Index

A urodeles and gymnophiones, 250 Adaptive red–blue-ratio threshold detector, visual hunters, 250 590 Analysers, polarization Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti, yellow fever in Drosophila, 6–7 mosquito electric (E-) vector, 5 chemical cues, breeding habitats, 114, 135 extraretinal polarization analysers, 8 dengue and yellow fever, transmission, 135 in invertebrates, 9 dual-choice experiment, 135, 137 photoreceptor cell (R8), 8 imaging polarimetry, 135, 138 polarization sensitivities, 6 masked polarisation sensitivity, 139 rhabdomeric photoreceptors, 5–6 mosquito ecology, 139 rhodopsin molecules, 7 oviposition sites, 140, 521 twisted photoreceptors, 7–8 polarisation sensitivity in eyes, 139 Anterior optic tubercle (AOTu), insect brains rinsed and non-rinsed choice experiments, degree of polarization, 86 139 E-vector tuning, 85–86 skylight-polarisation compass, 140 intertubercle neurons, 83 All Sky Imager (ASI), 587–589 lateral accessory lobes (LALs), 82 Amphibians, PS locust (LoTu1 and TuTu1 cells), 83–84 breeding sites, 250–251 polarization-sensitive neurons, 82–83 brightness pattern, polarized light, 256 polarized-light responses, 84 celestial cues, 255 stimulus intensity, 85 colour vs. polarization vision, butterflies, TuLAL neurons, 83 257 unpolarized skylight cues, 87–88 emigration orientations, 254 Anthropogenic polarization magnetoreception, 258–260 animal movement, 444 Notophthalmus viridescens, 255–256 aquatic insects associated with water, photoreception, 251–253 445, 447, 448 pineal complex, 253–254 artificial surfaces, 451–452 prey organisms, 256 asphalt surfaces (see Asphalt surfaces) Rana arvalis, 250, 251 astronomical light pollution, 444 Rana pipiens and Rhinella arenarum, 254 attraction/repulsion, animals, 444 ‘redundant-multisensory system’, 254 black burnt-up stubble fields, 503–505 reproductive strategies, eggs, 250 bridges (see Bridges (optical barriers), vs. reptiles, 272 mayflies) training and testing tanks, 255 characteristics, 444 Triturus alpestris, 257 conventional photopollution, 448–449

G. Horva´th (ed.), Polarized Light and Polarization Vision in Animal Sciences, 637 Springer Series in Vision Research 2, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-54718-8, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014 638 Index

Anthropogenic polarization (cont.) homing ants, compound eyes and ocelli, 47 daytime and moonlight/citylight, 451 Lasius niger ants, 44 dragonflies (see Dragonflies) Melophorus bagoti, Australian desert ant, generalization and extension, 453 46, 47 horizontal plastic sheets (see Horizontal Myrmecia pyriformis, 46, 47, 55–56 plastic sheets) Myrmica ruginodis,44 light pollution, 444 ocelli, 52–56 linear polarization patterns and angle, water ommatidia, compound eyes, 4 surface, 444, 446 Polyergus rufescens, slave-making mass-swarming caddisflies and mayflies, ants, 46 473–477 skylight polarisation, 44–45 mayflies, 444, 445 Aquatic insects natural and artificial polarizers, 448 desert locusts hinders, Schistocerca non-metallic surface, 444, 446 gregaria, 141 Notonecta, 445 dragonflies, mayflies and tabanid flies paintwork attracting insects artificial surfaces, 128 black car, 494 bright water bodies, 130–131 Ephemeroptera and Odonata females, celestial polarisation pattern, 130 491 horizontal polarisation of light, 127–128 red-blind polarotactic water insects, 494 reflection-polarisation characteristics, red cars, 491, 493, 496 128–129 reflection, metallized and species-specific values, 128 non-metallized paints, 495 ventral polarisation sensitivity, solar position, white cars, 493 threshold, 128–130 visual deception, water insects, egg-laying yellow fever mosquitoes 496–497 A. aegypti (see Aedes (Stegomyia) yellow car, 495 aegypti, yellow fever mosquito) positive polarotaxis, 445 chemical cues, 135 predators feeding, polarotactic insects, 450 pentatonic and tridecanoid carboxylic reflection-polarization characteristics, acids, 134–135 water bodies, 446–448 polarisation sundial (see Polarisation urban birds, 485–487 sundial theory) vertical glass surfaces polarotaxis, 125–127, 131–132 caddisflies, 482–484 ASI. See All Sky Imager (ASI) flying polarotactic insects, 480, 482 Asphalt surfaces ‘greenest’ buildings, 484–485 horizontally polarized light ventral eye region, insect landed on polarotactic water insects, 459 glass, 483, 484 reflections, solar directions, 458, 459 vertical reflectors skylight/sunlight reflection, dry asphalt Brewster zone, 478 road, 458, 460 characteristics, 477 insects attraction, roads degree of linear and angle polarization, aquatic, 454 448, 479 behaviour, 455 dorsoventral symmetry axis, 478, 480 eggs laid, 455 Hydropsyche pellucidula, 477 mayflies swarming, 454, 455 skylit and sunlit, 478 stoneflies, 455 white glass surface, overcast sky, 480, reduction 482 materials, rough surface creation, 459 water-reflected light, 445 shiny dark surface, 460 Ants. See also Hymenopteran insects white-striated appearance, 456, 459 Cataglyphis ants, 11–12 white stripes painted, 460 compass behaviour, polarization, 10 reflection-polarization patterns, 455–458 DRA, 48–52 Azimuth compensation, insect brain, 100, Formica rufa, experiments, 44–45 103–104 Index 639

