plants and, For example, results from 32 sites in 18 coun- thus, may not be suitable for intercropping. tries show that productivity gains of several Other crops—maize, cotton, and dry rice—are hundred percent could be achieved in eucalyp- less competitive and can be intercropped. Each tus trees simply by selecting the best-adapted system has complex problems of intraspecific provenances for prevailing conditions (31). and interspecific competition. The aim of experimental research is to optimize combina- The second step, which can begin before the tions of agriculture, pastoralism, and forestry first is completed, is tree breeding—crossing over space and time. plants to combine particular desired characteristics, such as fodder and fuel production quan- Tropical research and development organiza- tity and quality, rooting characteristics, phenol- tions have become much more interested in ogy favorable for interplanting with annual multipurpose trees. The legume family has at- crops, nitrogen-fixation, pest resistance, tracted particular attention. In general, leg- drought resistance, or the ability to withstand umes, through their bacterial relationship, can other stresses. improve soil fertility and produce good-quality fuelwood as well as leaves and pods with The potential for agroforestry systems im- fodder and food value. Different legume spe- provements to be adopted on a large scale by cies also are adapted to a wide range of ecolog- farmers and pastoralists is difficult to assess. ical conditions. Many multipurpose species are If the relevant land-use problems have been found in the legume genera Acacia and Pro- identified and an ecologically, economically, sopis. Several nonlegume multipurpose species and socially well-adapted agroforestry solution are equally interesting because of their general is demonstrated to be feasible, then agrofor- versatility, adaptability to less favorable sites, estry improvements may be adopted, However, and yield of valuable products. An example is finding locally acceptable solutions to prob- the neem tree (Azadirachta indica) which lems that are perceived by farmers is crucial. originated in the dry zones of Asia. It is an ex- Sophisticated trials on the best spacing of trees cellent timber, fuelwood, and shade tree and over crops are, for example, not particularly 228 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

relevant if farmers are not interested in that Table 30.—Organizations That Work on particular tree species. Agroforestry Systems The constraints and problems encountered 1. International Council for Research in Agroforestry 2. Centro Agronomical Tropical de Investigation y in developing and disseminating agroforestry Ensenanza (CATIE) systems are many. Millions of farmers and 3. International Tree Crop Institutes (U. K., U. S. A., and landless people are spread over vast expanses Australia) 4. Nitrogen-Fixing Tree Association of tropical lands. Rapid population growth, in- 5. National Academy of Sciences (fuelwood and legume secure land tenure, erosion, droughts, floods, tree species) declining soil fertility, lack of infrastructure, 6. Commonwealth Forestry Institute (information, research, and training) political instability, illiteracy, and other devel- 7. East-West Center (dissemination and exchange of opment problems often characterize those agroforestry information) broad regions where agroforestry approaches 8. United Nations University (workshops and research programs at cooperating institutions) have a potential role to play. Therefore, agro- 9. Some components of UN ESCO/MAB research forestry development cannot occur in isolation program from general social and physical constraints 10. Some developed country universities 11. Some CGIAR institutions (e.g., IITA in Nigeria on alley on rural development. cropping and CIAT in Colombia on Leucaena and Erytherina) Constraints and Opportunities 12. FAO’S Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources (data collection and assessment) SOURCE: B. Lundgren, “The Use of Agroforestry to Improve the Productivity to Agroforestry techniques can be used to Converted Tropical Land,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982, address particular land productivity problems. However, most information on the technique Since agroforestry cuts across several disci- is qualitative and advocative. Present research plines, it requires an integrated and multidis- and field implementation efforts are more ad ciplinary approach. Agronomists, foresters, hoc than systematic. ecologists, sociologists, anthropologists, and Critical analyses of agroforestry’s constraints experts in other related disciplines have ac- and opportunities must be made if it is to bene- cumulated much data on various tropical fit from application of the scientific method. mixed-cropping systems. Such information can Systematic quantitative information can pro- become the foundation for research programs vide a basis from which researchers can formu- to explore ways to integrate sustainable pro- late hypotheses and design efficient research duction of food, forage, and fiber needs on ap- strategies to develop new agroforestry systems, propriate lands. However, too little communi- refine old ones, and adapt proven ones to other cation or coordination occur among these dis- areas. This is necessary to ensure that only ciplines to formulate a strategy for develop- technologies with high probability of success ment of agroforestry technologies. This con- are brought to large-scale field implementation. straint would be alleviated if interdisciplinary teams were established to conduct research on The effort to organize and assess existing na- integrated land-use systems (26). tional and international experience in traditional agroforestry technologies and to iden- Agroforestry needs an institutional home to tify promising technologies for further develop- ensure its implementation. It is considered a ment is under way at the International Coun- subdivision of forestry, but forestry institutions cil for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF). Tech- deal with forest land. They seldom address the nologies that need refinement and farm valida- problems facing individual users of small and tion include alley cropping, improved fallows, medium size holdings of cultivated lands. For- live fences, contour hedges, mulch production estry institutions, in general, do not have the with tree species, and fodder production. Some range of expertise needed to develop agrofor- such programs already exist, but efforts should estry’s full potential. The major potential for be made to strengthen these (table 30). agroforestry lies in the integration of trees into Ch. 10—Forestry Technologies to Support Tropical Agriculture “ 229 agricultural and pastoral lands. The develop- become the property of the government, or ment of these lands is the mandate of agricul- where nonrestricted communal grazing or tree tural institutions, which are not explicitly man- cutting rights exist. Neither are farmers likely dated to deal with agroforestry. to achieve large-scale cash crop production of wood (i.e., fuelwood, poles, pulpwood, etc.] Rigid boundaries between disciplines affect where prices are set so low that growing trees funding of agroforestry research, development, is not profitable. and implementation. Forestry and agriculture often compete for both funds and land. In in- To alleviate these constraints, tropical gov- ternational agencies, agricultural divisions are ernments will need to identify and remove con- better institutionalized, more prestigious, and, straints in land tenure and provide incentives thus, better funded than forestry divisions. The and extension services. Incentives may take the forestry funds that do exist usually are chan- form of credits and loans that reduce initial neled to conventional forestry activities. capital outlay and minimize risk of failure. Ex- tension services can facilitate supply of mater- The ratios of international financial support ials, train farmers, and make followup visits for research in tropical agriculture, forestry, to monitor progress of agroforestry develop- and agroforestry, respectively, are about ment. Unfortunately, forestry and agroforestry 200:1O:I (26), This may underestimate the relative magnitude of agricultural research sup- extension efforts often suffer from: 1) lack of staff with adequate training, 2) lack of networks port. Although the importance of research is of on-farm demonstration plots, 3) inconsistent clearly recognized in agriculture, the attitude efforts, 4) difficulty obtaining good seeds of of development assistance donors toward re- multipurpose tree species for mass distribution search in forestry is cool. Thus, as long as agro- to farmers, and 5) lack of infrastructure. forestry funding is channeled through forestry departments, little hope exists that sufficient As institutional interest and support for agro- research funds will be available. A thorough forestry increase, it is necessary to take steps rethinking and revision of the appropriate in- to ensure that the enthusiasm does not lead to stitutional home for agroforestry is needed. disappointment and a sharp reduction of support. Development assistance agencies and The large-scale promotion of agroforestry research institutions have not begun, collec- would require incentives to encourage farmers tively or individually, to formulate a strategy to adopt practices that involve initial risks and to assure that the necessary and sufficient steps delayed returns. Integrating trees into agricul- are taken to develop the potential of agrofor- tural or pastoral systems is unlikely to succeed estry, where short-term, insecure leases for use of land are prevalent, where trees automatically

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Background proportion of rain that percolates into the soil are seriously reduced. This results in much In an undisturbed watershed, the disposition greater variations in the seasonal river flows, of rain and snow melt is determined by a com- greater sediment loads during peak flows, and plex interaction of terrain, soil, climate, geol- often a greater proportion of the total rainfall ogy, and vegetation. Unfortunately, some running off before it can be used by trees or common land uses seriously disturb the crops (fig. 28), vregetative cover so that both the amount of water that upper catchments can hold tempor- For example, denudation of water catchment arilv during prolonged or heavy rains and the areas in the Indus River svstem has led to 230 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources —.

Figure 28.-Effects of Poor Watershed Management on average, US $250 million a year, in addition to losses of production and livelihood suffered by millions (39). 1. Technologies can probably be developed and implemented to help reduce these economic and human costs. The solution to these problems of land misuse depends foremost on developing improved methods of land use that are both more profitable to local communities and also give appreciably better control of the water flow. Soil conservation structures (e.g., terracing), revegetation, and appropriate farming systems are technically adequate to contain the current land degradation trend, but many of these techniques are too expensive for the farmers living in the upland areas.

Watershed Management Description Watershed management is concerned with controlling water flow above and below the Earth’s surface from the upper to lower regions of drainage basins. Management of the upper watersheds aims to maintain or to improve the timing, quantity, and quality of water that is used in more intensively developed lowlands. The natural vegetation on tropical mountain slopes that receive high rainfall is closed canopy evergreen forests, sometimes inter- rupted by shallow-soiled grass or swamp areas. Evergreen forests provide temporary storage for heavy rainfall, thus delaying water’s movement into streams and reducing peak storm flow. The temporary storage occurs partly on the wetted canopy, partly in the deep forest Overgrazing, deforestation, misplaced cultivation, or carelessly bulit roads In ground-litter, and partly in the topsoil made porous by vegetation and soil fauna. Some water drains through these porous surface layers to streams. Some water infiltrates to recharge ground water and thus maintain dry-season spring flows. Some water is evaporated from the wet canopy and some is transpired back floods far higher in the last 25 years than dur- into the atmosphere through the foliage. ing the previous 60 years and has increased serious silting in the reservoirs and canals of Watershed management includes soil conser- Pakistan’s irrigation system (32). In recent vation, road planning, contour cultivation, years in India, the cost of repairing flood dam- grassed waterways, cutoff drains, grass plant- age below the Himalayan catchments has been, ing on steep banks, and other techniques to Ch. 10—Forestry Technologies to Support Tropical Agriculture ● 231 control water’s impact. Soil stability, agricul- where level or preferably backsloping terraces tural productivity, and the quality of water sup- are maintained. For slopes less than a 20 per- plied to the lower reaches of the watershed can cent grade, a variety of agricultural technol- thus be maintained. Watershed management ogies for minimizing soil loss can be used is an economic necessity where there is invest- (fig. 29), ment downstream in reservoirs for hydropower and irrigation or densely settled areas in In sparsely populated watersheds, where zones of flood hazard. there are few or no people living in the upper regions of river basins, tropical watershed General Technical Principles management is a matter of maintaining or restoring the vegetative cover that controls water The choice of technologies for watershed flows. If forests are intact and populations are management and rehabilitation varies with top- low, intensive management is not necessary, ography, accessibility, and population densi- The best and least expensive method of pro- ty. One of the best ways to protect downstream tecting these forests is to designate them parks populations from excessive siltation and flood- or protected areas. However, effective park ing is to maintain forests on all slopes steeper management can be difficult to obtain. It than 100 percent grade (45 O). Where steep should be based on a comprehensive plan that slopes have been cleared, they should be closed takes into account the previous, current, and to livestock, protected from fire, and then sta- future resource needs of people who live bilized by planting trees for fuel and fodder, around and below the protected forest. In some cases, simple protection will suffice to permit natural regrowth. For slopes between The greatest watershed problems in the Trop- 100 percent and 20 percent, land should not ics, however, are not in the upper sparsely pop- be cultivated except where the soil is stable and ulated reaches of river basins. They are in pop- deep. Here, cultivation can be done safely only ulated watersheds, where the upper regions

Figure 29.—Siopes and Appropriate Conservation Measures

Stone-walled level bench “ terrace ●

●

narrow-based terraces or hillside ditches

SOURCE: H. C. Pereira, “Soil and Water Management Technologies for Tropical Forests,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982, 232 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources are farmed and grazed, and where mainte- are under great pressure from population nance of natural closed forest cannot be growth. Such forest areas are usually too steep, accomplished without displacing substantial shallow-soiled, and rock-encumbered for con- numbers of people. tinuous cropping. Yet, agricultural communities have in many countries established tradi- In some cases watershed management tech- tional rights for grazing or for collection of fuel nologies can be used without displacing peo- and fodder from these lands. Massive overgraz- ple from upland areas. For example, where for- ing inflicts most damage, often preventing the ests cover steep escarpments below settle- emergence of any effective ground cover. ments, runoff from the upper slopes can over- These activities promote erosion, which con- load the forest soils and cause large-scale land- sequently forms major gulleys (29). Some areas slips, especially on geological dip-slopes (fig, are so steep and unstable that the only option 30). Such landslips are common in Nepal, parts is to prohibit all active use. In moist forest of Zaire, and in other places where sedimen- areas, if soil nutrients have not been eroded or tary rock formations are tilted. It maybe possi- leached away, the ability of the land to recu- ble to stabilize these areas through reforesta- perate can be high. However, sustainable alter- tion and cutoff drains, which intercept and natives must be found for the displaced peo- convey runoff to stable drainage lines and, ple, or they will, sooner or later, begin to over- thus, protect the soils from saturation. These use the slopes again. drains need to be protected as well, possibly with tree cover. Tropical forests on land with easy access and gentle topography are likely to be cleared for The most critical need for watershed man- agriculture or other land uses. When such areas agement occurs in the forests immediately are logged and cleared, soil and water manage- above the limits of cultivation (32). Often, these ment problems do occur. Governments should restrict the use of more damaging heavy equipment to well prepared roadways. Cable ways, Figure 30.-Cut”Off Drain to Protect Steep Forested winching, and use of lighter logging and land Scarps From Landslip Hazard preparation machinery, though likely to be Cut-off drain more costly, can be less damaging to the soil. Operational trials with equipment designed to reduce soil damage should be conducted to test and demonstrate its utility (32).

Specific Technologies The primary technologies available to deal with watershed problems are those associated with alteration of the surface geometry, revegetation, and improved farming.

Soil Conservation STRUCTURES A common method to reduce soil erosion from hills in the humid tropics is to change the slope steepness and length. For example, a steep slope can be changed to many continuous flat strips running along the contour across a hillside (terraces), or a long slope can be SOURCE: H C. Pereira, “Soil and Water Management Technologies for Tropical Forests, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. changed to a series of shorter slopes by using Ch. 10—Forestry Technologies to Support Tropical Agriculture Ž 233

discontinuous types of structure. The objective small runoff plot measurements are made, but of both measures is to divert runoff along the these do not reproduce the conditions of culti- contour toward protected drainage channels vation by oxen or tractor that determine in- or waterways at a velocity that reduces erosion, filtration, runoff, and erosion on a practical scale. These and other technologies not only have physical requirements but financial, labor, and REVEGETATION land-use rights requirements. The cost of various conservation structures per unit area de- Steep mountain areas that have been cleared pends on slope, soil, type of terraces, width of should be reforested to protect water and soil bench, presence of rocks or tree stumps, and resources. If the objective is to stabilize soil and the tools needed to build them, Since the struc- streamflow, the least expensive method is to tures can be expensive, a cost-sharing or sub- protect the area from grazing livestock and fire sidy scheme may need to be introduced by the so it can regenerate naturally. In some cases government. Farmers often are reluctant to in- where erosion has been severe, natural regen- vest the time and effort to build such structures eration needs to be augmented by seeding with because of insecure land tenure. Further, labor grasses, legumes, and shrubs. More expensive often is not available, reforestation investments are appropriate where the objectives include production of Few critical, full-scale studies of terracing fuel, fodder, and timber of desirable species; have been reported from the Tropics. Many where grasses and shrubs will not provide

Terracing Terraces not only control erosion but also can be used to facilitate irrigation and drainage, as well as cultivation. Reversed-slope benches, continuous or discontinuous, differ in width to suit different crops and slopes. Benches improve drainage by concentrating runoff at the outside of the bench and then drain it along a controlled lateral gradient to a protected waterway. They are suited to annual, semipermanent, and mixed crops and can be applied on slopes up to 300. Varia- tions of conservation structures include (fig. 31):

● Bench terraces: a series of level strips running across the slope supported by steep risers. These can be used on slopes up to 25° and are mainly used for upland crops. • Hillside ditches: a discontinuous type of narrow, reverse-slope bench built across the hill slope in order to break long slopes into many shorter ones. The width of the cultivable strips between two ditches is determined by the slope of the land. They are inexpensive, flexible, and can be built over a period of years. This treatment can be applied to slopes up to 250. ● Individual basins: small, round benches for planting individual plants. They are particularly useful for establishing semipermanent or permanent tree plots to control erosion. They should normally be supplemented by hillside ditching, orchard terracing, and crop covering. ● Orchard terraces: a discontinuous type of narrow terrace applicable on steep slopes up to 300. Spacing is determined by distance between trees. Spaces between terraces should be kept under permanent grass or legume cover. ● Intermittent terraces: bench terraces built over a period of several years. ● Convertible terraces: bench terraces with the spaces between terraces planted with tree crops. ● Natural terraces: constructed initially with contour embankments (bunds) 50 cm high on slopes not over 70 and on soils having high infiltration rates. Ž Hexagons: special arrangement of a farm road that surrounds or envelops a piece of sloping land treated with discontinuous terraces which are accessible to four-wheeled tractors. This treatment is primarily for mechanization of orchards on larger blocks of land and on slopes of up to 20°. 234 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Figure 31 .-Cross-Sectional View of Eight Types of Conservation Structures

(All reverse-sloped benches)

6-convertible terraces l-bench terraces

7-natural terraces

8-hexagonS

Unit hexagon

I 5-intermittent terraces

Tropical Agricultural Hydrology, R. Lai and SOURCE: T c, Sheng, “The Need for soil Conservation Structures for Steep Cultivated Slopes in the Humid Tropices, ” E. W. Russell (eds.) (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1981), pp. 357-372. Ch. 10—Forestry Technologies to Support Tropical Agriculture • 235 enough runoff control; or where protection In areas with a dry or seasonally dry climate, from fires cannot be sustained indefinitely. flood control and ground water recharge may not be considered so important as maximizing Efforts to establish tree cover on long steep the amount of water delivered to reservoirs or slopes must overcome the erosion and land- to farms and cities in the lower regions of the sliding that may be common to those sites. For watershed. In this case, watershed managers instance, primitive dams made of rock, soil, may decide that the closed forest consumes too and, if available, tree stems and branches can much water and may prefer to maintain a grass be built in gullies to slow water and trap soil cover, since evapotranspiration loss is greater until trees can be established. Channels and from tall trees than from low shrubs or grass. walls can be built to divert water flow from On the other hand, in some dry, mountainous vulnerable areas. Water-spreading techniques areas, trees that collect moisture on their leaves can be used to distribute runoff water over from wet air are the best mechanism to re- relatively flat areas, reducing its erosive poten- charge ground water (9). Overall, the negative tial, Terracing, contour hedges and furrows, and positive impacts of grass and tree cover and low retaining walls can control sheet ero- under tropical conditions are poorly known. sion. To establish trees it may be necessary to Grass cover may increase the amount of runoff use contour planting, with graded hillside and flow rates may not be modulated, thus bunds or narrow-based terraces at suitable in- making dams necessary. Improvements in the tervals to lead runoff into prepared drainage science of hydrology are needed to provide bet- lines. ter data to calculate the tradeoffs of manage- Perennial tree crops such as tea, oil palm, ment options, rubber, or coconut can be almost as effective Complete grass cover is an acceptable vegeta- as natural forest to regulate water flow, pro- tion for tropical watersheds only where dry vided that soil conservation measures such as season grazing and burning can be rigorously terraces and sound engineering of roads are controlled. Thus, watershed management be- included. Stormflow control, however, may not comes livestock and fire management as well. be fully restored, In Kericho, Kenya, where A strategy to reduce livestock damage in water- measurements of runoff from a tea plantation sheds should include improving draft power were taken, stormflow peak, although small, and milk production per head so as to encour- remained twice that from a comparable undis- age farmers to keep fewer and better quality turbed forest. Thus, if large areas of forest are animals. This can be accomplished by intro- to be converted to tea or other estate crops, ad- ducing superior animals, by providing effec- ditional reservoir storage will be needed to tive marketing systems, and by establishing modulate peak flows (32), livestock exchange programs. The danger exists that farmers will be encouraged to keep The same is true for fast growing forest plan- more livestock in addition to or in place of tations with short harvesting schedules. Care farming. is needed during harvesting to minimize negative impacts. Selection of tree species also is Fire is used to eliminate old grass growth and important. Eucalyptus, for instance, planted improve the quality of grasses for grazing. close together will eliminate all vegetative However, repeated burnings can damage soil ground cover and this can accelerate soil ero- by destroying soil organic matter and conse- sion (40). Pure stands of trees that may have quently reducing soil microbiological popula- their leaves closed during rainstorms, such as tions. Human-induced fire is common in grass- Leucaena, provide only partial soil protection lands and is difficult to control. If grass is go- (5), Therefore, it maybe necessary to include ing to be the primary vegetative cover or even a second story of shrubs to minimize the im- the cover while trees are small, methods must pact of rain drops falling through or from the be devised to control fire as well as regulate canopy. its use. 236 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Encouraging stall or pen feeding also reduces FARMING SYSTEMS livestock damage. On steep slopes in Pakistan, Damage to watersheds is most ecologically farmers participating in a reforestation pro- and economically significant where subsis- gram cut naturally regenerated grass under tence farmers and their livestock move onto young trees and carry it to their stall-fed steep uplands because they lack other alter- livestock. More fodder is produced this way natives. Mechanical structures and replanting than when the animals graze the hillsides. programs will not be implemented adequate- Another way to encourage stall-feeding is to ly unless farmers and herders have incentives provide incentives—e.g., employment of resi- to invest their labor in conservation practices. dents to plant fuel and fodder trees and tall fod- Where much of the population in a catch- der grasses on denuded common land and in ment area is dependent on agriculture, the eroding gullies. Stall feeding also facilitates the most effective component of a watershed man- collection of manure for use as fertilizer. agement strategy may be to increase produc- However, stall feeding can be difficult to im- tion per unit area of land on the best sites. plement. Local constraints can develop such Other components include: agroforestry and as increased need for labor to carry water, to other cropping systems that eliminate tillage harvest and transport fodder, and to clean up or reduce it, contour plowing, timely sowing and spread fertilizer. Therefore, information of seeds on contours, increasing crop plant on who does these jobs (often women) and density, and using improved seeds, fertilizers, whether they have time to take on these new and pesticides (48). On steep slopes farmers can tasks should be gathered before implementing be encouraged to plant hedges of nitrogen fix- such a program. ing trees or bushes on the contour, adopt mulching techniques, and interplant with leg- Fodder supplies can be increased by planting umes and pulses to reduce sheet erosion. In fodder trees or by introducing annual fodder some places, fodder tree farming or bamboo species as a second rotation crop in permanent plantations may be appropriate (39). cropping areas. Fodder trees, pasture grasses, and legumes can be planted on embankments Some constraints to adoption of these prac- of terraces, on risers of terraced farmlands, tices are the farmers’ skepticism toward new near houses, and on other marginal land spots. technologies, lack of capital, lack of infrastruc- Once vegetation is reestablished on the de- ture for effective input distribution, and lack nuded site, controlled grazing may be allowa- of agricultural and forestry extension services ble. However, soil compaction by livestock to accelerate the diffusion of new technologies. sometimes inhibits later natural regeneration Before new technologies are introduced, an- and increases surface runoff, thus causing ero- thropological studies are needed to define the sion again. current practices, including what rewards people are getting, what shortfalls they are ex- Livestock management problems in water- periencing, and what benefits they expect from sheds become more difficult in drier climates. technology improvements. Both technical Semiarid lands present the most urgent chal- agents and local residents need to understand lenge. They characteristically have higher rain- the incentives for change. Residents must be fall variability and greater stresses from tem- convinced that the benefits will be what they perature and dessication, so the land and veg- want if their cooperation is to be gained. etation are more prone to rapid deterioration under misuse. Creative measures must be for- Inducements that can improve the quality of mulated to make it profitable for livestock life for farmers living in upland watershed raisers to limit the number of livestock and to areas and encourage shifting cultivators to control the timing of grazing. adopt more stable agriculture practices in- Ch. 10—Forestry Technologies to Support Tropical Agriculture Ž 237

elude: compensatory payments to farmers ex- Constraints and Opportunities cluded from upland grazing areas; timely provision of inputs such as improved seeds, fer- Upper watersheds tend to be misused be- tilizer, and credit; construction of improved ac- cause destructive land-use systems usualIy give cess roads and feeder tracks; and the provision the greatest profit in the short term to the local of social services, such as improved water sup- population. The solution to this problem neces- plies, schools, and health clinics. Such social sitates: 1) developing methods of land use that measures, on the other hand, can have adverse are more profitable to the local community and effects unless combined with rigorous exclu- at the same time give appreciably better con- sion of people and livestock from the steepest trol of water flows, and 2) testing the new tech- slopes. Improved amenities may attract larger nologies and getting them adopted by the local populations into areas of critical hydrological community. New systems that minimize eco- sensitivity. logical damage will be accepted willingly only 238 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources —

if people can see that it will maintain or in- Finally, there are several important un- crease their standard of living without an in- knowns regarding the hydrology of tropical crease in the risk of crop failure. watersheds. There is a dearth of first-hand research evidence in the Tropics documenting The key issue in watershed management is not the construction of physical structures but the quantitative relationships between various land uses and their effects on watershed the need to provide people with improved land- use alternatives. Therefore, a high proportion hydrology (20). of total watershed project investment should The techniques for measuring and predict- be devoted to farming systems and institutional ing tradeoffs of different management ac- components rather than to soil conservation tions—e.g., grass cover versus tree cover—are structures or infrastructure. not well developed. For moist climates, trees may be the best cover; for dry climates, grasses The additional labor and capital costs often may be the best cover if fire and grazing con- incurred by new resource conserving systems trol are practical. But for much of the Tropics, are a major constraint to watershed manage- the choice is not clear. If more water rushes ment. Furthermore, farmers in the upper off grass-covered surfaces, less will be absorbed reaches of river systems generally do not into the ground. Therefore, improved field accept responsibility for damages their land methods for diagnosis and interpretation of use may cause to farmers in the lower reaches. watershed hydrology problems are needed to Conversely, lowland farmers rarely consider improve management decisions. The interac- that they have a duty to help finance upland tions of the many variables are too complex to farmers to adopt better systems of land use. expect neatly classified prescriptions for water- Watershed management projects usually have shed management. Some basic measurement been designed to benefit people in the more fer- could be included in all major projects that lead tile lowlands and have neglected those in the to changes in land use in order to build a more uplands whose lives are being affected more adequate data base for predicting outcomes. directly. This implies that some of the benefits gained downstream should be transferred upstream through taxes or perhaps user fees on irrigation water or hydropower.

1. Ahmad, A., “The Current and Potential Uses national Development, Washington, D. C., per- of Legumes in Various Agroforestry Systems in sonal communication, 1983. Malaysia,” paper presented to Regional Work- 6. ben Salem, B., and van Nao, Tran, “Fuelwood ing Party Meeting on Agroforestry Research Production in Traditional Farming Systems,” and DeveZopnent, SEARCA, Los Anos, May 24- Unasy~va 33(131):13-18, 1981, 25, 1982, In: Lundgren, 1982. 7. Budowski, G., “National, Bilateral, and Multi- 2. Ampuero, E. P., “Ecological Aspects of Agro- lateral Agroforestry Projects in Central and forestry in Mountain Zones: The Andean Re- South America,” 1979. In: Chandler and Spur- gion. ” In: Chandler and Spurgeon, 1979. geon, 1979. 3. Anonymous, “A Global Inventory of Agrofor- 8. Budowski, G,, “Quantification of Current Agro- estry Systems, ” Biomass: 241-245, 1983. forestry Practices and Controlled Reseach Plots 4. Atmosoedaryo, S., and Wijayakusumah, K., in Costa Rica, ” paper presented to Consultative “Ecological Aspects of Agroforestry in the Low- Meeting on Plant Research and Agroforestry, land Humid Tropics: Southeast Asia,” 1979. In: April 1981, ICRAF, Nairobi. In: Lundgren, Chandler and Spurgeon, 1979. 1982. 5. Benge, M., Agroforester for Agency for Inter- 9. Castano-Yepes, Eugenio, “A Systems Design Ch. 10—Forestry Technologies to Suppot Tropical Agriculture ● 239

Methodology for Natural Resources Planning 23, Iyamabo, D., “Ecological Aspects of Agrofor- in the Peruvian Lomas, ” Ph. D. dissertation, estry in the Lowland Humid Tropics: West Af- University of Arizona, 1979, rica,” 1979. In: Chandler and Spurgeon, 1979. 10. Chandler, T,, and Spurgeon, D. (eds.), Interna- 24, King, F., “Agroforestry and the Utilization of tional Cooperation in Agroforestry, Proceed- Fragile Ecosystems,” Forest Ecology Manage- ings of DSE/ICRAF Conference, July 16-21, ment 2:161-168, 1979. 1979 (Nairobi: ICRAF). 25, King, F., Agrisilviculture—the Taungya System, 11. Combe, J., and Budowski, G., “Classification of Bulletin No. 1, Department of Forestry, Univer- Agroforestry Techniques,” 1979. In: de las sity of Ibadan, 1968. In: Lundgren, 1982. Salas, 1978, as cited in Lundgren, 1982, 26, Lundgren, B., “The Use of Agroforestry to Im- 12. de las Salas, G., La Systerna ForestaZ Carava- prove the Productivity to Converted Tropical Upon, CONIF, Ser. Tee, 8 (Bogota, Columbia: Land, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. CONIF, 1978). 27, Nair, P., “Plant Associations and Agroforestry 13. Enabor, E., Okojie, J., and Verinumbe, I., “Ta- Land Use Practices with Coconuts and Other ungya Systems: Socio-Economic Prospects and Tropical Plantation Crops,” paper presented to Limitations, ” Proceedings of a Workshop on Consultative Meeting on Plant Research and Agroforestry in African Humid Tropics, Iba- Agroforestry, April 1981 (Nairobi: ICRAF, in dan, Nigeria: United Nations University, April- preparation). In: Lundgren, 1982. May, 1981, In: Shaikh, et al., 1983. 28. Nair, P,, and Varghese, P., “Recent Advances 14. Food and Agriculture Organization, Agrofor- in the Management of Coconut-Based Ecosys- esterie Africaine (Rome: FAO, 1981). In: Lund- tems in India, ” 1980. In: Furtado, 1980. gren, 1982. 29, Nelson, D. O., Laban, P,, Shrestha, B. D., and 15. Food and Agriculture Organization, India and Kandel, G. P., “A Reconnaissance Survey of Ma- Sri Lanka: Agroforestry, Forestry for Local jor Ecological Land Units in Nepal and Their Community Development Programme, GCP/ Watershed Condition,” Technical Report: Inte- INT/347/SWE (Rome: FAO, 1981). grated Watershed Management Project, UNDP/ 16. Furtado, J. (cd.), “Tropical Ecology and Devel- FAO (NEP/74/020) (Rome: FAO, 1980). In: opment,” Proceedings of the Fifth International Pereira, 1982, Symposium of Tropical Ecology, Apr. 16-21 30, Okigo, B., “Plants and Agroforestry in Land Use (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: The International So- Systems of West Africa—A Conceptual Frame- ciety of Tropical Ecology, 1980]. work for Planning and Establishment of Re- 17. Gallegos, C., Davey, C., Kellison, R., Sanchez, search Priorities, ” paper presented to Work- P., and Zobel, B., “Technologies for Reforesta- shop on Agroforestry in the Humid Tropics, tion of Degraded Lands in the Tropics, ” OTA April 27-May 1, 1981, Ibadan, Nigeria (in prep- commissioned paper, 1982. aration). In: Lundgren, 1982. 18. Generalao, M., “Agroforestry Research and De- 31. Palmberg, C., “A Vital Fuelwood Gene Pool is velopment in the Philippines, ” paper presented in Danger,” Unasy]va 33(133):22-30, 1981. to RegionaJ Working Party Meeting on Agrofor- 32. Pereira, H. C., “Soil and Water Management estry Research and Development, SEARCA, Los Technologies for Tropical Forests,” OTA com- Banes, May 24-25, 1982. In: Lundgren, 1982. missioned paper, 1982. 19. Grainger, A., “The Development of Tree Crops 33, Poulsen, G., “Agroforestry Practice in Tropical and Agroforestry Systems, ” The International Africa,” 1979. In: Chandler and Spurgeon, Tree Crops Journal 1(1):3-14, 1980. 1979. 20. Hamilton, L., and King, P., Tropical Forested 34. Poulsen, G,, MaZawi: The Function of Trees in Watersheds: Hydrologic and Soil Response to Small Farmer Production Systems (Rome: FAO, Major Uses or Conversions (Boulder, Colo,: 1981). In: Lundgren, 1982, YVestview Press, 1983). 35. Radwanski, S., “Neem Tree,” WorZd Crops and 21. Hecht, S., “Agroforestry in the Amazon Basin,” Livestock 29:62-66, 111-113, 167-168, 222-224, 1981, to be published in Amazonia: Agricultural 1977. In: Lundgren, 1982. Land Use Research, Hecht and Nores (eds.) 36. Seif el Din, A. G., “Agroforestry Practices in the (Cali, Colombia: CIAT, in press). Dry Regions,” Buck (cd,), Proceedings of The 22 International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, Kenya National Seminar on Agroforestry, Nai- Annual Report 1980 of IITA/IDRC Agroforestry robi, Nov. 12-22, 1980, ICRAF/University of Project (Ibadan, Nigeria, IITA, 1980). In: Lund- Nairobi, 1981. In: Lundgren, 1982. gren, 1982. 37. Shaikh, A., Qadri, T., and Hale, S., “Fuelwood 240 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Re- 43. von Maydell, H., “The Development of Agro- sources,” OTA commissioned paper, 1983. forestry in the Sahelian Zone of Africa,” 1979. 38, Spears, J., “Can the Wet Tropical Forest Sur- In: Chandler and Spurgeon, 1979. vive?” Commonwealth Forestry Review 58(3): 44. von Maydell, H., “Agroforestry in the Sahel– 165-180, 1979. A Contribution to Solving Problems of Rural 394 Spears, J., “Preserving Watershed Environ- Development in Semi-Arid Regions,” 1983. ments,” Unasy]va 34(137):10-14, 1982. 45. Wadsworth, F., “Secondary Forest Manage- 40, Spears, J., and Rowe, D., “Preliminary Guide- ment and Plantation Forestry Technologies to lines for Designing Watershed Rehabilitation Improve the Use of Converted Tropical Lands,” Projects for Bank Financing,” Proceedings of OTA commissioned paper, 1982. 2dAnnual Agricultural Sector Symposia, World 46, Weaver, P., “Agri-silviculture in Tropical Am- Bank, 1981, pp. 408-427. erica,” Unasylva 31(126):2-12, 1979. 41. Torres, F., “Research Objectives in Agrofores- 47. Wilken, G. C., “Integrating Forest and Small- try: A Conceptual Approach,” 1979. In: Chand- Scale Farm Systems in Middle America,” Agro- ler and Spurgeon, 1979 as cited in Lundgren, ecosystems 3:291-302, 1977. 1982. 48. Wood, P. J,, Burley, J., and Grainger, A., “Tech- 42. Vergara, N. T., IntegraZ Agroforestry: A Poten- nologies and Technology Systems for Reforesta- tial Strategy for Stabilizing Shifting Cultivation tion of Degraded Tropical Lands,” OTA com- and Sustaining Productivity of the Natural En- missioned paper, 1982. vironment, Environment and Policy Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, working paper, 1981. Chapter 11 Resource Development Planning Page Highlights ...... 243 Resource Development Planning Technologies ...... 243 Biophysical Assessment ...... 243 Land Classification ...... 244 Applications of Land Classification ...... 245 Financial and Economic Analyses ...... 246 Social Assessment...... ”...””” 247 Monitoring and Evaluation ...... 248 Multiobjective Planning Methods ...... 249 Constraints and Opportunities ...... 250 Chapter 11 References ...... 0...... ””””.. 252

Table Table No. Page 31. Common Land Classification Methods ...... 244 Chapter 11 Resource Development PIanning

● Greater use of resource development plan- ● The usefulness of planning techniques can be ning could help sustain tropical forest re- improved by: 1) increasing the timeliness and sources. The potential application is good in focus of analysis, 2) improving the data base, tropical countries where large tracts of forest 3) encouraging public participation, 4) adopt- land are under the custody of the governing a more interdisciplinary approach, and 5) ment. improving communication of findings.

RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT PLANNING TECHNOLOGIES

Most conversion of forest land to other uses iterative process that produces information as occurs without adequate consideration of needed rather than as a one-time, preproject whether the natural and human resources activity resulting in a blueprint for develop- available will sustain the new land use (20). The ment. Having a flexible project design is espec- success of resource development projects is im- ially important in development projects where peded by unforeseen (but foreseeable) natural the risks are large and the approaches may be resource and socioeconomic constraints. The innovative or experimental. problem is to match land development activities to the specific capabilities of the site. Biophysical Assessment Where intensive land uses are compatible A biophysical assessment provides one di- with natural and human resources at a site, mension of information for effective land-use conversion to those uses may be sustainable management. The techniques are straightfor- and result in greater long-term benefits than ward and relatively efficient. They can be car- keeping the land in natural forest cover. Sites ried out at different levels of detail with vary- that cannot sustain intensive development can ing requirements for monetary resources, staff be identified for reforestation or for protection expertise, and available data. of natural forest cover. These sites can be managed for watershed maintenance, nonwood Many factors affect the biophysical suitabili- products, preservation of biological diversity, ty of a site, including: outdoor recreation, or closely regulated timber ● climate—precipitation, temperature, wind, harvest. droughts, floods, storms, fire potential, and Some tropical countries have begun to use air pollution potential; resource development planning techniques to ● geomorphology and geology—slopes, loca- help match land capability with land use. Re- tion and uses of surface water and aqui- source development planning has four compo- fers, mass movements of earth, depth to nents: 1) biophysical assessment, 2) financial bedrock, unique features; and economic analyses, 3) social assessment, ● soils—nutrients, structure, depth, erodabil- and 4) monitoring and evaluation, Develop- ity; and ment planning is best viewed as a continuous, ● flora and fauna—biological diversity, val-

243 244 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

uable species, ecosystem fragility, and Land Classification pests and diseases. Land classification categorizes land in terms Resource development planning techniques of its suitability for various uses (table 31). The are most often used to select a site for a par- objectives of land classification are to identify ticular land use. After identification of the the resources of a given area, determine appro- desired land development, the planner identi- priate management practices for existing land fies constraints that could inhibit that land use uses, and predict the consequences of proposed and looks for sites where the constraints do not changes in land use and policies (36). exist or are manageable. The other, less often Classifications may be at the microlevel for applied, use of planning techniques is “land managing local parcels or at the macrolevel for classification’‘—identifying the most appropri- establishing national or regional priorities. The ate types of development for all sites within a most immediate need in developing countries geographic area. Planning techniques are sel- is for macrolevel land classification (9,19). Mi- dom used fully in tropical nations for either site crolevel analyses subsequently will be neces- selection or land classification (42). The latter sary (32). approach has special potential as a technology to help sustain the long-term productivity of In macrolevel land classification, overlay forest resources. mapping techniques are often used to select

Table 31.—Common Land Classification Methods

1. Australian Land System. –The Australian Land System (10) district,” has a distinct pattern of relief, geology, geomor- uses aerial photos to survey large areas for agricultural, phology, and a sequence of vegetation. Finally, there are forestry, and recreational potential. A “site” is defined as “land regions,” distinct climatic zones associated with a a uniform land form with common soil types and vegeta- particular climax vegetation. tion. A “land unit” is a collection of related sites with a 5. Webb% Structural Classification of Humid Forests.—This particular land form. A “land system” is a group of is a classification system for humid forests based on geomorphologically and geographically associated land vegetation structure and physiognomy including such fac- units, usually bounded by a geological or geomorpho- tors as forest structure, composition, canopy closure, type genetic feature or process. of emergents, species growth forms, and leaf size (54). The 2. Ecological Series Classification.—The Ecological Series system correlates vegetation, structure, and physiognomy Classification (37) describes forest habitat types in biocli- with rain, altitude, cloudiness, temperatures, soils, matic terms: a plant community’s soil, water, and nutrient drainage, and wildlife habitat. regimes; soil surface characteristics; and undergrowth 6. Krajlna’s Biogeoclimatic Zonation System.—Krajina’s Bio- plant distribution. The technique produces site indices for geoclimatic Zonation System (29) is based on forest habitat each habitat type that vary with the productive capacity types, Each zone is characterized by a climatic climax of the trees, natural regeneration capability, the appropriate vegetation, climate, and soil type. However, “climatic species for tree-planting, fertility requirements, and engi- climax” might be deflected into an “edaphic climax” due neering properties. to poorly or excessively drained soils or a “topographic 3. Holdridge Life Zones System.—Holdridge Life Zones (24) climax” on steep slopes or alluvial flats. are broad bioclimatic units defined by mean annual precipi- 7. USDA Soil Conservation Land Capability System.—The tation, mean annual biotemperature (air temperatures USDA Soil Conservation Land Capability System (28) uses adjusted to eliminate negative values), and potential soil survey mapping units grouped into eight classes evapotranspiration. These broad units can be subclassified according to the capability to sustain cultivation, grazing, by soil, seasonal rainfall distribution, drainage, and mature forestry, wildlife, and recreation without erosion. The vegetation associations. classification system indicates the degree of limitation to 4. Canadian Biophysical System.-The Canadian Biophysical intensive uses. System (30) is a-hierarchical classification. The basic unit 8. California Soil Vegetation Survey.—The California Forest used is “land type, ” characterized by a homogeneous soil and Range Experiment Station (5) developed a classifica- series and sequence of vegetation. Land types are t ion system predicated on the assumption that soil types subdivided into “land phases” according to their stage of are correlated with differences in vegetation on vegetative succession. “Land systems” are groups of land undeveloped lands. Aerial photos are used to observe the types with a recurring pattern of land forms, soils, and a type, age, density, and structure of the vegetation. sequence of vegetation. The next broader unit, the “land

SOURCE: Adapted from: L. Hamilton, “Land-Use Planning Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest and Woodlands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. Ch. n-Resource Development Planning ● 245 sites for particular land uses. One such tech- cost would be too great and the activity too nique is to produce a separate map for each time-consuming. Some techniques are more ap- of several biophysical attributes, using white, propriate for use in ecological studies than for black, or shades of grey to show the suitability helping decisionmakers answer land manage- of locations for a specific type of development ment questions (6). None of the techniques (33). The suitability ratings are combined by identifies the direct or indirect biophysical im- laying the maps over each other and examin- pacts of land use conversions. Moreover, the ing the distribution of shading intensities. This techniques neglect gradual changes in biophys- procedure assigns an equal weight to each bio- ical factors that can eventually limit various physical attribute, The “METLAND” tech- land uses (31). nique (15), an extension of the map overlay approach, uses computers to manipulate data and Applications of Land Classification generate alternative plans. Thus, variables can Malaysia has one of the best tropical 1and ca- be given different weights to reflect their rela- pability planning systems. The system includes tive importance and more variables can be in- geological surveys, regional soil surveys, and cluded. forest inventories, combining the approaches Both these techniques assume natural system of the Canada Land Inventory and the U.S. Soil relationships are determined by land physiog- Conservation Service. It has been particularly raphy, They are not well-suited for analyzing useful in designating areas for tin mining; indirect or cumulative impacts of land uses, large-scale oil palm, rubber, and wood planta- Unless combined with simulation modeling, tions; and resettlement projects. One reason for these techniques do not reflect changes in the the effectiveness of the Malaysian system is magnitudes or types of impacts over time. that it is carried out by a national economic planning unit that is able to ensure that its pro- Other techniques reveal site potential for spe- visions are implemented (22,34). cialized uses, such as the Habitat Evaluation Procedure, which assesses the impacts of land Resource planning techniques have been use changes on the quantity and quality of hab- used in a number of other tropical nations, itat for selected fish and wildlife species (51), though not often as a regular planning process The procedure relies on aerial photos or field by a government agency or private firm in con- work and modeling, Since a proposed action trol of a large area of land. For example, the often results in gains for some species and techniques have been researched and demon- losses for others, the Habitat Evaluation Pro- strated in Venezuela (21) and Mexico (32). Or- cedure has a provision for calculating relative ganizations promoting conservation have value weights for the indicator species, worked out ways to integrate several of the major techniques to determine optimum locations Wadsworth’s watershed value index (53) is for parks and protected areas in Venezuela and a numerical scoring system that can be used Brazil (4). as a rule-of-thumb in deciding where forest cover should be retained for watershed protec- Development assistance agencies have spon- tion. The index accounts for slope and critical sored resource development planning for river environmental factors. basin development programs. For example, the planning for development of the Mekong River Land classification systems can be helpful in basin, sponsored by the united Nations Devel- resource development planning, but they have opment Programme, the Agency for Interna- limitations. Some systems are oriented toward tional Development (AID), and several other bi- a particular land use such as agriculture or lateral agencies, uses many of the planning forestry and therefore tend to assess suitabili- techniques. ty for that use rather than overall land suitability (31,35,42). No single land classification sys- AID has a number of projects involving re- tem measures land productivity directly; the source development planning in tropical coun- 246 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources — tries. For example, the AID-funded “Bench- Financial and economic analyses can pro- mark Soils Program” in Brazil, the Philippines, vide an additional quantitative dimension on Indonesia, and Cameroon identifies soil types the desirability of land-use changes and offer and tests similar soils for crop yields under dif- a systematic way to organize information for ferent agricultural practices. The Government decisionmaking. Marketable goods and serv- of Nepal, with AID assistance, has completed ices are easiest to value in benefit-cost analysis. a national land inventory that includes topog- Thus, this technique is most applicable in as- raphy, geology, vegetation, climate, and soils sessing agricultural, industrial, or residential (l). Some land classifications have been at- development. It is most appropriate where de- tempted in Indonesia (45), Pakistan (43), and cisionmakers agree on values and goals (includ- the Philippines (49). AID also has undertaken ing production and the distribution of income) a major effort to help Sri Lanka plan the reset- and where unintended effects offsite are likely. tlement and watershed management associated The fundamental limitations of benefit-cost with the Mahaweli reservoir (41). analysis are: An AID project in the Eastern Andes (the ● imperfections that tend to distort prices Central Selva Resource Management Project) observed in real markets, * was completely redesigned as a result of land ● inability to assess the distribution of costs capability analysis (23). The original project and benefits among segments of the pop- was to resettle large numbers of households for ulation and across generations, farming corn. A Holdridge Life Zone analysis ● inadequate techniques to measure benefits involving aerial photos and field work showed or damages associated with environmen- that the land would support only natural forest. tal effects and insufficient empirical infor- Consequently, the project was changed to reset- mation on cause-effect relationships, tle a smaller number of people who are to har- ● de-emphasis of long-term effects due to vest 2 hectares of natural forest per household discounting,** and per year over 30 years. ● inadequate treatment of risk and uncertainty. Financial and Economic Analyses Within the past 15 years, a variety of tech- After the biophysical suitability of a site has niques used to assign value to environmental been determined, the next step is to analyze fi- impacts for benefit-cost analysis have been de- nancial and economic benefits and costs. The veloped and refined. Four basic types are: purpose of these analyses is to provide information on: 1) how to maximize the values ob- 1. Revealed preference measures examine tained from natural resources while conserv- actual consumer behavior and estimate ing resources for the future, and 2) how to ob- prices for extramarket goods and services tain an equitable distribution of income. by examining expenditures to avert damages, replacement costs to repair damages, A financial analysis considers the antici- travel costs to recreational facilities, prop- pated cashflows to the owner or users of the erty values, and wage differentials; land. An economic analysis is made from the 2. Hypothetical valuation methods rely on perspective of society. The financial and eco- direct questioning, bidding games, use- nomic impacts of land conversion depend on estimation games, or tradeoff analysis to the previous land uses; capital, labor, and energy-intensiveness of the technologies; exis- *In many cases, estimated values (“shadow prices”) must be tence of markets and infrastructure; income used where market prices do not exist or are presumed to reflect societal values poorly, However, the use of estimated values can levels; and site location, accessibility, and size. increase the potential for political manipulation of an economic Conflicts often exist between decisions made analysis (55). by individuals on the basis of their own finan- **Discounting is based on the time value of money–i.e., the presumption that a dollar’s worth of consumption now is worth cial cash flows and the decisions that would more than a dollar’s worth of consumption in the future. The be preferred from a societal perspective. time preference is separate from the effects of inflation. Ch. 11—Resource Development Planning ● 247

elicit the maximum amount that consum- tential users of this information include the pri- ers are willing to pay for a gain or mini- vate sector, multilateral development banks, mum amount of compensation that they U.N. agencies, bilateral assistance agencies, are willing to accept for a loss; and tropical governments. 3. Human capital methods are used to place The influence economic analyses have in de- values on human mortality and morbidi- cisions about resource development depends ty; and on how well they address the issues important 4. Threshold analysis asks how large the to decisionmakers, Generally, economic anal- benefits of preserving land in its current yses are used to justify decisions that already state would have to be in order to outweigh have been made on other grounds (18). Further- the benefits of conversion to other uses. more, economic analyses rarely consider how However, careful attention must be paid to benefits and costs affect distribution of income the assumptions behind these techniques and within or across generations. their susceptibility to problems of validity, re- liability, and biases. Many of the techniques Social Assessment tend to underestimate environmental values. This is not a severe problem where decision- The social dimension increasingly is ac- makers only need a minimum estimate to sup- knowledged as an essential part of resource port conservation decisions (18), such as in development planning, The extent to which so- cases where some preservation values clearly cial assessments are carried out varies among exceed the value of a proposed land-use con- projects and among organizations. However, version. For example, an analysis for the Peru- such analyses can contribute greatly to the suc- vian Amazon showed that wildlife values excess of development projects. In the past, mul- ceeded wood product values (14). But since tilateral development banks viewed large-scale many situations are not so clear-cut, more sen- forestry operations for their economic impacts sitive techniques are needed. The most impor- alone. The poor records of many of those proj- tant constraint on economic evaluation of en- ects have led to an awareness of the impor- vironmental benefits is not the inadequacy of tance of the social and institutional dimensions the techniques but the dearth of scientific data of land-use decisions (39). on cause-effect relationships for various land Some proposed development activities are uses (8). not feasible because the necessary human re- Another problem arises because most eco- sources are unavailable or cultural values pre- nomic analyses determine the environmental clude implementation. Variations in the suc- value of forest resources “at the margin” which cess rates of projects often can be explained can be significantly different from the average by differences in the capabilities of local insti- value of forest resources. For example, if the tutions. ” The most common problems are the: value of genetic resources in any small piece 1) lack of strong leadership accepted by the of a forest is not large, economic analyses may community and willing to take the initiative; justify clearing the forest piece by piece until 2) domination of decisionmaking by elites for it is all converted to nonforest uses, without their own special interests; and 3) factionalism ever accounting for the overall loss of genetic or segmentation by socioeconomic, ethnic, or resources (18). religious groups that makes it difficult to build a consensus or get people to work together (52). Establishing monetary values for the multi- Government laws and policies also can have ple benefits of forests can be useful in making unintended effects on people’s decisions to par- decisions on the choice of outputs, production techniques, regulatory policies, fees for concessions and leases, compensation for eminent do- “Institutional capacity includes the framework of laws and policies in the forestry sector and the ability of national and local main or offsite damage, and priorities for in- governments, cooperatives and associations, or private volun- dustrial or social forestry projects (18). The po- tary organizations to carry out a project. 248 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources ticipate in projects. In particular, land tenure bear negative impacts. If the interests of past and commodity pricing policies are important. users are not considered, they may undermine the success of proposed development (25). A development project that involves local people is more likely to be successful if the in- U.S. AID conducts some social assessment tended beneficiaries are brought into the plan- for its projects (including analysis of impacts ning process. Otherwise, 1) the intended ben- and absorptive capacity) but the amount and eficiaries might be unwilling to participate in type are variable. There are written guidelines the project; 2) the benefits may be captured to prepare a “social soundness analysis” as part only by people with relatively high incomes, of each project paper (50). However, these social status, and advanced educations; or 3) guidelines do not provide detailed, operational tasks may be planned with unrealistic assump- guidance on ways to conduct the analysis (44). tions about the participants’ skills, capital, or The World Bank’s Operational Manual for access to inputs. Project Analysis is being revised to incorporate Culture-specific information is needed on social assessment procedures (39). written how incentives should be structured to: 1) en- guidelines have been prepared for Bank proj- courage two-way communication between ects affecting tribal groups or involving reset- technology transfer agents and local people; 2) tlement of populations. All project officers are reduce risks facing innovators (e. g., adopters directed to consider social factors as part of of new techniques); 3) encourage activities that their regular activities (16). provide offsite benefits not captured by individuals undertaking the activities (e.g., reduced Monitoring and Evaluation soil siltation); and 4) give landless people a stake in resource conservation. For example, The preproject planning phase is when least one common reason why social forestry proj- is known about development problems to be ects fail is that the local people are not inter- solved and about the biophysical and human ested in the species of seedlings that are dis- resources of the site, Yet, for many projects this tributed or are unfamiliar with their growth re- has been the only time when a substantial ef- quirements or products (2). fort is made to determine how the project’s products and services will contribute to larger Most negative impacts of reforestation or so- development goals. cial forestry projects on communal lands fall on the previous users of the land. Little land— Monitoring is a continuous process of col- even that labeled uninhabited—is totally unoc- lecting, measuring, recording, analyzing, and cupied by people. Forest reserves in most trop- communicating information on projects ical countries contain farmers, hunters and regarding 1) timely and appropriate provision gatherers, and livestock herders. Communal and use of inputs, 2) operation and manage- lands that at first glance appear to be useless ment logistics, and 3) production of outputs. scrub forests frequently are used for raising Monitoring takes place during implementation crops, grazing animals, or the collection of and is intended to meet the needs of day-to-day fuelwood, polewood, grasses, and a wide varie- project management. It can indicate a need ty of nonwood products. Land tenure is par- to change the timetable, scale, geographic loca- ticularly important to consider in a social tion, resource allocation, or staffing of assessment where much of the land remains activities. untitled or under communal status because Evaluation measures a project’s outputs and large landholders or the landless poor may impacts on intended beneficiaries and assesses have appropriated these lands. the project’s unintended impacts. Evaluations Good social assessments can help planners emphasize performance, rather than operation avoid or mitigate some of these problems or and management, and analyze reasons for at- suggest ways to compensate the people who taining or nonattaining objectives. Evaluations Ch. 11-Resource Development Planning • 249 performed before implementation is completed in Nepal (3) and Tamil Nadu in India (46). How- can be used to formulate recommendations for ever, the development assistance agencies are changes in objectives, strategies, techniques, only beginning to learn how to use the infor- institutional arrangements, priorities, and gov- mation from evaluation to improve projects. ernment policies. Their effective use depends Even where continuous evaluation is made on the project’s flexibility-i. e., whether it can a part of the project, the resulting information respond to recommended changes. Such eval- may not lead to a project change. One reason uations have a secondary purpose of facilitat- for this inflexibility is that persons administering communication among project staff, proj- ing resource development projects are usual- ect management, local people, and external or- ly rewarded when they achieve certain targets ganization. Evaluations conducted after a proj- (e.g., seedlings distributed per year) from the ect is complete can: original project plan, regardless of whether ● identify a need to compensate people ad- those targets prove to be unimportant. More- versely affected by environmental impacts, over, the usefulness of final evaluations can be ● suggest followup or complementary proj- compromised by agencies’ reluctance to dis- ects that build on the original project, cuss why their projects were not entirely suc- ● assist in reformulating broader policies cessful. and strategies, and ● provide lessons for planning other projects elsewhere. Multiobjective Planning Methods Monitoring and evaluation produce very dif- Once information is available on the likely ferent measures of project success or failure. biophysical, economic, and social/cultural as- Monitoring may indicate that a project is suc- pects of a development project, decisionmakers cessfully reaching its targets, while evaluation need some way to judge the relative impor- of the same project may show that the prob- tance of the various findings. Too frequently, lem has been incorrectly identified. decisionmakers avoid confronting tradeoffs For example, planners working in the pre- among conflicting objectives and only consider project period may identify reforestation of the most obvious and serious effects. But con- private lands as the appropriate objective for siderable progress has been made in the past an area experiencing rapid deforestation and two decades in developing multiobjective plan- a lack of freely available seedlings as the prob- ning techniques that address these tradeoffs lem hindering this reforestation. Thus, they (12,38). These techniques have been applied may recommend establishing nurseries to pro- mainly in water resource planning, but with duce seedlings for distribution to local farmers. adaptation they are applicable to tropical forest Monitoring may show that the nurseries are land-use planning as well. operating successfully and producing the de- Multiobjective planning is broader than more sired number of seedlings. Evaluation, on the traditional single-objective approaches to plan- other hand, may show that the problem was ning. Single-objective planning techniques misidentified, that lack of extension programs such as benefit-cost analysis require that all the for landowners and not seedling availability is effects of alternate projects be measured in the actual constraint to reforestation. terms of a single unit, usually money. Multiob- The distinction between monitoring and jective planning attempts to compare effects evaluation has been recognized only recently within categories, but does not force all effects by development assistance organizations. U.S. into the same measurement units. The tech- AID and the World Bank, among others, are niques also provide formal means for decision- emphasizing the importance of both. Compre- makers to assign relative values to each cate- hensive monitoring and evaluation systems are gory account (e.g., income, numbers of people a planned component of social forestry projects employed, reduction in peak waterflow).

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Using multiple objectives in the planning natives usually is identified, and the relation- process can improve resource development in ship between alternatives can be described at least three ways. First, value judgments are clearly. Third, the analyst’s perceptions of a determined by decisionmakers rather than by problem will be more realistic if the full range the analysts. Second, a wider range of alter- of objectives is considered (12).

Insufficient appreciation by decision- such as remote sensing and computer analyses makers. Many decisionmakers do not under- are cost effective, the lack of trained govern- stand resource development planning tech- ment staff can preclude their use. The scarci- niques or their potential utility. Consequent- ty of expertise is a principal constraint to rely, they may make decisions on the basis of po- source development planning (35). litical feasibility or intuition rather than plan- Cost. Detailed resource development planning (3 I). Resource development planning of- ning activities can require a high initial invest- ten is not used until after resource use deci- ment because large land areas are involved. At sions have been made. Furthermore, decision- the same time, the benefits often are diffuse— makers often have the misperception that plan- spread among large groups of people in pres- ning leads to permanent land-use dedications. ent and future generations rather than among Limited availability of land use data. Prob- a few identifiable individuals who would be lems associated with collection have led to a willing to bear the costs. Thus, it is likely that dearth of land use data. Ground surveys are major resource development planning efforts slow, expensive, and sometimes inadequate. in poor countries will require substantial for- Aerial photographs can only cover a small area eign assistance. and are relatively expensive. Remote-sensing Dominance of decisionmaking by interest images from orbiting satellites are becoming groups. In some countries, there is little actual more widely used. However, with the technol- governmental control over public lands be- ogy generally available in tropical countries, cause of the influence of large logging, min- interpretation of Landsat can be inaccurate. ing, or agricultural interests and the inability New optical enhancement techniques improve to enforce sanctions in remote locations the quality of the Landsat images and computer against large numbers of illegal forest occu- analyses can increase interpretability. These pants, nomadic grazers, or tribal groups with refinements are expensive, but minicomputers customary rights. Even where the government are lowering the cost. has effective control over public lands, self- Governments in tropical countries have been interest still can be a constraint. Prerogatives able to purchase satellite images at low prices over government lands often are jealously because the fixed, capital costs have been borne guarded by key decisionmakers (47). Forestry by the U.S. Government. This policy may departments may resist any analyses that could change, however. The U.S. Government has result in land classifications that remove land proposed selling Landsat to the private sector. from forest reserves (40). In some cases, short time horizons, personal favoritism, influence Scarcity of expertise. Effective resource of special interests, and opportunism may char- development planning requires expertise in acterize decisionmaking. many disciplines: geology, hydrology, clima- tology, ecology, geography, agronomy, forestry, Increasing the timeliness and focus of anal- economics, sociology, and planning or public ysis. An analysis will be of most use to deci- administration. Even if sophisticated methods sionmakers if it is timely and geared to their Ch. n-Resource Development P/arming • 251 needs. If the scope of the analysis is too nar- staff. Sometimes, individuals with vested inter- row or superficial, decisionmakers will not ob- ests can dominate participation, while the gen- tain the information they need. On the other eral interests of the local population are under- hand, if the scope is too broad, delays will oc- represented (26). Where the rural poor are ex- cur. The usefulness of the techniques can be cluded from political participation in govern- improved by clearly defining the specific ob- ment, it is unlikely that they will be allowed jectives of the analysis and setting priorities for to participate effectively in the design or opera- study. For some uses, techniques that are rel- tion of development projects (27). atively less precise and less expensive will be Adopting an interdisciplinary approach. satisfactory. Many government agencies conduct activities Improving scientific, economic, and social that affect land use, especially those concerned data. Although the basic techniques to analyze with agriculture, forestry, military operations, scientific, economic, and social data for re- water resources, mining, human settlements, source and development planning are reason- transportation, and wildlife. Yet, there is little ably well-developed, the inadequacy of baseline coordination between agencies with different data and the limited understanding of cause- responsibilities, and each agency concentrates effect relationships have hindered application on its own relatively narrow mission. Forestry of these techniques. Much existing information departments in many tropical countries, par- on the connections between biophysical fac- ticularly those that retain the model set up tors and land uses is derived from studies of under British and French colonial rule, remain temperate zone countries (42). The degree of detached from other sectors of public admin- transferability of this information to the Trop- istration (11). ics is questionable. It also may not be appro- But an interdisciplinary approach using the priate to transfer information obtained in one skills available in the various agencies is the part of the Tropics to other parts (13). most effective way to plan resource develop- Encouraging public participation. Inade- ment. Alternatively, forest departments could quate social assessment is a weakness suffered hire expertise in a broader range of disciplines by most resource development planning efforts and train existing staff. Rural sociologists and (35). Greater public participation in the plan- anthropologists, in particular, should have a ning process could improve social assessments larger role in resource development planning and increase the ability of local people to solve (11), The United States offers substantial exper- their own problems. tise in the various disciplines related to resource development planning. However, this can be difficult to obtain. For the most part, foresters have not been trained Improving the communication of findings. to facilitate a dialogue with local people to Scientific information needs to be presented determine their needs, priorities, and resources in a simple, yet realistic, form that decision- or to convince them of the desirability of bet- makers can understand. Key assumptions ter land-use management (47). Furthermore, in should be stated explicitly and tested. Suffi- some cases the rural poor do not speak open- cient budget and staff time should be devoted ly for fear of retaliation or simply because they to communication of the fundings or the plans speak a different language from the project are likely to receive little attention. 252 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

CHAPTER 8 REFERENCES

1, Ackerson, K., U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 16. Fisher, H. B., World Bank, personal communi- personal communication, 1982. cation, 1983. 2. Arnold, J. E. M., Food and Agriculture Orga- 17. Green, K., U.S. National Zoological Park, per- nization, personal communication, 1982. sonal communication, 1982. 3. Bhattarai, T., and Campbell, J. C., Monitoring 18, Gregersen, H., “Valuing Goods and Service and Evaluation System for Community Forestry From Tropical Forests and Woodlands,” OTA Development in Nepal, Kathmandu Govern- commissioned paper, 1982. ment of Nepal, HMG/UNDP/FAO Community 19. Hamilton, L., “Some Unbiased Thoughts on Forestry Development Project Field Document Forest Land Use Planning—From an Ecological No. 4, 1982. Point of View. ” In: Carpenter, 1981. 4. Burley, F. W., “Sharing the Heritage Concept,” 20! Hamilton, L., “Land-Use Planning Technolo- Nature Conservancy News 32(4), 1982, pp. gies to Sustain Tropical Forest and Wood- 23-25, lands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982. 5. California Forest and Range Experiment Sta- 214 Hawes, R., and Hamilton, L., A Method of tion, Soil Vegetation Surveys in California (Sac- Watershed Land Classification and Assessment ramento: Department of Natural Resources, for the Tropics: A Case Study of Rio Guanare, 1958). Venezuela (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University In- 6. Cameron, D., “Problems of Forest Land Classi- ternational Agriculture Mimeograph 77, 1980). fication in Tropical and Subtropical Australia.” 22. Hepburn, A., “The Forest Resources of Sabah In: Carpenter, 1981. and Their Development in the Light of Land Ca- 7. Carpenter, R. (cd.), Assessing Tropical Forest pability Classification,” The MaZaysian Forest- Lands: Their Suitability for Sustainable Uses er 37(1974):215-223. (Dublin, Ireland: Tycooly Press, 1981). 23. Hester, J., U.S. Agency for International Devel- 8. Carpenter, R., East-West Center Environment opment, personal communication, 1983. and Policy Institute, personal communication, 24. Holdridge, L., Life Zone Ecology (San Jose, 1983. Costa Rica: Tropical Science Center, 1967), 9. Catterson, T., U.S. Agency for International De- 25. Hoskins, M., “Benefits Foregone as a Major velopment, personal communication, 1983. Issue for FLCD Success,” Proceedings of the 10. Christian, C., and Stewart, C., “Methodology of U.S. AID Workshop on Community Forestry, Integrated Survey s,” Proceedings, Toulouse Washington, D. C., 1982. Conference on Aerial Surveys and Integrated 26. Huizer, G., Preliminary Guidelines for Partici- Studies (Paris: UNESCO, 1968). pation Monitoring and Ongoing Evaluation of 11. Cleveland, D,, International Agricultural Pro- People’s Participation Projects (Rome: Food and grams, University of Arizona, personal commu- Agriculture Organization, 1982). nication, 1983. 27. Joslyn, D., U.S. Agency for International Devel- 12. Cohon, J. L., Multiobjective Programming and opment, personal communication, 1983. Planning (New York: Academic Press, 1978). 28. Klingebiel, A., and Montgomery, P., Land Ca- 13. di Castri, F., and Hadley, M., “A Typology of pabi]ity Classification (Washington, D. C.: Soil Scientific Bottlenecks to Natural Resources De- Conservation Service, Agricultural Handbook velopment, ” Geographic Journal 3:513-522, 210, 1961). 1979. 29. Krajina, V., “Biogeoclimatic Zonation as a Basis 14. Dourojeanni, M., Animales Sobre—ExpZotados for Regional Ecosystems,” Symposium on y Sub-Utilizados en la Amozonia, 1974. In: Planned Utilization of Low Land Tropical For- Gregersen, 1982. ests, Cipayung, Bogor, Indonesia, 1973. 15. Fabos, J., Greene, C., and Joyner, S., Jr., The 30. Lacate, D., “Discussion of Biophysical Land METLAND Landscape Planning Process: Com- Classification in Canada.” In: Carpenter, 1981. posite Landscape Assessment, Alternative Plan 31. Lee, Peng Choong, “Forest Land Classification Formulation, and Plan Evaluation (Amherst, in Malay sia. ” In: Carpenter, 1981. Mass.: University of Massachusetts Agricultur- 32. Marten, G., “A Landscape Approach to Re- al Experiment Station, Research Bulletin No. gional Land Use Planning in Tropical Mexico.” 653, 1978). [n: Carpenter, 1981. Ch. 11-Resource Development Planning • 253

33, McHarg, I., Design With IVature (New York: Land Use Planning in Indonesia.” In; Car- Natural History Press, 1969). penter, 1981. 34, Moss, M., “An Evaluation of Some Existing Bio- 46, Sida, —, Social Forestry in Tamil Nadu: Ap- physical Land Classification Schemes in the praised Project Document (Stockholm: Swedish Context of the Felda Land Developments in Ma- International Development Assistance Organi- laysia. ” IZZ: Carpenter, 1981. zation, 1981). 35, Mounkeila, Goumandakoye, Assistant Director 47. Stevens, M., U.S. Forest Service, personal com- of Forests for Niger, personal communication, munication, 1983. 1983, 48. Umali, R., “The Application of Remote Sens- 36, Mueller-Dombois, D., “The Ecological Series ing to Forestry in Developing Countries, ” 1981. Approach to Forest Land Classification.” In: In: Carpenter, 1981. Carpenter, 1981. 49. Umali, R., “Forest Land Assessment and Man- 37. Mueller-Dombois, D., and Ellenberg, H,, Aims agement for Sustainable Uses in the Philip- and Methods of Vegetation Ecology (New York: pines, ” 1981. In: Carpenter, 1981. John Wiley & Sons, 1974). 50. U.S. Agency for International Development, 38, Nichols, R., and Hyman, E., “An Evaluation of “Social Soundness Analysis,” AID Handbook Environmental Assessment Methods,” Journal 3, Appendix 3F (Washington, D. C.: U.S. AID, of the Water Resources Planning and Manage- 1982). ment Division, American Society of Civil En- 51. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Habitat Evalua- gineers 108, No, WR1 : 87-105, March 1982, tion Procedures (Washington, D. C.: Govern- 39. Noronha, R,, Sociological Aspects of Forestry ment Printing Office, Documents ESM 101-104, Project Design (Washington, D. C.: World Bank, 1980). 1980). 52. Van Heck, B., Participation of the Poor in Rural 40. Pandey, J., “Problems of Forest Land Classifica- organizations (Rome: FAO, 1979]. tion for Sustainable Uses in India. ” In: Car- 53. Wadsworth, F., “Techniques for Surveys and penter, 1981. the Ecological Exploitation of Tropical For- 41. Philley, M., U.S. Agency for International De- ests, ” AnaZs. Acad. BraziZ Ciene. 41 (Sup- velopment, personal communication, 1983. plement: 101-109), 1969. 42. Qadri, S., comments on the paper by Hamilton 54. Webb, L., et al., “Structural Classification as a (2o] prepared for the Office of Technology As- Method to Predict Site Potential in the Develop- sessment, 1982. ment and Conservation of Tropical Humid For- 43. Quereshi, A., “Forest Land Classification and est Lands, ” Transactions International MA13- Capability Assessment in Pakistan. ” In: Car- LVFRO Workshop on Tropical Rain Forest Eco- penter, 1981, systems Research, E. Brunig (cd.), Ham- 44. Runge, C. F., U.S. Agency for International De- burg-Reinbeck, University of Hamburg, 1977. velopment, personal communication, 1983. 55. Wisdom, H., comments on the paper by Greg- 45. Sandy, I. M,, “Land Classification System for ersen (181 me~ared for OTA. 1982. Chapter 12 Education, Research, and Technology Transfer Page Highlights ...... 257 Education ...... 257 Research ...... 257 Technology Transfer...... 257

Introduction ...... ● ✎✎✎✎✎☛✎✎ ✎ ✎ 257 Education ...... 258 Professional Education and Technical Training...... 258 Forestry Education and Training ProgramsinTropical Countries ...... 258. . Environmental Education ...... 263 Principles of Environmental Education ...... 264

Research ...... ●. ✌☛✎✎✎✎. . ✎ ✎ ✎ ...... 265 Fundamental and Applied Research✎✌✎✎✌✎✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ...... 265 Research Priorities ...... ✎. ✎ .✎ ✎. ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ...... 266 Fundamental Research ...... ✎. ✎ .✎ ✎. ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ...... 266 Applied Research...... ☛✎✎✌✎✎✎ . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ...... 266 Dissemination of Research Findings✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ...... 268 Summary ...... 1✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ...... 269

Technology Transfer ...... ✎ . ✎ .✎ .✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ 0...... $ 269 Background ...... 269 Necessarv Conditions for Successful Technology Transfer ...... 270...... Opportunitiesto Improve Technology Transfer ...... 271 . . . . . Coordination of Development Assistance Agencies ...... 271...... Need for Professionals...... 272 Technology Transfer Timingand Follow up...... 272 Chapter 12 References ...... 273

List of Tables Table No, Page 32.U.S. Priorities for Applied Research ...... 267 33. World Bank/FAO Priorities for Forestry Research in Developing Countries . . . 267 34.The East-West Center’s Priority List for Scientific Forestry Research...... 267 Chapter 12 Education, Research, and Technology Transfer

Education Research

● Most education to support sustainable use • Fundamental and applied research, especial- of tropical forest resources must be done by ly in the social sciences, are needed to de- tropical nations’ own universities and tech- velop more techniques that produce suffi- nical schools. But these schools generally are cient profits for investors and simultaneous- new, small, and not yet capable of the task. ly conserve the renewability of forest resources. ● U.S. universities can help sustain tropical forest resources both by educating profes- ● Research on tropical forest resources is poor- sionals for work in tropical areas and by sup- ly coordinated. Fundamental researchers porting the development of the tropical uni- know too little about what information ap- versities’ capabilities. plied researchers need, and applied researchers know too little about the needs of ● To provide adequate instruction in tropical technology implementors. forest issues, U.S. universities need to make fundamental curriculum changes, adding more anthropological and sociological Technology Transfer perspectives to the education of resource ● Innovative technologies, even successful development specialists, ones, often do not spread beyond subsidized ● Environmental education programs suffer pilot projects. Improved technology transfer from a lack of behavioral science expertise efforts are needed among researchers, be- and from a lack of literature documenting tween researchers and project managers, the reasons for success and failure of past and between project managers and individ- programs. ual decisionmakers.

