Environment: the Human Impact. Selections From

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 077 705 SE 016 155 'AUTHOR Amidei, Rosemary E., Comp. TITLE Environment: The'Human Impact: Selections from "The Science Teacher." INSTITUTION National Science Teachers Assoctation, Washington, D.C. .-PUB DATE 73 NOTE 259p. AVAILABLE FROMNSTA, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N.W., Washington, C.C. 20036 ($5.00 Stock No. 471-14644)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS AnthOlogies; *Ecology; *Environment; *Environmental Education;. *Essays; *Humanization; Natural Pesdur6es; Problem Solving; Secondary Grades ABSTRACT Selections from "The Science Teacher" magazine, appearing generally between January 1970 and May 1972,are offered in this compilation. Articles are divided into four sections:(1) A Point of View--personal perspectives on the nature andscope of the environmental problem,(2) Aspects of the Problem--relevant backgrcund material, (3) Environmental_Education--course-descriptions and curricula, (4) Student Activities -- research projects and classroom ideas, and (5) Resources for Curriculum Guiding--book reviews and nctes about other available materials. Subjectcontent is wide-ranging, from ecology, energy and power, pollution andwaste disposal, health, and natural resources to urbanization, population and food supply, transportation, architecture, industrialization, and technology. The 66 articles present a variety of viewpoints about causes and solutions to environmental situations and problems and illustrate a variety of approaches that science teachers at the secondary level are using to increase student awareness of the dilemmas and some of the choices that face society today. (EL)

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Cover illustrationMany Farms High School staff photo Many Farms, Arizona

National Science Teachers Association 1201 16th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 .

Selections from

ENVIRONMENT: The Science Teacher THE HUMAN,

--a IMPACT-

Compiled by Rosemary E. Amidei with assistance of Charles L Frederick and Robert Yager

NATIONAL SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION 1973 PREFACE

T THE end of the 1960s. the American public became conscious, as it had not been Abefore. of man's impact on thc environment. There had been earlier national surges of-conscienceduring the Conservation Movement at thc turn of the century and during the Dust BoWl era of the thirtiesbut never before had the outcry been so widespread nor had it had the same note of .desperation. The quality c,f thc environment is now a matter of great national and- international conccrn. Some problemsair and water pollution, rcsourcc depletion, waste disposal are easily identified. But causes and even the definitions of the problems themselves are not. There is great disagreement as to whether the specific problems stem basicfroni social institutions, population growth,- selfish and competitive values, increasing technology, or simply from ignorance of the natural and social environments.Similarly, there is disagreement about the boundaries- of cnvironmcntal problems. .about componcnts ...about interactions. Scientific questions are entangled with economic ones and these, with social questions. A- discussion of oil spills quickly escalates to national prioritics, to moral and aesthetic values, to man's ro!e in nature. A discussion of energy problems quickly points to the Achilles heel of our technological structure. The articles that follow present a variety of viewpoints about causes and solutions. Thcy illustrate, too, thc variety of approaches that science teachers at the secondary level arc using to increase student awareness of the dilemmas and sonic of thc choices that face society today. One teacher, for_ example, helped his class to initiate a community recycling project. The entire science department of another school joined with social studies, fine arts. and language arts teachers to organize the excavation of an Indian village. Somc teachers directed their studentattention to the urban scenethe weather--, ing of buildings. the behavior of pigeons: others, to the forests and wetlands. Regardless of the approach, however, certain themes emerge again and again. Fore- most among these arc the interrelatedness of the major human problems, which is reflected in thc interdisciplinary nature of so many of the environmental education courses, and the importance of values in making decisions and determining solutions. Most of the articles appeared inThe Science Teacherbetween January 1970 and May 1972.* Those that appeared carlier_were selected by Charles L. Frederick and Robert Yager of thc University of Iowa as especially significant, In an effort to aid thc reader, articles have been divided into four sections: A POINT OF VIEW, Somc personal perspectives on thc nature and scope of the cnvironmcntal problem; ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM, Some relevant background material: ENVIRONMENTAL EDU- CATION, Course descriptions and curricula; and STUDENT ACTIVITIES, Research projects and classroom ideals. Since the articles wcrc not written to fit specific categories, however, readers will find a good deal of overlap bctwccn sections. A final section, RESOURCES FOR CURRICULUM BUILDING, brings together book reviews and mentions of other useful resource items that will aid thc teacher in assembling background and reference material.'fhe miscellaneous items mentioned in this section were still available in January 1973.

Rosemary E. Amidci National Science Teachers Association Washington, D.C. ii *Authors' affiliations stand as thcy did whcn the articles wcrc originally printed. ..,

CONTENTS

Page iiPREFACE

1 PART I A POINT OF VIEW Sonic personal perspectives on the nature and scope of the environmental problem

7.I,I 3THE EARTH AS A SPACESHIPWilliam G. Pollard September 1969 11 SCIENCE AND SOCIAL ACTIONBarry Conw ttttt er May 1972 17nit FUTURE OF MANS ENVIRONMENTRobert W. Lamson January 1969 23ON THE NATURALIST NATURE OF MANRichard R. Grater October 1969 26FREEDOM AND A VARIED ENVIRONMENTR. "Thomas Tanner April 1969 29AN ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL INVENTORYJames D. Sears February1972 32THE OTHER SIDE OF THE COINR. M. Billings March1972 A ; 35PART 11 ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM Some relevant background material

37EDUCATION IN AN-OVERPOPULATED WORLDGarrett Hardin May1971 41 URBAN ANTHROPOLOGY: THE EMERGING SCIENCE OF MODERN MANRobert E. Novick January 1972 46Man and His Environment: PUBLIC HEALTH VIEWPOINTMitchell R. Zara,: September 1970 49Man and His Environment: ONE INDUSTRIAL POINT OF VIEW R.W. Comstock September 1970 54Man and His Environment: THE ARCH! l'ECIVRAL POINT OF VIEWElliot L. Whitaker Sep- tember1970 58HUMAN ECOLOGYStanley A. Cain March 1967 63SOUND POLLUTIONANOTHER URBAN PROBLEMPeter A. Breysse April 1970, 69HOW PLANTS FIGHT "MAN-MADE" POLLUTIONII.E. Ileggestad April 1972 73TRACE ELEMENTS AND HEALTHWayne A. pettyjohn-- May1972 77TAKING INVENTORY OF CROPLANDS AND MIDLANDSRobert N. Colwell April 1970 -283 THE "GREEN REVOLUTION"SELECTION AND GENETIC VARIANTSPaul J. Fitzgerald March 1970 85OCEANOGRAPHY FOR THE 1970sDonald V. Hansen January 1971 93CAN OUR CONSPICUOUS CON_SU OF NATURAL RESOURCES BE. CYCLIC?Leillyn B. Clapp April 1969 96TECHNOLOGY, PRODUCT PERFORMANCE. AND THE CONSUMERLawrence M. Kushner November 1971 101 ENERGY TECHNOLOGY, AND THE STORY OF MANMelvin Kranzberg March 1972 106ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTIONMichael D. Henderson and R. Curtis Johnson March 1972 111 GEOTHERMAL ENERGYI.. J. P. Muffler and D. E. White March 1972 115THE ROLE OF NUCLEAR POWER IN ACHIEVING THE WORLD WE WANTM. J. Driscoll November 1910 120SOLAR ENERGYPROSPECTS FOR ITS LARGE-SCALE USEPeter E. Glaser March 1972 124PROGRESS IN CONTROLLED FUSION RESEARCHP.-L. Auer and R. N. Sudan March1972