B BL law. See Beer–Lambert’s (BL) law Ball-rolling dung beetles Boehm’s brush, 312, 313 during day Bridges (optical barriers), mayflies celestial compass cues, 30 behaviour, females, 499–500 skylight cues, 30 biodiversity, 498 sun, primary cue for orientation, 32 downstream and upstream side, 501, 502 food transport, 28, 29 energy content, 500–501 morphology and physiology female larvae, 499 dorsal and ventral eyes, 34 laying eggs, 503 DRA, 35–36 linear polarization and areas, water, 501 photon arrival on retina, 36 male nymphs, P. longicauda, 499 photoreceptors, celestial polarization mass swarmings, 499 analysis, 34, 36 natural dispersal processes, insects, Scarabaeus deludens and Scarabaeus 498–499 goryi,37 riparian habitats, 503 Scarabaeus zambesianus,34 sex-ratio, 501, 503 at night swarming individuals, 501 celestial orientation, Milky Way, 33–34 dim polarization pattern, moonlit sky, 33, 34 C nocturnal orientation behaviour, 33 Caecilians, 250 straight-line orientation, 33 Canopylight, 357, 358 orientation task, 28, 29 Cattails (Typha spp.) during twilight, 32 emergent vegetation, 334–335 Beer–Lambert’s (BL) law imaging polarimetry, 337, 338 attenuation coefficient, 324–325 mowing, 335, 337–339 exponential equation, 324 polarization visibility, 335–338 integral form, 324 reflection-polarization patterns, 338 light source and sensor, 327 Central complex (CX) network Mie interaction, 325–326 beyond, 98–100 Rayleigh scattering, 325 columnar neurons, 89 scattering/absorption efficiency, 325, 326 input stage, 90–93 Birds, polarisation vision intermediate stage, 91, 93–95 behavioural evidence, 287 output stage, 92, 95–96 celestial orientation and migration physiological evidence, proposed avian magnetic compass, 279–280 information flow, 96–98 songbirds, 280–281 pontine neurons, 89 stellar compass, 280 processing stages, 89, 90 time-compensated sun compass, 280 protocerebral bridge (PB) and paired cones and oil droplets, 276, 277 noduli, 88 diving, 276 tangential neurons, 88–89 DRAs and monarch butterflies, 413 upper and lower divisions of central body free-flying migratory songbirds, 284 (CBU, CBL), 88 high temporal resolution, FFF, 276 Cephalopods magnetoreception, 258 arsenal of iridophores, 14 oil droplet mechanism, 278–279 coding and processing, information insects, physiological mechanism, 287–288 218 Savannah sparrows, 284–287 colour vision, 220 twilight period communication, 221–222 bluefin tunas, spike dives, 284 and crustaceans, 14, 173, 177, 191 flight altitude profile, 281–282 honeybees sensitivity, 217–218 high-altitude ascent flights, 282–283 identification, 219–220 ultraviolet (UV) range, 276–278 intensity-based acuity, 220–221 640 Index