INTRODUCTION

Many technical opportunities to reverse trop- and environmental education, some research ical forest degradation are attracting attention redirection, and improved technology transfer. from development assistance organizations and from tropical government agencies. Yet, Inequitable and insecure land tenure and neither governments, private entrepreneurs, population growth cause forest resource man- nor local people are investing enough capital, agement problems even more basic than those land, and labor on these techniques. Methods addressed by forestry education, research, and to overcome these constraints on such invest- technology transfer. These problems are not ment include increased professional, technical, amenable to direct action by the U.S. Con-

257 258 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources gress—they must be resolved by the tropical na- also indirectly can help improve tropical nations themselves. tions’ abilities to make fundamental changes in economic and social institutions. U.S. assistance can enhance education and research, particularly in the social sciences. It

EDUCATION

Professional timber production and industrial processing. and Technical Training Now, however, the emphasis in tropical forest resource development is changing to include Progress in developing and implementing social forestry, agroforestry, and fuelwood new forestry technologies is severely con- forestry. To support this shift, the tropical strained by the scarcity of appropriately ed- forestry schools need to make some fundamen- ucated personnel. A severe shortage of field tal changes. technicians and extension agents with suitable training further constrains implementation of ENCOURAGE INTERDISCIPLICIPLINARY APPROACH existing technologies (4,18). Professionals, including foresters, sometimes In the short term, an efficient mechanism for become too narrowly focused (8). This tenden- matching qualified people to the available jobs cy is particularly troublesome in tropical for- is necessary, and sufficient money and other estry because the interactions between natural incentives must be provided. Expatriates, in- systems and social systems are so complex. De- cluding U.S. professionals, can carry out cer- spite widespread agreement that the major contain critical functions. However, over-reliance straints on improved forest resource manage- on expatriates is expensive, maintains depend- ment are socioeconomic and institutional, so- ency, may lead to adoption of inappropriate cial perspectives remain underrepresented in technologies, and contributes little to building forestry curricula. a political consensus on the value of tropical forests. For these reasons and because the Forestry education has been strongly oriented toward biological sciences. It has not scope of tropical forest development problems filled a critical need for professional under- and opportunities is so large, improvement in standing of and competence in determining both the quantity and quality of education with- the potential of forests in rural development; in tropical countries is essential to sustain trop- the social values in rural income and employ- ical forest resources in the long run. ment; reduction of urban migration; land use planning; diversification of agriculture; the Forestry Education and Training linkages of the variety of products from forest Programs in Tropical Countries resources with other sectors of the economy such as supplying raw material for low cost Forestry degree programs are offered by 23 housing; nor with the way forest industry de- universities in tropical Africa, 55 in tropical velopment can be directed to fit the various Asia, and 39 in tropical America. In addition, stages in the country’s development (15). tropical Africa has 59 technical schools offer- Special efforts need to be taken to incorpor- ing forestry courses, tropical Asia has 118, and ate social science components into forestry and tropical America has 51. Nearly all of these, related program curricula. Too often, rural so- however, are new and produce few graduates ciology, applied anthropology, education meth- each year. odology, political science, and history are ig- Most of these professional and technical for- nored. Although forest economics is included estry programs have focused on commercial in many forestry curricula, it needs to incor- Ch. 12—Education, Research, and Technology Transfer ● 259 porate an orientation more than industrial terials. Teaching materials developed in wood production and demand. Natural re- tropical countries can be evaluated for their ap- source development planning, environmental plicability in other countries. Funds could be quality assessment, and administrative and provided to modify, translate, and distribute managerial skills also have been neglected. these materials internationally. Some surpris- Knowledge of agronomy, soil science, range ingly simple and inexpensive efforts can be management, and animal husbandry is also im- very effective. For example, botanists have pro- portant for forestry professionals in most trop- duced inexpensive and accurate tree identifica- ical countries. tion handbooks by photocopying leaf, twig, flower, and seed specimens that are available There are two ways to broaden forestry ed- in U.S. herbaria (21). ucation: provide continuing education in social and agricultural sciences to forest profession- Many tropical forestry schools also lack ade- als and forestry school faculty, and support the quate library and computer facilities, field and addition or joint appointments of social scien- laboratory equipment, and arboretum or her- tists as faculty in forestry schools. The disad- barium facilities. Computers, programmable vantage of the first approach is that many of calculators, and software can greatly facilitate these people may not have an inclination or ap- teaching, research, and forest management. titude for the social sciences. The problem with For tropical forestry schools, minicomputers the second approach is that social scientists in are advantageous because they are relatively tropical nations may not understand the rela- inexpensive and easy to operate and repair. tionship between their discipline and forestry. Museums can be teaching tools of great im- This can be ameliorated by providing in-house portance to tropical forestry. In the United training in forestry and the natural sciences for States, the Smithsonian Institution, Chicago’s social scientists. It would not, however, solve Field Museum of Natural History, the Missou- the problem of how to attract top quality social ri Botanical Garden, New York Botanical Gar- scientists into a field that is undersupported den, and certain museums affiliated with uni- and generally viewed as less prestigious than versities are examples. Museums in tropical other fields such as health and education. countries unfortunately are seldom teaching DEVELOP TEACHING MATERIALS AND FACILITlES museums. They are underfinanced and not particularly useful to forestry education. Sup- Many faculty members in tropical universi- porting development of good teaching muse- ties were educated in developed countries. ums with well-stocked and well-curated her- Thus, they are likely to teach concepts and use barium and arboretums would be an effective course materials appropriate for capital-inten- way to improve tropical forestry education (4). sive production forestry in temperate zones. But under tropical conditions the temperate RECRUIT APPROPRIATE PEOPLE zone forestry technologies may not be econom- Forestry education is not a prestigious pro- ically feasible or socially desirable. Further, fession in most tropical countries. Careers in temperate zone techniques can be poorly this field do not offer the social or financial adapted to ecological conditions in the Tropics benefits that many other fields offer. Forestry and may require equipment or skilled labor that school faculties in many countries are poorly is not available (35). paid and many of the best quickly move on to Teaching materials relevant to tropical for- other occupations. In some countries, teaching ests are scarce. While some appropriate infor- staff are borrowed from the Forestry Depart- mation and course materials are available, they ment but are selected on the basis of seniority are poorly distributed. This situation could im- rather than teaching ability. Consequently, for- prove if teachers and researchers were to re- estry education is severely constrained by a ceive support to develop original course ma- shortage of qualified teachers (28) and univer- 260 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources sit y forestry programs have difficulty compet- many who do may leave them soon. Educated ing with other programs for funds, facilities, people generally prefer to live in urban areas, and top quality students and scientists. making it difficult to retain good field staff, In- novative approaches to this problem need to U.S. scientists could increase their effort to be developed, supported, and documented. For help their colleagues in tropical schools gain example, it may be useful to increase recruit- international recognition and, thus, prestige in ment from rural areas, although this might ne- their universities. Development assistance cessitate expanding technical schools’ pro- agencies also could invest additional money in grams to offer remedial work in basic academic graduate programs for tropical forestry skills. schools, provide continuing education opportunities for faculty, provide scholarships, spon- U.S. forestry schools can improve technical sor research, and develop facilities (e.g., librar- schools in the Tropics by helping produce ies, laboratories, field stations). Developing fa- training materials. Also they can support cilities alone can be a waste of foreign assist- education of technical school instructors ance funds, however, if expert personnel are through training programs organized by the not available or developed simultaneously (4). Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) or other organizations. U.S. forestry schools gen- DEVELOP GRADUATE PRORAMS erally do not have the ability to contribute more Few forestry schools in the Tropics offer directly to training technicians and extension graduate degrees. Although the development agents for tropical forestry and agroforestry (4). of a strong undergraduate program is the first priority in forestry education, graduate schools IN-SERVICE TRAINING are important to produce future educators, researchers, and upper-level decisionmakers. Even if actions to improve forestry education Graduate programs also are important because programs begin soon, a substantial lag will oc- they involve students and faculty in modern cur before those students are in influential posi- current research. Without a research compo- tions. Therefore, it is also important to update nent, it is difficult for forestry and related training of resource management professionals disciplines to attract and retain top quality and technicians. students and faculty. In-service training enables staff to keep up with advances in forestry techniques and in re- SUPPORT TECHNICAL SCHOOL PRGORAMS lated fields such as agriculture, livestock man- The shortage of adequately trained forestry agement, and soil and water conservation. It extension agents in rural areas probably is a is particularly important for social forestry greater constraint on resource-sustaining tech- projects because conventional forestry educa- nologies than the lack of professional person- tion has included so little training on social as- nel. The need for field technicians and exten- pects of resource development. Unfortunate- sion workers will increase as tropical nations ly, with the existing shortages of qualified pro- begin to manage forests, promote agroforestry, fessionals and technicians, it often is difficult and disseminate improved wood-use tech- to release forest department staff for extended nologies. In particular, more women should be training courses (40). educated as foresters, technicians, and exten- The United Nations FAO Forestry Depart- sion agents because women are heavily in- ment has developed a program to support volved in using forest resources and in many in-service training of forestry personnel in de- cultures they can be reached best by other veloping countries. This program receives women (20). some financial support through the U.S. con- Recruiting students to work as forestry tech- tribution to FAO, and this seems an effective nicians is a problem. Few students who com- channel for continued or increased U.S. sup- plete technical training take field jobs and port of in-service training. However, at present Ch. 12—Education, Research, and Technology Transfer . 261

U.S. experts play only a small part in the FAO ogy transfer to the Tropics, changes must be Forestry program. made in the curricula. Special attention has to be paid to the appropriateness of the technol- Opportunities for the U.S. in Tropical ogies taught. Otherwise, students from the Forestry Education and Training Tropics will not be able to apply their newly acquired knowledge. Few U.S. schools are well The United States has important expertise equipped to train U.S. or foreign students in and experience in forestry education and has social or community forestry. some experts in tropical forestry, botany, zoology, soils, and related topics scattered among The training of foresters gives them a sense U.S. academic institutions. These experts are that they command an expertness and set of contributing in a piecemeal but significant skills which permits them to diagnose and prescribe for society. Community forestry fashion to education of U.S. and tropical coun- turns that upside down so that the profession- try foresters and other professionals interested al becomes a coordinator and facilitator of in tropical forest resources. diagnoses and prescriptions made by the com- In the fall of 1982, some 487 students from munity (6). developing countries were enrolled at U.S. This change requires development of com- forestry schools, and a survey of 44 North munications and public relations skills as well American forestry schools found 33 were anas sensitivity to cultural factors (13,30). ticipating expansion of their international forestry activities (25). Newsletters, directories, Lack of a tropical setting for field courses and other networks to facilitate communica- constrains U.S. universities’ ability to serve the tion among tropical forest experts are being es- needs of students who are to work in the Trop- tablished, for example, by the International ics. Education cannot be limited to the class- Society of Tropical Foresters. room. Field courses and internships including field work are essential (38). Both the social and IMPROVE THE CAPABILITIES OF U.S. UNIVERSITIES natural science aspects of tropical forestry involve problem-solving skills that are better Most U.S. universities have had only peri- learned in the field than in classroom lectures pheral interests and activities in tropical and laboratory exercises (28). forestry. This is, in part, because few U.S. faculty have experience in tropical forestry. ● Many of those work for State-supported univer- ENHANCE COMMUNICATION ITV9SSN TROPICAL SCHOOLS AND U-S. INSTITUTIONS sities where overseas work is not well-regarded (43). Consequently, those who seek overseas The faculty, administrators, and students in forestry work often are professionals at the be- tropical schools often find it difficult to locate ginning of their careers or those nearing retire- particular expertise in U.S. universities. Twin- ment (4). ning and consortia are two mechanisms that are used to facilitate communication between Few courses offered by U.S. forestry schools U.S. and tropical nation schools. Twinning re- focus on the Tropics or on international eco- fers to the establishment of a special long-term nomic and political interactions and resource association between a forestry school in the interdependence (34). Some U.S. universities Tropics and one in another country. can give foreign students an excellent education in the fundamentals of basic science, forest A twinning arrangement can help develop management, forest industries, and quantita- teaching and research capabilities in both in- tive methods (26). But education on the applied stitutions (4,47). It offers the advantage of con- aspects of tropical forest management and tinuity, providing time for faculty and admin- ecology mostly is lacking. If U.S. forestry istrators on both sides to understand the prob- schools are to play an effective role in technol- lems and opportunities in the other country. 262 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

It also provides the opportunity to develop These constraints could be overcome by des- good working relationships. ignating and developing institutions, located in U.S. humid tropical and semiarid areas, to Twinning could be used to broaden tropical serve as centers of excellence in tropical forest forestry education. For example, some U.S. resource development. The primary purpose universities have strong social science exper- of such centers would be to advance tropical tise that could be applied to forest resource de- forest resource education. They also could con- velopment issues. U.S. faculty can help devel- duct research programs and act as information op teaching materials, design or conduct re- clearinghouses. For these centers, tropical for- search, and temporarily substitute for tropi- est resources would not be a peripheral inter- cal university faculty when they are absent for est; they would be the main focus. And because course material development, advanced educa- the research and teaching could be applied to tion, or in-service training. resource development in the area where the Twinning, however, has disadvantages. U.S. centers are located, they should receive sup- universities are likely to perceive little benefit port from State and territorial organizations. to themselves from participating. Thus, twin- If emphasis on the special importance of so- ning activities may be assigned a low priority cial sciences, economic botany, and other dis- unless there is sufficient external funding (4). ciplines were written into the charters of such The exchange of faculty, students, and infor- centers, they could become more truly inter- mation may end up being one-way—from trop- disciplinary than are conventional forestry ical country institution to developed country schools. It would be difficult to assign perma- university. Also, since no single U.S. univer- nently at one location the breadth of expertise sity offers a comprehensive program in tropical necessary for an excellent program on tropical forest resources, limiting access to the exper- forest resources. This could be accomplished tise available in just one U.S. university could by using a core staff of research scientists be a disadvantage to the tropical university. together with a series of short-term assign- Consortia of U.S. universities can resolve ments of faculty from various institutions (4). some of twinning’s disadvantages because they The information clearinghouse function of can provide a wider range of expertise to the the centers of excellence could serve not only tropical institutions. The consortium can direct education organizations but also resource de- tropical faculty, administrators, or students to velopment agencies in tropical nations. The programs best suited to their needs. Some such centers could identify: consortia already exist (ch. 5). However, neither twinning nor consortia are able to re- ● appropriate U.S. organizations where peo- solve several major constraints on development ple from tropical countries could obtain of U.S. expertise in tropical forestry (4). These graduate and post-graduate training, include: ● U.S. organizations where tropical universities can find institution-building exper- 1. Insufficient faculty competence in tropical tise, forest resource fields. ● tropical organizations interested in collab- 2. Lack of tropical forest environments in orative research and instruction with U.S. which to teach tropical forest resource universities, management. ● sources of funding available for these ex- 3. Lack of a suitable setting for relevant facul- changes, and ty and graduate student research. ● expertise on various new or existing tech- 4. Lack of a center for exchange of ideas nologies. among tropical forest resource scholars. 5* Lack of a center to house necessary colla- The U.S. Forest Service has a program provid- teral institutions, including a tropical her- ing such information for AID projects. Evalu- barium, tropical wood collection, and trop- ations indicate that the quality of AID’s for- ical arboretum. estry-related projects has been substantially im- Ch. 12—Education, Research, and Technology Transfer ● 263 proved by this relatively inexpensive effort. mainly on agroforestry and, except for ICRAF, Centers of excellence could extend this broker their major emphasis is on annual crop agri- function to institutions other than AID. culture. Locating the centers of excellence in the United States would help assure continuity and Environmental Education stability of funding, thus giving better opportunity for long-term research, training, and One reason why the forestry sector has been service capabilities (4). Associating such cen- relatively neglected in many tropical countries ters with existing institutions could avoid the is that decisionmakers and the general public costs and risks of establishing entirely new fa- are unaware of the costs of forest degradation cilities. For example, the U.S. Forest Service and the benefits of forest maintenance. Envi- Institutes in Puerto Rico and Hawaii could be ronmental education is a term that covers a developed as centers of excellence to serve broad range of efforts to change people’s be- tropical America and tropical Asia, respective- havior by 1) giving them knowledge regarding ly. Similarly, the Kleberg Wildlife Research In- interactions between natural resources and the stitute in Kingsville, Tex., which conducts quality of their lives, 2) inspiring an emotional some research and training in semiarid land commitment to environmental quality, and 3) forestry, could be strengthened and broadened teaching what actions individuals and groups to become a center of excellence. can take to sustain or improve the productivity of their environment. A major drawback to the center of excellence concept is that substantial Federal funding To change people’s attitudes toward natural might be necessary. Another disadvantage is resources, an education program should be that the U.S. tropical island locations are not based not only on technical knowledge of en- biologically typical of forest resources on trop- vironmental sciences but also on knowledge of ical continents, and none of the U.S. locations the psychological and cultural factors that mot- have sociological or institutional conditions ivate human behavior (39). However, environ- similar to tropical nations. The centers might mental educators are generally not trained in overcome these constraints by arranging to use the sciences of human behavior and so do not facilities at tropical universities as field stations apply the scientific method to improve envi- or by helping tropical schools develop new ronmental education techniques. Trial and er- field stations. ror with little basis in scientific theory can lead to improvements if the reasons for success and An alternative to establishing new centers failure are documented. Unfortunately, envi- would be for the United States to offer support ronmental education programs in tropical na- to international institutions that are working tions, perhaps because they are so small rela- to provide tropical forest resource education tive to the problems they address, seldom set and research programs, such as the Interna- aside sufficient funds or time for evaluation tional Council for Research on Agroforestry and documentation (45). (ICRAF) located in Kenya, the United Nations University (UNU) headquartered in Japan, and Ideally, environmental education should be the Centro Agrontimico Tropical de Investiga- incorporated into regular curricula at the cidn y Ensenanza (CATIE) in Costa Rica. These primary school level. That is when basic atti- institutions have cooperative programs with tudes and values are formed, and primary universities in other tropical countries. Con- school will be many tropical people’s only for- centrating the U.S. effort on existing interna- mal education. Practical considerations, how- tional institutions would not be a complete sub- ever, constrain this broad and future-oriented stitute for a U.S. center of excellence, however. approach. The few environmental education The forestry mandates of these institutions are programs that exist are poorly funded and relatively narrow—their forestry efforts focus understaffed. Thus, priorities must be set to en- 264 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources sure the effective use of very limited educa- to change the use of steep deforested hillsides tional resources. For U.S.-funded efforts, the has had enthusiastic participation from farm- most effective approach may be to focus first ers who want to preserve their land’s produc- on those who make decisions of greater long- tivity for the benefit of their children. However, term impact—politicians, government officials, getting government officials to allocate scarce and faculty who are teaching potential future resources to expand the program has not been leaders. so easy. The program benefits some upland farmers in a few years and more downstream Mass media can provide effective means to farmers in many years, but it may never direct- reach populations outside the classroom. They ly benefit the government personnel by bring- can be used to teach principles of ecology and ing political recognition. resource management, to illuminate pressing resource development problems, and to explain Another example that demonstrates several how people can affect resource sustainability of the environmental education principles is directly or by influencing public policy. Radio, a Peace Corps project in Paraguay that trained newspapers, pamphlets, and comic books have rural elementary school teachers in basic en- been cost-effective tools for education in trop- vironmental education methods. The program ical countries. Environmental education activ- was designed to include the faculty and staff ities also can be tied into development projects from the schools, officials from the Ministries in their public outreach and monitoring and of Agriculture and Education, and Peace Corps evaluation functions (36). staff. Ministry officials were convinced of the importance of environmental education Principles of Environmental Education through workshops and discussions. To encourage the teachers, the Ministries agreed to The state of the art in environmental educa- provide salary increases for teachers in a pilot tion is not sufficiently advanced to predict spe- program who developed and evaluated an en- cifically what techniques will succeed in vari- vironmental education curriculum for their ous situations. But a review of development students. However, the importance of a mul- assistance programs with environmental edu- tilevel approach became apparent when the cation components has indicated general prin- Peace Corps diminished its involvement with ciples for success in environmental education ministry officials and focused only on the (45). Programs should: teachers. Ministry support declined and so the ● address specific resource problems, teachers could not spread the curriculum they ● reach particular audiences, had designed beyond the initial pilot project . reach all the decisionmakers who must area. This suggests that the program may have participate in the solution to the problem, failed to provide for the personal motivations ● be compatible with cultural values and of all levels of decisionmakers who would af- personal motivations, fect the program’s success. ● include opportunities for continuing eval- Because changes in human attitudes are dif- uation, documentation, and adaptation, ficult to effect and measure, environmental ed- and ucation efforts will remain difficult to evaluate, ● include opportunities and support to make document, and duplicate. This gives the tech- the education effort ongoing and capable nology a disadvantage when competing with of spreading to other audiences. (45). other, better developed technologies that have The environmental education task is straight- more easily measured results. Although envi- forward only where benefits accrue directly to ronmental education lacks a strong basis in be- the decisionmaker. For example, a social for- havioral science, it can still progress if pro- estry project in Northern Pakistan that seeks grams are documented by the practitioners. Ch. 12—Education, Research, and Technology Transfer Ž 265

RESEARCH

Fundamental and Applied Research ogies, and evaluation research that leads to continuous improvement and diffusion. Sustaining tropical forest resources depends on implementing technologies that simultane- The purpose of fundamental forestry re- ously can: 1) provide basic needs (food, fiber, search is to increase understanding of the fuel, construction materials, and cash), 2) sus- structure and functioning of forest ecosystems, tain the renewability of the resources, and 3) the physiology of plants and animals, and their be profitable and culturally acceptable to dif- use by humans (33). This work serves as the ferent groups with different levels of knowl- foundation for the principles and techniques edge, skills, and resources. Technologies that used in applied forestry research, which is meet all these requirements exist for only a few directed toward solving particular problems or tropical forest situations, but probably could improving the use and conservation of forest be developed for other kinds of forests with resources (9). In practice, the distinction be- other socioeconomic conditions. Such technol- tween fundamental and applied research often ogy development will require fundamental re- is difficult to make. search on both natural and manipulated eco- Fundamental and applied research on forest systems, applied research on technologies ap- resource systems typically require long periods propriate for specific cultural and ecological of study before firm conclusions can be drawn conditions, projects implementing the technol- because:

● tree lifecycles are long, ● tropical forest components have complex interactions, • some of these interactions manifest slowly as cycles of plant succession and climate occur, and ● interactions can be obscured by changes in weather and hydrologic flows, Longer terms for research funding (4-5 year budgets) generally result in better research and, in the long run, more efficient use of research funds (12,33). Moreover, applied forestry research usually must be site-specific, and transferring the results to other locations often necessitates re- peating some of the research. Ecological and silvicultural research in natural forest management, soils, pests and diseases, watershed management, and wildlife are especially site-specific (9). Sociological research similarly is area- Photo credit: U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization specific because of differences in cultures and Forestry research, both fundamental and applied, is local problems (20). Site-specificity, however, often poorly linked to development programs. However, can be overemphasized. Well-designed applied programs exist that can pay substantial returns on the research can produce general lessons that can research investment. Here a Teca tree is prepared for transplanting at the Magdalena Valley Corporation’s be extrapolated and can accelerate research at research center at Santa Marta, Colombia other sites (12,46).

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Research Priorities those containing biota in immediate danger of extinction. This includes the coastal forests of Fundamental Rsearch Ecuador, coastal southern Bahia and Espirito Fundamental research on tropical forests has Santo in Brazil, the eastern and southern Bra- concentrated more on evolutionary biology zilian Amazon, western and southern Came- than on tropical ecosystem processes (12). roon and adjacent parts of Nigeria and Gabon, Much research seems simply to reaffirm what Hawaii, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Borneo, Cel- has been known for decades. Recognition that ebes, New Caledonia, and forested areas in the moist tropical forest exists essentially in Tanzania and Kenya. balance with its environment by recycling nu- The committee assigned highest priority to trients obtained from decaying plant materi- anthropological studies and to interdisciplinary al, not by drawing upon soil minerals, was rsearch on the historical, political, social, and recognized in 1937 (17). The relationship of economic phenomena that lead to ecological chemistry and mineralogy to the hardening of instability in the Tropics. In Mexico, Indone- certain soils in the hot, wet Tropics after forest sia, and Thailand, ecological and anthropolog- clearing was described in 1956 (2). And be- ical research are being combined to investigate cause it was recognized that soils of the hot, traditional resource use systems (16). This ap- wet Tropics largely were devoid of important proach seems especially likely to lead to mod- plant nutrients, the overlying forest cover was ern techniques that are at once profitable and described as early as 1958 as being ecological- resource conserving (16). ly “a desert covered by trees” (10).

Scientists have begun to recognize the need Applied Research to shift research emphasis to include human manipulation of the ecosystems. The Nation- A common criticism of applied forestry real Academy of Sciences Committee on Re- search is that it is not focused on resource man- search Priorities in Tropical Biology has con- agement needs. Many forest research institutes cluded that tropical ecosystem studies should in developing countries study highly special- concentrate on areas that are “selected because ized topics to serve academic purposes (27). they are representative, diverse, and capable The management-oriented research that occurs of experimental manipulation and because of has emphasized short-term trials of exotic spe- scientific and societal importance. ” cies and specialized plantation techniques (5). Often research is based on outdated methods The NAS report calls for in-depth study of or is implemented incorrectly (22). Further- four types of tropical ecosystems: infertile new more, most of the applied research in tropical world moist lowland forest, fertile new world forestry has been restricted to biophysical top- moist lowland forest, Southeast Asian lowland ics while many, perhaps most, of the real con- forest, and new world deciduous forest. The straints are social, economic, or political report does not say what technique was used (23,27). to calculate tradeoffs in choosing these four types. The semiarid open canopy forests and Applied forest resources research can be shrublands of the Tropics are poorly repre- made more relevant if the researchers under- sented in the ranking, which suggests that the stand the problems faced by technology imple- scientists on the NAS committee give higher mentors. Government project managers, exten- priority to the goals related to biologically sion agents, timber concessionaires, forest in- “rich” environments than to environments dustry managers, users of nonindustrial private where the effects of resource degradation on forests, and other potential users of research humans are most immediate. findings should help select the research topics (24). Regarding priorities for biological inventory, the NAS committee cites areas that contain the An exchange of information with local peo- richest and most highly endemic biota and ple also is usually necessary to correctly iden- Ch. 12—Education, Research, and Technology Transfer ● 267 tify resource development problems. Yet, proc- Table 33.-World Bank/FAO Priorities for Forestry esses to allocate research funds usually involve Research in Developing Countries little interaction with local people until after 1. Forestv in relation to agriculture and rural development the topic is set (20). Researchers need to in- A. Sociological and institutional research crease their sensitivity to what is achievable B. Farming systems using trees C. Watersheds (catchments) and range management in situations where capital and management D. Wildlife in relation to rural welfare skills are scarce and where labor is abundant but costly (14). Il. Forestry in relation to energy production and use A. Silviculture of biomass/fuelwood species Before 1980, few systematic attempts had and systems B. Yield, harvesting, and properties been made to establish comprehensive priori- C. Industrial research related to village technology ties for applied tropical forest research or to D. Comparison with alternative fuels (social, technical, coordinate programs. Since then, various or- and economic efficiency) E. Wood-based derivatives ganizations have recognized that the limited research funds must be used more efficiently Ill. Management and conservation of existing resources and have produced priority lists. Tables 32, (mainly natural forests) A. Resource survey 33, and 34 show priorities identified by the B. Conservation C. Silvicultural systems for natural forests Table 32.—U.S. Priorities for Applied Research D. Whole tree use E. Use and marketing of secondary species F. Wood preservation 1. Reforestation and afforestation A. Species selection IV. Industrial forestry B. Erosion control A. Silviculture and management c. Maintenance of soil fertility B. Wood properties D. Nursery establishment and planting techniques E. Protection SOURCE: World Bank/Food and Agriculture Organization, Forestry Needs in 1. Grazing animals Developing Countries: T/me for a Reappraisal? paper for 17th IUFRO 2. Pests and disease Congress, Kyoto, Japan, Sept. 6-17, 1981 3. Fire F. Shelterbelt configurations

Il. Meeting the demand for fuels A. Alternatives to fuelwood B. More efficient, culturally acceptable woodstoves Table 34.—The East-West Center’s Priority List for and charcoal production techniques Scientific Forestry Research Ill. Industrial forestry and conservation A. Properties of species currently not used by Rank Subject industry 1 Ecology B. Techniques for decreasing wood losses in 2 Silviculture harvesting, transport, storage, and processing 3 Agroforestry 4 Reforestation, afforestation IV. Remote sensing applications 5 Watershed management, hydrology 6 Fuel, bioenergy V. Integration of forest management into comprehensive Forest industries and use rural development 8 Surveys and inventories A. Multiple-use management 9 Education, research, and training B. Combinations of activities 10 Policy and planning C. Incentives for carrying out sound management 11 Logging and transport 12 Nursery practice VI. Economics 13 Genetics A. Relationship between forest land management and 14 Marketing watersheds 15 Economics, especially of product processing B. Value of wildlife 16 Land tenure C. Relative merits of village woodlots, farm forestry, 17 Soils reforestation, agroforestry, and strip planting 18 Protection of wood products D. Demonstration effects of forestry programs 19 Forest products (technological) SOURCE: U.S. Interagency Task Force in Tropical Forests, The World’s Tropical SOURCE: E. Brunig, Summary Report on the Asia-Pac/fic Regional Workshop for Forests: A Policy Strategy and Program for the United States Forest Research Directors (Honolulu, Hawaii, East-West Center (Washington, DC.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980). Environment and Policy Institute, 1982). 268 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

U.S. Interagency Task Force (43), The World ● inadequate verification and demonstration Bank/FAO (47), and the East-West Center Con- of findings, ference (5). ● incompatibility between donor objectives and research needs, The recent creation of research priority lists ● failure to use the potential of the popular suggests that organizations funding applied media, tropical forestry research may begin to exert ● inadequate funding of dissemination ac- more control over which topics are investi- tivities, gated. Other recent developments suggest that ● incomprehensibility of dissemination pres- the scientists who do forestry research are rec- entations, and ognizing the urgency of tropical forest resource ● insufficient experience in dissemination problems and are ready to cooperate with coor- (5). dination efforts. For example, the International Union of For- Dissemination of research findings to deci- estry Research Organizations (IUFRO) has con- sionmakers and field staff could be improved centrated on timber production for use in the with better organization and funding (27). industrialized nations. Now, it is shifting its IUFRO carries out some dissemination, but its focus to forestry in the developing nations and role could be increased. IUFRO’S official pub- is organizing a series of international work- lications are issued in English, French, and shops on fuelwood systems and multipurpose German; the lack ‘of Spanish translations is a trees for reforestation of degraded lands. These deficiency. More study tours and exchanges workshops are expected to guide research among developing countries could increase funding by donor agencies such as AID. Mean- technical cooperation (47). while, AID is substantially increasing its fund- Computerized information storage and re- ing for forestry research over the next 10 years. trieval systems exist in the United States and in other industrial nations that could be used Dissomination of Research Findings to improve the dissemination of research results and, thus, could greatly enhance the ben- Within many tropical countries, little com- efits derived from research on tropical forest munication takes place between research or- resources. Examples include the AGRICOLA ganizations and the government agencies that bibliographic systems of USDA’s National Li- carry out resource development programs (47). brary of Agriculture, Ecosystematics and other In some countries, language barriers and the data bases at USDA’s Economic Botany Lab- scarcity and cost of translation services cause oratory, the Smithsonian Science Information difficulties. However, even within the United Exchange, the U.S. Forest Service Current In- States a similar lack of communication occurs formation System, and the Commonwealth between forestry researchers and technology Forestry Institute System (Oxford, England). implementors (9). Researchers are not rewarded for publishing in popular literature, The U.S. Forest Service has a popular peri- and the planners and managers of forest re- odical, Treeplanter’s Notes, that disseminates source development projects seldom have the research findings to forestry practitioners. The time or inclination to study technical reports FAO Forestry Department does have a publica- in scientific journals. tion, Unasylva, but it has a broad focus and is aimed at government decisionmakers in the Obstacles to effective dissemination include: forestry sector, so it seldom gives the detail ● lack of public recognition of the relevance forestry practitioners need. Field-level mana- and urgency of the situation, gers need regional publications that are not • lack of political support, overly technical (23). The U.S. Forest Service ● unwillingness to accept risks, filled this role in one region with The Carib- bean Forester until this publication was termi- Well-qualified scientists in tropical nations nated in 1963. often leave government service or emigrate abroad because of low pay and recognition; in- AID supports a large number of small news- adequate funding; limited research facilities, letters but these are not always well-publicized equipment, and libraries; or the shortage of and most of them have a narrow focus (23). One suitable colleagues. Research is hindered in effective newsletter published by AID, Re- some countries by bureaucratic rigidities, over- sources Report, reviews technical reports and centralization or fragmentation, lack of politi- will send copies to less-developed-country sub- cal support, and interagency rivalries (9,22,33). scribers who request them. More efforts also In many tropical cultures, little prestige is at- should be made to translate key research find- tached to forestry research because the edu- ings into local languages. cated, urban class views field work in rural areas as hardship duty appropriate only for Summary lower level staff (22). U.S. scientists concerned A number of institutional weaknesses in de- about the degradation of tropical resources veloping countries contribute to the inadequa- could act through their various professional or- cy of forestry research. The most serious defi- ganizations to enhance the prestige of their col- ciency in many countries is the shortage of leagues in tropical nations. qualified scientists. Researchers often lack Although the United States has recognized scientific skills as well as related skills in strengths in the social sciences, the number of research management and administration, U.S. social scientists with expertise relevant to technical writing, research design and analysis, tropical forest resource development is not foreign language, and data processing (5). known. They may constitute one of the major Mechanisms exist to provide in-service train- U.S. academic strengths for research on tech- ing to tropical nation scientists at universities nologies to sustain tropical forest resources. and herbaria in the United States, and at the One or more centers of excellence in tropical research stations of the Forest Service and forestry, as discussed earlier in this chapter, other agencies of the Departments of Agricul- could serve to better coordinate the scattered ture and Interior. A thorough review of such U.S. research expertise. opportunities by the General Accounting Of- fice or a similar agency might reveal ways to use them more effectively.