131 PART III ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION . Course descriptions and curricula

133POPULATION EDUCATIONA RESPONSE TO ASOCIAL PROBLEMIrwin L. Slesnick February1971 136A PLAN FOR POPULATION-ENVIRONMENT EDUCATIONRobert W. Stegner March1971 139ARE WE AS ONE? H.Thom's- Tanner April1972 142CONSERVATION EDUCATION: PROBLEMS AND STRATEGIESIlarold R. Hungerford and Clifford E. Knapp May 1969 145*ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIESRobert E. Samples October1971 147ECOLOGY AND THE URBAN STUDENTDonald F. Shebesta December1969 149MORE THAN A FORLISTCharles 0. Mortensen April 1970 iii Page 152 ECOLOGYA Practical Program in a Suburban School Franklin Burnat September 1971 155INTERDISCIPLINARY iNvoexEmENT in lEmironmental Field TripsRon Osborn and Roger Spit fiord April 1970 157UNEARTHING AN INDIAN CUI.TUR1EA Total lin ohement ProgramDuane Gming,s No- vember 1970 160SCIENCE. NATUREAND THE SURVIVAL OF MAN M Edgar April 1971 163EDUCATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR AN ENVIRONMENTAL !ETHICRonah/ Linsky Jan- uary 1971 166ORGANIZING OUTDOOR CLASSROOMS in the Park SystemK. T. Kellers January 1970

169PART IV STUDENT iu.:TivrriEs Research projects and classroom ideas

171 BACTERIAL POLLUTION IN WATER: ADAPTING STANDARD METHODS TO THE CLASS - ROOM Bernard I.SOW!and R. Eugene !hawk October 1971 175wATER POLLUTION A CASE HISTORY James G. mg January 1971 178THE SAND HILLS OF N1EBRASKAA GROUNDWATER PROJECT Brewste;: Ballwin Feb. ruary 1972 181 ROWBOAROWBOAT OCEANOGRAPHYWill k/m January 1971 185CEDAR SWAMI' ECOLOGY Th ;;;;; ai 1. Glynis!' and /)arid 1. J_Kinsiaan April 1972 190THE. SECCIII DISK: AN INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING WATER TRANSPARENCY Thomas P. !:roue April 1971 191 COMPARISON TEST FOR OXYGEN CONTENT OF %vATER SAMPLES Dark! 1. Kuhn De- cember 1970 192WATER SAMPLING APPARATUS AND DETERMINATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN WATER Thomas P. Erans May 1969 194PHOSPHATE SOME STUDIES OF HOW IT AHEM OUR WATER Amt L. /Metes Feb- ruary 1972 197ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVITIES AND PROBLEM SOLVING Thomas R. Brehman and Musa Oat& April 1971 199 BIOGEOCHIEMICA1,CYCLES Gene E. Likens and F. Herbert Borman,: April 1972 205A HYPOTHETICAL CONTINENT -1 EACIIING THE "WHERE- AND "WILY- CLIMATES Don Goldman December 1971 208INVENTORYING SOIL RESOURCES F. 1.. !limes February 1972 212SURVIVAL CITY: AN ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS PROJECT Thomas R. Brehm,: and Musa Quash October 1971 2131 HE ECOLOGY OF SAND DUNESWittiam //. Argos February 1968 218NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGESECOLOGICAL CLASSROOMS Frank R. Martin October -1971 219AN EXERCISE IN WINTER ECOLOGYBrother James Murphy. CR* October 1970 222WEATIIER AND CLIMATE RESEARCHJulian Kane December 197 226ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY IN THE CITYJ. Roston °wreath February 1971 228 PARTICULATES PROVIDE PROOF OF THE POLLUTION PROBLENIBarry Warner May 1970 229SOLID-WASTE RECYCLINGEARTII SCIENCE IN A REAL SITUATION TO PRACTICE THE DISCIPLINE . Michael C. Franchhtu October 1971 TO LEARN ABOUT OUR TOWN .. . Recycling Grow) October 1971 232 AIR POLLUTIONDi:cm. AND ADATEmENT Richard Kralchik October 1971 234 AIR POLLUTION TESTS USING THE -!:DENIA-L. M. Wilt and Theodore W. Munch Novem- ber 1970 236SIMPLIFIED AIRBORNE SOLID SAMPLINGG. Will Reynolds and Roger W. lEard Janu- ar 1971 238THE EFFECT OF SMOKE AND EXHAUSI ON PLAN r GRowni Ann L. Aheles March 1972 241 SCIENCE AND MAN A Diseusiion Series for Secondary SchoolsVincent N. Lunera October 1968

243PART V RESOURCES FOR CURRICULUM BUILDING iv Book reviews and notes about other available materials 0

*ft

PART I A POINT OF VIEW Some personal perspectives on the nature and scope of the environmental problem

1 .74

THE EARTH AS A SPACESHIP

WILLIAM G. POLLARD

PEOPLE all over thc carth have- reached a crucial turning point in ourbered him. Human settlements wcrc for been thrilled with the beautiful relationship with the earth, the naturethc most part tiny islands in the midst pictures of our planet sent bick byof which it is of vital importance thatof or on the edge of the great primeval television from thc Apollo missions andall understand. forests of the earth. Man exercised a subsequently reproduced in color from This perspective is quite new in hu-limited dominion over horse and dog, still photographs. From these we haveman experience. In all previous cen-sheep and cattle. But always there was a new perspective on theturies of man's habitation of the planet, danger and uncertainty as ever- watchful We all realize, as we never quite the earth seemed a vast unending fron-tigers or wolves lurked in the shadows. did Wore, how small, restricted, andtier of unlimited resources. On land orOver two essential elements, the world limited is this ball floating out in spacesea it seemed to stretch out bcforc man of microorganisms and the fertility of which is our home in the universe. Inwithout limit, It is said that when manthc soil, man exercised no dominion addition, the Apollo pictures have given first appeared on the planet, God saidwhatever. As a result, epidemic disease, us a fresh appreciation for the beautythat he would "be fruitful and multiplyplague, and famine wcrc ever-present of the earth in comparison with theand fill the carth and subdue it, andthreats periodically actualized in ter- moon and other planets.All of thishave dominion over the fish of the sea, rible scourges before which man stood has_a importance for the history ofai.d over the birds of the air, and overhelpless. Bound as man was to the man on this planet through the re-the whole earth." But in any previousearth's surface, ilic birds of the air remainder of thiscentury. We havecentury the thought of man or any-mained beyond his reach. For all his thing elseactuallyfilling the earthcleverness as a fisherman and sailor, would have seemed. fantastic.Vastthe sca remained a vast and alien do- Dr. Pollard is Executive Director, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, Ten- areas, even whole continents, of themain inwhich creatures large and nesiee.This article Is adapted from the earth's surface wcrc only sparsely if atsmall disported themselves, oblivious series of NSTA-Sunoco science seminars all settled by man. Up thought con-of man and his ways. The dominion presented at the annual convention of the National Science Teachers Association In sciously of himself as a Minority speciesover the earth exercised by man was Dallas, Texas, March 21-25, 1969. among many others which outnum-token and symbolic at best, and he was