Cephalopods (cont.) LCP reflection, evolutionary significance, optomotor systems, 220 153 orthogonal orientations, 218 Protaetia cuprea scarabs, 153, 160, polarization vision systems, 18 161–163, 165, 167 rhabdomeric structure, photoreceptors, 218 Protaetia jousselini scarabs, 154, 156–158 signals, 223 Scarabaeidae, subfamilies, 151 surroundings, 221 vegetation environment, 152 survey, 218, 219 Cloud distribution, 598–599 terrestrial and marine organisms, 221 Cockchafers Cetonia aurata, CP vision atmospheric optical models lack of visual function, experiments, canopylight, 357, 358 161–168 downwelling light, degree of LC polarizing exocuticle, 167 polarization, 357, 359–360 pheromones, 167 partially polarized sunlight, 358 stimulus beetles, 166 polarized intensity, 357, 359, 360 Chironomids blue spectral and polarization, DRA, 355, egg density, 520 356 microvilli arrangement, 519 cricket Gryllus campestris, 355 polarization and intensity of light, degree of skylight polarization, 355 experiments, 518–519 E-vector (direction/angle of polarization) polarization egg-trapping, 558 pattern, 357 pre-oviposition behaviour, 519 green sensitive receptors, DRA reproductive behaviour, 518 Melolontha melolontha, 357, 362 TOC concentrations, water, 519–520 Parastizopus armaticeps, 362, 363 Chrysina gloriosa (jewel scarabs) logarithmic quantum, 360, 361 circularly polarizing exocuticle, 161 receptor-physiological approach, 361 foliage-reflected skylight, polarization, 161 “UV-sky-pol paradox”, 356 LCP and an RCP polarizer., 158–160 Compass behaviour, polarization phototactic response and flight orientation, Australian desert ants, Melophorus bagoti, 159 11 UP vs. LCP vs. RCP experiment, 159 by bees and ants, 10 Circular polarisation sensitivity (CPS), 176, Cataglyphis ants, 11–12 181–184, 198–200 dorsal rim area (DRA), 10, 12 Circular polarization (CP) vision E-vector orientation, 10–11 in abiotic and biotic optical environments, fly’s DRA, 12–13 148–153 Nicholas Strausfeld’s hypothesis, 11 Anomala corpulenta scarabs, 153, 168 Rayleigh scattering of sunlight, 12 Anomala dubia scarabs, 153, 160–163, 165, skylight polarization, 12 167 twilight period, 12–13 Anomala vitis scarabs, 153, 160–163, 165, CP. See Circular polarization (CP) vision 167 CPS. See Circular polarisation sensitivity biological functions, 152 (CPS) Cetonia aurata, 161–168 Crustaceans Chrysina gloriosa (jewel scarabs), 153, aquatic signals, 423, 424 158–160 and cephalopods, 173, 412, 416 Chrysina resplendens scarabs, 148, 149, colour-blind cephalopods, 172 153, 156, 158, 417 inhibition, 172 Chrysina woodi scarabs, 153, 158–161 internal eye mapping, 192–193 Chrysophora chrysochlora scarabs, 150, neural processing (see Neural processing) 156–158 neuro-architecture and polarisation electric field vector (E-vector), 151 information channeling imaging polarimetry, 153–158 chloral hydrate stained stomatopod LC polarizing exocuticles, 150, 151, 153 optic neuropils, 202 Index 641

E-vector sensitivities, 200 rainforest butterflies, 15 monopolar cells, crayfish, 201 Rayleigh scattering, 14–15 non-malacostracan crustaceans, 202 scarab beetles, 15 optic neuropil structure, 200, 203 terrestrial environments, 14–15 R1-R7/R8 cells, 202, 203 CX. See Central complex (CX) network stomatopod retina, 202, 203 polarisation behaviour Daphnia species, 205 D discrete objects and small-field Desert locust (S. gregaria) responses, 206–208 description, 66, 67 diurnal vertical migration, 205 negative polarotaxis, 140–141 E-vector orientation, 204–206 polarization-sensitive neurons, 97 large-field responses, 205–206 polarization vision pathway, 77 optokinetic, 205, 206 wild locust swarms, 68 taxes, 204 Dipterans rhabdom construction, 172, 173 blood-sucking, 548 species, 172 chironomids, 518 structural basis PS polarotaxis, 517–518 cell nomenclature, 174 Dorsal rim area (DRA) cephalopods, 177 DRA-rhabdoms, crepuscular dung beetle, chromatic channel, 181 36 circular polarisation vision, honeybee, 52 stomatopods, 183 hymenopterans, 49 CPS, CPL and LPL, 182–184 microlepidopteran species, Phyllonorycter deep-dwelling, 184 medicaginella,10 enhancement and reduction microvilli orientation, 48 mechanisms, 177, 182 ommatidial array, 48 filtering effect, R8 cells, 175 polarization sensitive photoreceptors, 50 golgi stains, crayfish, 177–179 retinular cells, 50 gonodactyloid stomatopods, 182 rhabdoms, structure and organisation, microvilli, 174, 176, 184 48–51 Nephrops, 184 skylight polarization, 362 optic neuropils, 177, 178 TuLAL neurons, 86 plasticity and seeming response, light, UV receptors, 70 184 Dragonflies polarotaxis, 179, 180 black gravestones proximal section, 177 male and female, 488, 489 retinular cells, 179 prey, 491 rhabdom, 174 reflection-polarization characteristics, R1-R7 cells, 175, 177, 180 490, 491 stomatopod retinal regions, 180–182 smooth water surfaces, 488 two-tiered construction, 174 Sympetrum species, 488 UV, R8 rhabdoms, 175, 177, 180 tandem flights and touching, 490 water flea Daphnia, 179 test surfaces, 488 turbid conditions, 329 tombstone surfaces, 488 CSALOMON® VARb3 traps, 163 water surfaces, 491 Cues and signals linear polarisation, 127–131 E-vector pattern, 16 PS values, 6 freshwater lakes and oceans, 15–16 signals, 420–421 Fresnel and Lambert reflection, 13 swarm above car, 127 marine invertebrates, 14 ventral polarization vision, 526 natural polarization patterns, 14 visual deception, car bodies, 497–498 642 Index