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

Background choose, receive, adapt, and deliver technologies appropriate to local circumstances. The experience of U.S. forestry organizations shows that many potentially profitable tech- Technology transfer is the business of the de- niques languish for lack of effective technology velopment assistance agencies, and the way in transfer among scientists and between scien- which they conduct their business has a ma- tists and technology users (9). The tropical na- jor influence on whether renewable resources tions facing severe deforestation and rapid are kept renewable. The literature on technol- population growth cannot afford such ineffi- ogy transfer is voluminous but mainly theoret- ciency. Therefore, a concerted effort is needed ical, and little of this theory is focused on to build local organizations’ capacities to forest-related technologies. So OTA convened 270 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

an interdisciplinary panel to consider the con- organizations to build an effective system of ditions necessary for successful transfer of transfer agents who use personal contact to re- tropical forest resource technologies. assure people about the appropriateness of an innovation and who provide the information needed for a fair trial. Necessary Conditions for Fourth, in addition to transfer agents and Succesful Technology Transfer capable recipients, “facilitators” or “middlemen” are needed. These people must under- Nine key conditions for successful technol- stand the technology transfer process, especial- ogy transfer were identified. First, the tech- ly the market for the technology and its prod- nology should be adapted to the local biophys- ucts and the political, social, and economic ical and socioeconomic environment of the constraints and opportunities affecting the users. The technology to be transferred should other actors. Because technology transfer is have been used successfully elsewhere under usually a long-term process, subject to mistakes similar conditions, at least on a pilot scale. and setbacks, it needs advocates to help the Technology transfer should not be confused new technologies compete with established with experimentation or applied research. ways of using resources. Thus, facilitators must Otherwise, the technology is likely to be unsuc- maintain their roles throughout the transfer cessful and the adopters might become unwill- process. ing to try other innovations. The permanent staff of development assis- Second, technology is transferred most ef- tance agencies could act as facilitators. Too fectively by direct people-to-people actions. often, however, they are rotated to other parts People who are to adapt and apply the tech- of the agency before the technology transfer nology need to learn it directly from people process is complete. An alternative is for the who have experience applying it. Successful development assistance agencies to locate and technology transfers seldom are based solely work with facilitators among the indigenous on media presentations, such as pamphlets, tropical people (31). books, radio programs, or films. Rather, per- Fifth, users and transfer agents should be in- sonal interactions are essential. Media presen- volved in choosing, planning, and implement- tations, however, can help motivate the person- ing the technology transfer so it meets actual al interaction, supplement technology transfer needs and is appropriate for the situation. For efforts, and support subsequent applications of example, women are most directly affected by the technology (3). community forestry projects but are usually ex- Third, the technology transfer agents must cluded from problem identification and project be well-qualified and able to communicate ef- planning efforts (l). fectively to people who are capable of receiv- Sixth, all parties involved must feel that they ing and applying the technology. Agency per- are “winners” and must, in fact, be winners. sonnel who are themselves learning the tech- Each actor’s interests should be identified at nology for the first time as they try to transfer the start of the technology transfer process so it are often a cause of failure. Thus, develop- they can be addressed. Early in the transfer ment assistance agencies need to employ sub- process, the potential users must be shown the stantial numbers of experienced technical merits of an innovation (31). Many ideas that personnel. outsiders think will solve development prob- A more significant constraint is the lack of lems may not seem so beneficial to the people indigenous capacity to continue the technology who are directly affected by them. For exam- transfer beyond the boundaries of development ple, village woodlots maybe supported by local assistance projects. Thus, the task for develop- women who otherwise must walk far to col- ment assistance agencies is to enable local lect each day’s fuel but resisted by local men Ch. 12—Education, Research, and Technology Transfer . 271 who may view them as an unprofitable use of in the forestry sector. The need for internation- land and by herders who may view them as an al assistance in development of forest resources intrusion on grazing land. has been realized only recently, but there are already some indications that the level of such For technologies designed to produce items assistance is leveling off (29). The assistance or services for sale, the intended adopters agencies’ major opportunities, then, lie more usually must have information on markets in in increasing the likelihood of technology order to anticipate benefits. With reforestation transfer success than in increasing the number or forest product technologies, the information of projects. can be obtained through demonstration projects, surveys, and market research. Where education and research technologies are being Coordination of Development transferred, it is necessary to determine who Assistance Agencies will reward the educator or researcher for Many organizations attempt to help tropical using the new technologies. nations develop forest resources, but these ef- Seventh, the participants must be aware of forts are poorly coordinated. The causes of subsequent steps in the transfer process and tropical forest degradation are so complex that the relationship between their actions and no single assistance agency is likely to be able those steps. This requires early definition and to create sufficient conditions for the forests communication of roles for each person in- to be sustained. To do that the various capa- volved. A well articulated strategy must be de- bilities of all the development assistance agen- vised. Of course, this strategy must be flexible, cies are needed. However, it is unlikely that since it is planned at the time in the transfer these capabilities will be applied at the right process when least is known about how it will places at the right times simply by chance. work. In particular, plans must be made to dis- The need for improved coordination was seminate the technology beyond the pilot stressed in the report of the U.S. Interagency project. Task Force on Tropical Forests. In section 118 Eighth, demonstrations of the technology of the Foreign Assistance Act, Congress has should take place under conditions similar to given AID a specific mandate to improve coor- conditions that will exist subsequently. Pilot dination of forestry and natural resource de- projects should not be made unrealistically velopment assistance in tropical nations. But easy by being given unrealistic levels of funds the needed coordination does not occur be- or other inputs, being located where there are cause of the structure, staffing, and manage- few socioeconomic or institutional constraints, ment of development assistance bureaucracies. or being provided with artificial markets. In the tropical countries, these organizations are generally too understaffed to manage their Finally, the initial commitment of resources own programs sensitively and have no incen- should be sufficient to carry the technology tives to coordinate and collaborate with others transfer until it is self-supporting. A transfer (42). is self-supporting when the techniques have been adapted to local conditions and are be- In theory, long range strategies and coordina- ing adopted spontaneously by organizations or tion should be administered by agencies of the individuals. tropical nations. In practice, when funding is from foreign or international donor agencies, Opportunities to improve decisions to implement projects are often made Technology Transfer without reference to a long-term resource development strategy or to how the project com- In agriculture, development assistance agen- pares with alternative investments. Because the cies have had impressive technology transfer availability of the donor funds usually cannot successes. Yet, relatively little has been done be separated from a specific project (41), the 272 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources immediate need to maximize foreign donor fectively without increasing some budgets, funding interferes with the longer term need however. Supporting U.S. nationals overseas to coordinate donor efforts. is more expensive than supporting them domestically, and their absence would disrupt the One way to get around these bureaucratic programs of their regular agencies. Public Law constraints is to establish ad hoc international 85-795 enables domestic agencies to assign per- organizations with no programs or policies to sonnel to international development organiza- promote other than 1) design of long-term strat- tions, but it is seldom used. egies for technology transfer to effect sustainable resource development, and 2) coordination of assistance agencies’ contributions to Technology Transfer Timing and Followup carrying out those strategies. Coordinated De- velopment in Africa (CDA) is such an ad hoc Technology transfer, especially where the organization that seems to be gaining the po- emphasis is on building the capacity of local litical influence and the technical expertise institutions to select, adapt, apply, and dissem- necessary to make this approach work. Its ef- inate technical innovations, is a long-term proc- forts are directed to designing long-term strat- ess. Periods of 10 to 20 years are typically egies. Whether the coordination necessary to needed before progress can be measured in follow such strategies will be politically feasi- terms of product or income. Yet, short devel- ble remains to be demonstrated. opment project planning and funding cycles often mean that projects must be evaluated at Need for Profossionals the end of 2 to 5 years to determine whether funding is to continue. At this stage, a tech- Another major constraint on successful technology transfer project is barely under way and nology transfer is misidentification of resource should be expected to have revealed problems development problems. This results from a lack and be experiencing setbacks. Thus, the func- of public participation in planning technology tion of an evaluation should be to develop in- transfers and from a too-narrow technical ap- formation on how to deal with these. However, proach to project planning (19). While the need this important function is compromised if par- for participant planning and interdisciplinary ticipants in the evaluation fear that a seemingly technical inputs is widely recognized, it is too negative evaluation will lead to premature ter- seldom realized. To a large extent this is be- mination (42). cause of the shortage of technically experienced personnel in development assistance Once a technology transfer appears to have agencies’ offices in the tropical countries (42). become self supporting on a local level, continuing technical support is often necessary. Chronic understaffing means that people in Unforeseen problems will arise during the charge must spend nearly all their time doing technology’s diffusion, and these may be be- bureaucratic functions. Technical inputs are yond the technical capacity of the local institu- then left almost entirely to contractors. This tions. Regional centers of technical expertise means the agency staff must make decisions that offer continuing education to technicians, about technical matters which they are often technology managers, and technology transfer not qualified to decide. facilitators, and that disseminate further in- One opportunity to overcome the shortage novations and improvements in technologies, of professionals is to encourage experts who could help solve this problem. This has proven work for U.S. Federal agencies to take tempo- successful with remote-sensing technology rary assignments in development assistance transfer projects sponsored by development agencies (44). This probably cannot be done ef- assistance agencies in Africa (7). Ch. 12—Education, Research, and Technology Transfer Ž 273

CHAPTER 12 REFERENCES

1. Agarwal, A., and Arnand, A., “Ask Women al Development, 1972), Report TAIOST 72-12. Who Do the Work,” New Scientist, Nov. 4, In: Bethel, et al., 1982. 1982, PP. 302-304. 16. Gliessman, S,, “The Use of Traditional Knowl- 2. Alexander, L. T., Cady, J, G., Whittig, L. D., and edge in Development and Implementation of Dever, R, F., “Mineralogical and Chemical Resource-Use Systems That Sustain Tropical Changes in the Hardening of Laterite,” Sixth Forest and Woodland Resources,” OTA com- Soil Science Congress, vol. 11, 1956, pp.-- 67-72. missioned paper, 1982. 3. Beal, G. M., and Bohlen, J. M., “The Diffusion 17. Hardy, F., “Studies on Tropical Soils Identifi- Process,” Agric. Ext. Spec. Rep. #18 (Ames, cation and Approximate Estimation of Sesqui- Iowa: Iowa State University, 1957). In: Muth oxide Components by Absorption of Alizarin, ” and Hendee, 1980. Jour. Agr. Sci., vol. 21, 1935. 4. Bethel, J., Burch, W., and Thorud, D., “Profes- 18. Hilmi, H., Reappraisal of Education and Train- sional Education and Technical Training to ing Needs for Forestry and Forest Industries in Support Development and Implementation of Africa (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organiza- Technologies to Sustain Tropical Resources,” tion, 1980). OTA commissioned paper, 1982. 19. Hoskins, M., “Musings on Technology Trans- 5. Brunig, E., Summary Report on the Asia-Pacifi”c fer, ” paper prepared for OTA Workshop on Regional Workshop for Forest Research Direc- Technology Transfer, Shepard’s Ford, Va., Nov. tors (Honolulu, Hawaii: East-West Center En- 17-19, 1982, vironment and Policy Institute, 1982). 20. Hoskins, M., Virginia Polytechnic Institute, per- 6. Burch, W., “Tropical Forests and U.S. Interests sonal communication, 1983. —Some Reminders for Educational Programs,” 21. Ihis, H., botany professor, University of Wis- OTA commissioned paper, 1982. consin, personal communication, 1982. 7. Conitz, M., “Technology Transfer Case Studies 22. Janzen, D., “The Relationship of Basic Research and Comments,” paper delivered at OTA Work- to the Development of the Technologies That shop on Technology Transfer, Shepard’s Ford, Will Sustain Tropical Forest Resources,” OTA Va., Nov. 17-19, 1982. commissioned paper, 1982. 8. Coombs, P., “Education on a Treadmill,” Ceres 23, Joslyn, D,, U.S. Agency for International Devel- 4 (3), 1971. opment, personal communication, 1983. 9, Dawson, D., “Applied Research in the United 24. I.aarman, J., North Carolina State University, States Relevant to Tropical Forests and Wood- personal communication, 1983. Iands, ’’stems That Sustain Tropical Forest and 25. Laarman, J., and Durst, P., “International Link- Woodland Resources, ” OTA commissioned ages and Activities at North American Forestry paper, 1982. Schools,” paper presented at Society of Ameri- 10, de la Rue, E. Aubert, “Man’s Influence on Trop- can Foresters National Convention, Portland, ical Vegetation, ” Proceedings of the Ninth Pa- Oreg., oct. 18, 1983. cific Science Congress, 1958, pp. 81-94. 26. Ladrach, W., Carton de Colombia, personal 11. Emmelin, L., “Environmental Education at Uni- communication, 1982, versity Level, ” Aznbio 6(4):201-209, 1977. 27, Lankester, C., U.N. Development Programme, 12. Ewel, J., University of Florida, personal com- personal communication, 1983. munication, 1983. 28. Margolis, H., Oregon State University, personal 13. Flores-Rodas, M., “Forestry for Rural Develop- communication, 1983. ment: A New Approach, ” Tropical Forests— 29. McPherson, M. P., Administrator, Agency for Utilization and Conservation, Francois Mergen International Development, Testimony before (cd.) (New Haven, Corm.: Yale School of For- the Subcommittee on Human Rights and Inter- estry and Environmental Studies, 1981). national Organizations, Committee on Foreign 14. Flores-Rodas, M., Research Today for Tomor- Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, Mar. 30, row’s Forests: Forestry Research and Develop- 1982. ment for SeZf-ReZiance (Rome: Food and Agri- 30. Miller, K., et al., Strategy for Training in culture Organization, 1981), NaturaZ Resources and Environment (Washing- 15. Fox, G., Forestry in Developing Countries ton, D. C.: World Wildlife Fund, 1980). (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Agency for Internation- 31. Muth, R. M., and Hendee, J. C., “Technology 274 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Transfer and Human Behavior,” Journal of For- Developing Countries: A View From Africa,” estry 78(3):141-144, 1980. Proceedings of the Second Congress of the In- 32 National Academy of Sciences, Committee on ternational Union of Societies of Foresters, Sup- Research Priorities in Tropical Biology, Re- plement, Helsinki, 1975. search Priorities in Tropical Biology, 1980. 41. Shaikh, A., “A Framework for Evaluating the 33. National Task Force on Basic Research in For- Economics of Renewable Energy Technol- estry and Renewable Natural Resources, Our ogies,” 1982. Natural Resources: Basic Research Needs in 42. Stegall, R., “Workshop on Technology Trans- Forestry and Renewable Natural Resources fer,” paper prepared for OTA Workshop on (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Technology Transfer, Shepard’s Ford, Va., Nov. Office, 1982). 17-19, 1982. 34, Neff, J., “Forestry Curricula: The Missing In- 43 U.S. Interagency Task Force in Tropical For- ternational Perspective,” Journal of Forestry 80 ests, The World’s Tropical Forests: A Policy (1):12, 1982. Strategy and Program for the United States 35. Nyssonen, A., Post-Graduate Forestry Educa- (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing tion in Europe, With Special Emphasis on the Office, 1980). Needs of Developing Countries (Rome: Food 44, Wadsworth, F., “Secondary Forest Manage- and Agriculture Organization, 1980). ment and Plantation Forestry Technologies to 36. Putney, A., Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Improve the Use of Converted Tropical Lands,” Management Program, personal communica- OTA commissioned paper, 1982. tion, 1983. 45. Walton, D., and Wood, D., “Environmental Ed- 37. Raven, P., “Basic Research—A Necessary Pre- ucation Technologies as Applied to Tropical requisite for Adequate Development of Technol- Forest Management,” OTA commissioned ogies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, ” paper, 1982. OTA commissioned paper, 1982. 46, Whitmore, L., U.S. Forest Service, personal 38. Richardson, S. D., “Some Major Issues in Pro- communication, 1983. fessional Education for Forestry: An Interna- 47. World Bank/Food and Agriculture Organiza- tional View,” Proceedings of the Second Inter- tion, Forestry Needs in Developing Countries: national Congress of the International Union of Time for a Reappraisal? paper for 17th IUFRO Societies of Foresters, Helsinki, 1975. Congress, Kyoto, Japan, Sept. 6-17, 1981. 39. Rokeach, M., Beliefs, Attitudes and Values: A 48. Yantko, J., and Golley, F,, World Census of Theory of Organization and Change (San Fran- Tropical Ecologists (Athens, Ga.: University of cisco: Jossey Bass PubI., 1976). Georgia, Institute of Ecology, 1977). 40. Rukuba, M,, “Continuing Education Needs of chapter 13 Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories Page Highlights ...... 275

*..**.. ...*.*. 275 Forestry in the U.S. Tropics ****O*.* ...... ● *.,,*.. . . 276 Technologies ...... ● ,..*** ● ***..., ● O**..*...... ● ,.$,... ..*****. Technologies for Undisturbed Forests...... 276 Sample Ecosystems ...... 276 Making Undisturbed Forests More Valuable...... 277 Technologies to Reduce Overcutting ...... 278 Industrial Wood...... 278 Wood Fuels...... 279 Technologies for Disturbed Forests ...... 280 Management of Secondary Forests ...... 281 281 Reforestation ...... ● ...... Forestry Technologies to Support Agricuhure ...... 284 285 Agroforestry .. ● ... ● ● Watersheds ...... 287 Resource Development Planning ...... 288 Education, Research, and Technology Transfer...... 289 Environmental Education...... ? 289 Professional Education and Technical Training ...... 290 Research ...... ,.,...... 291 Technology Transfer ...... ,...,,...... 292

● 293 Conclusion...... O..... 0...0,, .46.,...... *....** *O..* 295 Chapter 13 References...... 0....0 * ......

Figure Page Figure No. 32. Puerto Rico Commonwealth Forests ..4...... 276 Chapter 13 Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories

HIGHLIGHTS

● The potential of forestry to contribute to eco- these regions and on raising decisionmaker nomic development has been underestimated and general public awareness of forest re- in the U.S. tropical territories. source potentials.

● Although large-scale industrial forestry is not ● until local natural resource agencies have practical in the island territories, many other adequate staff and funding, Federal assist- technologies exist that can help satisfy the ance will be required. Without this, needed needs of growing populations and sustain resource productivity and development op- the forest resources. portunities will be lost. ● Implementation of suitable technologies will rely on developing skilled personnel within

FORESTRY IN THE U.S. TROPICS

Until recently the forests in the U.S. tropical vide local substitutes for imported products, territories have not been managed actively. In providing employment and income opportuni- fact, while overexploitation is not now a prob- ties, and protecting against erosion, floods, and lem in most areas, poor land uses in the past similar environmental damage. have left the islands with significant amounts The following discussion of technologies that of abandoned agricultural land and relatively offer opportunities for sustainable develop- unproductive secondary forests. ment of forest resources in the U.S. tropical ter- The U.S. tropical territories also are charac- ritories is organized in parallel with chapters terized by growing populations, rising imports 7 through 10. It deals with conservation of un- of food, fuel, and wood, dependence on Federal disturbed forests, reducing overcutting, man- income supports, and generally high unem- aging disturbed forests, and forest technologies ployment. Unemployment in Puerto Rico, for to support agriculture. Two other sections, cor- example, exceeds 20 percent in general and ap- responding to chapters 11 and 12, discuss tech- proaches 35 percent in rural areas (19). Devel- nologies for resource development planning, opment of appropriate forestry and agrofor- professional and technical training, environ- estry technologies could help alleviate some of mental education, research, and technology these problems. Such technologies could pro- transfer.

275 276 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Technologies for Undisturbed Forests are protected in Puerto Rico in the National and Commonwealth Forest reserves and in the Few truly undisturbed forests exist in the U.S. Virgin Islands National Park. That park U.S. Caribbean and western Pacific territories. covers nearly three-quarters of St. John Island. Those remaining after the past century’s his- The Caribbean National Forest in Puerto Rico tory of deforestation for agriculture are mostly was established in 1903 and now encompasses in inaccessible regions. There are, however, 28,000 acres of rain forest. The first Common- considerable acreages of secondary forest, wealth forest reserves were formed in 1918. some old enough to fit this report’s definition Now 13 of these cover 59,000 acres and they of undisturbed forest. * Two methods are avail- include moist and dry forests and mangroves able to sustain these forest resources: 1) pre- (fig. 32). Protection policies for these areas have serve samples of forest ecosystems in parks and been fairly effective and remain strongly sup- protected areas, and 2) make undisturbed for- ported. ests more valuable by increasing sustainable production of marketable nonwood products In 1976, the Caribbean National Forest** was (ch. 7). designated a biosphere reserve under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) pro- Sample Ecosystems gram. This program is designed to protect representative samples of major ecosystems and Protected forest areas are well-established in to promote ecologically sound land-use prac- Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, but tices in adjacent areas. The forest was subse- few have been created in the western Pacific. quently divided into a central zone where no The most valuable areas of primary forest and recreation or management activities are allow- the remaining rare and endemic tree species ed, surrounded by a recreation zone that at- *Undisturbed tropical forests are areas where trees are the tracts hundreds of thousands of visitors each dominant woody vegetation covering at least 10 percent of the ground and where trees have not been cut during the past 60 **The Caribbean National Forest also is known as the Luquillo years. Experimental Forest and the Luquillo Biosphere Reserve.

Figure 32.—Puerto Rico Commonwealth Forests

SOURCE: The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1974). Ch. 13—Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories ● 277 . year, and an outer zone where the U.S. Forest Current resource inventories conducted Service Institute of Tropical Forestry conducts cooperatively by local and Federal agencies forest management research. Part of the Virgin provide a base of information for protected Islands National Park (11,000 acres) and Puerto area establishment. These efforts could be ex- Rico’s Guanica State Forest (10,000 acres) also panded to produce comprehensive natural re- have been designated MAB biosphere reserves source surveys on all the major islands.

(10)0 Creation of a protected area system has been Making Undisturbed Forests considered in the Pacific Islands for some time, More Valuable but little has been done. In 1956, the High Com- One method to sustain forest resources is to missioner of the Trust Territory of the Pacific promote the profitable and sustainable use of Islands established the Ngerukewid Islands animals and plant products other than wood. Wildlife Preserve (the Seventy Islands Preserve) This could increase the perceived value of the in the Limestone Islands of Palau (11). This in- forest without increasing the motivation to cludes war sites and sites where the Yapese overcut its trees. The potential to develop such people carved wheel-shaped stone money that products is not large in Puerto Rico and the reaches up to 8 feet in diameter. This preserve U.S. Virgin Islands, but some opportunities also protects the endangered Micronesia meg- exist, such as small-scale production of honey, apode, the dugong, and other threatened plant bamboo products, eucalyptus leaves and oil, and animal species. molluscicidal Phytolacca, and sphagnum moss The U.S. National Park Service administers for nursery planting (12). The U.S. Forest Serv- the War in the Pacific National Historical Park ice has no permanently assigned economic bot- on Guam, which is forest-covered. The U.S. anist and local governments have no plans to Forest Service helped the Guam Department assess or develop such resources. of Agriculture establish the Patti Point Natural The potential for this sort of development Area on Andersen Air Force Base. In 1973, the ‘seems greater in the western Pacific islands U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service created the Rose because they have more subsistence-oriented Atoll National Wildlife Refuge at the request economies. Gathering activities are a normal of the government of American Samoa. Since part of subsistence life on the largely com- then, little activity has been undertaken to munally owned western Pacific islands. How- establish protected areas. ever, this has endangered the Micronesia Opportunity: Characteristics of the western megapode, a ground-nesting bird whose eggs Pacific Islands such as high endemism, fragile are considered a delicacy; the dugong, whose ecosystems, and dependence on surface water vertebrae have been used as wrist and ankle make protection of some forest areas on these ornaments; and the fruit bat, among others, islands appropriate. National conservation Efforts to manage the fruit baton a sustained plans are needed to identify sites that should basis, including maintenance of its forest hab- be protected as permanent preserves and sites itat, are under way. The Yapese fruit bat is en- to be protected until management’s plan can demic and is Yap’s only indigenous mammal. be instituted. These bats are a traditional food in Yap and A team effort by appropriate island agencies, are highly sought after by inhabitants of the U.S. Federal agencies, and local colleges could Marianas as well. The fruit bats also are be- be used to inventory resources and to design lieved important for fruit tree pollination and parks and reserves. This would build local seed distribution, especially for mango trees (6). managerial capacity and ensure that protected Recently the Government of Yap State banned areas fit local needs and conditions. hunting of the bat. The U.S. Forest Service is 278 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Examples include harvest of nonwood forest products such as essential oils and mangrove aquatic organisms, and innovative forest resource management programs that have the potential to reverse a trend of overharvest.

Technologies tO Reduce Overcutting Methods to reduce the rate of forest degradation from wood harvest and use include: 1) improved harvesting and transport technologies to reduce the extent of forest harvested and to reduce the adverse impacts of harvesting and transport; and 2) reduced demand for wood products through more efficient use of available products (ch. 8).

Industrial Wood Relatively little potential for full-scale industrial forestry exists in the U.S. territories due to limited forest acreages, topographical factors, competing land uses, small landholdings, high land prices, and uncertain land tenure. However, potential does exist for small-scale industries that can serve domestic markets and contribute to rising living standards (24). For example, portable sawmills were introduced in Puerto Rico in 1982, Teak, mahogany, and Caribbean pine have been successfully and economically thinned, milled, and marketed by the Puerto Rico Forest Service. There are plans to expand this program. Portable sawmills, combined with regulation of exploitation, are probably the best-suited harvesting systems for the western Pacific as well. Portable sawmills are especially appropriate for cooperative use because they can be used as needed and temporarily retired without significant economic disadvantages. They require little operator training (24). Because they can be pulled to the harvest site behind small vehicles, they cause less harm to thin soils than larger systems. They do not require an extensive road system and they leave bark and branches on the site, thus reducing nutrient loss. Small-scale sawmills in rural areas can stimulate development of local workshops with corresponding effects on rural employment. These Ch. 13—Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories Ž 279

Photo credit: Williarn Balrner

This plant in Cambalache State Forest, Puerto Rico, is treating posts from both private and Commonwealth lands and is helping demonstrate the opportunities for growing and using local wood. effects could be expanded by introducing facil- resources. Governments in both the Caribbean ities such as simple and inexpensive solar kilns and Pacific territories are promoting the crea- or wood preservation equipment. This type of tion of private cooperatives in agriculture, al- forest industry development can be upgraded though none have yet been organized in for- as workers improve their skills, local manage- estry. ment masters the task, and local markets grow to absorb increased production (24). Wood Fuels Opportunity: Small-scale forest industries that supply local markets could serve as a start- Little need exists to reduce demand for most ing place for a more comprehensive local for- local wood products in the U.S. territories. Im- estry industry. Rural centers could process ports have substituted for products previously wood products from portable mills. This would derived from local forests. However, wood encourage the creation of a forest constituen- fuels are in short supply in some areas, and cy to encourage local private organizations and wood fuel technologies can be used to increase governments to take action to sustain the forest the efficiency of forest product use.

25-287 0 - 84 - 19 280 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropica/ Forest Resources

Firewood is not in high demand in Puerto Opportunity: Senescent coconut plantations, Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, except for a major vegetative cover in the U.S. Pacific some recreational uses. There is significant de- Islands, could be used to produce charcoal un- mand for charcoal for roadside food stands and til conventional firewood plantations are estab- home uses; charcoal is imported from the lished. Old coconut stems cannot be left to rot United States, Germany, and the Dominican because of the risk of infestation by the Rhinoc- Republic (12). Locally produced charcoal is eros Beetle, which breeds in the old stems and made by traditional labor-intensive methods attacks the newly planted nuts. Unmanaged using earth kilns. As costs of importing fossil coconut plantations also provide larval mos- fuels increase, the demand for biomass fuels quito habitats in water-filled old nuts. The mos- should increase. quitos have been known to carry elephantiasis, encephalitis, and dengue* (13). The U.S. Forest Service uses a more efficient, portable kiln on St. Croix, to produce charcoal Coconut stems are unsuitable as firewood with wood from thinning and other timber due to a high moisture content and low density, stand improvement work in the Estate Thomas but they have high thermal efficiency as char- Experimental Forest (23). The Puerto Rico coal. The technologies for producing coconut Forest Service operates one demonstration kiln stem charcoal are simple and well-known. For but more activity in this area maybe necessary example, after air-drying, short billets can be to encourage timber stand improvement (22). burned in simple kilns or 40-gallon drums. In addition, because the demand for fuelwood Development of a coconut stem charcoal in- is relatively low in U.S. tropical forests, they dustry also could provide some spinoff bene- offer an opportunity to study charcoal produc- fits. Coconut shells produce a high grade phar- tion and conversion technologies in a stable en- maceutical charcoal suitable for activation that vironment. is used as a filter in many industrial and phar- The demand for fuelwood in the U.S. west- maceutical uses. High-value, low-volume com- ern Pacific is rising because of increasing pop- modities such as this are potential export prod- ulations and high fossil fuel costs. Perhaps one- ucts (18). third of the Micronesia people have left their rural lands and are concentrated in urban areas Technologies for Disturbed Forests (38). They need inexpensive energy for cooking. The availability, transport, and price of Most of the island territories were cleared in fuelwood can vary greatly on an island and the late 19th and early 20th centuries for export from one island to another. Some towns no agriculture—primarily sugarcane, tobacco, and longer have readily available sources of fuel- coffee. When production declined, rural pop- wood, although accessibility to distant supplies ulations reverted to subsistence and local cash is increasing as roads are improved. crop production, allowing forests to return on some areas. More recently, as populations mi- Improved small-scale charcoal production grate to urban areas and as income support technologies could make wood a more impor- programs replace subsistence agriculture, the tant energy source. Markets for charcoal may area of abandoned agricultural lands is again exist in Japan and other Asiatic nations. How- expanding and much of this is reverting to sec- ever, this type of commercial involvement ondary forest. should not be promoted until it has been determined that the islands could meet their own Data on the extent of secondary forest are not needs on a sustained basis. It is likely that man- yet available for most of the western Pacific ter- made plantations and woodlots would be re- ritories, but Guam is estimated to have about quired, although this could also provide a use *OTA is conducting an assessment of biomedical research and for scrub and for senescent coconut trees. related technologies for dealing with tropical diseases. Ch. 13—Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories ● 287

70,000 unmanaged acres covered with brush Wood harvest in the western Pacific is limited or trees and 50,000 acres of open or grass-cov- to fuelwood, some home construction mater- ered land (38). Secondary forest covers 800,000 ials, individual tree use by the crafts industry, acres of Puerto Rico. Forest and brush cover and some commercial harvest of mangroves 30,000 acres of the U.S. Virgin Islands. (32). Little of the forest has significant potential for commercial timber exploitation because Much of this land could be used to produce of low volume and poor-quality trees (38). Sec- timber and other forest goods, as could some ondary forest management, however, has con- lands that are not naturally regenerating, par- siderable potential to provide locally used ticularly the savanna lands of the western Pa- products—crafts, poles, construction materials, cific. Significant potential for commercial for- firewood, and charcoal. Cottage-based indus- est plantations exists only for the larger islands tries could be developed around local forest of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, Pon- products. ape, and Palau. But small-scale timber stand improvement and village woodlots could sup- Opportunity: Even though managed second- ply some needs on smaller islands. ary forest is not likely to become a major land use in the U.S. territories, it merits considera- Management of Socondary Forests tion as an improvement over unmanaged, low- quality brush or forest land unsuitable for agri- Brush and secondary forest in the U.S. Virgin culture. In Puerto Rico, managed secondary Islands generally is scrubby and of little inter- forests can provide a first harvest before con- est for wood production. A small area on St. version to plantation forestry or increase the Croix might be suitable for this use, but high value of land deliberately held out of intensive land prices and land speculation probably pre- production [e.g., recreation sites). vent secondary forest management from being perceived as a profitable investment. Additionally, secondary forest management will provide a means for the National and Com- Puerto Rico has large areas of secondary for- monwealth forests to gain income for further est and its management is a primary focus of forestry and preservation efforts. In the west- the U.S. Forest Service Institute of Tropical ern Pacific, managed secondary forests can Forestry (ITF). ITF is conducting an inventory sustain the supply of raw materials for locally of secondary forest in Puerto Rico. Although used products. Both efforts require further in- most of the trees have little commercial value, formation on the extent, composition, and the inventory reveals that some valuable timber quality of secondary forests, and on the cur- species are regenerating on abandoned lands. rent and potential uses of both native and in- Standard timber stand improvement techniques troduced species. could result in valuable future timber stands (22). Reforestation Some of these techniques such as enrichment line plantings of mahogany are being used in Plantations require more intensive manage- the National and Commonwealth forests. Sub- ment and a greater initial capital outlay per sequent harvest provides income for the Puerto acre than secondary forests, but usually pro- Rico Division of Forestry and supports fur- duce greater wood yields because stocking ther management of the National Forest. Even rates and species composition are controlled. though improved timber stands probably will Plantation forestry has greater potential in not become a major land use they do have po- Puerto Rico than in the other territories be- tential to increase the value of private forest cause of higher average per capita income and landholdings held for other purposes, such as greater land tenure security. An estimated recreation, second homes, or inheritance. 200,000 acres are suitable for plantation for- 282 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources estry (35,36). No plantation inventory has been ment of 100,000 acres of softwood plantation conducted in Puerto Rico, but between 35,000 could produce 2000 million board feet of lumber and 95,000 acres of plantations, primarily Car- per year once sustained yields were achieved. ibbean pine, are estimated to exist. Many of In 1981, 83 million board feet of softwood these plantings were established in public for- lumber, 58 million square feet of softwood ests during the 1930’s (19). panels and veneers, and 195,000 poles were im- The yield of a pine plantation in Puerto ported to Puerto Rico. The land potentially Rico’s moist and wet forests is about 25 cubic available for plantations could satisfy that level meters per hectare per year (2,000 board feet/ of demand. However, demand is growing at acre/year) if production is averaged across the about 5 percent annually. The planting of 5,000 rotation (40). Intensive thinning could increase acres per year for the next 20 years would re- this yield and produce 1,000 or more posts per sult in 100,000 acres of plantation, but major acre across a 20-year rotation. Thus, establish- harvests would not begin until the 21st year. Ch. 13—Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories ● 283