3 very, very far indeed from having sub-the form of steel mills and factories,out in the vastness of space. We are dued the whole earth to his purposes.highways and airports. darns, powerconscious of crowding together on this plants, and machinery is everywhere inball. We have begun to worry about the THEtwentieth century has changed'_evidence. In this century man has notextent to which we have bccn polluting all this.In earlier centuries manonly filled the whole planet but hasit and exhausting its precious and lim- had bccn fruitful, but he had not mul-subdued it as well and has taken effec-ited resources. We have indeed just, tiplied appreciably. At the beginningtive dominiOn over every crcaturc. begun to think in the same way of the Christian era there were only In recent years wilderness and wild-that a crew would think of its spaceship. about 300 million human beings on thelife socictics have -beFr,formed with a earth.Itrcquircd17 centuriestosense of panic about them. Even in IT IS INSTRUCTIVE to pursue the double this number to 600 million.Africa, which we still think of as a con- analogy of the earth as a large Then in 1820 the world population oftinent teeming with wild and exoticspaceship. An interesting exercise is to species Homo sapiens passed the 1 animals in a natural state, the true situ-write down thedesigncriteriafor billion mark. By 1930 it had doubledation is one of the rapidly approachinga spaceship to carry a crcw of 250 on to 2 billion. Just a few years ago, inextinction of many species. With thea 40-year journey through space. Such the early sixties, it passed 3 billion. Bybest that these socielici, or any of us,criteria would include adequate radia- 1975 itwill have reached 4 billion.can do, by the end of this century thetion shielding; energy or fuel reserves Hereafter, if present levels of humanonly wild animals left on the earth willrcquircd for instrument operation, navi- fertility and declining death rates con-be found in zoos or scattered nationalgation, and heating; assured supplies of tinue, it will reach 5 billion by 1985, 6parks maintained by man for their pro-air,water, and foou for the crew billion by 1993, and at the end of thetection. All the rest of the planet willthroughout the journey; waste reproc- century (only 30 short years frombe devoted directly to man and hisessing and disposal; and many others. now), itwill stand at 7.2 billion. Thenccds: to the production of his foodWith such a list in hand, it is instructive earth will then be twice as crowded asand of the water and energy to do histo review the extent to which the earth itis now. Moreover man will havework; to his vast cities and -the systemconsidered as a-spaceship, fulfills each effectively filled it.It will have all theof highways, air lanes, and seawaysof the design criteria. One discovers in human beings on it that it can supportlinking them together; arid to his recrea....a-ci.r.ffing out thisexercisethat theearth and feed at any reasonable level oftion and pleasures, foibles, fancies, and amazinglymazingly well designed as a space- quality of life. vanities.Occasionally he will visit aship for carrying a crew of some two to This same century, the 20th, also sawzoo- or a wildlife preserve and sensethree billion human pcings, but not man first realize a full dominion overthe pathos of a vanished world whichmany more, on a long journey through the earth. There are tinny persons stillthrived before man took his dominionspace. living whose childhood was spent inover it, and he may feel a sharp nos- It would not be possible to design a the first decade of this centurybefore talgia for the earth as it was before manmore effective and efficient radiation -the advent of either the automobile orfilled it and subdued it. Over all theshield for a spaceship than the earth's theairplane,beforeelectric power,rest of the earth every square inch ofatmosphere. Although' transparent to radio and TV, and great cities and high-arable land will be devoted to humanlight it cuts out completely all the far ways as we know them today. In justagriculture. All that grows and movesultraviolet, X rays, and higher - energy the span of a single lifetime, today'swill be specially selected crossbreedsradiations of outer.space. The aurora older people have seen the whole facefar removed srom the wild varietiesborealismagnificentlydisplaysthis of the earth transformed by the phc-which once covered the earth. All thatshield in operation as it keeps all the nomcnon of technology. A jet flightlives will'be specially suited to the nccdshigh-energyelectronsandprotons over almost any part of the earth todayof man; any creature which fails to meetwhich bombard the earth above 60 provides striking evidence of this trans-this standard will be bred out of ex-miles from its surface. Under this effi- formation. Everywhere the fields andistence.Yet this vast change in thecient shield the only radiation hazard highways, factories and cities of manstatus of living things on this planet isto which we are exposed is sunburn stretch endlessly in every direction. Thethe work of but a single century in thefrom the near ultraviolet which does get great primeval forests of the earth arewhole 4,600 million year history of theth rough. rapidly shrinking and by the end of thiiearth. Let us now consider in greater de- centurywillhave essentially -disap- Nowthatastronautscompletelytail some of the other fundamental re- peared. This is true not only of thecircle the earth in less than two hours,quirements for a satisfactory spaceship. developed portions of the earthJapan,and particularly since the Apollo pic-First, it must have an adequate source America, Europe, and Russiabut alsotures, we no longer think of the earthof energy to last throughout the trip. of those areas we consider underdevel-as air unlimited, vast, and unendingNext, it must have an adequate food opedAsia, Africa,- and Latin Amer-frontier.Almost universally we havesupply or means of producing food for ica.Even where the people continuecome instead to think of it as a rela-the crew, The air and water reserves in economically depresst.d, technology intively small, circumscribed ball floatingthe ship must be kept pure and adc-

4 gime for all needs. Wastes must be The true role of nuclear energy forcoastal desert into an abundant food reprocessed or disposed of in waysman becomes abundantly clear whenproducer in a region of the world which--' which will not contaminate the ship. we consider the next century. Since thesoon will be desperately short of food. Pinally. the crew must not be allowedearth will then be supporting a totalThe excess power -could be used for to increase in numbers,anditmust,population in excess of seven billionfertilizer production and other impor- remain unified throughout the journey. human beings, we are forced to con-tantindustrialchemical_ production Divisions into warring rival subcrcws ortemplate a radicallydifferentworldprocesses. The total installation is re- interpersonal conflicts between crewthan the one we knew before the revo-ferred to as an agro-industrial complex. members would be catastrophic in alution in which we now find ourselves. Nothing we will do in nuclear de- spaceship on an extended voyage. To support such a population in a con-salinization of the sea will compare, tinuous Sand stable way will require anhowever, with the evaporative power of ALL these elements of a spaceshipimmense consumption of energy on athat natural nuclear pcwcr plant, the economy face us in a particularlyscale far greater than any we have seensun. The action of the sun generates acute form as we more into the lastso far.It will also require vast quan-a known supply of fresh water over the third of this century. Consider first thetities of fresh water, mainly for irriga-land areas of the earth of 72.000 billion basicrequirementsforenergyandtion of great desert areas of the earthgallons of fresh water per day. If all of water. These are errelatcd, and thenot previously required for agriculture.this supply could be used for man's key to both isnt!car energy. As weThe requirements for energy and forpurposes, it would be 20 times the re- consider the vasrequirements whichwater can only be met with nuclearquirement of a world population of six face us inthe immediate future,itenergy. We have already reached thebillion people.Itis, -however, very seems remarkably providential that mandanger point with water. It is inevitablepoorly distributed for human purposes shouldhavestumbledonnuclearthat we shall soon see more and morein that the limited fertile areas of the- energy and the possibility of its con-large nuclear - powered desalinationearth's land surface receive more than trolled utilization less than 30 yearsplants constructed along the coastalthey need and much larger areas are ago. Spurred by the terrible thicat ofdeserts all over the earth. Whether weleft as arid deserts. An east-west con- Hitler's Nazi Germany, nuclear powerburn the rocks (by extracting uraniumtinental divide running from Labrador was first developed for destructive uses,for nuclear fission reactors) or burn thethrough southern Canada to Alaska but its discovery has come barely insea(byextractingdeuteriumfordiverts a great deal of water on ',this time to make our continued occupancythermonuclear power plants). adequatecontinent into the Arctic Ocean-through of our spaceship possible. reserves of nuclear fuels are availablesuch mighty rivers as the Mackenzie Until only a dozen years ago, manin the earth for many millenia. Coaland the Yukon, or into the Hudson Bay was exclusively dependent on chemicaland oil will be carefully husbanded and through-other river systems. A similar energy (with the minor exception ofburned as fuel only for small mobiledivide on the Eurasian continent diverts hydroelectric power) derived from thepower systems, such as automobiles andgreatquantitiesofwaterthrough burning of fossilized fuels, such as coal,airplanes. Nuclear power will be uni-Siberia to the Arctic through the Ob, oil, and natural gas, with the oxygen ofversally used for electric power, de-the Yenisei, and the Lena Rivers. the atmosphere. This form of energysalted water, and space heating. There Several large-scale engineering proj- is exceedingly rare in the universe as ais no other long-term alternative. ectsare designedtocapturesuch whole. Other than on the earth, there An extensive research program iswasted water and divert it to arid re- are very few spots in the entire universenow underway at Oak Ridge Nationalgionsfor agriculturalpurposes.In where thenecessary ingredientsforLaboratory and others on methods ofAustralia, di-E.-Snowy Mountains form such energy can be found.Nuclearobtaining large quantities of fresh watera barrier to damp air coming in from energy, on the other hand, is universallyfrom the sea by means of nuclear de-the Pacific. A well-advanced project present throughout the universe. Oursalting plants. Although much develop-there diverts three rivers, which had sun is a natural hydrogen bomb inment remains to be carried out, espe-been carrying water uselessly back into process of continuous explosion and socially in scaling up the size of nuclearthe sea, through tunnels in the moun- are the other so-called "main sequence"rcactors and-tviiterevaporators, the ob-tains into canyon reservoirs on the stars. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, con-jective of large-scale installations seemsother side. From there the water will tains sonic hundred billion such stars,technically in sight. These installationsgenerate two and a half million kilo- and all the other galaxies are equallywill produce one or two billion gallonswatts as it is lowered to irrigate large thickly populated with them. There isof fresh water per day at a cost com-areas of the arid interior. In America, nothing more common or more natural parable to that for present irrigationthe diversion of water from the Colo- and universal in all creation.In thewater, with byproduct electric power atrado through the 200 -mile Los Angeles fullness of timeitwas perhaps in-a cost about half the cheapest availableAqueduct and the more recent 100-mile evitable that man would conic to exer-now. A few such installations along theColorado River Aqueduct not only sup- cise dominion over this universal cle-Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts ofply the city of Los Angeles but irrigate ment of nature as well. northernAfricacouldconvertthethe Imperial Valley and land in Mexico