E silvery reflections, 242 Electric field vector (E-vector) trap rod photoreceptors, 230–232 cockchafers, dusk-active, 357 UV pattern, 400 cues and signals, polarized, 16 weakly polarising reflectors, 241, 242 insect brains, 62–63 Fixed red–blue-difference threshold, 590 polarisation-sensitive animals, 368 Fixed red–blue-ratio threshold, 590 POL1 neurons, 62–63 Flicker fusion frequency (FFF), 276 scanning method, 62 Fogbows, sky polarisation simultaneous method, 62 droplet function, 395, 397 single-scattering process, 368 linear polarisers, 395, 396 sky, 353–354, 368–369 optical characteristics, 395 Stokes parameters, 368 polarisation angle and linear polarisation, sunlit, 354 395, 397–399 Elevation compensation, insect brain, 100–103 polarised radiance (PR), 395, 397–399 Euclidean Geometric Distance algorithm, 591 rainbow phenomenon (‘white rainbow’), 395 red spectral range, 395, 398 F Foggy and cloudy skies FFF. See Flicker fusion frequency (FFF) full-sky imaging polarimetry, 373 Fishes linear polarisation and polarisation angle, actin-based linkages, 230 373–375 axial dichroism, vertebrate double cones, positive and negative polarisation, 375 232, 233 single-scattering Rayleigh model, 375 behavioural discrimination, 238, 239 sky-polarimetric Viking navigation, cellular dichroism, 226 376–377 cone formations, retina, 226–228 in sunlit fog, 375–376 crystals, 242–243 sunstone, 373 FRET, GCPRs and TEM, 230 Foliage-occluded sun determination goldfish rods and MWS member, 232 celestial polarization pattern, 346 guanine crystals, 228–229 description, 346–347 inter-retinal specialisation, 228 downwelling light, sunlit tree canopies, lack of dichroism, cones, 229 346, 348 low-polarising broadband reflectors, 243 E-vector pattern, sky and sunlit, 353, 354 measurement, rotational and lateral Fresnel’s laws of reflection, 353 diffusion, 229 leaf surface, 350 microspectrophotometry, 234 light components, 351–352 MWS and LWS anti-bodies, 228 α-patterns, skies and vegetations navigation, 240–241 grass-reflected sunlight, 348 neural processing (see Neural processing) light from clear sky, 347–348 object recognition, 238–240 with overhead vegetation, 348–351 oligomerisation, 230, 232 overhead vegetation, sunlit, 349 optical density, 235 plant leaves, polarization patterns, 346 outer segments, 234–235 polarization angle, sunlit foliage, 347, 350, planktivorous, 401 351 polarisation information, 243 Rayleigh polarization patterns, 346 predators, 575 solar elevation and sky conditions, 346, 349 prey detection, 228, 241 upwelling light, sunlit grasslands, 346, 347 protein-protein interactions, 226 Forest canopies reflections, 241 dusk-active cockchafers, 354–363 retinal specialisation, northern anchovy, foliage-occluded sun, E-vector pattern, 227, 228 346–354 rhabdomeric photoreceptors, 226 Forest fire smoke, sky polarisation rhodopsin dimerisation, photoreceptor animal migration systems, 382 membranes, 230–232 Canadian forest fires, environmental rods and cones, 234 impacts, 382 Index 643