Similarly, if 100,000 acres of high-value hard- ACP is designed to take land out of annual wood plantations were established, the average crop production that would presumably be annual production would be about 70 million worth more to society for its environmental board feet. In 1981, 11 million board feet of services when fallow than for its products hardwood lumber and 97 million square feet when cropped. FIP is oriented toward the of hardwood panel and veneer were imported. greatest return on invested money rather than Here again, the current demand could support to widest spread reforestation and, thus, land- a planting program of this scale. Puerto Rico, owners with greater earning capacity have however, would still import other products such preference over those with greater need for as paper, furniture, veneers, and composites. assistance. Neither program assures income during the years before harvest (7). Plantation forestry has not attracted much private investment on Puerto Rico for several In recent years, Federal policy has changed reasons: emphasis from cost-sharing to income tax incentives to effect forestry practices on private Ž Private landholdings tend to be small, lands. So the budget has been reduced for the reducing cost effectiveness of intensive ACP and FIP programs. Forestry incentives in forestry activities and increasing the com- Puerto Rico are lost with this change, as petition between forestry and other land citizens there are exempt from paying U.S. uses (e.g., agriculture or recreation). Federal income taxes. ● Shortages of capital and credit for small- plot landholders may not permit invest- Successful programs to stimulate private in- ment by rural people in plantation vestment in forestry require the simultaneous forestry, development of extension and education pro- ● Many private landholders in Puerto Rico grams, nursery production and delivery sys- hold land for its recreational or future tems, and trained foresters and forest techni- development values and may not be in- cians. Loggers, sawmill operators, and lumber terested in its productive value. treating and drying experts must be trained, Ž High land prices and a law limiting and marketing systems must be developed (19). private or corporate landholdings to 500 Since it takes years to develop some of these acres may be disincentives to investment systems, their simultaneous development must in plantation forestry. be part of a long-term continuing effort. This requires a stable political commitment. Two Federal programs administered by the USDA Agricultural Stabilization and Conserva- Until recently, slow progress in forestry has tion Service (ASCS) are designed to aid private been due to a lack of Federal and local funding landowners in forestry activities: the Agricul- and political support. The Commonwealth gov- tural Conservation Program (ACP) and the For- ernment for at least 15 years had not put a high estry Incentive Program (FIP). Both provide priority on forestry. But Puerto Rico now has cost-sharing to small-plot landowners. the legal (Forest Law No. 133 of 1975) and administrative structure (through the Department FIP and ACP were used only in Puerto Rico. of Natural Resources) to develop a strong and Between 1975 and 1980, there had been only effective Forest Service. 23 participants in the FIP program in Puerto Rico, reforesting only 213 acres (27). ACP The Puerto Rico Department of Natural Re- allows greater eligibility and is an older pro- sources (DNR) has recently embarked on an gram. From 1936 to 1980, Federal ACP incen- ambitious program to bring private landowners tives helped to plant over 30,000 acres in Puerto into commercial forestry. This program relies Rico for soil erosion control and commercial heavily on U.S. Federal cost-sharing programs purposes. There have been no participants in for private landholders and on funding from FIP or ACP in the U.S. Virgin Islands or the U.S. Forest Service State and Private Forestry U.S. western Pacific territories. grants. Unfortunately, these Federal funds are 284 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources declining. The program is organized into three Some commercial exploitation of lumber for phases, as follows: a media program, harvest local use could be allowed on larger islands, technology demonstration, and organization of but in general the forests of the western Pacific forestry cooperatives. islands are too meager to sustain commercial development of forest products such as The U.S. Virgin Islands also has a reforesta- sawlogs, lumber, wood chips, or paper pulp tion program for private landowners, funded (15). Local markets for firewood, charcoal, local by the U.S. Forest Service State and Private construction materials, crafts, and fruit crops Forestry program and by the local government. provide opportunities for investment in tree This program, in operation since 1967, oper- plantations. Research and demonstration plots ates a nursery, runs an urban forestry program of native and introduced species and methods on public lands, and runs a rural reforestation of transferring technologies to villages and program, An average of 25 to 30 acres are re- private landholders need to be established, es- forested each year (3). pecially for intensive firewood plantations. The goal of the reforestation program is to Opportunity: The U.S. Congress and the U.S. provide a local supply of high-value hard- Forest Service could jointly provide political woods, especially mahogany. As incentives, the and financial support for DNR and Virgin Is- Virgin Islands Forestry Program offers lowlands Department of Agriculture programs to cost rental of land-clearing equipment as well encourage plantation forestry to increase self- as free seedlings and technical advice. In ad- sufficiency and build local forest industries. dition, the U.S. Virgin Islands Government of- Congress could communicate to the heads of fers a 95 percent property tax rebate for lands retained in agriculture or forestry, Most U.S. Caribbean governments the importance Congress places on sustainable development reforested lands are those too steep for cultiva- of local forest resources. The Forest Service tion or grazing and, thus, the program indirect- could provide support for local programs ly reduces runoff and erosion. through State and Private Forestry grants. Such The urban forestry program sponsors plant- actions are needed to ensure continuity of pro- ing of mahogany and other species on public grams despite political changes. lands. Since the potential volume of wood is The Forest Service could provide increased small in the U.S. Virgin Islands, local produc- technical assistance to U.S. tropical territories tion of high-value products seems appropriate. in the Pacific to identify areas suitable for in- Small and low-value trees removed during thin- vestment in plantation forestry and to develop ning could be used for fence posts and char- technologies appropriate for forest manage- coal. Even street and yard trees can be valua- ment under the tropical island conditions. The ble: an estimated 500,000 board feet of mer- Forest Service, in cooperation with the Feder- chantable mahogany exists in the islands (23). ated States of Micronesia, is using soil and veg- A small wood crafts and specialty furniture etation maps to perform the first forest re- industry exists on St. Croix. Urban and road- source assessment of those islands. Similar as- side trees that must be removed for other sessments could be done to develop plans for reasons supply much of the raw material. Bran- other areas. ches and crotches in the trunk provide figured wood and can be the most valuable part of the Forestry Technologies to tree. This use of available wood could be a model for economic use of wood where large- Support Agriculture scale commercial forestry is not feasible. Agroforestry and watershed technologies are Transportation costs and insecure land ten- designed to use trees to support agricultural ure hinder timber production for other than and other resources. Coastal resources, in par- local uses on most western Pacific islands. ticular, are affected by island forest manage- Ch. 13—Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories ● 285

Photo credit: William Balmer

Urban forestry in the U.S. Virgin Islands. These trees (hybrid mahogany) will be harvested for lumber ment. Elevated tropical islands (“high islands”) breadfruit). Teak/forage agroforestry has been have steep slopes and, where cleared, tend to practiced in the U.S. Virgin Islands, although have high erosion rates. The estimated erosion this has little potential for expansion (23). rates in the U.S. Caribbean compared with the continental U.S. average are 15 times higher Traditional agroforestry systems are becoming obsolete because of Federal food assistance for ungrazed forest land, nearly 10 times higher programs and other alternatives to subsistence for cleared cropland, and 18 times higher for food production. The necessary skills and rangeland. knowledge gradually are being lost on many Agroforestry islands or may reside only in the oldest generation (38). The U.S. Forest Service is beginning Agroforestry is a traditional practice in Puerto a small project to evaluate traditional agrofor- Rico (coffee/shade tree, fruit tree/plaintain) and estry in Micronesia. Through its vegetation on many Pacific islands (tree/yam, coconut/ mapping project of the Federated States of Mi- 286 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources — —

Photo credit: C. Whitesell Breadfruit—used here to make a canoe—is often used in traditional agroforestry practice in the western Pacific. Although agroforestry has declined in these islands, it retains considerable potential as a productive and sustainable land use

cronesia and Palau, the Forest Service has lo- Opportunity: Improved agroforestry systems cated considerable acreage that is still used for alined with traditional techniques should be ac- traditional agroforestry. It can be a sustainable ceptable to people already using agroforestry and productive land use, especially on slopes and transferable to new practitioners. Agrofor- where open-land, bare-soil types of agriculture estry in place of cleared-land agriculture, es- result in erosion and subsequent siltation. pecially in mountainous areas, could reduce erosion and siltation and provide a sustainable The U.S. Forest Service Institute of Pacific use for some degraded and marginal lands. Islands Forestry is pursuing some research in In Puerto Rico, which has better road sys- agroforestry. It includes species trials and tems and markets than the other islands, agro- nursery development in the Marshall Islands forestry producing a cash crop would probably and Yap, studies of the effects of fertilizer on growth and yield of certain agroforestry crops, be best accepted. The USDA Mayaguez Insti- tute of Tropical Agriculture in Puerto Rico and growth studies of some tree species. The could perform trials on its experimental lands Institute of Tropical Forestry in Puerto Rico in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service. has performed a survey of agroforestry techniques in Latin America (37) but is not conduct- In the western Pacific, subsistence agrofor- ing further research on this topic. estry could be appropriate in the short term, Ch. 13—Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories ● 287 — combined with research on species suitable for cash-crop agroforestry that could be implemented as markets develop. Western Pacific trials could be performed jointly by the U.S. Forest Service, the University of Guam, the Nekken Forestry Experiment Station on Palau, the Metalinim Forestry Station on Ponape, and with other island organizations and agencies.

Watersheds The most pronounced impacts of forest loss in the U.S. tropical territories are on island streams and coastal resources. Deforestation has caused permanent streams on some islands to disappear and it contributes to increased runoff, flooding, water shortages, and erosion. Siltation has harmful effects on lagoons and reefs, affecting fish and other marine resources important to island people, Most upper watersheds in Puerto Rico have steep slopes and many should remain forest- covered. In general, these lands are also too steep for significant wood harvest. With appropriate regulation, however, some gathering, recreation activities, and residential development might be allowed. The U.S. Virgin Islands have major water problems. There are no permanent streams on the islands. Island aquifer water levels are declining as growing populations pump out more water than is recharged. Water supplies are derived primarily from costly desaliniza- tion of sea water and water barged in from Photo credit: William Balmer Puerto Rico. Watersheds in the U.S. Virgin Is- lands are privately owned and mostly brush This plantation of blue mahoe (Hibiscus elatus), a valuable hardwood that gorws well on many moist sites in Puerto Rico covered. Some livestock is run on these lands, like others planted on private lands, was established for but there is little agriculture, except on St. watershed protection Croix. Nothing is done collectively to manage forestation, so that plumes of eroded soils often these lands for water retention and erosion pre- are seen near the mouths of streams in Micro- vention. nesia. The silt represents a lost resource and Natural siltation in the western Pacific region pollutes the marine environment. Activities is greatest around high islands. Elevated water- that aggravate soil erosion include cultivation sheds collect and accelerate runoff. Around practices, construction, roadbuilding, and these islands, however, mangrove forests and burning, which removes vegetative cover from stands of seagrass act as filters to remove hills, Due to repeated burnings on Northern sediments before the runoff water reaches Babeldaob (Palau), formerly permanent streams lagoons or reefs. In many areas, erosion and now run only when rain falls, and then they marine siltation have been accelerated by de- are often fast and muddy (5), 288 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Opportunity: Resource managers disagree on prepared a financial analysis of small-scale the relative advantages of reforesting water- private forestry (20). sheds or leaving them in grass and brush cover. Knowledge of the remaining tropical forests Reforestation reduces runoff and erosion rates in the western Pacific, the local uses of tropical and so increases catchment lifetimes and pro- forest products (e.g., medicines), and local cus- tects coastal resources. Some experts believe toms involving forests is insufficient for plan- it might increase aquifer recharge. On the other ning. Information on the nature and magnitude hand, trees use more water than grass and of the forest resources, including vegetation, brush, so tree planting reduces the amount of land use, watershed, wildlife, commercial water immediately available to catchments. De- timber, and ecosystems is either lacking or too graded pasture and brush are more susceptible scattered to assist forest management plan- to frequent burning and conversion to unsus- ning and protection programs. tainable land uses than are managed forests (22). A careful assessment is required to deter- The U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Is- mine the optimal vegetation cover for each lands (TTPI) Government contracted with the watershed area. There seems little doubt that U.S. Soil Conservation Service and the U.S. steep coastal slopes should be forested to re- Forest Service to map the soils and vegetation duce erosion and, thus, reduce siltation of la- cover types of the Republic of Palau and the goons, reefs, and mangroves. four states of the Federated States of Micro- nesia. These soil and vegetation maps are used Resource Development PIanning in land-use planning and are being used to conduct the first forest resource assessment of the Most conversion of tropical forest land to Federated States of Micronesia. Preparation of other uses is done without adequate consider- State/Territorial Forest Resource Program ation of whether the natural and human re- Plans is expected to be completed in 1983. sources available at the site can sustain the new Similar assessments could be conducted else- land uses. Resource development planning is where in the western Pacific (38). Current a systematic attempt to match land develop- guidelines and funding permit the U.S. Forest ment activities to the capabilities of the specific Service to conduct resource inventories and sites (ch. 11). forest management research only when Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have cooperating island governments provide fun- been extensively studied and are classified un- ding and field assistance (4). The U.S. Forest der the Beard system, based on floristics and Service has memoranda of understanding with species composition (1,2); the Holdridge Land each of the island governments regarding Classification System, based on precipitation, resource assessments, but inadequate funding biotemperature, and potential evapotranspira- has hindered completion of these efforts. tion (8,9); and the USDA Soil Conservation A complementary series of assessments by Land Capability System (28). Because land uses the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service could deter- and vegetation are continuously changing, de- mine damage by and control measures needed tailed land classification data require contin- for introduced animal species, effects of land ued updating and revision. uses on coastal organisms, conservation meas- In the U.S. tropical territories, little use has ures for endemic species, and other topics. The been made of economic and social assessments U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has recently for forestry development. The Puerto Rico completed an ornithological and botanical sur- Department of Natural Resources has convey on Guam. Additional “terrestrial surveys” ducted a benefit-cost analysis of an expanded in the northern Mariana Islands are under way. forest tree planting and wood-use program bas- Similar surveys are expected to be undertaken ed on small-scale harvesting (19). DNR has also on Ponape, Truk, Yap, and Kosrae (17), but Ch. 13—Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories ● 289 budget reductions have postponed these efforts productive investments (7). This has begun to (39). change only recently. Opportunity: Resource development plan- A primary forestry objective of the Puerto ning could help identify where agricultural ac- Rico DNR is to change public attitudes through tivities should be limited and where they might education and incentives to involve people in require special designs. Similarly, such plan- forestry policy and activities. DNR has one or ning could help determine optimal sites for two field agents in each of the five regions of roads from both ecological and social points Puerto Rico who receive 2 weeks of forestry of view. To supplement this, island government training. This training is to be updated regular- agencies could prepare environmental impact ly. In addition, pamphlets on forest planting statements, hold public hearings, and seek ap- may now be found in all Agricultural Exten- proval from the appropriate local resource sion Offices and a new pamphlet on the finan- agency to control and monitor logging, land cial opportunities of timber production on clearing, road construction, coral mining, etc. private lands will soon be disseminated (21). (38). The U.S. Forest Service and Army Corps Education also has been a major focus of U.S. of Engineers could provide assistance when assistance to the western Pacific territories. Pri- road-building activities are being planned. mary and secondary education are compulsory in Micronesia, and the Federal Government Education, Research, and has helped create several community colleges Technology Transfer and the University of Guam. Each of these has been designated a land-grant college, giving Lack of awareness of forest resource values, them access to Federal support for agriculture shortages of forest resource professionals, and and forestry. insufficient technology transfer are institutional constraints that inhibit development of Many of the inhabitants of the island terri- sustainable forest systems in the U.S. Carib- tories can be reached through education be- bean and western Pacific territories (ch. 12). cause of the young age structure. For example, 44 percent of Micronesia’s population in 1980 Environmental Education was under the age of 15. Under the Compact of Free Association agreement, the U.S. Gov- Government decisionmakers in the U.S. terri- ernment will continue to fund public educa- tories have expressed growing interest in sus- tion, including a $3 million grant for a higher taining and developing their forest resources. education scholarship fund. But many of these However, this interest may be temporary un- scholarships are based on financial need and less people at all levels of society seek alterna- not on the field of study needed for economic tives to resource-degrading activities and invest growth (33). Increased exposure to environ- in resource-sustaining technologies. Motivat- mental education in primary and secondary ing such action is the goal of environmental schools, together with awarding scholarships education. to students interested in resource development, Like other New World colonies, many Carib- may be the first steps toward creating environ- bean islands were almost completely cut over mental awareness. to produce agricultural export crops between Opportunity: The Puerto Rican Government 1800 and 1898, producing a “burn the forests” could begin to encourage resource-conserving attitude toward development (14). As yet, rising attitudes by increasing environmental educa- incomes and education have not brought about tion at all levels. Three interacting activities a widespread environmental awareness move- that could have significant effects are: ment such as that in the continental United States. The result has been a continuing view 1. Create training courses for primary and that the forest is useful for recreation and tour- secondary level teachers using protected ism but must be removed to make way for more forests as demonstration areas. 290 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Photo credit: USFS-ITF Youth conservation worker programs can introduce local people to basic principles of ecology and forest management. Here, Young American Conservation Corps enrollees plant mahogany” in a Puerto Rican public fores{

2. Increase use of local youth conservation leges could collaborate to produce course ma- workers in National and Commonwealth terials that stress resource awareness and forests and other natural resource areas. * encourage the territorial governments to in- 3. Make forest resource management an area clude resource and conservation programs in of study at the University of Puerto Rico school curricula. They could also translate either by developing a resource manage- technical environmental information for gen- ment curriculum or by creating a “center eral public use (29). of excellence” to provide a focus of interest and efforts on tropical forest resources Professional Education and (ch. 12). Technical Training Environmental education in the U.S. western The U.S. tropical territories do not have a Pacific seems to have had little effect (15). The strong constituency concerned with forest con- U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- servation. Developing such a constituency and vice, National Park Service, National Marine integrating natural resource considerations into Fisheries Service, Peace Corps, and local col- economic development both will require per- *Currently, Young American Conservation Corps (YACC) sonnel with substantial knowledge and exper- workers in Puerto Rico are trained by ITF personnel and as- tise in natural resource management in general signed to Commonwealth and National Forests (30). and tropical forestry in particular. In the short Ch. 13—Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories ● 291 term, a limited number of resource profession- 4. Forestry institutions in each region could als with expertise in tropical forestry can be be designated “centers of excellence” in attracted to the islands from the mainland. But education and research related to tropical the Forest Service reward structure inhibits forestry resources and as such could pro- this, and lack of scientific facilities and fund- vide graduate study and research facilities ing hinder university personnel. In the long for students from U.S. and tropical univer- run, an effective method to educate and train sities (ch, 12). local people is needed. The University of Puerto Rico lacks a forestry Research curriculum. Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin The U.S. Forest Service Institute of Tropical Islands support only two students per year in Forestry (ITF) was established in 1939 as a re- forestry and forest ecology training. A similar sult of congressional recognition that lack of dearth of forestry specialists exists in the U.S. technical knowledge hindered successful refor- western Pacific. No forestry curriculum exists estation and forestry efforts in Puerto Rico. ITF at the University of Guam, although officials uses the National Forest, some Commonwealth have expressed a strong interest in developing forests, and the 124-acre Estate Thomas Exper- one (4). The closest forestry school is at the for- imental Forest in the U.S. Virgin Islands for est ranger school at the University of Bulolo research. ITF conducts cooperative research in Papua New Guinea. The need for trained for- with agencies such as AID, the Peace Corps, esters and forest technicians is particularly U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and several uni- acute as the island governments expand their versities and Caribbean nation governments. government forestry agencies and forestry Recent ITF research is intended to: plans. ● develop guidelines to establish and man- Opportunity: Fostering natural resource manage timber plantations (primarily pines agement training and education in the U.S. ter- and exotic hardwoods) without adversely ritories could be achieved in four ways: affecting site productivity; 1. Students interested in natural resource ● develop knowledge about biological poten- management could be encouraged to apply tial of timber production from secondary for scholarships at U.S. schools and intern- forests, with due regard for other environ- ships with private organizations. The best mental concerns; and sponsors for such scholarships might be ● develop knowledge about forest wildlife private firms with production facilities or habitat requirements and techniques to markets in the territories. manage these habitats (focusing on the en- 2. Scholarships also could be provided for dangered Puerto Rican parrot and associ- forest technician students to attend natural ated species). resource management programs in tropi- ITF research activities have traditionally fo- cal country schools (e. g., Costa Rica, Ven- cused on basic ecology and industrial forestry. ezuela, Papua New Guinea), where tech- The latter is not widely applicable to the U.S. nical training may be more relevant. Caribbean. Only about 6 percent of landhold- 3. Forestry/forest ecology/conservation cur- ings are 100 acres or greater, but these cover ricula could be developed at the Univer- 65 percent of farmland. Most of these larger sity of Puerto Rico and the University of holdings are commercial farms on the coastal Guam, possibly using McIntyre-Stennis plains or coffee plantations on hilly regions. funds. * Many of the large-plot landowners in forested regions may be real estate investors waiting for land prices in the U.S. Caribbean to increase, and as such may be uninterested in productive *The McIntyre-Stennis Act of 1962 authorizes cooperative forestry research between the U.S. Department of Agriculture uses of their land. Environmental education and state and land-grant universities. and extension efforts could be made to change 292 . Technologies to Sustain Tropicat Forest Resources this attitude and some commercial forestry re- only three professional staff comprising 2 search should be conducted for these land- scientist-years. It is involved in: owners. ● conducting resource inventories in coop- However, research directions have begun to eration with Island governments; change in recent years. Since the Forest and ● testing native and introduced tree species, Rangeland Renewable Resources Research Act especially nitrogen-fixing trees; of 1978 (Public Law 95-307) and the concurrent ● developing silvicultural methods for refor- growth in interest in international forestry, ITF esting understocked savanna uplands and has conducted a survey of agroforestry in Latin deforested coastal areas, thereby increas- America (37) and studies of fuelwood producing protection and use of critical water- tion (30). Yet, ITF budgets have been cut back sheds, and/or for timber production; continuously for the past few years and the pri- ● publishing a nontechnical handbook on mary focus is still on industrial production. forest reestablishment; • selecting, establishing, protecting, and Industrial forestry research at the ITF could using natural areas; be complemented by research aimed at the ● analyzing performance of selected coconut needs of Caribbean society in general (e.g., en- varieties on tropical islands and atolls; vironmental services, esthetics) and of the ● studying potential for sustained-yield man- small-plot landholder. Nearly 90 percent of the agement of the indigenous fruit bat; and farmland ownerships (covering 270,000 acres), ● developing cultural practices to maximize are less than 48 acres (26). Most of these land- - - - yields of selected agroforestry crops owners have low incomes. Rural unemploy- (31,39). ment is high, implying a need for labor-intensive technologies. Profitable agroforestry systems As the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Is- to produce both subsistence and commercial lands government infrastructure is dismantled, products need to be developed and dissemi- the Research Work Unit is developing close nated. Industrial forestry research could be working relations with the extant and emerg- appropriate for this group if forestry coopera- ing governments in American Samoa and Mi- tives were organized. Research areas such as cronesia. More personnel and funding will be watershed and wildlife management, which required to make the best use of this institution. provide benefits to society in general, deserve more attention, particularly given the water problems in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Technology Transfer Although the U.S. Virgin Islands have little Forestry extension agents and activities in agriculture and little potential for commercial Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are forestry, protective forestry activities are nec- few. Although there are a number of field essary to preserve resources for the inhabitants agents who advise landowners on land-use and for tourism. ITF research in the Estate alternatives in the U.S. Caribbean (Department Thomas Experimental Forest could be expand- of Natural Resources, U.S. Soil Conservation ed to include experimental urban forestry, wat- Service, and U.S. Agricultural Extension Serv- ershed analyses, and other appropriate topics. ice agents), few have been trained in forestry. More research personnel and funding and sel- Field agents have little incentive to seek this ection of research topics more relevant to local training because they typically are responsible research needs are necessary. for many areas of extension and little of their The American Pacific Islands Forestry Re- time is devoted to forestry. Rural landowners search Work Unit, at the Institute of Pacific must rely on the extension and media activities Islands Forestry, is part of the U.S. Forest Serv- of the Puerto Rico DNR and the ITF to become ice Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experi- informed of techniques and available incen- ment Station. The Research Work Unit has tives. Ch. 13—Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories • 293

One U.S. Forest Service person is responsi- in Puerto Rico. Foresters from the United ble for State and Private Forestry in Puerto States who are experienced in aiding State for- Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. He helps the estry organizations can be effective in advising Puerto Rico DNR apply for U.S. Forest Service on nursery operations, logging techniques, use grants and coordinates U.S. participation in the strategies, genetic improvement programs, Cooperative Forest Management Act. This act research needs, extension practices, and other allows the U.S. Forest Service to cooperate elements of program development. with the DNR to promote reforestation and Congress has made special allowance for the protection of public and private lands (14). Peace Corps to operate in the U.S. Trust Terri- There also is only one person assigned to State tory, at least until the Compact of Free Associa- and private forestry activities for Hawaii and tion is signed. These volunteers could provide the western Pacific. a means for technology transfer and for feed- The forestry agencies in the western Pacific back to researchers regarding needed adapta- do not have organized extension services. Dis- tions of technologies. The Peace Corps could tances between islands compound the prob- ensure that all its rural volunteers have at least lems of devising technologies appropriate to some forestry training and are in contact with the area and people. Scientists and technology the appropriate agencies for technical aid. developers usually can visit only a few islands. A cadre of local, “grass-roots” naturalists Opportunity: The U.S. Forest Service could could be created in the U.S. western Pacific support Puerto Rican forestry programs through with help from the U.S. Forest Service, Depart- increased State forestry grants. These grants ment of the Interior, Peace Corps, and island seem an effective means of stimulating the governments and universities. Such a program Commonwealth Forest Service to support, co- could provide general training that would qual- ordinate, and demonstrate desirable forestry ify participants to assist both permanent and practices. The flexibility and individuality of visiting research scientists. They could help the State grant program allow specific applica- spread information on appropriate land uses tion of funding to U.S. Caribbean problems. and help integrate new technologies with local This would require increased personnel for the customs (38). U.S. Forest Service State and Private Forestry

CONCLUSION

If tropical forest resources are to be sustained assistance. The Federal institutions responsible in the U.S. territories, indigenous resource man- for assisting forestry in the U.S. tropical terri- agement organizations must be strengthened. tories are too small and their focus is too limited Because these governments are still heavily to give adequate impetus to local investment. reliant on U.S. assistance and their resource More research and more forestry technology agencies are in their infancy, the United States transfer are required, as is greater response to retains a substantial role in developing both the the changing needs of the territories. agencies and resource-sustaining technologies. Application of U.S. Expertise: U.S. expertise In the short run, U.S. technical assistance is relevant to tropical forest resources is not used needed to design forest management plans. In effectively in the U.S. tropical territories. This the long run, this assistance could be replaced is partly because many experts consider the by a skilled cadre of people trained in natural U.S. tropical territories a relatively insignifi- resource management at local institutions. Pro- cant part of the overall tropical forest resource grams to encourage private forestry for each conservation problem and partly because organ- island probably will also require U.S. Federal izations that might be used to focus professional 294 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources expertise on the U.S. tropics do not have the trated on nursery planting and extension with- necessary support to do so. out operational plans or assignment of respon- Definition of Roles in U.S. Western Pacific: sibility (4). without more outside assistance, development is likely to proceed so slowly that Resource development planning in the western needed resource productivity and economic Pacific territories is constrained by a lack of opportunities will be lost. definition of the respective roles of local, U.S. Federal, and international organizations. Little The Federal Resources Planning Act of 1974 analysis and no decisions have been made on (RPA) as amended, the Cooperative Forestry the question of whether the authority of the Assistance Act of 1978, and other recent leg- U.S. Federal agencies is adequate or appropri- islation have extended the prospects of Federal ate to serve the resource needs of Micronesia forestry assistance to Pacific islands. The U.S. and American Samoa (29). In particular, with Forest Service could increase aid to territorial the political changes in the region, applicable governments in developing natural resource Federal programs must be identified and di- agencies, provide technical assistance for rected toward island needs. Under new agree- resource assessments, help develop policies, ments with territory governments, U.S. support management, and enforcement plans, and pro- is planned to be offered primarily in cash vide technical assistance for implementation. rather than through Federal categorical pro- Private Forest Investment Programs: Pro- grams, although room is left for extension of grams designed for the U.S. continental States agreed-upon programs (34). to promote soil and water conservation and pri- The Interagency Task Force on U.S. Terri- vate reforestation usually do not apply well to tories* could conduct a comprehensive review tropical island characteristics. For example, of Federal legislation applicable to natural re- small landholding size, low income, and lack source use in the western Pacific area. This ef- of technical knowledge prohibit many rural fort could identify legislation needed to support landholders in Puerto Rico from participating sustainable natural resource development. It in reforestation. also could identify alternative ways to imple- Because the U.S. tropical territories are so dif- ment legislation that would both sustain the re- ferent from the 50 States—politically, econom- sources and achieve the goals of the agencies ically, culturally, and ecologically—investment (29). incentive programs designed for the States are Local Resource Agencies: Opportunities ex- unlikely to be effective in the islands. And be- ist to use forest-resource sustaining technolo- cause the territories are themselves heteroge- gies in western Pacific territories. The territor- neous, a single program probably cannot be ial governments all have designated natural designed to be effective on all islands. An alter- resource agencies with a forestry component. native is to make funds and technical assist- But these agencies are relatively new and do ance available to private investors through indi- not yet have adequate funding, professional vidual territorial governments. personnel or policies to take full advantage of Congress could create a reforestation incen- the opportunities. tives program that could: 1) be operated joint- Political support for the natural resource ly by the U.S. Forest Service and the territorial agencies seems to exist. However, there has governments, 2) be designed specifically for been very limited planning for the forested local characteristics, 3) be integrated with other areas. In practice, some forestry has concen- natural resource development objectives, 4) in- ——. ------—— clude agroforestry and/or an annual loan to *The Interagency Task Force on U.S. Territories includes rep- provide early income before harvest, and 5) en- resentatives from most Federal agencies, including Housing and courage organization of forestry cooperatives. Urban Development, Health and Human Services, Education, More generally, Congress could analyze all leg- Defense, Commerce, Interior, Agriculture, and the Environmen- tal Protection Agency. It is housed under the Department of the islation involving proposed or actual natural Interior’s Office of Territorial and International Affairs. resource programs that might be applicable to Ch. 13—Forestry Technologies for U.S. Tropical Territories . 295 the U.S. territories and write in language ensur- tions to sustain tropical forest resources. ing applicability to the needs of the territories However, both institutes have too few staff and (20,25). Alternatively, it could create comple- budgets that are small and declining. They can- mentary but different natural resource conser- not support the scale of development activity vation and use programs designed specifically necessary to sustain the U.S. tropical forest refor the characteristics and needs of the sources. If the institutions are given further territories. responsibilities in international forestry without new funding and personnel, their effective- U.S. Forest Service Institutes located in ness will be diminished. Puerto Rico and Hawaii are assisting the territories in developing technologies and institu-

CHAPTER 13 REFERENCES

1. Beard, J, S., “Climax Vegetation in Tropical 11. Johnson, S. P., “Palau and a Seventy Islands America, ” Ecology 25:127-158, 1944. In: Tropical Park,” National Parks and Conserva- Schmidt (19). tion Magazine 46(4):12-17; (7):4-8; (8):9-13, 1972. 2. Beard, J, S., “The Classification of Tropical 12. Krochmal, C., “Identification and Development American Vegetation-t ypes, ” Ecology of New Tropical Forest Resources in Puerto and 36:89-100, 1955. In: Schmidt, (19). the U.S. Virgin Islands,” OTA commissioned 3. Bough, E. L., Director, Forestry Program, U.S. paper, 1982. Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture, per- 13, Lambrecht, F. L,, “Development and Health in sonal communication, 1983. the Tropics, Part 1: West Africa, ” paper pre- 4. Clayton, R., “National Progress Report on For- pared for AID, Arid Land Study Office, Univer- estry for Pacific Islands (USA), ” prepared for sity of Arizona, no date. the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Eleventh 14. Liegel, L. H., “Woodland Conservation in Puer- Session, January 1981. to Rico: Its Past, Present and Future, ” New 5. Emmons, B. R., “Forestry in Micronesia,” Divi- York College of Environmental Science and sion of Agricuhure, Department of Resources Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y., thesis, 1973. and Development, Trust Territory of the Pacific 15, Owen, R. P., “Remarks Concerning Tropical Islands (available at the Forestry Library, Forests in Micronesia,” personal communica- Ponape), 1971. tion, Jan. 6, 1982. 6. Falanruw, M. C, V., “Study Plan: Ecology and 16. Pico, R., The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chica- Management of the Fruitbats of Yap,” U.S. go: Aldine Publishing Co., 1974). Forest Service Pacific Southwest Forest and 17. Philpot, C. W., “An Administrator’s Look at Range Experiment Station, Institute of Pacific Programs in the Pacific Islands, ” Moving For- Islands Forestry, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1979. estry and Wildlife into the 80’s, Proceedings of 7. Hess, A., “The Forestry Incentives Program in Hawaii Forestry Wildlife Conference, USDA Puerto Rico,” The Johns Hopkins University, Forest Service, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1982. Public Policy Program, thesis, 1982. 18. Richardson, D., “Coconut Charcoal Could Fuel 8. Holdridge, L. R., Life Zone Ecology, Tropical Ships,” Pacific Islands Monthly, May 1981. Science Center, San Jose, Costa Rica, 1967. IZI: 19. Schmidt, R., “Forestry in Puerto Rico and the Schmidt (19). Virgin Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 9. Holdridge, L. R., Crenke, W. C., Hathaway, W. 1982. H., Liang, J., and Tosi, J. A., F’orest Environ- 20. Schmidt, R., “Forestry in Puerto Rico, ” F’orestry ments in Tropical Life Zones, A Pilot Study (Ox- in the Caribbean, U.S. Man and the Biosphere ford: Pergamon Press, 1971). In: Schmidt (19). Program, 1982. 10. International Union for Conservation of Nature 21. Schmidt, R., Director, Forest Service, Puerto and Natural Resources (IUCN), 1982 United Na- Rico Department of Natural Resources, per- tions List of National Parks and Protected sonal communication, 1982. Areas. Gland. Switzerland, 1982. 22. Schmidt, R., personal communication, 1983.

25-287 0 - 84 - 20 296 • Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

23. Somberg, S. I., “Virgin Islands Forestry Re- Range Experiment Station Publication No. search: A Problem Analysis, ” College of the 1252, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1981. Virgin Islands, Virgin Islands Agricultural Ex- 32, U.S. Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest periment Station, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Range Experiment Station, “International Report No. 9, 1976. Forestry Plan for Oceania, Asia, and Western 24. Swiderski, J., “Small-Scale Forest Industries for Pacific,” U.S. Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Developing Countries,” FAO position paper Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, prepared for the Eighth World Forestry Con- Calif., 1980. gress, Jakarta, Indonesia, Oct. 16-28, 1978. 33 U.S. General Accounting Office, The Challenge 25. Towle, E., Island Resources Foundation, St. of Enhancing Micronesia Self-suffi”ciency Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, personal commu- (Washington, D. C.: U.S. General Accounting Of- nication, 1983. fice, 1983). 26, U.S. Bureau of the Census, “1978 Census of 34 U.S. Congress, U.S. Senate, Energy and Natu- Agriculture” (Washington D. C.: U.S. Govern- ral Resources Committee, “Oversight Hearings ment Printing office, 1980). of Micronesia Political Status Negotiations, 27. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural June 3, 1980” (photocopy). Stabilization and Conservation Service, “For- 35. Wadsworth, F. H., “Timber,” Conceptos, plan estry Incentives Program: From Inception of y programa para una agricultural moderna en Program Through September 30, 1980” (Wash- Puerto Rico, J. Vicente-Chandler Special Report ington, D. C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, to the Secretary of Agriculture of Puerto Rico, 1980). 1978, pp. 325-340. In: Schmidt (19). 28. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conserva- 36. Wadsworth, F. H., “Timber and Forest Energy tion Service, Soil Survey of Puerto Rico Development Potentials for Puerto Rico,” 1982, (Washington D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Symposium on Biomass Production in Puerto Office, 1942). In: Pico, 1974. Rico (in preparation). In: Schmidt (19). 29. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, The Pacific 37. Weaver, P,, “Agri-silviculture in Tropical Islands: The Challenge of the 1980’s, Depart- America,” Unasy]va 31(126):2-12, 1979. ment of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 38. Whitesell, C. D., Philpot, C. W., and Falanruw, Service, Region 1, Portland, C)reg., 1978. M. C. V., “Congressional Action to Improve the 30. U.S. Forest Service, Institute of Tropical For- Sustainability of U.S. Tropical Forests in the estry, “Annual Letter: 1981,” U.S. Forest Ser- Pacific,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982, vice, Southern Forest Experiment Station, In- 39. Whitesell, C., U.S. Forest Service, personal com- stitute of Tropical Forestry, Rio Piedras, Puer- munication, 1983. to Rico, 1981. 40. Whitmore J. L., and Liegel, L, H,, “Spacing Trial 31 U.S. Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands of Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis,” U.S. Forest Forestry, “Pacific Islands (Territories) Forestry Service Research Paper SO-162, Southern For- Research Unit,” Pacific Southwest Forest and est Experiment Station, New Orleans, La., 1980. PART III Options for Congress —.—.

●

Chapter 14 301 301 303 305 308 311 . 315 us. Expertise 316

. Chapter 14 Options for Congress

● Forestry projects sponsored by the U.S. linked more closely to the needs of tech- Agency for International Development nology users.