5 as well. The Feather River project inAt the same time. extenshe increases in Foundation and, more recently, the northern California will in time brineworld fertilizer production which areFord Foundation for their foresight in much mote water to the dry south. already, under way will be accelerated.recognizing. far in adunce of most, An even more ambitious plan nowand the productivity of land in thesethe severity of the problem. For 25 being given serious study would bringcountries already under cultivation willyears now the Rockefeller Foundation water from the huge Columbia River to be greatly increased. has been supporting; proeeams of de- several of the dry-western states to the velopment of hybrid varieties suitable south. The most ambitious project of FOOD requirements of the develop-for tropical aericulture. A high- yield. allis the proposed North American ing countries are rising geomet-resistant wheat developed in Mexico Water and Power Alliance (NAWAPA).ricallywith the populationgrowth.has resulted in a seven-fold increase of In the East. this would divert riversEven on the most optimistic projectionwheat production in that country be now flowing into lames Bay in Canada of population growth. India willre- tween 1945 and 1965; Mexico has through a navigable canalinto thequire in /985 an additional productionchanged from an importer to an ex- Great Lakes, raising their level andof food calories equal to 88 percent ofporter.This wheat has proved well materially increasing the power fromits total consumption in 1965; Paki-suited to Pakistan alio India and is Niagara Falls. In the West, a series ofstan. 118 percent: and Brazil'. 92 per-showing, spectacular results there. The dams; lifts, tunnels, and canals would cent.For food protein the additional development of a new hieh-yield, resis- turn water from the i anana and Cop-requirements in 1985 will he 93 per-tant, and low-water-requirement dwarf per Rivers in Alaska and the Peace incent in India, 121 percent in Pakistan.rice at the Foundation's International Canada into a huge artificial lake 500and 98 percent in Brazil of 1965 con-Rice Center in the Philippines will be miles long inthe Rocky Mountain sumption.Surplus production in thea great boopr to Southeast Asia and Trench west of the Continental Divide,United States. Canada, Australia. andAfrica in the; years ahead. A hybrid extending. throughBritish ColumbiaArgentina cannot possibly meet such corn developed in Guatemala has been into Montana. From this lake, ing,41 demands.In 1965 our excess grainspectacularly successful in Thailand. of the states of Utah, Nevada. Arizona,production over and above domesticIn eight years. starting from a practi- and New Mexico could lie ,rieated.needs and international sales was 23 cally,nonexistent crop, Thailand be- with water left over for Mexico. A millionmetrictons. By1985 wecame by 1963 the fourth largest ex- similar project in Russia would divertnueht, with a major effort, increase porter of corn in the world. In all these a portion of the flow of the Ob andthis to 75 million tons. but with real elBts ai least 20 years were required. Yenisei Rivers into an inyniiiik lakedatuer of depleting, our precious soilhowever, to develop these new varieties on the 01). the size of Italy, fromresources. Probably we should not goand bring them up to sufficient produc- which the central Soviet steppes wouldbeyond a surplus production of 60tion for seed. Little else has been done be irrieated. million tons. in research and development for tropi- The planetary scope of these projects The magnitude of the problem we cal agriculture. Doubtless. great strides gives emphasis to the spaceship char-face can be seen in the followine arti-can be made in the next 20 to 30 years. acter which the technology of the futureficial example.Suppose we were tobut the time scale cannot be com- will more and more take on. The watertry to meet world food needs by bring-pressed much below such a period. For and air systems of the earth recognizeing. new desert lands under cultivationthe remainder of this century the tropi- no .rational boundaries. .,They belongthrone!) irrigation.Itrequires aboutcal regions of Asia. Africa, and Central to the planet as a whole and must behalf an acre of land to produce enoughand South America will be continually the responsibility of all mankind. food for the minimum daily require-on the fagged edge between staggering The need for water is closely tied inments of one person. Since we are nowannual increases in food production with the need for food. We arc alreadyadding a net increase of 70 millionand catastrophic famine.Itis not a running dangerously short of food forhuman beings each year to the worldpleasant outlook. the world's explosively increasing pop-population. we would have to add 35 ulation. The vast surpluses of grainmillion acres of new land throughout and other staples, which have plaguedthe world each year for the rest of this ANOTHER spaceshiprequirement our agricultural system in this countrycentury to keep up with food needs. which is becoming crucial. par- for so many years, arc now gone. WeThis land would have to be suppliedticularly in the United States.is the will never see them again. Instead. re-with a minimum of 30 billion gallons necessity for adequate reprocessing and strictions on land under cultivation willof irrigation water per day. This is adisposal of all wastes.Since the in- be rapidly removed in the next fewstaggering requirement. dustrial revolution, we have been oper- years, and the United States and Can- Many reactions to the world foodating at an ever-increasing tempo on ada will be shipping greatly increasedcrisis tend to be ot erly optimistic aboutthe one-pass mine-to-products-to-pollu- tonnages of grain and other foods tothe rapidity with which food production ion system of production. Economic India, Pakistan, and China. and per--;:n be expanded. All mankind is pro-health has demanded continually in- haps for several years to Russia as well. foundly in the debt of the Rockefellercreasing Gross National Product. This