carbon release, 381 Shurcliff’s brushes, 310 celestial polarisation patterns transmission axes, 305, 306 clear moonlit sky, 382, 384 Harvester ants (Messor barbarus), 62 clear sunlit sky, 382, 383 Honeybees. See also Hymenopteran insects smoky moonlit sky, 382, 386 Apis mellifera,62 smoky sunlit sky, 382, 385 dancing bees, 4 consequences, 381 DRA, 48–52 insects disorientation, 382 ocelli, 52–56 polarisation-sensitive animals, 381–382 orientation, honeybee waggle dances, Freshwater bodies 42–43 aquatic insects, water detection polarisation illumination, 43, 44 cattails (Typha spp.), 334–339 walking bees/bees dancing, 43 reflection-polarization characteristics, Horizontal plastic sheets components, 334 corixidae bugs, 469 polarization visibility, sun elevation feeding rate, 472 flying aquatic insects, 339–340 shiny black sheets, 468, 469 polarization sun-dial, 339 size, shape and optical characteristics, 472 polarotactic water detection, 342 wagtails feeding, natural water banks, Rayleigh skylight, 341–342 468–473 reflection-polarization patterns, 340, white sheets, 468, 469 342 white sticky trap, 469, 471 Fresnel’s laws of reflection, 353 Houseflies (Musca domestica), 69–70 Fresnel theory of refraction polarisation, 399 Human polarization sensitivity Fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), 69–70. applications, 312–313 See also Insect brains Boehm’s brush, 312, 313 Full-sky photometric imagers E-vector, 304 ASI, 587–589 Haidinger’s brush (see Haidinger’s brush) measurements, 586 retinal polarization patterns, 311 photometric cloud detection (see Hybrid thresholding algorithm, 591–592 Photometric cloud detection) Hymenopteran insects Total Sky Imager (TSI-880, TSI-440), 586, behavioural evidence, 42–47 587 celestial cues, 42 WSI, 586–587 DRA (see Dorsal rim area (DRA)) landmark guidance and path integration, 41–42 G magnetic and visual cues, 42 Gryllus campestris (cricket), 62, 65–67 ocelli (see Ocelli)

H I Haidinger’s brush Insect brains bluish intervening areas, 304, 305 anterior optic tubercle (AOTu), 82–88 carotenoids, 308 azimuth compensation, 100, 103–104 circular polarization, 310 CX network (see Central complex corneal birefringence, 311 (CX) network) CP light, 152 elevation compensation, 100–103 E-vector, 304–305, 310 E-vector, 62–63 Henle fibres, 307, 308 harvester ants (Messor barbarus), 62 light impinging, 308 honey bee (Apis mellifera), 62 macular pigment, 307 linearly polarized light optical axis, 310 color vision (Papilio butterflies), 70–71 optical density spectrum, 307 cricket (G. campestris), 62, 65–67 retinal nerve fibre layer, 308, 309 desert locust (S. gregaria), 66–68 644 Index

fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), vertical glass panes, Hydropsyche 69–70 pellucidula, 473 houseflies (Musca domestica), 69–70 water-reflected light, 477 monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), window and inside room, 473, 474 68–69 Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), 68–69. optic lobes, 76–82 See also Insect brains polarization opponency, 62 Mosquito, polarization-guided oviposition polarized light detectors Aedes aegypti (Culicidae), 521 DRA ommatidia and photoreceptors, Culex pipiens (Culicidae), 521 71–74 elongated and narrow DRAs, butterflies and Drosophila,73 N retina, polarization sensitivity, 76 Neural networks, 63, 592–593 short and wide DRAs, crickets and Neural processing locusts, 73 and electrophysiology, crustaceans ventral photoreceptors, 75–76 crayfish, 195 polarized-light perception, 104–106 ERG, land crab, 194 skylight polarization pattern, 63–65 E-vector orientation, 194 Intrinsic polarisation signals G. chiragra, 198 aquatic habitats, 190 interneurons, 195, 197, 198 contrast-increasing mechanisms, 191 intracellular and extracellular CPL and LPL reflection, 189 recordings, 194–197 E-vector sensitivities, 192 Leptograpsus variegatu, 194–195 Odontodactylus species, 189–190 linear PS and CPS, 198–200 short distances communication, 190 Lucifer Yellow dye labelling, 195 stomatopods, 189, 191–192 ommatidial packing, 198 O. scyllarus, 198–199 P. clarkii, 197–198 L polarisation analyser, 198 Left-circularly polarized (LCP) light stomatopod photoreceptors, 198 Cetonia and Anomala scarab beetles, 161 striking resemblance, DRAs, 198 Chrysina resplendens, 157 fishes Photuris fireflies, 420 characteristic PS, 237 scarabs exocuticle, 148 early stage ERG recordings, 235 electrophysiological recording, UV PS, 235, 236 M ERG and CAP record function, 237 Magnetoreception, amphibians LWS cone mechanism, 235, 237 circadian rhythmicity, 259 optimal discrimination, 235 cone opsins, 260 SWS, 237–238 cryptochromes, 259 Non-biting midges, polarotaxis. See also magnetic particles, retinal cells, 259 Chironomids mudpuppy, 259 black oil trap, 126, 127 salamanders, newts and frogs, 258 Chironomidae (Diptera), 125–126 sensory modalities, 258 polarising test surfaces, 126–127 Mass-swarming polarotactic caddisflies positive polarotaxis, 126 dark silhouettes, 475 reflection polarisation, 126 groundlight reflection, 475 Hydropsyche pellucidula, black and white vertical panes, 474, 475 O laying eggs, dry glass pane, 473 Ocelli marker effect, 473 DRA, compound eye, 408 positive polarotaxis, 474, 475 honeybee waggle dances, orientation, 42, reflected light direction, 475, 477 43 tall buildings, 477 maps and orientation histograms, 54 Index 645