(AID), the United Nations, the World Bank, ● and other agencies are poorly coordinated. Developed nations benefit from the tropical forests’ biological diversity, so they ● Many opportunities exist to modify devel- could pay a share of the costs of preserv- opment assistance practices so they pro- ing natural forests. duce economic benefits while sustaining ● Demand for U.S. expertise in tropical for- renewable resources. est resources is increasing, but U.S. orga- ● Resource development planning can help nizations are not well organized or sup- maintain tropical forest resources and si- ported to use the limited existing expertise multaneously make economic develop- efficiently or to build more expertise. ment more profitable, but the techniques ● Forest resources in the U.S. tropical ter- to do so are underused. ritories generally are degraded, underde- ● Research on tropical forest resources veloped, and inadequately managed. needs to be more interdisciplinary and

INTRODUCTION

Tropical forests in U.S. territories and in graded rapidly by unmanaged exploitation and other nations are important to the United that substantial areas are being deforested for States. Forests support economic progress in unsustainable land uses. tropical countries, progress which is important for humanitarian reasons and for political sta- Rates of deforestation and forest degradation, bility. They supply fuel, food, fodder, and and the severity of the consequences, vary materials and will be increasingly important greatly from region to region. From a near-term as population doubles over the next 30 years. economic and social perspective, the loss of Tropical forests also provide many materials trees is most damaging in dry areas, where de- used by U.S. industry and consumers. More- forestation is both a cause and an effect of over, they contain a great diversity of biological desertification, and in mountainous water- resources. This is important to U.S. agriculture sheds, where deforestation upsets the hydro- and medicine and will become more important logic cycle and accelerates soil erosion. as nonrenewable resources are depleted. In ad- Resource degradation and deforestation in the dition, forests have significant beneficial ef- humid tropics are resulting in permanent loss fects on the conservation of soil and water re- of biological resources. sources and maintenance of environmental Many organizations, some funded entirely or quality. partly by the US. Government, are grappling Although data on the condition of tropical with tropical forest resource problems. Fund- forest resources are poor, information on their ing and levels of effort have risen substantial- extent and location is improving. Recent stud- ly during the past 5 years, and progress has ies indicate that tropical forests are being de- been made in developing and transferring tech-

301 302 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

nologies that can help sustain tropical forests, est conservation a higher priority. U.S. diplo- both in natural and modified condition. Yet, macy—e.g., supporting and influencing the the rate of technology improvement does not United Nations’ Environment Program and seem sufficient to overcome the processes of UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere program— forest resource degradation. has been effective in raising international awareness of tropical forest problems. Further increases in U.S. and international funding to develop and disseminate technolo- Forests in U.S. Caribbean and western Pa- gies will be necessary. But incremental changes cific island territories have hardly benefited in current techniques alone will not suffice to from the increased international awareness of sustain tropical forests. The underlying causes the importance of sustainable forest resource of deforestation and resource degradation are development. Those forests continue to receive institutional, social, and economic. Conse- little, if any, management, and data on erosion quently, many needed reforms can only come indicate that their potential productivity is be- from the governments and people of the tropi- ing reduced. cal nations. Here, too, the United States can Tropical forest resources represent a great be effective by helping tropical country govern- opportunity for sustained development. How- ments focus on root problems. ever, because of complex institutional and tech- The ultimate objective of forest resource de- nical constraints, too little such development velopment is to support people. Future genera- is occurring. Congress can encourage sustain- tions are expected to need forest products and able development of forest resources in the services as much as those of the past, so pro- U.S. territories by giving these areas higher pri- duction of forest goods and services must in- ority in domestic natural resource programs. crease as fast as population growth. Today, in- It also could direct domestic agencies to adapt creasing yields of forest products are accom- programs to the special situations that prevail plished in most tropical regions by sacrificing on tropical islands. For other nations congres- the renewability of resources. sional action can help resolve some institutional constraints by enhancing tropical gov- Investment in technologies discussed in pre- ernments’ abilities to plan and coordinate re- vious chapters of this report might make it pos- source development projects. sible to achieve the necessary production while sustaining the inherent renewability, at least Some technical constraints can be addressed for a time. However, if population growth is directly through congressional actions. U.S. or- not controlled, development and conservation ganizations and individuals have the capabili- objectives eventually will not be attainable. ty to assist in developing forest use systems that Technologies directly related to population provide goods and services for the basic needs growth are outside the scope of this assessment of tropical people while conserving forest pro- but have been addressed in another OTA as- ductivity. U.S. agencies already applying some sessment, World Population and Fertility Plan- of this expertise include the Agency for Inter- ning Technologies.1 national Development, Forest Service, Nation- al Academy of Sciences, National Park Serv- U.S. technology has helped stimulate insti- ice, Fish and Wildlife Service, and Soil Con- tutional reforms. For example, U.S.-trained servation Service. analysts in tropical countries working with U.S.-provided Landsat imagery have docu- Congress also could act to improve U.S. ef- mented deforestation rates (e.g., 2,7 percent per forts in technology development. Some actions, year in Thailand) that have motivated national such as the establishment of U.S. centers of ex- governments to institute new laws giving for- cellence in tropical forestry or increased U.S.

1 participation in multilateral agencies, would World Population and Fertility Planning Technologies: The Next 20 Years (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Tech- require increased funding in the near term. In nology Assessment, OTA-HR-157, February 1982). the long term, however, these actions should Ch, 14—Options for Congress ● 303 improve the tropical nations’ own abilities to This chapter identifies several major issues use and sustain forest resources and, thus, where Congress could take significant action should reduce the need for U.S. Government to improve conservation and sustainable devel- involvement. Other opportunities such as im- opment of tropical forest resources. For each proved coordination of fundamental research, issue, options for specific actions and their ad- applied research, and technology implementa- vantages and disadvantages are discussed. tion do not necessarily require additional funding but could require redefinition of priorities.

Issue more difficult to sustain. Whether that produc- Most forest resources in U.S. tropical ter- tivity will be realized depends on how soon for- ritories are not now being overexploited, but estry becomes integrated into the economic de- neither are they being managed or devel- velopment of rural areas. Getting the necessary oped. The territories lack strong institutions support for forestry depends on building an in- concerned about the productivity and sus- formed group of people who perceive that they tainability of forest resources. Thus, when will gain from forest conservation. the demand for land or jobs increases, the productive potential of the forests is likely The U.S. Forest Service’s Institute of Tropi- to be sacrificed. cal Forestry (Puerto Rico) and Institute of Pa- cific Islands Forestry (Hawaii) will continue to Most forests in the U.S. tropical territories have the major roles in researching and demon- are substantially degraded from their original strating forestry technologies until territorial condition. However, because of U.S. Federal natural resource agencies become sufficient. income supports and the relatively low popula- Low levels of onsite research and demonstration pressure on some islands, little incentive tion will inhibit growth of a constituency that exists to exploit them further. There is also lit- wants and uses appropriate forest management tle incentive to develop and conserve the forest. technologies. Meanwhile, without such tech- Whether the forests are stable in their de- nologies, rising populations and expectations graded condition, improving, or continuing to are likely to result in eventual degradation of degrade is unclear. Probably all these processes the forest resources, are occurring in different places. Available Unfortunately, many experts consider the data on soil erosion rates and anecdotal evi- U.S. tropical forests to be a relatively insignifi- dence suggest that the potential productivity cant part of the overall tropical forest conser- of the islands forests is being lost gradually. vation problem. Further, the institutions that Continued existence of large acreages of rel- might be expected to provide professional re- atively unproductive forest land may promote source development expertise in the U.S. trop- the idea that forests should be removed to make ical territories lack the necessary support to way for development. Forests need to be man- do SO. aged as an integral part of overall island re- Natural resource agencies in U.S. tropical source development, especially to protect wa- territories are small or exist in name only. They tersheds and coastal marine environments. require increased funding, professional person- Over the long term, as populations grow and nel, and technical assistance to be effective. In Federal supports decline, the productivity of addition, Federal resource conservation and the forests will become more important and yet production programs for privately owned for- 304 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources ests are, in general, not compatible with the Forest Service programs. Competition for such characteristics of the U.S. tropical territories. funds probably would be great. These program funds might be more effective if they supported private forestry programs designed and administered by territorial forest Option 2: agencies. Congress could support natural resource agencies in U.S. territories by increasing Option 1: funding for the cooperative State and private forestry programs of the U.S. Forest Service Congress could increase funding for U.S. institutes in Puerto Rico and Hawaii. Con- Forest Service research and technology de- gress could also create a program of grants velopment and could direct the Forest Serv- to territorial governments to encourage in- ice to increase coordination of its activities vestment in privately owned forests. with other resource agencies in the U.S. tropical territories. Stronger local capacity to manage forest resources would contribute to the territories’ self- The Forest Service institutes in Puerto Rico sufficiency. In the long run, it might reduce the and Hawaii have small budgets and have been need for development assistance from the cut back recently. These organizations have too United States. Forestry could provide rural em- few staff to support the scale of activity nec- ployment and increase sustainable production essary to sustain U.S. tropical forest resources. of food, wood, and other products that could Increased budgets and greater participation by be used instead of subsidized imports. A U.S. tropical forest experts are needed. stronger local research capability could help This option might be coupled with option 22, ensure applicability of technologies to local which is to establish U.S. centers of excellence conditions and could reduce dependence on to focus U.S. research, teaching, and resource research performed by the U.S. Forest Service. development expertise related to forest re- The Federal Government subsidizes private sources. Such centers could demonstrate a va- forestry with cost sharing and direct payments riety of sustainable management technologies to forest owners. Replacing these subsidies at sites in the U.S. tropical territories. They also with a program of grants administered by the would help develop the territories’ human re- territorial governments would provide the flex- sources by supporting education and training ibility needed to respond to each island ter- activities. ritory’s unique cultural, economic, and ecolog- More integration of U.S. Forest Service ac- ical characteristics. Furthermore, it would en- tivities with the objectives and programs of ter- courage the development of a constituency ritorial agencies responsible for resources other concerned with sustaining the forest resources. than forests (e.g., water and coastal marine re- Such a program could be used to keep the ben- sources) could help ensure that technologies efits available if the Federal forestry cost- are appropriate to the social and ecological sharing programs in other areas were replaced needs of individual islands. Also, cooperative with income tax incentives as has been pro- activities could provide a way to help the local posed. agencies prepare to eventually assume total re- This option would require increased funds sponsibility. for the Forest Service institutes both for disper- This option would require increased funding sal to local natural resource agencies and for for the U.S. Forest Service institutes and could increased administrative and professional per- require some reordering of research priorities sonnel. State and private forestry funds (for to increase emphasis on such topics as water- grants, loans, subsidized inputs, and extension shed management and agroforestry. Unless services) have been declining and would need new moneys were appropriated, the funds to be increased. This could either be new mon- might have to be transferred from other U.S. ey or money reallocated from other U.S. Forest Ch 14–Options for Congress ● 305

Service programs, but these programs have ernments to determine the guidelines for for- been cut substantially in recent years. In the estry program assistance. No resource pro- short term, the local natural resource agencies grams are included under the Compact of Free might not have the human and logistical re- association. The roles of local, U. S., and in- sources necessary to implement a greatly ex- ternational resource agencies in the U.S. Pa- panded program. cific territories need to be defined to coordinate actions. This option also would require new negotiations with the emerging Pacific territory gov-

DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE

Issue (Projects) ● Locating new agricultural settlements where the natural and human resources Development assistance is making progress are capable of sustaining farming practices to sustain tropical forests, but the gains are used. In some cases, this would mean re- insufficient to offset resource degradation. Many opportunities exist to continue and ac- fusing support for settlement projects celerate the progress. But congressional vig- planned for closed forest areas and redi- ilance is necessary to ensure that forestry recting settlements to sparsely populated projects receive an appropriate share of U.S. areas that are not forested. development assistance funds and that other ● Reforestation and management of natural types of projects complement the forestry forests to sustain environmental services efforts. and produce fuelwood, construction wood, polewood, and nonwood products. The Foreign Assistance Act directs develop- ● ment assistance organizations in which the Development and dissemination of local- United States participates to give higher priori- ly acceptable technologies to make wood- ty to the problems of loss and degradation of fuel use more efficient. ● Long-range planning for infrastructure de- tropical forests. AID, the world Bank, the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and velopment projects (e.g., hydroelectric dams), so that wood from clearing opera- some other multilateral organizations have increased funding for forest-related projects. Fur- tions is used effectively, displaced farmers thermore, AID has developed new forestry and are resettled permanently, and watersheds are protected by forest cover. environmental strategies and policies. Addi- ● tional opportunities for development assistance Institution-building to enable tropical gov- projects to sustain tropical forest resources in- ernments to exercise improved control clude greater support for: over timber concession operators. ● Technical improvement and increased ap- ● Participation by local people in identify- plication of technologies for sustainable re- ing resource development problems and generation in logged forests, including opportunities. mangrove forests. ● Agriculture and rural development pro- ● Plantations of fast-growing industrial tree grams that increase productivity for peo- species to help take pressure off the re- ple who live near forests. This would en- maining natural forests. tail allocating a larger share of agricultural ● Financing wood product development development assistance to relatively projects that encourage domestic process- remote areas. ing as opposed to log exports. ● Agroforestry and innovative crops and ● Innovative institutional approaches to for- techniques that can sustain permanent estry and agroforestry designed to ensure agriculture on relatively poor soils. participation of local communities and to 306 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

increase diffusion of appropriate technol- countries might reduce opportunities for em- ogies beyond the boundaries of subsidized ployment and profits in industrial countries demonstration projects. that now import logs and do the manufactur- ● Livestock raising projects that do not result ing. in deforestation or forest degradation. Issue (Coordination) Option 3: Development assistance organizations generally do not coordinate their projects effec- Committees of Congress could continue per- tively at the country or regional level. To im- iodic oversight hearings requiring testimony prove effectiveness, projects could be orga- from AID and U.S. representatives to multi- nized as steps in a comprehensive strategy lateral development assistance organizations designed to develop sustainable forest man- on the extent to which development assis- agement systems. Individual development tance practices are being modified to accom- assistance organizations have neither devel- 118 plish the objectives set forth in section oped nor coordinated such strategies. of the Foreign Assistance Act. The scope of tropical forest resource problems is great relative to available capital and Development assistance projects can be human resources. No single project or single planned to produce improvements in income organization’s program is likely to sustain a and income distribution and to simultaneous- substantial portion of the tropical forest rely provide long-term conservation benefits. sources in perpetuity. The U.S. Congress has Such projects are being pursued to some ex- determined that improved coordination among tent by the various agencies. AID has one of the various international organizations is the best records in this regard. However, the necessary to make forestry projects more cost total effort is still small compared with other, effective. Section 118 of the Foreign Assistance more conventional approaches to agricultural Act specifically requires the President to seek and industrial development. Continued pres- opportunities to coordinate public and private sure from Congress, especially on the multilat- development activities and investments that af- eral organizations, might lead to greater infect forests in tropical countries. It also investments in resource-conserving projects. structs U.S. representatives to multilateral This in turn could result in more cost-effective organizations to promote such coordination. and sustainable economic development and, AID recognizes this need in its Policy Deter- eventually, in a reduced need for U.S. Govern- mination documents on environment and nat- ment involvement. ural resources and on forestry. Placing a higher priority on resource- AID and other development assistance orga- conserving forest development might have nizations do keep track to some extent of what some disadvantages. First, higher priority for other agencies and host government depart- these approaches means lower priority for ments are doing and try to develop projects ac- some others. For example, investment in agri- cordingly. AID has participated in some impor- cultural development in remote areas at the tant joint efforts with other international forest fringe may not produce short-term yield organizations. Also, the International Union increases as great as the same amount of infor the Conservation of Nature and Natural Re- vestment in already-developed farms on more sources, the united Nations Environment Pro- fertile lands. gramme, and the world Wildlife Fund have Projects designed to increase revenues avail- jointly prepared a world Conservation Strategy able for forest management by making forestry which calls for coordinated global efforts for more profitable or more sustainable have some the conservation of natural resources. These other drawbacks. For example, promoting organizations plan to coordinate their endeav- manufacture of wood products within tropical ors to implement the strategy. Ch. 14—Options for Congress ● 307

Several regional technical centers have in- However, if the U.S. Congress believes that formal coordination roles within their area of close coordination of international develop- expertise. At the country level, the United Na- ment assistance is necessary and that achiev- tions Development Programme country repre- ing such coordination is worth relinquishing sentatives sometimes are able to assist with some degree of U.S. control over what projects coordination. Still, little progress has been are funded, Congress could mandate increased made in getting international organizations to U.S. efforts to enable the tropical nations to work together to develop national or regional do long-term development planning and to forest resource plans that would assign specific coordinate international assistance more tasks to each agency. effectively, AID and other development assistance organizations are not likely to follow a long-term Option 4: plan devised by any one organization because Congress could direct the Department of each organization works toward its own par- State to report on whether various tropical ticular objectives, Each organization’s country nations are able and politically ready to de- mission has specific pressures from its central velop long-term action plans for sustained office—whether it is in Washington, Rome, or development of renewable natural resources. elsewhere. Many bureaucrats are under pres- AID and the multilateral organizations sure to spend an exact level of funds during could use these assessments as a basis for assisting tropical nations in planning and each fiscal year. That requires flexibility that coordination. would be constrained considerably if they had to follow a strict plan devised under the leader- The purpose of these assessments would be ship of another organization. to indicate where institution-building and environmental education should be given a high International development assistance orga- priority; it would not be to reduce funding for nizations are, however, subject to the decisions nations where the political will to conserve and and direction of tropical nations’ governments. develop natural resource productivity is weak. In theory, these host governments are respon- Redirecting the type of aid offered could result sible for coordinating development assistance in more cost-effective use of limited funds. efforts. In practice, host governments get help from each international organization in iden- The first steps in assessing institutional ca- tifying projects for that organization and there pabilities for sustainable development of forest are few attempts to make the different agen- resources are being taken in AID’s Environ- cies’ efforts complementary. mental Profile reports. However, those reports now focus on environmental opportunities and Why do host governments not coordinate the problems primarily from a biophysical perspec- international organizations’ activities more ef- tive and, to a lesser extent, an economic per- fectively? One problem is that tropical govern- spective. The reports suggested by this option ments need to maximize assistance funds they would place more emphasis on assessing po- receive each year, even though that means ac- litical will, values, and institutional capabili- cepting some projects that are poorly inte- ty. For example, does the government have ef- grated into the nation’s long-term development fective control over logging concessionaries? plans. Also, different government agencies, Does it maintain land tenure arrangements that and individuals within agencies, have different cause people to clear forest land that will not goals. Diplomatic pressure to accept particular sustain agriculture? projects can be another problem. Finally, the development assistance organizations have lit- The Department of State has the expertise to tle incentive to encourage tropical nations to conduct political and economic analyses. The show strong leadership. assessment process could be undertaken in 308 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources stages, beginning with syntheses of informa- sibility for planning and coordination. First, if tion available in Washington, moving later such efforts were effective, the cost effective- to work done under the auspices of U.S. em- ness of U.S. and other nations’ development bassies. assistance efforts could be improved. Effective coordination increases the probability of meet- This option has some disadvantages. Since ing both the necessary and sufficient condi- U.S. embassies would need to make critical tions for sustaining tropical forest resources. judgments about political willingness and ca- Second, and perhaps most important in the pabilities, any negative statements might of- long run, improved planning and coordination fend host government officials. Thus, the De- might encourage some tropical governments partment of State might be reluctant to com- to identify and resolve the institutional con- ply rigorously. If the reports were given securi- straints, such as land tenure, that inhibit de- ty classification to minimize this effect, they velopment of forests and other potentially re- would be of limited use in planning develop- newable resources. ment assistance activities. Increasing tropical nations’ responsibilities Option 5: for planning and coordinating assistance proj- Congress could direct the Department of ects may be difficult and could have some neg- State and U.S. representatives to multilateral ative effects. For instance, tropical govern- development assistance organizations to pro- ments might have to reject some inappropri- mote international ad hoc committees ate forestry projects and the funds that go with formed to assist tropical nations in planning them. This would be a hard decision political- long-term forest development. ly, but such decisions are sometimes made, at least by some of the wealthier tropical nations. These ad hoc committees could include ex- A greater obstacle would arise where govern- perts from the United States, other developed ments do not have the necessary expertise for countries, and the developing countries. They resource development planning. Thus, in ad- would identify problems, plan a forest resource dition to the ad hoc committees for nation-level development strategy, and coordinate various planning, it may be necessary to provide in- assistance projects. The committees could be creased support for development of local plan- modeled after the Coordination for Develop- ning capabilities. ment in Africa program (CDA). Many benefits can be anticipated from assisting tropical nations to take increased respon-

RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

Issue use is commonly a side-effect of narrowly Although resource development planning is planned development of some other resource essential for sustainable production of forest or other area of the forest. For example, roads products and environmental services, the are built into forest land where logging and available planning technologies are seldom agriculture are inappropriate. The spontane- applied to their full potential. ous development that follows usually is not sustainable or economic in the long run. Tropical governments, development assistance organizations, and private firms often There are several reasons why planning is make forest development decisions without neglected. First, government and development sufficient planning. Unplanned forest resource assistance agency decisionmakers maybe un- Ch 14—Options for Congress . 309

aware or unconvinced of the cost effectiveness The Landsat images have been available at low of such planning. Second, decisionmakers may cost, but proposals to sell the U.S. satellites to doubt that planners can provide timely results private firms have been considered. Private focused on relevant information and presented ownership of Landsat could lead to increases in understandable form. Third, many tropical in imagery prices that might discourage the use countries have too little planning expertise. of this important tool for planning. Fourth, domination of resource-use decisions Resource planning can be greatly improved by special interest groups can preclude com- in many tropical nations with maps based on prehensive planning. broad classifications of land capability. Using The effectiveness of planning in tropical Landsat images, such classifications can be areas is hampered by shortages of data on bio- made rapidly and inexpensively for large areas. physical, social, and economic factors and by This is important because timeliness and ex- a lack of knowledge of how such factors inter- pense are two of the major constraints on the act. Many tropical nations need assistance to use of planning analyses. Landsat is useful build their own capacity to produce data bases even where computer analysis is not available and to use them for planning. For example, im- because the images can be interpreted visual- proved information on biological diversity of ly. Small computers that can analyze the data various sites is needed to make decisions about in digital form are becoming more widespread where to locate protected areas. in tropical nations and as a result, Landsat interpretation is becoming an even more accu- Biophysical site capability and land classifi- rate tool. cation are the most commonly applied components of resource development planning. These Constraints on the use of Landsat include techniques are usually not well integrated with cloud cover that consistently obscures views analysis of social, economic, or institutional of some tropical areas. Many tropical govern- factors. As a result, many development projects ments do not yet have enough skilled person- fail even though they may be suitable for the nel or facilities to use the imagery. Resource biophysical characteristics of the chosen sites. planning agencies, in some nations, cannot get images of certain forest areas because they are AID is required to consider environmental classified for security reasons. The major dis- impacts and has a policy requiring a “social advantage to this option is that the U.S. Gov- soundness analysis” as part of project design. ernment would have to continue paying the However, agency staff vary in their degree of costs of the Landsat satellites. cooperation with these requirements; some extend such an analysis beyond its useful bounds Option 7: while others produce pro forma responses. Congress could encourage AID to provide re- Option 6: source development planning assistance by improving the use of macrolevel land clas- Congress could maintain the availability of sification and the analyses of social and in- low-cost Landsat images to governments in stitutional factors in AID’s “Follow-on the Tropics. Country Environmental Profiles.” Congress Landsat images have proven useful in many could direct the U.S. representatives to in- tropical nations for measuring forest cover and ternational development assistance organi- identifying broad categories of forest types and zations to promote similar policies. conditions. In some instances, images taken at AID’s Environmental Profile process is prov- different times have been compared to identi- ing to be an effective mechanism for environ- fy rates and locations of deforestation prob- mental education as host government agencies lems. AID has had successful programs to train are becoming involved in production of the sec- tropical government analysts to use Landsat ond phase of profile reports. Still, this does not imagery for resource development planning. guarantee that decisionmakers will consider 310 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources the environmental profiles useful for develop- Option 8: ment planning. Thus, it is important to proceed slowly with these activities until local interest Congress could direct the U.S. directors of and participation are assured. Followup is nec- multilateral development banks to promote environmental assessments at an early stage essary so that the environmental concerns are of project planning. Congress could follow incorporated in AID’s country development up on this request by holding periodic hear- strategies and in the host country’s develop- ings to determine whether the banks are ment planning. using environmental assessment procedures Much technical information on natural re- effectively. sources in tropical forest areas already exists A variety of development assistance projects in the United States. It is scattered in such affects tropical forest resources directly and in- places as the archives of the Soil Conservation directly. The negative effects can best be iden- Service, the map collections of the Library of tified and mitigated at the project level because Congress, the Central Intelligence Agency, and they tend to be highly site-specific. Thus, en- the electronic data bases at USDA’s Economic vironmental quality and natural resource con- Botany Laboratory. This information can be siderations should be integrated into the design used to produce first approximations of land- and continuing evaluations of development capability or life-zone maps. These could then projects. be checked for accuracy in the subject nations, For example, irrigation projects should in as were the first drafts of the Environmental some cases include funding for protection of Profiles. forested watersheds. The negative impacts of Providing more pragmatic information on projects that convert tropical forest to other natural and human resource capabilities may uses can sometimes be offset by funds to es- make the reports more useful. Performing these tablish protected areas elsewhere. More thor- assessments cooperatively with the host na- ough and analytical environmental review tions provides opportunities for U.S. and trop- processes could increase the long-term net ben- ical nation personnel to gain new expertise. efits of development projects. They also might Cooperative production of the information also help convince tropical governments of the im- enhances the likelihood of its use outside of portance of these factors. AID. The U.S. experience with environmental im- A number of objections to this option can be pact statements demonstrates the need to focus anticipated. It calls for the production of more on tradeoffs that arise in decisionmaking. The reports not tied to specific development proj- U.S. process has at times been time-consuming ects, so some tropical nations may perceive and expensive, but it has been an effective tool that it is an activity that only benefits AID. for avoiding negative environmental effects. Preparation of such reports maybe perceived The multilateral development banks are begin- by many AID and host country officials as a ning to use such procedures. The World Bank, distraction of available time and funds. for instance, has established an Office of En- vironmental Affairs. However, the environ- The fact that much data on tropical forest re- mental reviews occur late in the planning proc- sources gather dust in U.S. archives may indi- ess, so the information they produce is less use- cate that many such efforts do not produce useful than it could be. ful reports. Also, AID has sponsored biophysical land capability assessments in the past, For the banks, it may be more desirable to and, when necessary, they might do so again integrate environmental quality and natural re- without special prompting from the Congress. source considerations into the early stages of In countries where planning expertise is planning than to require separate environmen- scarce, promotion of these techniques may be tal impact statements. Follow-up monitoring premature. of environmental effects during and after proj- Ch. 14—Options for Congress . 311 ect implementation also deserves higher priori- ernments do not perceive them to be an impor- ty. However, such analyses could be pro forma tant tool. and superficial if the banks and the host gov-

RESEARCH AND MARKET DEVELOPMENT

Issue (Research) used for technology development. When it is used, there is often a time lag between com- Fundamental research, applied research, pletion of the research and its use. and technology implementation related to tropical forests are not well coordinated. Solutions to this problem include building Moreover, interactions among factors that more research and training components into constrain forest resource development are the implementation stages of development proj- poorly understood. Consequently, resource ects and improving communication among re- development projects often fail, and promis- searchers and between researchers and tech- ing technologies too seldom spread beyond nology implementors. Reorganizing research the demonstration areas. Expanded interdisciplinary research efforts in tropical forest efforts to improve this communication should resources are needed and these need to be be relatively inexpensive. more closely related to technology implementation. Option 9: Profitable technologies that can supply local Congress could conduct hearings to deter- people’s needs and simultaneously sustain for- mine 1) whether research agencies (such as est productivity do not exist for many types of the National Academy of Sciences, the Na- tropical forests, Incremental improvements of tional Science Foundation, and the U.S. For- existing technologies seem unlikely to accom- est Service laboratories and institutes) are plish these goals. Rather, new approaches in giving sufficient priority to interdisciplinary both techniques and institutions also must be tropical forestry studies that link research invented. These must be based on improved and development, and 2) whether the results understanding of the biological, economic, and are being disseminated adequately. Congress social factors affecting forest resources. Thus, could reward those agencies and programs new fundamental research is needed. But for- that follow such priorities. est resource degradation is occurring too rapid- Hearings are a relatively inexpensive way to ly for fundamental research to be conducted express congressional recognition of a need, in the traditional, somewhat aloof fashion. Fun- gather information, and provide impetus to damental research could play a larger role in government agencies and the private sector to conservation and development if scientists redirect and expand their efforts. Hearings can would increase their efforts to understand the give recognition to individuals and programs needs of applied researchers and technology that have taken desired actions. If hearings users. reveal that agencies are doing interdisciplinary research that is used to sustain tropical forest Interdisciplinary research on tropical forest resources, Congress may choose to increase resources has seldom been based on an ade- funding for those agencies. quate understanding of the needs of technology implementors. Research results often are pre- Hearings alone, however, do not carry leg- sented in unusable formats and published in islative weight. They usually require followup academic journals that technology implemen- to affect agency behavior. Since they may re- tors have little time and incentive to locate. flect the interest of only a few Members of Con- Consequently, much applied research is not gress, organizations may not be induced to

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change their priorities simply as the result of try and forestry systems, CGIAR research the hearing process. could help alleviate pressures to convert remaining tropical forests to other uses. Option 10: The addition of forestry or agroforestry pro- Congress could appropriate funds specifical- grams to these institutions could facilitate in- ly for UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere terdisciplinary research cooperation and the program. development of production systems in which The International Man and the Biosphere agriculture and forestry are integrated. Capital (MAB) program receives money from the gen- outlay would be minimal because the network eral funds of UNESCO. Current levels of fund- and institutional infrastructure already exist. ing are low and much reduced from previous Adding such programs would involve inter- years. Concurrently, the Department of State nal adjustments and priority shifts within and support for U.S. liaison activities with the MAB between existing institutions, so the CGIAR in- program is being cut back. stitutions might resist an attempt to incorporate MAB provides a framework for internation- forestry or agroforestry unless substantial ad- al cooperation in problem-oriented research on ditional funding were provided. Even with ad- natural resource development. Part of its budg- ditional funds the changes might be disruptive et is earmarked for activities concerning the for CGIAR institutions, many of which are Tropics. Continued U.S. support for MAB oriented not to farming systems but rather to would strengthen the ability of tropical nations production of particular agricultural commod- to conduct significant research and could fa- ities. cilitate communication of research results to developers and users of resource-sustaining Option 12: forest management technologies. In addition, it would help maintain U.S. scientists’ links to Congress could amend existing legislation this research network. that allocates funds for tropical agriculture activities to include tropical forestry and This option would require some additional agroforestry explicitly. To do so would im- funding from Congress. Moreover, increased prove the likelihood that forestry, agrofor- support may not lead to improved coordina- estry, and conventional crop production tion in tropical forestry research or to reorien- would be viewed as complementary activi- tation of research so that it addresses the real ties. needs of technology implementors. Some forestry activities take place under agricultural programs. For example, Public Option 11: Law 480 funds have been used occasionally to Congress could determine the feasibility of support reforestation, and a few forestry establishing agroforestry and forestry re- schools have been awarded Title XII grants search programs at existing Consultative where “agriculture” has been interpreted Group on International Agricultural Re- broadly. However, without specific reference search (CGIAR) institutions. to tropical forestry and agroforestry, important opportunities to apply techniques that can sus- CGIAR is a network of regional and interna- tain resource productivity may be lost. tional organizations that have experience in conducting agricultural research in developing Congress could amend Public Law 480, the countries and in linking research to technology Food for Peace Act of 1966 (specifically sec. implementation. The mandates of the CGIAR 406(a) 2 and 4) so that “agriculture” explicitly institutions do not include forestry and have includes forestry and agroforestry, Similarly, been interpreted to exclude agroforestry as Congress could broaden Title XII of the For- well. By developing and promoting agrofores- eign Assistance Act (specifically sec. 211(d)), Ch. 14–Options for Congress • 313

which awards grants to help solve critical food small share and the United States has a relative- problems of the developing world, to increase ly minor role in FAO’S Forestry Department. involvement by U.S. forestry schools and other A trust fund is a way to ensure that the forestry appropriate government agencies. These ex- program receives additional money and to en- panded mandates could be supported by divert- hance opportunities for use of U.S. expertise ing money from other development activities on tropical forests. or by allocating new moneys through existing A trust fund also would permit the United institutions. States to negotiate some particular priorities Broadening existing agricultural funding for funding. For example, the United States mechanisms to include forestry and agrofor- could establish a trust fund specifically to sup- estry avoids overhead expenses that would oc- port interdisciplinary research components in cur if new programs were created. It also FAO forestry development projects and to en- would help promote a much needed interdis- hance the communication of research results ciplinary approach to deal with problems of and technical information. Such a trust fund tropical land use. might support management training programs or the preparation, publication, and dissemina- The major argument against amending ex- tion of forestry information in appropriate lan- isting legislation would be that such an action guages for technical schools and practitioners. might hinder the achievement of other goals by diluting limited funds and personnel. Many However, FAO may not be the best place to

experts believe that substantially more funds ● invest U.S. funds intended to support technol- will be necessary to advance agroforestry and ogies to sustain tropical forest resources. This forestry significantly. Another problem is that would require additional funds beyond the cur- even with explicit direction from Congress, the rent statutory limits on the U.S. contribution institutions committed to agriculture may con- to FAO. The United States has not had a strong tinue to give forestry and agroforestry only a voice at FAO planning sessions for regular for- small share of their resources. estry activities. Finally, political benefits to the United States from funds spent through a mul- Option 13: tilateral agency may be less than political benefits from a U.S. bilateral agency. Congress could establish a trust fund for the Forestry Department of FAO to support im- Option 14: proved communication among researchers and technology implementors. Congress could amend the Foreign Assis- tance Act (sec. 301, U.S. Voluntary Contribu- FAO has the world’s largest accumulation of tions to U.N. Organizations) to include fund- professional tropical forestry expertise. The ing for the United Nations University organization has strong connections to tropical (UNU). governments, tropical forestry experts, and UNU functions through and strengthens net- both multilateral and bilateral development works of existing universities and research in- assistance agencies. FAO’S activities include stitutions around the world. It provides a vari- creating a world forest resource information ety of courses, instructors, and research facil- system and promoting social forestry. It pub- ities. It is an international community of lishes a forestry journal, Unasylva, and series scholars engaged in interdisciplinary research, of technical forestry papers. FAO has been in- post-graduate training, and dissemination of strumental in focusing world attention on the knowledge to international organizations, gov- need to integrate forestry into community ernments, scholars, policy makers, and the development. public. The U.S. Government has never pro- The U.S. contribution to FAO goes into a vided financial support to UNU. The main ad- general fund; FAO then allocates portions to vantage of such a contribution would be pro- its various programs. Forestry receives only a motion of interdisciplinary research. 314 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

The main objections to this option are that allow larger harvests from smaller areas, pro- it requires increased Federal spending and that tecting biological diversity in unharvested funds might be used more efficiently by the areas while providing materials for export or U.S. National Science Foundation or by AID’s local development. Use of many tree species technology transfer programs. and sizes can supply growing domestic markets and at the same time continue to produce issue (Product and Market Development) wood for export markets. Logging from smaller areas would also make enforcement of strict Sustaining forests in many tropical areas will depend on developing markets for local regulations regarding road engineering, site forest products. Many products that are protection, and restoration of the forest more gathered on a subsistence basis do not attract feasible. investment for sustainable development be- The U.S. Forest Products Laboratory is con- cause they appear to be ‘free. Furthermore, government agencies are often unaware of ducting some research on tropical wood prod- the forest’s potential to support rural devel- uct use, and several of its projects for temperate opment. zone forestry are producing technologies that can be used in the Tropics. A more specific Tropical forest ecosystems house complex congressional mandate and additional funding associations of vegetation, wildlife, and other would ensure continuation and expansion of potential resources, some of which could be de- such activities and could enhance technology veloped as commodities profitable to harvest transfer to tropical areas. on a managed basis. Information gathered on noncommercial tree species and nonwood for- Additional knowledge of the role of forest est products is abundant. But it seldom in- products in subsistence economies and im- cludes more than taxonomic identification and proved development of markets for nonwood a brief discussion of existing product uses by forest products could cause decisionmakers to tropical people. Developing markets for unused value forests more highly. More support could or underused forest products could motivate be developed for local forestry investments and local people and development agencies to in- conservation efforts, Development of produc- vest time and capital in managing forest re- tion systems and markets for nonwood tropical sources. Thus, in some areas, product and mar- forest resources could provide employment ket development could be a way to maintain and income-generating activities for rural peo- biological diversity and simultaneously provide ple while reducing incentives to convert forest profitable rural development. to unsustainable land uses. AID has considerable experience with pro- Option 15: duction system and market development for agricultural products and this could be applied a) Congress could mandate and fund the U.S. to tropical forest products, Furthermore, AID Forest Products Laboratory to develop new products and market information for tropi- could increase its support for the BOSTID proj- cal forest resources and to increase its efforts ect that synthesizes, publishes, and distributes to transfer the technologies. information on underexploited tropical re- b) Congress could direct AID to expand its sources. This relatively inexpensive project al- support for dissemination of information on ready has been very effective in stimulating in- underused tropical forest resources and to vestment in such resource development. pursue market development for those prod- Several constraints hold back development ucts that are sustainable with the kinds of of new forest products. Even if research were management likely to occur. increased, it is not clear that the potential new Using a wider range of tree species and sizes products would attract investment. One prob- should make intensive management of smaller lem is that inexpensive and reliable screening forest areas feasible and profitable. This would techniques for evaluating potential forest prod- Ch 14—Options for Congress Ž 315 ucts have not been developed. Another prob- Successful product and market development lem is that market research for new products should lead to higher profits from forest re- often must depend on unverified assumptions source harvesting. If governments do not make about what the product price will be and on simultaneous investments in forest manage- unreliable consumer preference surveys. Also, ment and in regulation and control of those in many tropical countries capital earns high who harvest the resources, however, market rates of return and entrepreneurial talent is development could lead to more rapid deple- highly rewarded in enterprises less risky than tion of the resources. new product development. Furthermore, information on traditional uses of minor forest products is difficult to collect.