6 et,

requirement in turn has forced us tobe processed with equipment alreadyadjustment in long - established religious, mine out of the earth's precious re-on the market to recover process chem-moral, and social patterns, or is moie serves," at an accelerating pace, coal,icals and pay oil the initial capital in-resolutely resisted by mankind. oil, ores, and other materials which arevestment in three to ten years. Air pol- This problem of ach;e'.'inz; a stable then converted in the manufacturinglution from industrial and utility plantshuman population on the planet dwarfs process into useful products along withcan be similarly controlled, although all others in both urgency and difficulty. atmospheric. water, and land pollutantsat sonic additional cost. In time, fuelYet one way or another it must and will inmalignantlyincreasingquantities.cells, improved rechargear be achieved.I am fearful that only We then finally junk the worn-out prod-or steam power must ref ,o1..., after famines of awful proportions and uct in expanding city dumps, automo-for automobiles and trucks.I lie wholetheir accompanying social paroxysms bile graveyards, land fills, and ge:,zralproblem is now more political, social, willsufficientpressurehavebeen trash and litter.Clearly this systemand economic than technical.Its solu-brought to bear to force men to a solu- cannot be continued much longer.Ittion th' .itens deeply entrenched inter-tion. There is no other way out. Some- is intolerable in a spaceship. A space-ests and firmly established patterns,time in the 2Ist century, and hopefully ship requires extreme measures of con-and co will be accompanied by consid-early in the century, a stable planetary servationinwhicheverythingair,erableicial and politicalstress andpopulation will have been achieved at water, food, and other materialsisstrain. However, the ultimate demandssomewhere between six and ten billion reprocessedinacontinuouscycle of r. ap economy will in timehuman beings.When this has been within which the crew has its naturalforce a zulur,t1n. done, the requirements of that popula- place. A continuously increasing GNP tion for energy, fresh water, food, and in the spaceship would be catastrophic. THESE PROBLEMS of energy, wa-pure air can and will be met, although Pollution of any part of the system and ter, food, and waste handling arisemost of theintellectual energy and accumulation of wastes cannot be toler-from and are created by the explosivescientific and technological skill of hu- ated. increase in human population. As wem" 'y will be absorbed by this task. In this country, air pollution, par-have seen, in Ehe remaining third of ticularly in Los Angeles and New York,this century man will have fulfilled theTHE LAST, and certainly the most has become a problem of crisis pro-biblical injunction to be fruitful and difficult. probleminachieving a portions. The pollution of our riversmultiply and fillthe earth. An ines-satisfactory occupancy of our space- and lakes has reached such levels thatcapable coroilaryofthisinjunctionship, is the requirement of unity in the vigorous national programs 4f controlfaces us now withterrible urgency.crew.It is to this aspect of the prob- seem imminent. While New York CityBecause the earth is in fact a space-lem that Barbara Ward's book, Space- seeks new sources of fresh water, theship for man's journey, itis essenthlship Earth,' on this same general topic, Hudson River flows byitan openthat once the earth has been filled byis devoted. When we consider the vast sewer. Lake Michigan and Lake Ericman, he must stop being fruitful andsocialand political problems which are no longer fit for recreational usecease further multiplication. Moreoverpresently_ confront mankind, the ulti- and may even be poisoned beyond thethis must be accomplished withina mate "unification of man on the planet, capacity to support either fish or fowl.generation, or certainly within no morewhich must somehow beachieved, In another 20 years the same problemsthan two generations., The children ofseems almost unattainable. There are will `have begun to plague the wholetoday's college graduates must, as theyradical conflictsin ideology dividing planet,By thenext centuryrapidapproachadulthood,alreadyhavethe world into two vast armed camps. worldwide industrializationwill havestarted the process which their childrenHowever, as we crowd closer together persuaded all nations that pollution is amust complete; namely, that of separat-on the earth, the way must. and I feel planetary, not a local problem. Theing human sexuality from procreation.confident will, be found for holding earth is, in,fact, a single spaceship withAll over the world this process willthese ideologies in sonic kind of cre- a single atmosphere and a single waterinvolve a profound religious and moralative balance.Other tensions arising system. With a population over doublereadjustment. Yet there is no viabieout of deep historic hurts maintain local that presently on the earth, waste re-alternative to such a transformation.conflicts in the Middle East, Southeast processing and pollution control willWhat God required of man during theAsia, among African tribes, and else- have become, arecognized planetarylong centuries before he filled the earthwhere on the earth. America and South necessity requiring a worldwide systemis quite different from what He will re-Africa are powder kegs of racial ten- of controls. quire of man after he has done so.sion between white and black. Doubt- Here again the technological meansThis seems clear enough.Once the for achieving adequate control of aircrew of the spaceship has reached its and water purity are either availablefull complement, there is an absolute now or seem assured in the next ten requirement that it not be allowed any years. Most of the industrial effluentsfurther increase. Yet no other require- ward,Barbara. SpaceshipEarth.Columbia now fouling our rivers and lakes couldment calls for such a deep-seated re- University Press. New York.1966. less the achievement of what Barbaracelledorganisms resembline moderndeed. Idoubt that thereis another Ward calls a "balance of ideology" willalgae had evoked 10 the oceans. Butplace like the earth within a thousand involve paroxysms along the way of anfor the first four billion years of earthlight years of us.If so. the earth with '-tensity greater than any we have sohistoryalllife was confined beneath itsvistas of breathtaking beauty,its - uown. Each will, I believe, bringthe surface of the oceans where it wasazure seas. beaches, mighty mountains. us )ser to that unity which our space-protected from thefierceultravioletand soft blanket of forest and steppe ship status requires. Each of these ad-radiation of the sun. The earth wasis a veritable wonderland in the uni- justments will involve, as Miss Wardbathed in a dwindling atmosphere. re- erse.It is a gem of rare and magic so fully desc::bes, a move toward aduced mainlytonitrogengaswith beauty hung in a trackless space filled "Balance of Power" and a "Balance ofgrowing amounts of free oxygen re- ith lethal radiations, it is accompanied Wealth" in addition to the balance ofleased from carbon dioxide by photo-in its journey by sister planets which are ideology. All represent drastic changessynthesis in the teeming life in the sea.either viciously hot or dreadfully cold. in the world of warring nation states, of In the meantime, Mars. being mucharid and lifeless chunks of raw rock. hares and have-nots, which we knowsmaller and lighter than the earth, lost Earth is choice. precious, and sacred now. Yet her searching analysis of allthis original atmosphere much morebeyond all comparison or measure. The these problems does lead to a kind ofrapidly. Perhaps for a while, a billioncrews of the Apollo missions felt this guarded optimism about the ultimateor so years,it.too, had thin oceansvery acutelyas they compared the outcome. and a preliminary development of lifegray desolation of the moon below within them.But even they, too, inthem with the distant sparkling white IN ORDER to get any reasonabletime evaporated and escaped. For theand azure ball in space which they had notion of the magnitude of the chal-past two billion-years or so, Mars hasso recently left. lenge which the 20th century repre-been dry and desolate like the moon For most of its history the earth had sents in the whole history of our space-and without an appreciable atmosphereno concentrated bodies of rich ores. ship, it is necessary to consider it fromof any kind. Closer to the sun. VenusSlowly, over billionsof years, two the perspective of the tremendous evo-may have had sonic liquid water for aprocesses working alternately produced lutionary investment which has beenshort time but not long enough for anythem. One is the steady accumulation made in the earth and her creatures inappreciable amount of carbon dioxideof radioactive heat deep in the earth's bringing us to this present turning point. to be converted to solid carbonates. Incrust, erupting from time to time in Our sun and its planets were formedthe end it lost essentially all of its watergreat mountain-forming upheavals with together in the same process about fourand ended up with a thick atmospherevolcanoes and earthquakes. In between and a half billion years ago. At firstof carbon dioxide and nitrogen.Itis these geological revolutions, wind and all of the planets had dense atmospheresa dense atmosphere producing a pres-water worked a slow erosion back to of hydrogen, ammonia, and methanesure atthe surface 40 to 60 timesflat plains and swamps. Throughout gases. The massive planets like Jupitergreater than that on the earth. Underthese changes, alternating solution and and Saturn still retain this atmosphere.this heat-trap blanket the surface tem-precipitation. melting and recrystalliza- The smaller ones slowly lost it at dif-perature is 800' F or more, hot enoughtion, concentrated one compound here fering rates through the escape' of hy-to melt lead. and another there in the earth's crust. drogen from their weaker gravitational People talk very lightly these daysItis necessary to know that the rich fields. Before this happened, however,about the prevalence of planets like thisbodies of copper and tin, of iron and the ingredients for life were producedearth which could support life over auranium, of gold and silver. which we on all of the smaller planets through thespan of billions of years. When theyso recklessly gouge out of the earth action of ultraviolet light from the sundo so they inadvertently trap them-took -1 billion or more yearsto be and of li,ntning flashes in this primor-selves, it seems to me, into a set of atti-concentrated there. They should surely dial atmosphere.At the same timetudes which prevents their appreciatingnot be squandered in a single century. water and carbon dioxide were releasedthe earth. There are doubtless many out of the solid crusts of all the planetsstars with planetary systems in ourTHE EARTH was already four bil- by volcanic activity which was muchgalaxy. But it must be equally true that lion years old when a major turning more intense then than now. the vast majority of planets end uppoint in her long history took place. In the first two billion years of herlike Mars or Venus or Jupiter. We doAn appreciable amount of oxygen had history, the earth acquired in this waynot know all the conditions a planetaccumulated in the atmosphere which her great oceans, which, as they grew,must satisfy to permit the retention ofby then was already much as it is today. contained amino acids, purines, pyri-oceans of liquid water for billions ofFrom this oxygen an ozone layer was midines, and simple sugars in solution.years while allowing the escape of theformed in the upper atmosphere which By three billion years ago these con-primordial atmosphere of ammonia andeffectively shielded out the ultraviolet stituents had become assembled intomethane in time for a nitrogen-oxygenradiation from the sun.Following a the first primitive life forms. By twoatmosphere to replaceit.But theseperiod of geologicalupheaval about billion years ago, a variety of single-conditions must be very stringent in-600 million years ago, the earth entered