in night-active ant, Myrmecia pyriformis, Photometric cloud detection 55–56 adaptive red–blue-ratio threshold detector, photoreceptors, photon absorption 590 probability, 55 aerosol characterization, 601 polarised light information, 55 animal orientation and Viking navigation, retina, anatomy, 52–53 601 rhabdoms, 54 cloud-base height, 599–600 One-camera polarimetric cloud detector cloud distribution, 598–599 cloud probability and cloud-base height, Euclidean Geometric Distance, 591 595, 597, 598 fixed red–blue-difference detector, 590 computer algorithm, 594–595 fixed saturation threshold, 590–591 electromagnetic waves, 594 hybrid thresholding algorithm, 591–592 intensity and colour contrasts, dehazed neural networks, 592–593 picture, 595, 596 solar forecasting, 600 traditional photographic techniques, 594 Photoreception, amphibians Optic lobes, insect brain cornea, 252 anterior optic tubercle (AOTu), 78 feeding sites and shelters, 251 azimuth tuning, 82 Rana temporaria tadpoles, 253 DRA photoreceptors, 78 rods and cones, 252 E-vector orientation, 81 Salamandra salamandra, 252–253 intermedulla neurons (MeMe1 and UV-sensitive cells, 252 MeMe2), 80–82 Photovoltaic tabanid traps locust neurons (TIM1, TIM2 and TML), advantages and disadvantages, 579–580 80–82 degree of polarization, 578–579 polarization opponency, 78 electromotor, rotation axis, 577 polarization-sensitive neurons, 80 horizontal shiny black surface, 577–578 POL1 neurons, 80–82 improvement possibilities, 580 response strength, 81 principles, 577 structures, 76–77 solar panels, 576, 577 transmedulla neurons, 78–80 wire, buzz and air motion, 577 Overcast skies, sky polarisation Polarisation sundial theory in Hungary, 377, 379 daily flight activity, environmental factors, multiple scattering of light, 377, 379 117–119 radiance, degree and angle of polarisation, diel dispersal flight activity patterns, 114, 377, 378 121–124 Oviposition diurnal flight activity rhythm, 115–117 chironomids, 519–520 horizontal polarisation of light, 114 egg density, 520 insect trap, 114–115 mosquito, 521 mass dispersal activity, 120, 122, 124–125 in non-biting midges, 518–519 optimal periods, dispersal flight, 119–120 polarisation visibility, water surfaces, 115, 117–119 P polarotactic aquatic insects, 115 Palingenia longicauda, mayfly PRC analysis, 120, 122 flying behaviours, 133 reflection-polarisation patterns, polarotactic water detection, 133–134 measurement, 115 swarming, 131–132 seasonal dispersal patterns, 114, 120, 121 test surfaces, 132 Polarised light sources, crustaceans Papilio butterflies, 70–71 background space light underwater, 186, PARASOL. See Polarization and Anisotropy of 188 Reflectances for Atmospheric behavioural tests, stomatopod, 186, 187 Sciences with Observations from a celestial polarisation pattern and Snell’s Lidar (PARASOL) window, 185 646 Index