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

Issue Option 16: Benefits from preserving biological diversi- Congress could conduct hearings on its re- ty of tropical forests accrue to society as a cent amendment to the Foreign Assistance whole, including future generations, yet the Act which directs AID, in concert with other costs are borne by the present generation in appropriate agencies, to develop a compre- tropical countries. hensive U.S. strategy to maintain biological diversity. Congress also could encourage Tropical forests are great reservoirs of bio- U.S. representatives to multilateral organi- logical diversity. They contain some 2 million zations to promote similar strategies. species of plants and animals. But diverse for- Over the past 5 years, AID, the World Bank, est ecosystems generally do not produce high and some other assistance organizations have yields per hectare per year of highly valued developed strategies for investing in forest products. So development usually entails re- resources (mainly to produce wood) and for placing diverse systems with simpler ones. ameliorating the negative environmental ef- Natural forests can be modified to make them fects of development projects. The process of economically productive while maintaining developing and implementing these strategies significant biological diversity. However, for has helped educate decisionmakers about en- many types of forests this will not occur until vironmental consequences of economic devel- more profitable management technologies are opment projects and about new approaches to developed. For now, the full original species forestry. The strategies have begun to foster composition of tropical forests probably can more sustainable development projects. be preserved only in areas that remain inac- The strategy to support biological diversity cessible or in areas set aside for research, ed- can be expected to have a similar effect. If con- ucation, and recreation. servation of biological diversity were made an Maintenance of some natural forest ecosys- explicit goal for development projects, develop- tems can be justified because they are on steep- ment agencies would act to keep open future ly sloping watershed catchments. Cloud forests options for development of renewable re- are an example. For now, however, invest- sources. This eventually could lead to new ments in protection and maintenance of other ways of using and sustaining these resources biologically diverse natural forests will have to to meet basic human needs or to produce bio- be motivated by recognition of the potential logical products for export. Maintaining bio- these areas and the genetic resources they con- logical diversity can complement sustainable tain hold for future generations. economic development because it fosters en-

25-287 0 - 84 - 22 316 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

vironmental stability and renewable resource to reduce the motivation for exploiting the pro- productivity. tected areas. The fund would support such projects as compensation for the direct and in- Some AID officials may be reluctant to com- direct costs of protected areas. (Indirect costs ply rigorously with the intent of the amend- include the foreign exchange and income fore- ment. It may be perceived as another restric- gone as a result of restrictions on harvesting tion that hinders AID and other development forest products.) assistance organizations. Actions will not necessarily stem from the strategy unless there is Creating a major fund for tropical forest pro- strong commitment and support within the tected areas would increase opportunities to agencies. preserve these habitats and their vast biological diversity. The fund would make additional moneys available for parks where and when Option 17: most needed. Some money is available for pro- Congress could support the creation of an in- tected area establishment from scattered ternational fund to subsidize the establish- sources, but it is not sufficient and is rarely ment and maintenance of protected areas in available to manage existing protected areas. the Tropics. This option is likely to be expensive. The Although there are many designated pro- tropical forests to be protected are often in tected areas in the Tropics, most receive little remote areas. The logistics of both policing the protection and many are being deforested or protected areas and creating suitable economic degraded. Often this is because poor nations development opportunities for people outside can not afford the costs of adequate protection. the protected areas would be difficult. Further- Various ways to finance protected areas have more, the suggested funding mechanisms may been suggested. One proposal is to solicit con- face serious objections. International funds for tributions from developed countries or to tax work on environmental problems, such as de- some internationally traded commodities to sertification, have not had much success in so- create an international fund. The fund would liciting contributions from developed nation provide grants to tropical nation governments governments. Taxes on forest products would to establish and manage protected areas. An- raise consumer prices in importing countries other suggestion is for the assistance agencies and reduce revenues to tropical countries. Di- to finance an international fund that would verting funds from existing development assis- support a wide variety of development projects tance activities could have adverse effects on outside the forests. These would be designed those activities.

U.S. EXPERTISE

Issue tropical forest resources and has limited funds to allocate to this field of growing importance. U.S. expertise on tropical forest resources is Nonetheless, U.S. expertise is recognized in widely scattered and is not being developed fields that include reforestation, watershed or used effectively. management, forest industries, resource inven- Tropical governments and international tory and mapping, resource development plan- organizations are beginning to increase in- ning, information processing, botany, zoology, vestments in tropical forest resources. As a and environmental education. Furthermore, result, demands for U.S. technical and finan- the United States has a wide variety of public cial support are increasing. The United States and private organizations that could contribute has few well-qualified, experienced experts on to an expanded international program on trop- Ch. 14—Options for Congress Ž 317 ical forests. Much more could be done to create who rely on their products and services for opportunities for U.S. expertise to help sustain livelihood. tropical forests. The U.S. National Park Service, Fish and U.S. science and technology alone cannot be Wildlife Service, and Forest Service have insufficient to sustain tropical forests because of ternational offices, but their responsibilities are the scale of the problem and because most of not well-defined in the organic legislation. For the tropical forests are the sovereign resources example, the National Park Service’s organic of foreign nations. In the long term, science legislation could be amended to direct that and technology expertise must come from agency to share its expertise in protected area within the tropical countries. However, U.S. establishment, management, and related train- expertise is needed now both to assist directly ing with tropical countries. The Forest Serv- with technology development and implemen- ice’s institutes in Puerto Rico and Hawaii could tation and to build indigenous scientific and be directed to provide research and training technical capabilities in tropical nations. in response to tropical nation needs. In addition, various agencies might provide more op- Option 18: portunities for foreign resource managers to receive training. Congress could modify the organic legislation for those U.S. agencies* whose actions One disadvantage of this option is that ex- affect forest resources in tropical nations panded mandates might conflict with existing and U.S. tropical territories. The amend- interests and abilities in some agencies. Thus, ments would state in substance that the the changes might not receive support from 1) agencies, in their regular activities: will agencies that perceive them as hindering their not contribute to or fund conversion or degradation of tropical forests unless such ac- abilities to function effectively, especially if tivities are preceded by detailed resource significant staff time is taken from other re- development plans indicating that the con- sponsibilities. In addition, more funds and staff version will result in sustainable land use, might be needed, depending on how the man- and 2) will act to maintain and enhance trop date is implemented. ical forest resources and act to slow or stop deforestation end degradation. Option 19: Ensuring that the Federal agencies do not Congress could request the General Account- contribute to the unsustainable use of tropical ing Office to determine how Federal agen- forest resources would be a significant first cies are using existing legislation enabling step. Federal agencies also could do a great Federal employees with appropriate exper- deal to help develop and use resource-sustain- tise to work in international assistance agen- ing technologies. Such a mandate from Con- cies, American embassies, and international gress would signal the importance of maintain- nongovernmental organizations. Where ap- ing tropical forests and the species they con- propriate, Congress could hold hearings, up date or amend existing legislation, and di- tain while developing them to benefit those rect the Office of Personnel Management to encourage the use of those laws. *Government organizations concerned with tropical forests include the Department of State, Agency for International Mechanisms exist that enable U.S. Govern- Development, Council on Environmental Quality, Department ment personnel to work on such problems as of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service, Industry and Trade Admin- tropical deforestation. To determine if this is istration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Bureau of Land Management, Fish and Wildlife Service, Na- occurring, GAO could review the agencies’ use tional Park Service, International Development Cooperation of the Federal Employees International Service Agency, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Na- Act, the Intergovernmental Personnel Act, and tional Science Foundation, Peace Corps, Smithsonian Institu- tion, Department of Defense, Corps of Engineers, International appropriate Executive Orders in the Federal Executive Service Corps, Overseas Private Investment Corpora- Personnel Manual (e.g., Executive Order No. tion, Export-Import Bank, and Trade and Development Program. 11552 of Aug. 24, 1970, enables details and 318 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

transfers of Federal employees to international Another law that might be modified is the organizations). Small Business Innovation Research Act, which at present does not require AID’s com- Updating or simply calling attention to these pliance. In addition, the International Execu- mechanisms for overseas work may encourage tive Service Corps could devote more effort to Federal employees to work on tropical forestry recruiting volunteer retired executives with issues. This would help build a cadre of expe- expertise in managing natural resources. Fur- rienced U.S. tropical forest resource experts ther opportunities to influence the private to support future U.S. tropical forestry initia- sector could be identified from congressional tives. hearings. Legislation alone may not be enough to increase substantially the participation of U.S. A wealth of information, technology, and ex- forest resource experts overseas. To date, in- pertise that could be used to help tropical na- volvement of U.S. resource managers abroad tions resides within the private sector. U.S. firms could stimulate investment in forest re- has been limited by absence of long-term career opportunities. In fact, agencies may discourage source conservation and development, and, as staff participation in international programs. a consequence, the United States could benefit from more reliable sources of goods and from Federal agencies, already short on staff, are reluctant to let personnel go abroad. Thus, em- new investment opportunities. The private sec- ployees who do work overseas commonly are tor can be more efficient than government in in the early stages of their careers or are near- technology research, development, and imple- ing retirement. It maybe necessary for Federal mentation. agencies to re-examine their reward structures Reinvestment of profits into projects in de- and ensure re-entry to responsible positions veloping countries, especially joint ventures, upon participants’ return to the United States. is one important mechanism for technology transfer. Another is private sector exchange programs, including on-the-job instruction in Option 20: the United States, consulting, onsite workshops Congress could encourage the U.S. private and training programs, support of local scien- sector to develop and implement technolo- tific and educational institutions, serving as gies that sustain tropical forest resources. guest instructors at foreign universities or management institutes, and sponsoring attendance Congress could encourage the Overseas Pri- of developing country personnel at internation- vate Investment Corporation (OPIC) and the al symposia and conferences. Trade and Development Programs under the International Development Cooperation Agen- Increased involvement of the U.S. private cy (IDCA) to give special help to U.S. firms that sector could cause some problems, however. have technologies appropriate for maintaining U.S. private businesses might displace or stifle and enhancing tropical forest resources. OPIC growth of some indigenous private businesses and IDCA could help such firms establish or in the forestry sector. Markets might collapse expand operations in tropical nations. In ad- or infrastructure might not be maintained dition, Congress could amend the Foreign As- when U.S. firms leave a tropical area. In addi- sistance Act to direct AID mission directors to tion, most resource-sustaining ventures involve give such firms a preferred status in procure- long-term commitments of capital which many ment of technologies, products, or services. private businesses may be unwilling to risk in This incentive in conjunction with OPIC assis- potentially unstable developing countries, even tance might expedite transfer of resource-sus- with OPIC insurance. Finally, U.S. businesses taining U.S. technology to tropical nations. are not required to perform environmental im- Ch. 14—Options for Congress ● 319 pact assessments overseas and may cause un- Option 22: intended damage to tropical forest resources. Congress could designate U.S. centers of excellence to focus U.S. expertise on tropical Option 21: forest resources and provide opportunities for research, education, and technology Congress could authorize U.S. participation transfer. in the United Nations Associate Experts Program. Effective use and further development of United States tropical forestry expertise are Under the U.N. Associate Experts program, constrained by a lack of institutions in which developed countries send technical personnel tropical forests are an issue of prime impor- to developing countries to work on U.N. agen- tance. The U.S. experts with knowledge and cy projects, including forestry and rural devel- experience needed for sustainable develop- opment projects. The developed country pays ment of tropical forest resources are scattered the salary of its own experts. The United States among public, private, and academic institu- does not participate in this program, although tions. The experts have too few opportunities most OECD countries do. U.S. participation to practice or improve their expertise or to pro- might be administered through existing offices vide fieldwork for students. Development as- of the Peace Corps or the Forest Service. sistance agencies, private firms, and organiza- U.S. participation in the Associate Experts tions working with forest resources in tropical program could have advantages for both the countries have difficulty locating expert scien- U.S. and the tropical nations. U.S. participants tists. Much of the work by U.S. experts is ter- would be able to transfer technical and mana- minated before it succeeds because institution- gerial skills needed for resolving practical al continuity is lacking. forestry problems in the Tropics. This program Centers of excellence could address many of also would increase the visibility of the U.S. these faults. They could organize education role in tropical forestry and facilitate scientific curricula and research programs that integrate and cultural interchange between Americans social, physical, and biological perspectives. and decisionmakers in tropical countries. They could establish strong links between fun- The United States has few opportunities to damental and applied researchers and commu- develop tropical forestry expertise beyond the nication between researchers and technology level acquired by Peace Corps volunteers. This implementors. They could act as brokers of in- is one reason why few Americans work on for- formation and expertise by directing tropical estry projects administered by FAO and other governments, tropical universities and stu- multilateral development organizations. Partic- dents, and assistance agencies by directing ipation in the Associate Experts program them to appropriate U.S. experts. Also, they would give U.S. experts the needed opportu- could help U.S. experts and students locate nities to acquire tropical experience. Thus, it private firms, tropical universities, or govern- should lead to a greater role for U.S. citizens ment agencies interested in collaborative work, in international agencies and increased mar- and by identifying sources of funding for these ketability of U.S. consulting services abroad. kinds of exchanges. Since this would be a new program for the Centers of excellence in tropical forestry United States, new funding would be required. could be established to correspond to each Only a small number of qualified U.S. experts geographic region of the tropical world (tropi- may be available for participation in this pro- cal America, Asia, and Africa), or centers could gram. To some extent, the Associate Experts be organized according to ecological categories program may overlap with bilateral programs (dry open forest, moist closed forest, mountain of U.S. AID and other agencies. forest). Possible locations for such centers in- 320 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources elude the U.S. Forest Service’s Institute of be most important for the expertise brokering Tropical Forestry in Puerto Rico (perhaps in function. conjunction with the USDA Mayaguez Insti- There are several arguments against this op- tute of Tropical Agriculture and the Universi- tion. First is the problem of funding. Develop- ty of Puerto Rico), the U.S. Forest Service’s In- ing the institutes in Puerto Rico and Hawaii stitute of Pacific Islands Forestry (in conjunc- as centers of excellence in tropical forestry tion with the University of Hawaii and the would require significant changes in the For- East/West Center), or the Klieberg Institute at est Service budget. Another problem is that Texas A&I University (in conjunction with many of the ecological, institutional, social, and other departments of that university). economic conditions typical of the tropical na- Locating centers for tropical forestry excel- tions do not occur on the U.S. tropical islands lence in U.S. tropical or semiarid environments or semiarid sites. Institutes located in tropical would have important advantages. Research, nations would be more accessible to indige- demonstration, and education field work could nous tropical scientists and students and so be conducted on technologies appropriate for might be more effective in supporting the trop- the biophysical conditions that prevail in tropical nation’s own institutions. Another prob- ical regions. The centers could be expected to lem is that centers of excellence, whether lo- get more support from local organizations than cated in the U.S. or tropical nations, might fo- if they were located at U.S. sites where their cus too narrowly on technical issues and bio- work had no local applicability. Centers in the physical sciences, thus neglecting institutional United States would be accessible to the U.S. and social issues that are fundamental con- experts and students who are scattered among straints on forest development and conserva- many organizations. This accessibility would tion in tropical countries.

Appendix A Status of Tropical Forests: Tables

Table A-l.—Closed Forests in Tropical Africa, America, and Asia, 1980 (thousands of hectares)

Closed forest Percent of Closed forest Percent of Country Total area area total Country Total area area total----- Tropical Africa: Colombia ...... 113,889 46,400 40.7 Zaire ...... 226,760 105,750 46.6 Mexico ...... 196,718 46,250 23.5 Congo ...... 34,200 21,340 62.4 Bolivia ...... 109,858 44,010 40.1 Gabon ...... 26,767 20,500 76.6 Venezuela ...... 91,205 31,870 34.9 Cameroon ...... 47,544 17,920 37.7 Guyana ...... 21,497 18,475 85.9 Madagascar ...... 59,099 10,300 17.4 Surinam ...... 16,382 14,830 90.5 Nigeria ...... 92,377 5,950 6.4 Ecuador ...... 27,067 14,250 52.6 Ivory Coast ...... 32,246 4,458 13.8 French Guiana ...... 9,100 8,900 97.8 Ethiopa ...... 122,190 4,350 3.6 Nicaragua ...... 13,000 4,496 34.6 Central African Republic. . 62,298 3,590 5.8 Guatemala ...... 10,889 4,442 40.8 Zambia ...... 75,261 3,010 4.0 Panama ...... 7,708 4,165 54.0 Angola ...... 124,670 2,900 2.3 Paraguay ...... 40,675 4,070 10.0 Guinea ...... 24,586 2,050 8.3 Honduras ...... 11,209 3,797 33.9 Liberia ...... 9,632 2,000 20.8 Costa Rica ...... 5,090 1,638 32.2 Ghana ...... 23,854 1,718 7.2 Cuba ...... 11,450 1,455 12.7 Somalia ...... 63,754 1,540 2.4 Belize ...... 2,297 1,354 59.0 Tanzania ...... 93,970 1,440 1.5 Dominican Republic . . . 4,840 629 13,0 Equatorial Guinea ...... 2,806 1,295 46.2 El Salvador ...... 2,099 141 6.7 Kenya ...... 58,037 1,105 1.9 Jamaica ...... 1,142 67 5.9 Mozambique ...... 78,303 935 1.2 Haiti ...... 2,775 48 1.7 Uganda ...... 19,684 765 3.9 Trinidad and Tobago . . . . 513 208 40.6 Sierra Leone ...... 7,333 740 10.1 Total ...... 1,679,121 678,655 40.4 Guinea-Bissau ...... 3,613 660 18.3 Sudan ...... 250,581 650 0.3 Tropical Asia: Chad ...... 128,400 500 0.4 Indonesia ...... 191,930 113,895 59.3 Togo ...... 5,680 304 5.4 India ...... 328,700 51,841 15.8 Senegal ...... 19,672 220 1.1 Papua New Guinea . . . . . 46,170 34,230 74.1 Zimbabwe ...... 38,936 200 0.5 Burma ...... 67,658 31,941 47.2 Malawi ...... 11,858 186 1.6 Malaysia ...... 33,008 20,995 63.6 Rwanda ...... 2,634 120 4.6 Philippines ...... 29,940 9,510 31.8 Gambia ...... 1,040 65 6.2 Thailand ...... 51,352 9,235 18.0 Benin ...... 11,262 47 0.4 Viet Nam ...... 33,433 8,770 26.2 Burundi ...... 2,783 26 0.9 Laos ...... 23,680 8,410 35.5 Botswana ...... 57,500 a a Kampuchea ...... 18,104 7,548 41.7 Namibia ...... 82,429 a a Pakistan ...... 80,519 2,185 2.7 Upper Volta ...... 27,420 a a Bhutan ...... 4,660 2,100 45.1 Niger ...... 126,700 a a Nepal ...... 14,080 1,941 13.8 Mali ...... 120,383 a a Sri Lanka ...... 6,558 1,659 25.3 Bangladesh ...... 14,400 927 6.4 Total ...... 2,176,279 216,634 10.0 Brunei ...... 577 323 56.0 Tropical America: Total ...... 944,769 305,510 32.3 Brazil ...... 851 ,1% 357,480 42.0 Peru ...... 128,522 69,680 54.2 aNo data; in most cases this is where the areas are very small, SOURCE” Food and Agriculture Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project (GEMS} Tropical Africa, Tropical Asia, Tropical Arnerica, 4VOIS. (Rome 1981)

323 324 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Table A-2.–Condition of Ciosed Forests in Tropicai Africa, America, and Asia, 1980

Physically Parks and Undisturbed Logged Managed unproductive protected Country (%) (%) (%) (%) areas

75 a 19 5 48 16 a 35 1 52 45 a 3 a 39 55 a 5 a 16 49 a 26 9 6 44 a 50 4 69 a 12 15 15 23 a 62 a 87 10 a 3 a 11 65 a 16 7 0 84 a 16 a 56 15 a 29 a 45 21 34 a 9 68 23 6 a 94 17 40 a 14 28 61 18 22 22 16 6 4 52 7 41 49 3 13 58 5 8 30 a a 54 11 36 a 45 8 47 a 100 a a 15 68 a 17 6 a a 65 29 a a 100 a 22 a a 78 a 47 a 40 13 8 a 92 a 30 70 a a 23 a 15 62 a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a 55 20 -i 20 4

81 3 a 1 54 9 a 36 1 a 10 5 28 25 a 47 1 40 27 a 32 36 a 26 14 66 a 27 a 81 3 a 12 4 76 1 a 21 2 84 2 a 15 a 80 5 a 9 a 27 41 a 31 1 51 20 a 29 14 61 a 23 2 21 57 2 20 20 47 a 13 20 a 55 14 32 a 66 a 34 a 38 53 a 9 a 18 a 82 61 a 30 3 19 33 a 48 a a 64 7 29 — a 67 10 a 21 2 App. A—Status of Tropical Forests: Tables ● 325

Table A-2.—Condition of Closed Forests in Tropical Africa, America, and Asia, 1980—Continued

Physically Parks and Undisturbed Logged Managed unproductive protected Country (“/0) (%) (“/0) (“/0) areas Tropical Asia: Indonesia ...... 34 31 30 5 India ...... 12 8 63 4 13 Papua New Guinea ...... 40 1 59 a Burma ...... 18 11 24 1 Malaysia ...... 36 26 12 21 5 Philippines ...... 32 41 a 20 7 Thailand ...... 50 a 26 24 Viet Nam ...... 18 25 1 50 6 Laos ...... 43 a 57 a Kampuchea ...... 61 11 28 a Pakistan ...... 19 10 19 51 1 Bhutan ...... 57 30 a 13 a Nepal ...... 46 20 a 18 17 Sri Lanka ...... 1 73 14 12 Bangladesh ...... 5 1 86 3 6 Brunei ...... 84 5 a 10 1 Total ...... 33 20 13 28 6 ‘No data, in most cases this is where the areas are very small. SOURCE Food and Agriculture Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, TropicalForest Resources Assessment Project (GEMS) Tropical Africa, Tropical Asia, TropicalAmerice, 4vols. (Rome: 1981). 326 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Table A.3.–Open Forest and Shrubland in Tropical Africa, America, and Asia, 1980 (thousands of hectares)

Open Percent of Percent of Open Percent of Percent of Country forest total area Shrubland total area Country forest total area Shrubland total area Tropical Africa: Colombia ...... 5,700 5.0 5,500 4.8 Zaire ...... 71,640 31.7 11,300 5.0 Venezuela ., ..., 3,300 3.6 2,120 2.3 Angola ...... 50,700 40.7 16,150 13.0 Mexico ...... 2,100 59,500 30.3 Sudan ...... 47,000 18.8 87,000 34.7 Peru ...... 1,120 3.150 3,150 2.4 Tanzania ...... 40,600 43.2 13,800 14.7 Surinam ...... 690 4.2 200 1.2 Botswana ., . . . . . 32,560 56.6 20,000 34.8 Ecuador ...... 550 2.0 1,050 3.9 Central African Honduras ...... 200 1.8 1,220 10.9 Republic . . . . . 32,300 51.8 7,000 27.3 Costa Rica ...... 160 3.1 120 2.4 Zambia ...... 26,500 35.2 3,200 4.2 Guatemala ...... 100 0.9 1,505 13.8 Ethiopia ...... 22,600 18.7 25,000 20.5 Belize ...... 92 4.0 46 2.0 Zimbabwe ... , . . 19,700 50.6 900 2.3 French Guiana . . 70 0.8 7 0.1 Namibia ...... 18,420 22.3 37,315 45.3 Guyana ...... 25 0.1 115 0.5 Mozambique . . . . 14,500 18.5 29,000 37.0 Haiti ...... a a 53 1.9 Chad ...... 13,000 10.1 9,750 7.6 Dominican Senegal ...... 10,825 55.0 1,365 6.9 Republic . . . . . a a 54 1.1 Nigeria ...... 8,800 9.5 36,800 39.8 Nicaragua ...... a a 210 1.6 Mali ...... 8,800 7.3 6,000 5.0 Panama ...... a a Guinea ...... 8,600 35.0 7,000 28.5 Jamaica ...... a a 227 19.9 Cameroon ...... 7,700 16.2 9,500 20.0 Trinidad and Somalia ...... 7,510 11.8 53,000 83.1 Tobago ...... a a 1.2 Upper Volta . . . . . 7,200 26.3 3,000 10.9 Cuba ...... a a 305 2.7 Ghana ...... 6,975 29.2 300 1.3 El Salvador . . . . . a a 293 14.0 Ivory Coast . . . . . 5,376 16.7 60 0.2 Total ...... 278,647 16.6 145,881 8.7 Uganda ...... 5,250 26.7 100 0.5 Malawi ...... 4,085 34.4 380 3.2 Tropical Asia Benin ...... 3,820 33.9 3,075 27.3 Thailand ...... 6,440 12.5 500 1.0 Madagascar ., . . . 2,900 4.9 4,000 6.8 India ...... 5,393 1.6 5,378 1.6 Niger ...... 2,900 2.3 6,000 4.7 Laos ...... 5,215 22.0 735 3.1 Guinea-Bissau . . . 1,445 40.0 17 0.5 Kampuchea . . . . . 5,100 28.2 400 2.2 Togo ...... 1,380 24.3 2,265 39.9 Papua New Sierra Leone . . . . 1,315 17.9 3 Guinea ...... 3,945 8.5 85 0.2 Kenya ...... 1,255 2.2 37,500 64.: Indonesia ...... 3,000 1.6 23,900 12.4 Gambia ...... 150 14.4 360 34.6 Viet Nam ...... 1,340 4.0 330 1.0 Rwanda ...... 110 4.2 90 3.4 Pakistan ...... 295 0.4 1,105 1.4 Gabon ...... 75 0.3 Nepal ...... 160 1.3 230 1.6 Liberia ...... 40 0.4 100 1.: Bhutan ...... 40 0.9 25 0.5 Burundi ...... 14 0.5 a Malaysia ...... a a a a Congo ...... a a 1,400 4.1 Philippines . . . . . a a a Equatorial Guinea a a 10 0.4 Brunei ...... a a Sri Lanka ...... a a 215 3.3 Total ...... 486,445 22.4 442,740 20.3 Burma ...... a a 2,600 3.8 Tropical America: Bangladesh . . . . . a a a a Brazil ...... 211,200 24.8 61,200 7.2 Total ...... 30,948 3.3 35,503 3.8 Paraguay ...... 28,640 70.4 Bolivia ...... 24.700 22.5 9,000 8.2 aNo data; in most cases this is where the areas are very small. SOURCE: Food and Agriculture Organization/United Nati@ns Environment pro9ramme, Tropica/ Forest Resources Assessment Project (GEMS): Tropical Africa, Tropical Asia, Tropical America, 4 VOIS. (Rome: 1981). App. A—Status of Tropical Forests: Tables ● 327

Table A-4.—Forest Fallow in Tropical Africa, America, and Asia, 1980 (thousands of hectares)

Ration of forest Ration of forest fallow to closed fallow to closed Country Forest fallow forest Country Forest fallow forest Tropical Africa: Paraguay ...... 3,270 0.8 Sierra Leone ...... 3,860 5.2 Mexico ...... 26,000 0.6 Ghana ...... 6,500 3.8 Cuba ...... 700 0.5 Liberia ...... 5,500 2.8 Dominican Republic ...... 267 0.4 Ivory Coast ...... 8,400 1.9 Belize ...... 525 0.4 Angola ...... 4,850 1.7 Venezuela ...... 10,650 0.3 Nigeria ...... 7,750 1.3 Trinidad and Tobago ...... 57 0.3 Sudan ...... 600 0.9 Nicaragua ...... 1,370 0.3 Equatorial Guinea ...... 1,165 0.9 Colombia ...... 8,500 0.2 Togo ...... 250 0.8 Ecuador ...... 2,350 0.2 Guinea ...... 1,600 0.8 Honduras ...... 680 0.2 Mozambique ...... 500 0.5 El Salvador ...... 22 0.2 Burundi ...... 0.5 Peru ...... 5,350 0.1 Zambia ...... 900 0.3 Brazil ...... 46,420 0.1 Cameroon ...... 4,900 0.3 Guatemala ...... 360 0.1 Madagascar ...... 3,500 0.3 Costa Rica ...... 120 0.1 Guinea-Bissau ...... 170 0.3 Surinam ...... 270 a Rwanda ...... 25 0.2 Bolivia ...... 1,100 a Benin ...... 7 0.2 French Guiana ...... 75 a Tanzania ...... 100 0.1 Guyana ...... 200 a Gabon ...... 1,500 0.1 Panama ...... 124 a Zaire ...... 7,800 0.1 Total 108,612 0.2 Central African Republic . . . . 300 0.1 Congo ...... 1,100 0.1 Tropical Asia: Ethiopia ...... 300 0.1 Viet Nam ...... 10,750 1.2 Kenya ...... 55 0.1 Brunei ...... 237 0.7 Uganda ...... a a Laos ...... 5,000 0.6 Somalia ...... a a Burma ...... 18,100 0.6 Zimbabwe ...... a a Sri Lanka ...... 853 0.5 Botswana ...... a a Philippines ...... 3,520 0.4 Namibia ...... a a Bangladesh ...... 315 0.3 Malawi ...... a a Malaysia ...... 4,825 0.2 Chad ...... a a India ...... 9,470 0.2 Gambia ...... a a Indonesia ...... 13,460 0.1 Mali ...... a a Thailand ...... 0.1 Niger ...... a a Nepal ...... 110 0.1 Senegal ...... a a Bhutan ...... 205 0.1 Upper Volta ...... a a Papua New Guinea ...... 1,380 a Kampuchea ...... 200 a Total 61,646 0.3 Pakistan ...... a a Tropical America: Jamaica ...... Total 69,225 0.2 Haiti ...... aNo data; in most cases thisis where the areas are very small, tforest fallow island that has been cleared forcultivstion and subsequently abandoned so that it may again have woody vegetation. SOURCE Food andAgriculture OrganlzatlonlUnlted Nations Environment Pro9ramme, TropkxdFor estResourcesAssessment Pro/ect(GEMS)” TropicalAfrica, Tropical As/a, Trcpca/Amenca, 4VOIS (Rome 1981) 328 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Table A-5.—Forest Plantations in Tropical Africa, America, and Asia, 1980

Total land Area of Industrial Nonindustrial area plantations plantations plantations Country (1,000 ha) (ha) (%) (%)

58,693 266,000 42 58 250,658 187,850 31 69 58,272 180,900 87 13 92,361 163,300 90 10 124,680 157,200 43 57 38,936 100,250 71 29 122,187 98,200 1 99 94,239 97,750 69 31 11,847 60,300 97 23,856 75,250 65 23,607 45,700 30 70 32,243 44,900 84 16 75,261 38,000 88 2,635 29,000 12 88 78,311 25,400 63 37 234,628 22,500 84 16 2,721 19,500 33 67 26,766 19,000 63 37 11,261 19,000 41 59 47,541 18,500 56 44 34,199 16,800 100 0 19,671 12,500 28 72 27,418 12,000 0 100 5,685 11,300 67 33 63,732 11,000 0 100 11,135 6,300 100 0 126,638 6,000 0 100 7,334 5,800 91 9 128,449 3,200 0 100 23,852 2,850 75 120,383 1,900 11 89 1,040 1,300 100 o 62,298 500 100 3,613 350 14 14 82,416 300 100 0 57,496 a — — 2,805 a — — 2,189,595 1,780,600 56 44

770,064 3,855,000 51 49 197,266 159,000 45 55 11,448 157,000 100 0 91,209 124,500 97 3 113,880 95,000 100 0 128,517 84,000 39 61 27,067 43,000 100 0 109,866 25,900 23 77 513 16,000 100 0 10,889 15,800 100 0 1,141 12,800 100 0 16,382 8,500 100 0 4,838 5,700 0 100 7,709 4,000 100 0 2,297 3,100 100 0 40,674 3,000 63 37 5,091 2,800 100 0 2,098 1,500 100 0 13,928 1,300 100 0 21,497 1,200 100 0 2,775 1,000 0 100 9,100 450 100 0 11,209 a — — 1,564,667 4,620,550 55 45 App. A—Status of Tropical Forests: Tables ● 329

Table A-5.—Forest Plantations in Tropical Africa, America, and Asia, 1980—Continued

Total land Area of Industrial Nonindustrial area plantations plantations plantations Country (1,000 ha) (ha) (%) (%) Tropical Asia: India ...... 328,742 2,0613000 74 26 Indonesia ...... 191,914 l,918,000 1 99 Philippines ...... 29,981 300,000 2 98 Viet Nam ...... 33,433 204,000 8 92 Pakistan ...... 80,519 160,000 0 100 Bangladesh ...... 14,284 128,000 100 0 Thailand ...... 68,152 114,000 55 45 Sri Lanka ...... 6,560 112,300 100 0 Malaysia ...... 33,068 26,000 25 75 Papau New Guinea ...... 46,172 21,700 0 100 Nepal ...... 14,140 18,700 74 26 Burma ...... 67,801 16,000 3 97 Laos ...... 23,679 11,000 70 30 Bhutan ...... 4,662 7,000 100 Kampuchea ...... 18,105 6,800 59 41 Brunei ...... 576 a — — Total ...... 944,841 5,111,500 – 66 34 SOURCE” Food andAgriculture Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, Trop@/ Forest Resources Assessrnerrf Pro/ect (GEMS) Trop/ca/ Africa, Tropica/Asfa, Tropica/Arnerica, 4VOIS (Rome 1981) 330 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical forest Resources

Table A-6.–Deforestation–Tropical Africa, America, and Asia, 1981-85

Annual Annual deforestation deforestation of closed Percent of closed Percent forests deforested forests deforested Country (1,000 ha) per year Country (1,000 ha) per year Tropical Africa: Haiti ...... 2 3.8 Ivory Coast ...... 6.5 El Salvador ...... 5 3.2 Nigeria ...... 300 5.0 Jamaica ...... 2 3.0 Rwanda ...... 3 2.7 Nicaragua ...... 121 2.7 Burundi ...... 1 2.7 Honduras ...... 90 2.4 Guinea-Bissau ...... 17 2.6 Ecuador ...... 34 2.4 Benin ...... 1 2.6 Guatemala ...... 90 2.0 Liberia ...... 46 2.3 Colombia ...... 820 1.8 Guinea ...... 36 1.8 Mexico ...... 595 Kenya ...... 19 1.7 Panama ...... 36 0.9 Angola ...... 44 1.5 Belize ...... 9 0.7 Madagascar ...... 150 1.5 Dominican Republic ...... 4.0 0.6 Ghana ...... 22 1.3 Brazil ...... 1,480 0.4 Uganda ...... 10 1.3 Peru ...... 270 0.4 Zambia ...... 40 1.3 Trinidad and Tobago ...... 1 0.4 Mozambique ...... 10 1.3 Venezuela ...... 125 0.4 Sierra Leone ...... 6 0.8 Bolivia ...... 87 0.2 Togo ...... 2 Cuba ...... 2 0.1 Tanzania ...... 10 0.7 Surinam ...... 3 0.0 Sudan ...... 4 0.6 French Guiana ...... 1 0.0 Chad ...... 2 0.4 Guyana ...... 3 0.0 Cameroon ...... 80 0.4 Total ...... 4,339 0.6 Zaire ...... 182 0.2 Somalia ...... 4 0.2 Tropical Asia: Ethiopia ...... 8 0.2 Nepal ...... 84 4.3 Equatorial Guinea ...... 3 0.2 Sri Lanka ...... 58 3.5 Central African Republic ...... 5 0.1 Thailand ...... 252 2.7 Congo ...... 22 0.1 Brunei ...... 5 1.6 Gabon ...... 15 0.1 , Laos ...... 100 1.2 Botswana ...... a a Malaysia ...... 255 1.2 Namibia ...... a a Philippines ...... 91 1.0 Zimbabwe ...... a a Bangladesh ...... 8 0.9 Mali ...... a a Viet Nam ...... 65 0.7 Malawi ...... a a Indonesia ...... 600 0.5 Upper Volta ...... a a Pakistan ...... 7 0.3 Senegal ...... a a India ...... 147 0.3 Niger ...... a a Kampuchea ...... 25 0.3 Gambia ...... a a Burma ...... 105 0.3 Bhutan ...... 2 0.1 Total ...... 1.332 0.6 Papua New Guinea ...... 22 0.1 Tropical America: Total ...... 1,826 0.6 Paraguay ...... 190 4 Costa Rica ...... 65 4.0 afqo data. in mostcases this is where the areas are~y small.