8 a long placid epoch in her history called quite recently.Itwas only10,000 %%illall have been fouled. and the at- the Cambrian. During it a vast elabora- years ago that man first began to prac-mosphere above him w ill reek wish the tion of multicellular organisms tooktice agriculture and build permanent vast outpouring of offal from his cities place. Thisproliferationoflivingvillages, and only 5.000 years ago thatand factories. The earth will have been things produced great coralreefs,a thefirstcivilizationsemerged.Buttransformed by man. Never again as profusion of sea animals called "trilo-from the moment of his creation the long as man remains on the earth will it bites," and the first fish. In another 300potential was there for a drastic change have anything like the wild and lovely million years theland had becomeThis strange new creature would inblanket of lush verdure which so re- clothed with vegetation and many in-time fillthe earth and subdue it andcently graced it. sects had evolved. But at that timetake dominion over creatures. when the earth was already 4,300 mil- The anthropologist LorenEiseley THERE is increasing emphasis, as lion years old--there w as not a particle looks back on this moment as one of -I- indeed there must be, on programs of coal, a drop of oil. or a bubble ofdark foreboding for the earth-in herof conservation, control of pollution, Luis anywhere in the crust. These greatbeauty.With the first emergence of urbanrenewal. andenvironmental reserves of fossil fuels were laid downman, a small dark menacing aloud ap-health. The concern of all nations with over the next hundred million years. peared on the horizon of time. A blackthese problems must be greatly intensi- Beginning 200 million years ago,hole openedinnature. A dreadful fied in the years ahead. -Yet the very this period was followed by the age ofblack whirlpool appeared which has words used to describe these programs the great dinosaurs, and then. beginningbeen growing and turning faster and point to their complete man-centered- 70 million years ago, by the age of thefaster ever since.In his words: ness. They are described and conducted mammals. When that age ended, just is with the coming of man that a vast solely in the interests of man and his 2 million years ago. the scene had be- hole seems to open in nature, a vast black welfare.In order to become truly ef- whirlpool spinning faster and faster, con- fective they must, I am convinced, all come very familiar. As vet there were suming fie stones. soil, minerals, sucking no men on the earth. but all across don the lititning. wrenching power frolnbe given an added dimension. We must Europe and Asia, the Americas and the atom. until the ancient sounds .of nature see them all in terms also of the earth are drownedinthe cacophony of some- and her welfare. The earth in all her Africa. there were dense forests and thing which is no longer nature. something fertile steppes clothing the earth in a instead which is loose and knocking at the beauty is our mother.She bbre us. blanket of green. Throughout this. lush %%orlirsheart, something demonic and noWhen we pour filth into her atmosphere, longer plannedescaped, it may bespewed befoui her lakes and rivers, disfigure verdure were myriads of antelopes and out of nature, contending in a final giant's zebras, cattle. horses and buffalo in game apinst its master.2 her landscape with our junk piles, and recklessly squander her 'preciousre- herds, deer, tigers, wolves. and badgers By the end of this century the earth all similar to those today. A remark-will be really All of men. But worse,sources we desecrate her as Well, as endanger ourselves and our own inter- able planet, a tiny island in the midstit will have already been subdued and of vast reaches of an alien space, had despoiled by man. All over its surfaceests. The earth has an integrity of her own independent of us. No single spe- brought forth a magic garden, a teem-his sr.: Ming cities will pollute the land- ing wonderland. maintained by a fragile scape. Without limit in every direction cies she has produced in her long his'- tpry has a right to destroy her and her balance of light and heat and gravity. the fields and factories of man, his high- A being like an angel or a demon ex-ways and bridges and power lines, will other creatures. We need to develop ploring our portion of the galaxy wouldcover the earth. All of the gold, mucha healthy and holy fear of doing so. react with stunned amazement and de-of the rich accumulations of copper and If man in some super-mad moment light on reaching such a spot in space, tin and many other metals, will have should destroy himself in a vast nuclear so unlike the myriad other planets hebeen gouged out of the earth andholocaust, one could perhaps say that had visited. squandered. By that time, nearly theit would serve him right. The rest of Two million years ago, whichis total supply of oil and gas, so pains-the universe could do without such a practically now in a 4,600 million yeartakingly accumulated and stored in the creature inthe future.,Yet such a history. a new geologic epoch called theearth 200 million years ago,-will already'thought immediately suggests another. Pleistocene began.It is now clear that have been drawn out and burned. Most For man and his destiny are inextri- this was the most fateful and decisiveof the strange and lovely species ofcably linked to the earth. In deMroying moment in the whole long history ofanimals and birds with which man sohimselfhe 'mustinevitablydestroy the earth. The reason is that the mys-recently shared the adventure of lifemuch of the earth with him.It is a terious creative drive in the evolution-will have become extinct. A few willsacrilege of -awful proportions to dese- ary process began then to produce man. remain in national parks and zoos main-crate and despoil such a place with its long evolutionary investment and im- The process unfolded several stages tt.ined by man in his nostalgia for a lost mense evolutionary potential.In the and did not reach our species, Homo paradise.His great rivers and lakes scwiens, until just some 40 thousand realm of reality transcendent to space and time such an act would not likely years ago. Man's presence did little to Loren.The 1 trmatttent of Tittle. alter the tranquillity of the earth until Atheneum. New York.1962.p. 12. be easily forgiven.