Polarised light sources (cont.) and anthropogenic polarization (see individual rhabdoms, eyes, 184 Asphalt surfaces) small-field signals, intrinsic, 189–192 Polarotactic aquatic insects. See Horizontal wet and water surface reflections, 185–186, plastic sheets 188 Polarotaxis Polarization and Anisotropy of Reflectances mayfly, 125–127, 131–132 for Atmospheric Sciences with non-biting midges, 125–127 Observations from a Lidar tabanid flies (see Tabanid flies) (PARASOL), 593 POLDER. See Polarization and Directionality Polarization and Directionality of the Earth’s of the Earth’s Reflectances Reflectances (POLDER), 593 (POLDER) Polarization-induced false colours Principal response curve (PRC) analysis, 120, leaf surfaces 122 and colour-sensitive retina model, 295 PS. See Polarization sensitivity (PS) and flower petals reflecting, 294 hemisphere, 295–297 honeybees, 298 R Papilio butterflies, 294, 295 Rainbow phenomenon (white rainbow), 395 photoreceptor, 294 Rayleigh model retinal rotation/translation, 297, 298 celestial polarisation pattern, 369–370, 373 UPSR (see Uniformly polarization- day-active animals navigation, 372 sensitive retina (UPSR)) polarization patterns, 341–342, 346 Polarization liquid and canopy traps single-scattering predictions, 370 advantages, 569 sunstone, 370 attractiveness, black spheres, 569–570 Viking navigator, 370 black plastic tray, 566–567 Reptiles, PS horseflypaper, 569 aquatic insects, 267 non-biting midges, 569 Chelonia mydas, 267 oil surfaces, 567 crocodiles, 268 tabanid-catching efficiency, 567–569 Crocodilia, Sphenodontia, Squamata and Polarization opponency, 62, 78 Testudines, 265 Polarization sensitivity (PS) egg-laying, 266 amphibians, 249–260 hatchlings, 267 Carassius auratus,9 Lacerta viridis, 266 cephalopods (see Cephalopods) light scattering, 268 Chrysina gloriosa, 159–161 lizards and snakes human (see Human polarization sensitivity) Australian Sleepy Lizard Tiliqua main retina, 76 rugosa, 269–270 photoreceptor cells, 7–8 European green lizard, 270 reptiles, 265–272 Podarcis sicula, 270 rhodopsin molecules, 6–7 Thamnophis sirtalis, 268–269 Polarization vision Uma notata, Tiliqua rugosa and analysers (see Analysers, polarization) Podarcis sicula, 269 in ants and bees, 4 photoreception and photoreceptors, compass behaviour, 10–13 270–271 DRA, 17 Terrapene and Chrysemys, 268 polarization-sensitive photoreceptors, 18 polarized cues and signals (see Cues and signals) S true polarization vision, 17 Scarabaeus lamarcki. See Ball-rolling dung Polarized light pollution (PLP) beetles anthropogenic polarization (see Scarab beetles. See Circular polarization Anthropogenic polarization) (CP) vision Index 647

Scattering hydrosols, underwater polarization toolkit, medieval twilight, 626–629 description, 319–320 twilight board, 622–624 Mie particles, 328–329 weather conditions, 613–614 mysids, 329 Sky polarisation polarized light, ocean, 320–322 celestial E-vector pattern, 368–369 refractive index, 328 clear and cloudy skies, 368–373 remote sensing, 328 fogbows, 395–397 and semi-turbid waters, 328 foggy and cloudy skies, 368–377 striking effect, 320 forest fire smoke, 381–386 transmission (refraction), 322–323 overcast skies, 368, 369, 377–380 VRTE, 327 smoky skies, 368, 369 water turbidity Snell’s window, flat water surfaces, absorption and scattering, 323–324 398–401 attenuation and Beer–Lambert’s law, sun stone, 373–377 324–327 during total solar eclipses, 384–390 Single-scattering Rayleigh model, 375 tree-canopied skies, 368, 369 Skylight polarization pattern, insect brain twilight, celestial polarisation pattern, E-vector angle and degree of linear 380–381 polarization, 63 ‘water-skies’, arctic open waters, 391–394 imaging polarimetry, 65 Smoky skies, sky polarisation, 368, 369 real skies, 63, 65 Snell’s window, flat water surfaces single-scattering Rayleigh model, 63, 64 Fresnel theory, refraction Sky-polarimetric Viking navigation polarisation, 399 after World War II, 605 planktivorous fishes, 401 atmospheric optical phenomena, 631–633 polarisation pattern, 399 calcite crystal, 604 polarisation-sensitive animals, 400 calcite sunstones, 616 single-scattering Rayleigh model, decay of mercantile activities, 609–610 399–400 description, 604, 610 underwater polarisation pattern, 400 Icelandic spar, 610, 611 wavelength dependency, polarisation, 400 instruments, 603–604 Solar forecasting, 600 isotropy point, 610–611 Solar panels low-sea ice and warmer water, 609 attractivity/unattractivity, horizontal shiny material composition, sunstone, 612 black surfaces, 466, 467 medieval norse sailing routes, 607–608 behavioural responses, mayflies, 461–462 millennium old carved schedule, 630–631 black with white grating, 461, 462 moments of sunrise, noon/sunset, 616–617 collectors, 460 paleoclimatological measurements, 608– elevation, 467, 468 609 homogeneous shiny black surface, 461 perimeter coding, 614–616 mayflies, caddisflies and dolichopodids, positions, solar, 604, 612 463–464 reliable test, 612–613 nonpolarizing white borders and rotating crystal, 610 grates, 464 scratch on sunstone, 610 optical characteristics, 460–461 seasonal shift, 616 orientation, natural water bodies, 467 setting/rising sun, surface observers, 606, PLP effects, 466 607 polarotactic aquatic insects, 461, 463 skylight, 611–612 reductions, attractiveness, 465–466 slit images, 612 reflection-polarization patterns, 461 small dark dot, 610 strongly and horizontally polarizing, shiny solar elevations, 607 black plastic sheets, 468, 469 sun compass, 617–622 surface density, 464, 465 sun-shadow board with sundial, 629–630 tabanids touching, 465 648 Index