SOURCE: Food andAgriculture Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, Tropica/ ForestResources Assessrnerrt Projecf(GEMS~ Tropica/Africa, Tropica/ Asia, Tropica/America,4 vols. (Rome: 1981) App. A—Status of Tropical Forests: Tables Ž 331

Table A-7.—Per Capita Open Forest Areas in Tropical Africa, America, and Asia, 1980

Open forest Hectares of Open forest Hectares of area open forest area open forest Country (1,000 ha) per capita Country (1,000 ha) per capita Tropical Africa: Surinam ...... 690 1.8 Botswana ...... 32,560 40.3 Brazil ...... 211,200 1.7 Namibia ...... 18,420 18.3 French Guiana ...... 70 1.1 Central African Republic ...... 32,300 14,1 Belize ...... 92 0.6 Angola ... , , ... , ...... 50,700 7.2 Venezuela ...... 3,300 0.2 Zambia ...... 26,500 4.6 Colombia ...... 5,700 0.2 Chad ...... 13,000 2.9 Peru ...... 1,120 0.1 Zimbabwe ...... 19,700 2.7 Ecuador ...... 550 0.1 Sudan ...... 47,000 2.6 Honduras ...... 200 0.1 Zaire ...... 71,640 2.5 Costa Rica ...... 160 0.1 Guinea-Bissau ...... 1,445 2,5 Guyana ...... 25 b Tanzania ...... 40,600 2.3 Cuba ...... a b Senegal ...... 10,825 1,9 Dominican Republic ...... a b Guinea ...... 8,600 1.7 Trinidad and Tobago ...... b Somalia ...... 7,510 1.6 Mexico ...... 2,100 b Mozambique ...... 14,500 1.4 Panama ...... b Mali ...... 8,800 1.3 Guatemala ...... 100 b Benin ...... 3,820 1.1 Haiti ...... a b Upper Volta ...... 7,200 1.0 El Salvador ...... a b Cameroon ...... 7,700 0.9 Jamaica ...... a b Malawi ...... 4,085 0.7 Nicaragua ...... a b Ethiopia ...... 22,800 0.7 Total ...... 278,647 0.9 Ivory Coast ...... 5,376 0.7 Ghana ...... 6,975 0.6 Tropical Asia: Niger ...... 2,900 0.5 Laos ...... 5,215 1.4 Togo ...... 1,380 0.5 Papua New Guinea ...... 3,945 1.3 Sierra Leone ...... 1,315 0.4 Kampuchea ...... 5,100 0.8 Uganda ...... 5,250 0.4 Thailand ...... 6,440 0.1 Madagascar ...... 2,900 0.3 India ...... 5,393 b Gambia ...... 150 0.2 Bhutan ...... 40 b Gabon ...... 75 0.1 Philippines ...... a b Kenya ...... 1,255 0.1 Bangladesh ...... b Nigeria ...... 8,800 0.1 Viet Nam ...... 1,340 b Congo ...... a b Indonesia ...... 3,000 b Equatorial Guinea ...... a b Pakistan ...... 295 b Liberia ...... 40 b Burma ...... a b Rwanda ...... 110 b Brunei ...... a b Burundi ...... 14 b Malaysia ...... a b Nepal ...... 180 b Total ...... 486,445 1.4 Sri Lanka ...... a b TropicalAmerica: Total ...... 30,948 b Paraguay ...... 28,640 9.0 Bolivia ...... 24,700 4.4 aNo data. in m~~t cases this is where the areas arevq small. b’ Less than O.05fcrest hectares per capita. SOURCE: Populaticm Reference Burew, 1983 WoridPopdatiorI Dafa SfreeLWashington, D,C; Food and Agriculture Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, Tropical Forest ResourcesAssessment Proiect (GEMS) Tropicsl Africa, Tropical Asia, Tropical America, 4vols. (Rome. 1981)

25-287 0 - 84 - 23 Appendix B Glossary

Archipelago: An expanse of water with many scat- Closed forest: Includes land where trees shade so tered islands; a group of islands. much of the ground that a continuous layer of Agroforestry: A collective name for land-use sys- grass cannot grow. The tree cover is often multi- tems and technologies where woody perennials storied. Trees may be evergreen, semideciduous, (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliber- or deciduous. Closed forests grow where the cli- ately used on the same land management unit as mate is relatively moist. Also called moist forest. agricultural crops and/or animals, either in some Cloud forests: Forests where clouds impinge form of spatial arrangement or temporal se- almost continuously on tropical mountain vegeta- quence. In agroforestry systems there are both tion. Generally a dense growth of trees of vari- ecological and economic interactions between ous diameters draped with mosses, ferns, and the different components. leafy liverworts. Alluvial soils: Soils made of materials deposited Coir-fiber: A stiff, coarse fiber from the outerhusk by running water (e.g., clay, silt, sand, and of coconut. gravel). Commonwealth: In the context of American terri- Aquifer: A water-bearing stratum of permeable torial relations, the status currently held by Puer- rock, sand, or gravel. to Rico and approved for the Northern Mariana Atoll: A coral island consisting of a reef surround- Islands. Denotes a high degree of local autonomy ing a lagoon. under a constitution drafted and adopted by the Biological diversity: Includes two related concepts, local residents, genetic diversity and ecological diversity. Genet- Conifer: Any of an order (Coniferales) of mostly ic diversity is the amount of genetic variability evergreen trees and shrubs including forms (as among individuals in a single species, whether pines) with true cones and others (as yews) with the species exist as a single interbreeding group an arillate fruit. Most are needle-leaved trees. or as a number of populations, strains, breeds, Often referred to as softwoods. races, or subspecies. Ecological diversity (species Conifer forest: A type of closed forest. It includes richness) is the number of species in a communi- only areas where conifer species (gymnosperm) ty of organisms. Both kinds of diversity are fun- predominate. These trees are often referred to as damental to the functioning of ecological sys- “softwoods.” tems, Conservation: The management of human use of Biome: A major ecological community type (e.g., the biosphere so that it benefits present genera- grassland); a major biotic unit consisting of plant tions while maintaining its potential to meet the and animal communities having similarities in needs of future generations. form and environmental conditions, Converted land: Includes any land that has Biotic: Of or relating to life; caused or produced changed from a natural to a manipulated state, by living things. such as cropland planted annually or every few Broadleaf forest: A type of closed forest where years with food or fiber crops and rangeland broadleaf species (dicotyledons or monocotyle- covered permanently with grasses, legumes, dons) predominate. The broadleaf trees (espe- and/or herbaceous species and harvested by graz- cially the dicotyledons) are often referred to as ing livestock. “hardwoods.” Coppice: A forest of trees that has grown from Canopy: The more or less continuous cover of shoots or root suckers rather than seed. Coppic- branches and foliage formed collectively by the ing refers to cutting trees close to ground level crowns of adjacent trees and other woody vegeta- so they will regrow from coppice shoots. tion. Layers (i.e., understory and overstory) of the Copra: Dried coconut meat yielding coconut oil. canopy may be distinguished. Deciduous: Of perennial plants that are normally Clearcutting: The removal of the entire standing leafless for some period during the year. crop of trees. In practice, may refer to exploita- Deforestation: The conversion of forests to land tion that leaves much unsalable material stand- uses that have a tree cover of less than 10 percent. ing (e.g., a commercial clearcutting). Degradation: Refers to the biological, physical, and

332 App. B—Glossary ● 333

chemical processes that result in the loss of the This includes patches of land that are being used productive potential of natural resources—e.g., to grow crops and some patches where forest has soil erosion and loss of valuable or potentially not been cleared which are too small to account valuable genetic types. for separately, The category does not include Dendrothermal: Caused by or relating to heat land where erosion or leaching have so degraded generated by burning wood. the site that only shrubs or grasses grow after the Desertification: A process of extreme degradation land is abandoned. of the biological potential of the land that can lead Forest resources: Includes trees, the organisms ultimately to desert-like conditions. associated with them, and the land, waters, and Dipterocarp forests: Forests dominated by trees of microclimates that are substantially affected by the Dipterocarpaceae family. These are tall trees them. of tropical Asia, Indonesia, and the Philippines Forest structure: Distribution and arrangement of that have a twowinged fruit and are the source trees in a forest. of valuable timber, aromatic oils, and resins. Fuelwood: Wood used as fuel for purposes of cook- Disturbed forest: Forest that has been cleared in ing, heat, or power production. Wood for char- large areas within the last 60 years, commonly coal, kilns, and ovens is included, for crops or pasture. Usually it is sufficiently de- Genetic diversity: See biological diversity. graded or harvested regularly so it does not Geomorphology: Science that deals with the land return to its original state. Trees maybe managed and submarine relief features of the Earth’s sur- or left to natural successions. The term includes face; the features dealt within geomorphology. plantations. Germ plasm: Germ cells and their precursors serv- Dry forest: See open forest. ing as the bearers of heredity and being funda- Ecological diversity: See biological diversity. mentally independent of other cells; the heredi- Ecosystem: A unit of plant and animal life, within tary material of the germ cells, Genes. its nonliving environment, the components of Hardwood: A conventional term for the timber of which are linked together by a variety of proc- broadleaved trees, and the trees themselves, be- esses, including the flow of energy through the longing to the botanical group Angiospermae. system and the cycling of nutrients within it. Hectare: One hectare equals 2.47 acres. One square Endangered species: Species threatened with ex- kilometer equals 100 hectares. One square mile tinction as listed in the Endangered Species Act equals 259 hectares. Thus, the 1.2 billion hectares of 1973 and subsequent amendments. of closed tropical forest is equal to 3 billion acres Endemic: Restricted or peculiar to a locality or or 4.6 milhon square miles. region. Native. Horticulture: The science and art of growing fruits, Eutrophic: Rich in dissolved nutrients (as phos- vegetables, flowers, or ornamental plants, phates). Often shallow and seasonally deficient Hydrology: The study of the circulation of water in oxygen. in and between the atmosphere and the Earth’s Environmental services: Benefits provided by the crust, with particular emphasis on the phases ini- environment or environmental processes, often tiated by precipitation and ending with evapo- with values difficult to quantify. Examples in- transpiration. Water cycle. clude the erosion control function of vegetation Hyphae: The threads that make up the mycelium and the filtering function of mangrove forests. of a fungus. Exotic: Introduced from another country; not na- Indigenous: Native to a specified area or region, tive to the place where found. not introduced. Endemic. Free association: Proposed status for the peoples Industrial plantations: Sites where trees are of Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Federated planted to produce sawlogs, veneer logs, pulp- States of Micronesia—currently the Trust Terri- wood, and pitprops. The category excludes plan- tory of the Pacific Islands. Provides for full inter- tations that produce fuelwood for industrial use. nal self-government and substantial authority in Industrial wood: Wood used for sawlogs, veneer foreign affairs. The United States would have logs, pit props, pulpwood, chips, particles, or responsibility for defense and some specified other construction purposes. Does not include economic assistance. fuelwood. Forest fallow: Land that has been cleared of its In situ: Protecting stock in the original habitat trees for cultivation and subsequently abandoned rather than in cold storage or in places such as so that it may again have some woody vegetation. gene banks and botanical or zoological gardens. 334 Ž Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Insular: Of, relating to, or constituting an island; that is characterized by large evergreen trees as dwelling or situated on an island. a dominant life form. Laterite: A red residual product of rock decay that Mycorrhiza: The symbiotic association of the has a high content of oxides of iron and hydrox- mycelium of a fungus with the roots of a seed ide of aluminum. plant. Landsat: Originally called Earth Resources Tech- New world: North, South, and Central America. nological Satellite (ERTS). A group of satellites Open forests: Trees cover at least 10 percent of the using electromagnetic sensors to record reflected ground but still allow enough light to reach the radiation from the Earth to provide imagery to forest floor so that a continuous cover of grass depict ground cover, etc. Remote-sensing tool im- can grow. Generally occur where the climate is portant for resource inventories. relatively dry. Leeward: Being in or facing the direction toward Open woodlands: See open forests. which the wind is blowing; the side opposite the Palmito: Any of several usually low-growing fan- windward. leaved palms. Strips of the leaf blade of a palmet- Legally protected forest: Forests where logging is to used in weaving. prohibited by law. It includes a variety of types Phenology: A branch of science dealing with the of parks and protected areas. Illegal logging and relations between climate and periodic biological agricultural clearing does occur in some of these phenomena (as bird migration or plant flower- areas. ing). Legumes: Any of a large family (Leguminosae) of Phenotype: Any organism as observed—i.e., as dicotyledonous herbs, shrubs, and trees bearing judged by its visually perceptible characters nodules on the roots that contain nitrogen-fixing resulting from the interaction of its genetic char- bacteria, and including important food, forage, acteristics with the environment. and timber plants (as peas, beans, carob, or rose- Pioneer species: A plant capable of invading bare wood.) or newly exposed sites and persisting there—i.e., Littoral: Of, relating to, or situated or growing on colonizing them—until supplanted by succession or near a shore, especially of the sea. species. Logged-over forest: Productive forest area that has Plantation: A forest crop or stand established ar- been logged or cleared at least once in the last tificially either by sowing or planting. The term 60 years but does not fit the criteria for managed includes reforestation (reestablishment of a tree forest. This category is not applied to open for- cover on deforested or degraded forest lands) and ests. replacement of natural forest by a different tree Managed forest: Productive forest where harvest- crop. It does not include artificial regeneration ing regulations are enforced, silvicultural treat- (the application of postharvesting techniques to ments are carried out, and trees are protected accelerate the regrowth of the species that had from fires and diseases. been logged). Mangroves: Any of a genus (Rhizophora, especially Possession: Used to refer to any unincorporated R. mangle) of tropical maritime trees or shrubs territory of the United States—i.e., any territory that throw out many prop roots and form dense to which the Constitution has not been express- masses important in coastal areas. ly and fully extended. Includes American Samoa, Manmade forest: See plantations. Guam, and the Virgin Islands. Marginal land: Land that is relatively infertile or Productive forest: The characteristics of the trees, unproductive for agriculture without extraor- terrain, and forest regulations potentially allow dinary capital imputs (as irrigation, fertilizer). the production of wood for industrial purposes (e.g., sawlogs, veneer logs, pulpwood, and indus- Merchantable: Of commercially acceptable quality. Salable. trial poles). Relates to both closed and open forests. The distance to consumption or export cen- Moist forest: See closed forest. ters is not taken into account, so the category in- Monoculture: One species planted over a large cludes some forests that are not now economical- area. ly accessible. Montane: Of, relating to, growing in, or being the Propagule: A structure (as a cutting, a seed, or a biogeographic zone that is made up of relatively spore) that propagates a plant. moist cool upland slopes below timberline and Provenance trials (or tests): Testing populations App. B—Glossary ● 335

of the same species to study their performance increase the productivity and renewability of the under a range of site and climatic conditions. In resources in perpetuity. a provenance test, seeds are collected from a Symbiosis: The intimate living together of two number of widely scattered stands and the seed- dissimilar organisms in a mutually beneficial lings are grown under similar conditions. relationship. Race: Subdivision of a species distinguished by Taungya: Burmese word for hill cultivation. The heritable physiological or morphological charac- principal objective is to plant crops of trees used teristics resulting from adaptation to a specific for wood production. People are allowed to grow environmental condition. Tree species races are food crops among the newly planted trees for one often described by referring to the geographic or a few years. location where the race is found naturally. Tissue culture: Microbiological technique for asex- Rhizomes: Underground, root-like stem of plant. ual reproduction of plants in vitro from a selected Roundwood: Wood in the natural state as felled, parent. or otherwise harvested, with or without bark, Tree: A woody perennial plant having a single, round, split, or squared. It comprises all wood usually elongate, main stem generally with few obtained from removals. Commodities included or no branches on its lower part. are sawlogs, veneer logs, pit props, pulpwood, Trust territory: Areas placed under the interna- other industrial roundwood, and fuelwood. tional trusteeship system of the United Nations, Secondary forests: Forest growth that has come up territories detached from enemy states as a result naturally after some major interference (e.g., log- of World War II, and territories voluntarily ging, serious fire, or insect attack). placed under the system. Are administered pur- Selectively cut: The removal of only the most suant to the terms of individual agreements, valuable trees, Tropics: The region lying between the Tropic of Shrubland: Land that has woody vegetation cover- Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, 23.5° North ing at least 10 percent of the ground, but the main and 23.50 South of the Equator. In this report, woody plants are bushy species with a height at tropical forest includes all forest of the 76 listed maturity of 0.5 to 7 meters, Shrubland maybe the nations, whether or not they are actually in the natural vegetation under dry or otherwise stress- Tropics. ful conditions, or it may result from severe degra- Undisturbed forest: Productive forest that has not dation of open or closed forest. been logged or cleared in the last 60 years, in- Shifting cultivation (also called slash-and-burn cluding both primary forest and old secondary agriculture): Any farming system where land is forest. Natural tropical forest with at most a few periodically cleared, cropped, and returned to small areas cleared by natural or human-induced fallow. events, regenerating by natural stages of succes- Siltation: To choke, fill over, or obstruct with silt sion. The term is not applied to open forests or mud. because nearly all open forests have been subject Silviculture: The science and art of cultivating to cutting, burning, and grazing. forest crops, based on a knowledge of forest tree Unproductive forest (for physical reasons): Forest characteristics. unsuitable for industrial wood production SociaI and environmental plantations: Plantations because of rough or inundated terrain or poor designed for soil and water protection or to pro- growth characteristics of the trees (stunted or duce fuelwood and charcoal, polewood, or con- crooked), struction wood for local use, or some nonwood Unproductive land: Land that has been so de- products such as gum arabics. The category ex- graded that it produces few useful products and cludes plantations for major nonwood commodi- provides minimal environmental services. It ties such as rubber, palm oil, coconuts, cloves, usually supports very little growth of useful coffee, and cocoa. It also excludes trees planted species and does not return naturally to other to shade agricultural crops. categories of land. Softwood: A conventional term for both the timber Watershed: A region or area draining ultimately and the trees belonging to the botanical group to a particular watercourse or body of water. Gymnospermae. Commercial timbers of this Weeding: Eliminating or suppressing undesirable group are generally confined to conifers. vegetation so as to reduce competition with Sustain (sustaining, sustainable): To maintain or desirable vegetation. Appendix Commissioned Papers

Technologies to Increase Production From Carl M. Gallegos Primary Tropical Forests and Woodlands U.S. Agency for International Development Peter S. Ashton Charles B. Davey, Robert L. Kellison, Harvard Arnold Arboretum Pedro A. Sanchez, and Bruce J. Zobel Department of Forestry Mark J, Plotkin North Carolina State University Harvard Botanical Museum Afforestation and Management of Tropical Methods for Evaluating Tropical Forest and Wastelands in India Woodland Plants to Indicate Their Potential as Resources R. C. Ghosh Additional Chief Conservator of Forests Michael J. Balick West Bengal, India New York Botanical Garden Causes of Deforestation in Tropical Asia Tree Crops: Key Elements in Sustaining Tropical Forest Resources Christopher Gibbs British Columbia Ministry of Environment Earle Barnhart The New Alchemy Institute The Use of Traditional Knowledge in Development and Implementation of Resource- Professional Education and Technical Use Systems That Sustain Tropical Forest Training to Support Development and and Woodland Resources Implementation of Technologies to Sustain Tropical Resources Stephen R. Gliessman College of Environmental Studies James S. Bethel and David B. Thorud University of California-Santa Cruz College of Forestry University of Washington Valuing Goods and Services From Tropical William Burch Forests and Woodlands School of Forestry Hans M. Gregersen Yale University Department of Forestry University of Minnesota-St. Paul Applied Research in the United States Relevant to Tropical Forests and Woodlands Deforestation and Environmental Change David H. Dawson in the West African Sahel Forestry Sciences Laboratory Jeffrey Allman Gritzner Board on Science and Technology for Causes of Deforestation and Forest and International Development Woodland Degradation in Tropical National Academy of Sciences Latin America William M. Denevan Land-Use Planning Technologies to Sustain Department of Geography Tropical Forest and Woodlands University of Wisconsin-Madison Lawrence S. Hamilton East-West Center Technologies for Reforestation of Degraded Lands in the Tropics

336 App. C—Commissioned Papers Ž 337

Technologies to Improve the Use of Tropical Soil and Water Management Technologies for Forest and Woodland Products Tropical Forests Joseph Frederick Hughes, Charles Pereira Robert Aubrey Plumptre, and Jeffery Burley Consultant in Tropical Agricultural Research Commonwealth Forestry Institute and Land-Use Hydrology England England

The Relationship of Basic Research to the Social Forestry in India: An Analytical Development of the Technologies That Will Framework for Evaluation of Its Problems Sustain Tropical Forest Resources and Prospects Daniel H. Janzen Christopher Prins Department of Biology University of California-Berkeley University of Pennsylvania-Philadelphia Basic Research—A Necessary Prerequisite Identification and Development of New for Adequate Development of Technologies Tropical Forest Resources in Puerto Rico to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources and the U.S. Virgin Islands Peter H, Raven Connie Krochmal Missouri Botanical Garden Economic Botanist Agriculture and Science Associates Institutions That Deal With Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources The Use of Agroforestry to Improve the Bruce Rich Productivity to Converted Tropical Land Natural Resources Defense Council Bjorn Lundgren International Council for Research Private Foundations That Support Projects in Agroforestry Relating to Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources Professional Education and Technical Bruce M. Rich Training to Support Development and Implementation of Technologies to Sustain Natural Resources Defense Council Tropical Resources Causes of Deforestation and Forest and Hank Margolis Woodland Degradation in Tropical Africa Oregon State University James C. Ridden Methods for the Establishment and Land Tenure Center Management of Protected Areas for Tropical University of Wisconsin-Madison Primary Forest and Woodland Resources Dynamics of Tropical Forest Conversion: Kenton R. Miller and Dennis Glick A Preliminary System Dynamics Model School of Natural Resources Jennifer Robinson University of Michigan-Ann Arbor Department of Geography University of California-Santa The Importance of Tropical Forests and Cruz Woodland Resources Norman Myers Consultant in Environment and Development 338 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Forestry: Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands Environmental Education Technologies as Applied to Tropical Forest Management Ralph Schmidt Forest Service Diane Walton Department of Natural Resources International Institute for Environment and Puerto Rico Development David Wood Fuelwood Technologies to Sustain Tropical National Wildlife Federation Forest Resources Asif M. Shaikh and Samuel Hale, Jr. Combatting Desertification With Trees Energy Development International Fred R. Weber Tahir Qadri International Resources Development and CARE Conservation Services

Opportunities and Constraints for Improving Halting Tropical Deforestation: The Role of the Use of Tropical Mangrove Forests Technology Howard J. Teas Jack Westoby Department of Biology Consultant in Forest Economics University of Miami-Coral Gables Italy

Common-Property Resources and Congressional Action to Improve the Individual Ownership Sustainability of U.S. Tropical Forest Resources in the Pacific Denise M. Toombs Resource Policy Center Craig D. Whitesell, Charles W. Philpot, and Dartmouth College Marjory C. Falanruw Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experi- Sustaining Tropical Forest and Woodland ment Station Animal Resources U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Noel D. Vietmeyer Technologies and Technology Systems for Board on Science and Technology for Reforestation of Degraded Tropical Lands International Development National Academy of Sciences P. J. Wood, J, Burley, and A. Grainger Commonwealth Forestry Institute Secondary Forest Management and Plantation England Forestry Technologies to Improve the Use of Converted Tropical Lands Frank H. Wadsworth Institute of Tropical Forestry Puerto Rico Index Index

African Development Bank, 119 Congress: American Samoa, 27, 29, 127, 128, 141-144, 277, 281 issues and options for, 23-27, 31-32, 301-320 Angola, 68, 75 expand and coordinate development assistance, Asian Development Bank, 119 24, 305, 308 Australia. 180 expand U.S. expertise, 26, 316 improve research and market development, 25, Bangladesh, 47, 48, 74, 78 311 Belgium, 120 protect biological diversity, 26, 315 Belize, 64 U.S. tropical forests, 303 Benin, 64 Consultative Group on International Agricultural Bioenergy Development Corp., 27, 128 Research (CGIAR), 26 Bolivia, 68 list of, 111 Brazil, 45, 47, 48, 51, 109, 224 Cooperation for Development in Africa (CDA), 105, closed forests, 64, 66 120, 272 deforestation, 85 Costa Rica, 45, 75 forest ownership, 70 Centro Agronomic Tropical de Investigation y open forests, 68 Ensenanza, 263 plantations, 74, 189 Cuba, 85 wood exports, 49, 137 Brunei, 78 deforestation and forest resource degradation, 85-100 Burma, 64, 74 historical context, 85 Burundi. 121 soil relationship to, 87 underlying causes, 98 Canada, 50, 120, 137 visible agents of forest change, 89 Land Inventory, 245 commercial agriculturalists and cattle ranchers, Caribbean and western Pacific, 127-151 95 common characteristics, 129-132 fires, 93 dependence of coastal ecosystems, 132 fuelwood gatherers, 91 dependence of water resources, 131 logging, 97 endemic species, abundance of, 129 nomadic herders, 90 invasion by exotic plant and animal species, shifting cultivation, 89 vulnerability to, 130 warfare, 94 land degradation, 132 disturbed forests, 195-213 species-rich forests, 129 degraded lands, reforestation of, 200-213 Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands, 133 constraints and opportunities, 211 forests resources, 133 technologies, 201-21l history of forest use, 135 secondary forests, management of, 196-200 organizations dealing with tropical forests, 140 constraints and opportunities, 200 U.S. Pacific territories: technologies, 196 American Samoa, 141, 143 Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, 141, 146 education, research, and technology transfer, 257-272 forest resources: status and trends, 141 environmental education, 263 Guam, 141, 147, 148 principles of, 264 history of forest use, 148 professional education and technical training, organizations dealing with tropical forests, 149, 258-263 151 research, 265-269 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 141, 144 dissemination of findings, 268 Caribbean National Forest, 28, 140, 276 fundamental and applied research, 265 C. Brewer & Co,, 128 priorities, 266 Chicago Field Museum of Natural History, 259 technology transfer, 269-272 Civilian Conservation Corps, 136 Club du Sahel, 120 forestry technologies, 275-295 Colombia, 48 agriculture, 284 Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, 27, disturbed forests, 280 141, 146 education, research, and technology transfer, Congo, Republic of, 48, 74, 75 289-293

341 342 . Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

reduce overcutting, 278 Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources wood fuels, 279 Research Act of 1978, 292 resource development planning, 288 Government Employees Training Act, 118 undisturbed forests, 276 McIntyre-Stennis Act of 1962, 294 France, 120 Liberia, 75 French Guiana, 75 Fulbright Grants, 121 Malawi, 121 Malaysia, 49, 50, 64 Gabon, 75 Mexico, 45, 66, 68 General Accounting Office, 269 Micronesia, 27, 29, 127, 128, 141, 144, 149, 287 Ghana, 44, 64 Missouri Botanical Garden, 259 Great Britain, 180 Green Revolution, 43 Nepal, 246, 249 Guam, 27, 141, 147, 148, 172, 277, 281, 289, 291 New Guinea, 66, 70, 171, 172, 291 Guatemala, 48 New York Botanical Garden, 259 Gulf of Guinea, 45 Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve, 277 Guyana, 75 Nigeria, 75, 224 Nitrogen-Fixing Tree Association, 27 Haiti, 54, 75, 85 nongovernmental organizations (NGC)S), 110, 121 Hawaii, 127, 128, 129, 131, 263 Bishop Museum, 128 Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 121 College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Organization for Economic Cooperation and Resources, 27 Development (OECD), 120 Department of Land and Natural Resources, 27, Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC), 122 128 East/West Center, 27, 128, 267 Forest Service Institute of Pacific Island Forestry, Pakistan, 44, 74 128 Panama, 45 Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden, 128 Panama Canal, 47, 54 Honduras, 48, 75, 120 Peru, 66 Hong Kong, 49 Philippines, 48, 51, 78, 109, 181, value of wood exports, 49 India, 40, 47, 70, 74, 186, 249 Puerto Rico, 127, 129, 224, 263, 277, 278, 280, 281, Indonesia, 64, 66, 68, 74 286, 287, 289 Interamerican Development Bank, 119 center of excellence, proposed, 21 International Council for Research in Agroforestry Commonwealth forests, 276 (ICRAF), 112, 228, 263 Department of Natural Resources, 28, 140, 283, 288 International Development Cooperation Agency, 119 forest resources, 133, 135 International Executive Service Corps (IESC), 122 geoclimatic regions, 137 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Guanica State Forest, 277 Natural Resources (IUCN), 160 imports, 27, 139, 280 International Union of Forestry Research organizations dealing with tropical forests, 140 Organizations (IUFRO), 105, 112, 268 University of Puerto Rico, 29, 140 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone, 40 Ivory Coast, 49, 64, 75 Rose Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, 277 resource development planning, 243-251 Japan, 49, 51 constraints and opportunities, 250-251 technologies, 243-250 Kenya, 40, 64, 112, 235 biophysical assessment, 243 British-American Tobacco Co., 225 financial and economic analyses, 246 fuelwood, 16 land classification, 244 Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute, Kingsville, Tex,, monitoring and evaluation, 248 263 multiobjective planning methods, 249 social assessment, 247 legislation: Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act of 1978, 292 Sahel, 120 Economy Act, 118 Senegal, 121 Endangered Species Act of 1973, 42 Singapore, 49 Federal Resources Planning Act of 1974, 294 Smithsonian Institution, 106, 259 Foreign Assistance Act, 25, 26, 118, 121, 271, 305 Somalia, 121 Index ● 343

South Korea, 49 U.S. interests in, 42 Sri Lanka, 64, 181, 185, 246 water and climate, 40-43 Sudan, 64, 68, 225 status of, 10-13 Surinam, 75, 224 closed forest, 64 data base, 63 definitions of forest categories, 65 technologies to reduce overcutting, 177-191 destruction of forest resources, 75-79 industrial wood, 178 deforestation and degradation, 75 harvesting, transporting, and handling, 178-179 resource degradation, 78 use of more tree species and sizes, 179-182 forest fallow, 68 wood fuels, 182-191 forest management, 69-74 fuelwood and charcoal conservation, 183 legislation and policy, 69 resource substitution, 185 plantations, 74 technologies to support tropical agriculture, 219-238 in tropical America, 73 agroforestry, 219, 220-229 wood production, 70-73 constraints and opportunities, 228 open forests and shrublands, 67 organizations that work on agroforestry systems, projection of changes, 79 228 tropical forest resources, organizations dealing with, systems, 220 105-123 classification and assessment, 224 consortia, 107 technology issues, 226 constraints, 114-117 watershed management, 219, 229-238 foreign bilateral organizations, 109 constraints and opportunities, 237 international nongovernment organizations, 108 description, 230 multilateral development banks, 107, 120 specific technologies, 232-236 U.S. representation, 119 terracing, 233 nongovernment organizations (NGOS) based in the technical principles, 231 United States, 107, 121 technology assessment, 14-23 opportunities, 117-123 disturbed forests, 17 private sector, role of, 113 management of secondary forests, 17 private U.S. foundations, 108 reforestation of degraded lands, 17 types of organizations in tropical countries, 109 education, research, and technology transfer, 20-23 U.N. agencies, 108 resource development planning, 20 U.S. forestry firms operating in tropical countries, reduce overcutting, 15-16 list of, 114 fuelwood, 16 U.S. Government organizations, 106 industrial wood, 15 tropical agriculture, 18 agroforestry, 18 Uganda, 64 watershed management, 19 UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) program, undisturbed forests, 14 14, 23, 25, 123, 159, 165, 166, 276 maintaining sample ecosystems, 14 undisturbed forests, 159-174 making undisturbed forests more valuable, 14 maintaining sample ecosystems, 160 Thailand, 64, 68 protected areas, status of, 160 fuelwood, 16 steps in planning a park or protected area, 164 Togo, 64 techniques to design, establish, and maintain Trade and Development Program (TDP), 122 protected areas, 160 Tribhuvan University, Nepal, 109 why protect tropical forests?, 160 tropical forest: wildlife management categories, 163 importance of, 10, 37-55 making undisturbed forests more valuable, 167-174 basic human needs, 45-49 food sources, 168, 170 commercial forest products, 49-52 game ranching, 170 nonwood products, 52 innovative products, 171, 172 products for medicine, 51 nonwood products, 167, 169 wood, 49 small animals, 169 environment, 53-54 United Nations (U.N.): future generations, 54 Commission on Trade and Development, 120 mangroves, 49, 132 Conference on New and Renewable Sources of political implications, 54 Energy, 186 social and economic context, 37-40 Development Programme, 245 tropical agriculture, 43 Environment Program, 23, 63, 108 344 ● Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 24, 26, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 27, 150, 286, 64, 105, 108, 111, 120, 183, 201, 212, 260, 267, 292 305 Institute of Tropical Forestry (ITF), 28, 136, 140, FAO/UNEP study, 63, 65, 68, 70, 75, 78, 79, 82, 281, 289, 292 160 State and Private Forestry grants, 28, 29 shifting cultivation, estimate, 46 The Caribbean Forester, 22 U.N. University, 26, 108, 112, 263 U.S. Interagency Task Force on Tropical Forests, 271 U.S. representation to U.N. agencies, 119 U.S. Landsat program, 64, 302 Upper Volta, 121 U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 24, 106, 123, 266 U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), 9, U.S. National Cancer Institute, 51 23, 24, 26, 105, 106, 118, 120, 121, 122, 140, 245, U.S. National Park Service, 24, 277 248, 262, 269, 291, 305 U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), 106, 123 Benchmark Soils Program, 246 U.S. Peace Corps, 106, 118, 140, 141, 185, 264 Central Selva Resource Management Project, 246 U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 27, 141, Environmental Profiles, 25 144, 277, 288 Forest Resource Management Project, 118 U.S. Virgin Islands, 27, 127, 277, 280, 281, 287, 292 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 289 College of the Virgin Islands, 140 U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 106, 268 Department of Agriculture, 28, 140, 284 Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service forest resources, 134, 135 (ASCS), 283 freshwater resources, 131 Mayaguez Institute of Tropical Agriculture, 286 life zones, 134 Natural Resource Inventory, 136 Luquillo Experimental Forest, 140 Soil Conservation Service, 24, 106, 245 National Park, 127, 134, 276 U.S. Department of Energy, 128 organizations dealing with tropical forests, 140 U.S. Department of the Interior, 106, 127, 141 Thomas Experimental Forest, 140 U.S. Department of State, 25, 106, 120, 123, 141 U.S. Department of Treasury, 119 Venezuela, 48 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 24, 123, 140, 277, 288, 291 World Bank, 24, 44, 105, 119, 267, 305 U.S. Forest Service, 23, 105, 106, 123, 128, 140, 262, Operational Manual for Project Analysis, 248 268, 284, 288, 289 congressional interests, 31, 32 Zaire, 64, 66, 68 Forestry Support Program, 118 Zambia, 64 Forest Products Laboratory, 50, 181