9 tz,

A number of years ago I had the privilege of reviewing a book, Tomor- row is Already Here, by the Swiss journalist Robert Jungk. The book was not well received, and it is my impre's- sion that it did not do vet), well. Sev- eral people took vigorous exception to it and to my review. No doubt the pictureit presented of America was overdrawn and one-sided-a these ob- jectors claimed. But I was convinced then and am even more persuaded now that there was a disturbingly valid dc-. ment of truth in that picture. The book has stayed with me, hauntingly, ever since. One quotation from the introduction will give an idea of its contents and purpose: America is striving to win power over the sum total of things. complete and absolute mastery of nature inallits aspects.This hid for power isnot directed against any nation, class.or race...". The stake is higher than dictators'_ seats and presidential chairs. The stake is the throne of God. To occupy God's place, torepeathis deeds, tore- mate and organize a man-made cosmos accordingto manmade laws of reason. foresight and efficiency:thatis America's altimate objective. Toward this her chief efforts are directed. This is a revolution as convinced of its suc:ssfui, outt.:me as any other revolutionary t etvement.... It destroys whatever is primit,ve. whatever grows in disordered profusion or evolves through patient mutation. What it cannot observe and measure it sub- dues indirectly to itspower.It says the unsayable.It knows no awe): Itisthis absence of awe, of any sense of the sacredness of nature, that is terrifying.It is this that drives the whirlpool. Loren Eiscley tells of a conversation he had with a young man who, as a solution to overpopulation, wanted to eventually kill off everything else so that we could live here by ourselves on synthetic food and with more room. Commenting on the colossal insensitivity of this new asphalt animal, Eiseley says: "For him there was no eternal, nature did not exist save as something tobe crushed, and that second order of stability, the cultural world, was, fo, him, also ceasing to exist." aIt is an appalling thought to conceive of a future world made up of such men. 0 1:1

3Jungk,Robert.Tomorrow is Already Here. Simon .,nd Schuster. New York.1954. O. sit. o. 128.

10 I N THE nine years since I last spoke to this 'organization, we have all become familiar with DDT, PCB, NTA, and many other letters that were just coming into our ecological consciousness in 1963. Tonight, I want to go a E C step furtherjhan a recitation of ecological sins, and connect science with social action. The ecological problems which we now all recognize will be solved and can be solved in a democratic way only by means of social action, by society as a whole, not by scientists. Science is, after all, a subsidiary part of society. We tend to get a little arro- gant sometimes and to think that science is a force unto itself, that we are training priests, rather than public ser- vants. On the contrary, we teach only a part of human experience, science, and our students, and we ourselves, are a subsidiary part of society. Neverthe- less, science does have a very special role.It is designated by society to report on what is. happening in the world, to Nature, to people, and to the rela- Barry Commoner tion between them. Today what we have to report is very grim. My own city, St. Louis, has de- genefated physically in the 25 years thatI have lived ,there.I have seen entire neighborhoods boarded up, the buildings destroyed, the people out of work, the children suffering from lead poisoning. Here is a magnificent human association, a city, literally falling apart before our eyes. All of you have seen the same thing. Consider, too, the more esoteric signs of degradation: The air is a burdcn to breathe, the water is foul,

Dr. Commoner is the Director of the Center for the Biology of Natural Systems, Wash- ington University, St. Louis, Missouri. This article is a condensation of his banquet address at the 1972 NSTA convention in New York City on April 9.

11 "One of the most important the soil is being destroyed, the food we fibers,rubber, and detergents.This changes in agricultural eat is less nutritious than before, thesudden change in the nature of our necessities of life ar liccoming adulter- technology has had enormous effects technology. ..has been in ated. Have you gone down the super- includingseriouspollutionofthe the use of nitrogen fertilizer. market shelves lately and looked at the environment. In the United States generally, fruit juices?Most of them are now Since World War H, called"fruit drinks," not juices.A I N agriculture, we have experienced a nitrogen fertilizer use has "drink"isa juiceadulterated with revolution in this country. The corn gone up 12 to 14 fold. water, among other things. Have youyield in the Corn Belt has increased asked any poor families whether they about two and one-half fold in the last What happens when this are now feeding their children the same 25 or 30 years. This has had great so- increase intrudes upon the volume of "drink" as they did juice?cial and economic consequences, in- nitrogen cycle?" Is this one reason why the vitamin including migrations io the cities of rural take of the average U.S.citizenis residents who are no longer needed declining? on the farms. Of course, there has We are destroyingphysically, bio- been an environmental impact as well. logicallythe habitat in which we live.One of the most important changes Obviously there is something exceed-in agricultural technology, for exam- ingly wrong in our society. Most of usple, has been in the use of nitrogen feel that something has to be done fertilizer.In the United States gen- not understood, not spoken abouterally, since World War II, nitrogen but done. But if we would act success- fertilizer use has gone up 12 to 14 fold. fully we must t.aderstand the origin ofWhat happens when this increase inour present predicament. trudes upon the nitrogen cycle? The Within the last two to three decades nitrogen cycle goes like this: crops con ,we" have experienced an order of mag- tain organic nitrogen; cattle cat the nitude increase in environmental degra- crops, converting the nitrogen in the dation. In 25 years in St. Louis I have corn or the grass into cattle nitrogen; seen the bowl of air pollution from the manure, containing nitrogen, is deliv- basin near the river extend westwardered to the soil and there converted block by block.1- can remember the by indigenous microorganisms to soil day last summer when photochemical humus, organic- matter from which smog spilled over into the suburbs and other microorganisms release inorganic began to attack the pines in the area nitrogen which then is taken up by the between my home and my lab. crop. This is a nice self-contained eco- Generally, there has been about an logical cycle. But that's not the way it order of magnitude increase inthe happens anymore in the MidweNL. emission of pollutants since World War For example, Illinois has no cattle to 11. This date is an interesting one. We speak of. It produces corn to be shipped havealltaught about the great scientific to Iowa and Nebraska where cattle are revolution of the 20s and 30s; aboutcollected in huge feedlots and fattened modern physics, theoretical chemistry, for the market; their manure is de- and new developments in biology. At posited right there, and the cycleis about the time of World War II much broken.Often manure washes into of that abstract knowledge was con-streams and pollutes them. Meanwhile verted with dramatic suddenness into back on the farm the nitrogen is not practical technologies in industry, agri- being returned to the soil; fertilizer is culture, communication, and transporta- used instead, and, asaresult,the tion. The esoteric experiments of physi- humus content has gone down to half cists were converted into nuclear bombs of what it was in1880. Humus is and nuclear reactors; DDT was taken responsible for the porosity of the soil, off the shelves and used to kill inst.cts; and this porosity is what lets, oxygen synthetic chemistry produced plastics, reach the roots. Oxygen is needed to