Solar panels (cont.) dry matte brown cloth, 534–535 vertical glass surfaces, 467–468 reflection-polarization patterns, white-framed, 464 535–536 Spotty coat patterns, tabanids solar radiation, 531 blood-sucking tabanids, 554 vegetable-oil-filled trays, 535 Bos primigenius, 549, 550 zebra stripes, 536–549 brightness and colour, 549, 550 Tabanid traps camouflage, 554–555 adaptive behaviour, 565–566 intensity-colour differences, 554 canopy traps, 564–565 sticky cattle models, 552 cattle and horses, 564 test surfaces, intensity and polarization, photovoltaic, 577–580 549–552 polarization liquid trap, 566–570 white and brown areas, 549, 553 sticky horseflypaper, 570–576 Sticky horseflypaper Three-camera polarimetric cloud detector, 598 classic flypaper, 571 Total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations, degree of polarization, 574 519–520 flytraps, 570–571 Total Sky Imager (TSI-880, TSI-440), 586, 587 horizontal/vertical surfaces, 571–573 Total solar eclipses host-seeking female tabanids, 574–575 blue and red spectral ranges measurement, preferred/optimal size, 575 384–385 prototype, 573–574 changed polarisation pattern, 390–391 water-seeking tabanids, 575–576 degree, linear polarisation, 383 Sunstone, 370, 373–377 full-sky imaging polarimetry in green spectral range, 387 pre-and post-eclipsed sky, 387 T spatiotemporal change, measurement, Tabanid flies 387, 388 blood meal, 530 structure of polarisation pattern, canopy traps, 564–565 spatiotemporal change, 386, 387 dark/bright hosts, 531 green interference filter, 386 drinking/bathing, 528, 529 lack of polarisation response, 385 dry black gravestone, 526, 527 navigation malfunction, 391 egg development, 526 observed polarisation phenomena, 389–390 horizontal dry shiny black surface, ground, polarisation-sensitive animals, 390–391 526–527 polarised points, 388 horizontal trap surface, 574, 576 pre-and post-eclipsed sky, 387 host-reflected light, 531 Savart filter and green interference filter, 386 host search strategies, 528, 530 in sea-land orientation of sandhopper, Hybomitra hinei wrighti, 528 Talitrus saltator, 390 liquid trap, host-and water-seeking, during totality, 387 566–570 type 2 neutral point, 389 Notonecta glauca, 529–530 Tree-canopied skies, 368, 369 photovoltaic trap (see Photovoltaic tabanid Twilight, celestial polarisation pattern traps) astronomical, 380 polarotaxis, 526–531 full-sky imaging polarimetry, 380 spotty coat patterns, 549–555 halictid bee, Megalopta genalis, 380, 381 ultrastructure, retina, 527–528 nocturnal, 381 water detection, 530–531 water surface, 526–527 white and brown horses, coats U blood-sucking tabanids, 532, 533 Underwater polarisation pattern, 400 dark hosts, attraction, 536 Uniformly polarization-sensitive retina defensive reactions, 532, 533 (UPSR) Index 649

colour space dimension, 299 Water-skies, sky polarisation dandelion leaf, 301 biological and man-made sensors, 393 Epipremnum aureum, 299, 300 ice-sky and water-sky, 392, 393 Papilio xuthus, 299, 301 low degrees, linear polarisation, 392 photoreceptors, 298 open waters, existence, 392 polarizational false colours, 301–302 polynya/leads, 391–392, 394 reflection-polarization patterns, 299 Whole Sky Imager (WSI), 586–588 Urban birds avian foraging behaviour, 486–487 house sparrows and great tits, 486 Z hover-glean caddisflies, window surfaces, Zebra stripes 485–486 African mammal species, 544, 546 magpies, 486 ammonia and CO2 emission, 547–548 mate and oviposit, 485 apparent size, 538 non-native cavity-nesting birds, 487 attractiveness, striped patterns, 544 observation, 485 black-and-white, 539, 542 predator–prey interactions, 487 camouflage, 538 UV-sky-pol paradox, 356 Equus burchelli, Equus grevyi, Equus quagga and Equus zebra, 536–538 fitness indication, 538 V head and legs, 544 Vector radiative transfer equation horseflies, 544, 545 (VRTE), 327 linearly polarizing test surfaces, 541, 542 number N, trapped tabanids, 541, 543 protection, tsetse flies, 539 W real-size zebra model, 539, 540 Wasps. See also Hymenopteran insects social benefits, 538 celestial compass cues, 42 thermoregulation, 539 DRA, 48–51 vegetable-oil-filled trays, 539, 540 ocelli, 52–56 visibility, poor light, 538