12 produce the metabolic energy which agriculture helped by government in- roots must use to work against the diffu-.ducements in the form of Land Bank sion gradient and take nutrients into the payments. plant. Hence, the result of losing humus Why did this all come about? Quite is that fertilizer is taken up less and less simply, itis because it is now impos- efficiently. So we keep piling on moresible for a Midwestern farmer to break and more fertilizer, raising the cropeven economically without using so production rate, but adding more and much ifillogen fertilizer that water pol- more nitrogen that is unused by thelution is inevitable. The yield of crop crop, but has to go somewhere. with increasing fertilizer tends to level In1947 the United States used___off; so to achieve .the last 10 to 20 11,000 pounds of nitrogen to produce bushels of corn per acre, it is necessary one USDA crop unit (an index of crop to double the nitrogen input.This is production, the closest available meas- an efficient way to feed the plant, but ure of %Oat we call the biomass, or the that last 10 or 20 bushels is often the actual amount of organic matter).In difference between profit and loss to the 1968 it took 55,000 pounds of nitrogen farmer. The tragic fact is that we have to produce the same amount of crop. forced farmers into an economic posi- The efficiency with which we used fer-tion which requires that they assault tilizer has-gone down five fold. Where the environment in ordcrto survive.If is the rest of the nitrogen? Most of it you look at any environmental issue, drains off into streams and lakes. One and carry it back step by step to its result is that in a town like Decatur,beginning, you will discover thatit Illinois, every spring for the last five originatesina very basic economic or six years, the nitrate levels have been issue. at or over the Public Health Service limits. Why is there a Public Health ANOTHER exampleissoap and Service limit for nitrate concentration detergents. Before World War II in water? Nitrate is readily converted we all washedourselves with soap. Now to. nitrite, particularly. in the digestive 70 to 80 percent of cleaners arc deter- tract of infants. Nitrite is poisonous be- gents (synthetics) not soaps. Why did cause it combines with hemoglobin and this come about? Detergent manufac- hinders it in carrying oxygen. turers say there isn't enough saponifi- If we ask agronomists why theseable fat available to produce soap. changes were made, they will often say However, if we again turn to the Statis- that they were necessary in order to tical Abstract we discover that we are feed the hungry people of the world and now exporting enough saponifiable fat of the United Slates. But has food pro- to make up the whole deficit. So that's duction really increasedthat- much? not the cause. . Are we all so much better off? The Detergent manufacturers willalso data in the Statistical Abstract 'of thetell you that detergents are better for United States' show that since 1947 washing-machines. Detergents suspend there has been only about a 10 percent-thedirt, while soap tends to leave increase in the per capita production of dirt in particulate form.These par- food in the United States. We have ticulates can be washed away, but they been exporting only about 15 to 20are particulates. The difficulty here is percent-of our production. The growth the design of washing machines. The of our production has just kept up with old washing machines, made when soap the growth of the population. One re-was used, very often had two basins. sult is that we have retired land from Clothes were washed in one, lifted out, and put in the other one to rinse, leav- 1970 U.S. Department of Commerce. Available ing the dirt particulates behind. In the from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govern. mein Printing Odice. Washington. D. C. 20402. modern washing machine the clothes ik\ "There is a lot of talk now are used as a filter for the dirty water Aside from all that. there is an eco- about dwindling fuel in the rinse cycle. The clothes sink to logiCal error in the use of any synthetic the bottom or the sides. while the basket material to substitute for a natural one. resources and about capturing spins, and dirty water is pushed outOne illustration of this is the use of solar energy. Soap is a through the clothes. That won't workenergy. Energy is very difficult to come natural scheme for capturing if the dirt is in a particulate form, but by. For example, fat, which is-the bitse solar energy and we have isfeasibleif the dirtissolubilized. for soap, represents, so to speak. con- thrown it away in favor of When detergentswereinyented,it gealed solar energy.Solar energy- is burning petroleum to was possible to redesign the washingfree. Taken up by the plants and the machines" so that now they are built animals that eat them. it provides the produce detergents." to accommodate synthetic de',:rgents raw materials for soap at low tempera- rather than soap. ture with no smoke, no noise, and no But, why detergents?Pound fordepletion of fossil fuel resources. The pound, the profit derived from manu- synthetic detergent, on the other hand, facturing detergentssis nearly twice the must be prepared from a nonrenewable profitderivedfroMmanufacturing resource. 'It is processed at high tens= soap. The development of detergentsperatures at the expense of depleting represented a forward economic step fuel resources, and of air and water for the soap and detergent industrypollution. The fuel used to produce at it increased profits. Simultaneously, it for soap is the sun, which cotms up reduced labor input because on-lineevery day. There is a lot of tv!know production is more feasible with deter- about dwindling fuelresources and gents than with soap. Soap is moreabout capturing solar energy. Soap is amenable to a batch process method a natural scheme for capturing solar because, among other reasons, fat char- energyand we have thrown it .away acteristics vary from batch to batch.in favor of burning petrAcum to pro- Thus, soap needs closer watching.In duce detergents. Similarly, cotton is a a low-labor-input situation, detergents scheme for capturing solar energy that work out better. we neglect in favor of synthetic fabrics. But detergents arc ecological idiocy! Let us look at their record.First, theTHROUGHOUT all of our produc- manufacturers made non-degradable tive activities, a series of techno- detergents.The molecules were logical transformations has taken place. branched, so the bacteria of decay that Soap has been displaced by detergents; normally degrade organic materials in cottoa and wool by synthetics; steel surface waters wouldn't break them and lumber by aluminum; railroads by down. Then, because of the resultant trucks; labor by automated machinery; mounds of suds, manufacturers stopped land by fertilizer.Each one of these making that kind of detergent and in-changes is driven by a very simple stead gave us a straight-chain deter-feature of our society, namely, that , gent, still with' a fienzene ring on thc people manufacture or produce those end.Bacteria degrade detergents by things that maximize profits, by what- lopping off carbons down thc chain, ever method maximizes profits most. ultimately leaving the benzene ring free. Each one of the new products or new This may be oxidized in the water to technologies is more profitable than the become phenol, a toxicsubstance. one that it displaced. And in each case There is some debate about how much the new technology is much more of a phenol is formed; but however much threat to the environment than what it it turns out to be, it still really doesn't displaced. It would be a valuable exer- make sense to put into the water some- cise for high school students to trace thing that can be converted into phenol. such changes through data available in Phosphates, too, were put into deter- the Statistical Abstract and in the Cen- gents, and that story is well known.. sus of Manufacturers.= A good topic is

14 the truck-railroad displacement. Whatprovement in technology in 0-der to do we get out of freight? The delivery keep the levels of pollution unchanged. of something we want.It doesn't make But the improvement in technology any difference to us whether it comeswould involve some important -eco- by truck or railwhat we want is thenomic changes. The whole pollution ton-mile carried. But it takes six timesissue represents an enormous debt to as much fuel to move a ton-mile by nature which we have been accumulat- intercity truck as it does by railroad.It ing. and that someone is now going to takes four times as much energy to layhave to pay. Here. one quickly come down the roadbed for a truck as it does totherealizationthatthe environ- for the railroad. The highway takes a mental issues are issues of social ju 400-foot right of way, and the railroad ticejustice for workers who may be a 100-foot right of way.It is ecologic- displaced if plants close down because ally insane to replace railroads with it is uneconomical to run a non- pollut- trucks, but we did it. Why? Becauseing plant, justice for citizens inthe truck freight is more profitable. We polluted areas. An examination of en- are in ecological trouble because of our vironmentalissuesleadsdirectlyto economic interest in raising or main - fundamental political, social, and eco- taining rates or profit. nomic difficulties. These are the issues that we must face if we are to survive` WE now come to the question ofthe environmental crisis. what to do about these issues On the other hand, we, as scientists, which, despitetheir scientific back- must not confuse scientific and political ground. are clearly not scientific issues, issues or try to convert one to the other. but social ones.Let's consider some A case in point is the present'discussion alternatives. of population control in the world. The If in 1947 we had decided that we view of the population increase as an --wanted to control pollution and keep it exponentialgrowthphenomenonis at the 1947 level, We could have em- highly simplistic.Furthermore, itis a barked upon a campaign for a 30 per- view whichfailstoreflect what we cent decrease in the amount of pollu- know about the behavior of human tant emitted per unit good produced. populations. Just ask yourself: Where Had we succeeded, we would now have in nature is there an example of an the same general environmental situa- ever-rising exponential curve? There tion that we had in 1947. Alternatively isn't one. An exponential growth curve we could have decided to keep the indicates a lack of coupling to the envi- pollution level constant by controllingronment. Is the human population un- the size of the population, rather than coupled to the environment? Of course by improving the technology of produc- not. People aren't stupid. In a primi- . _1 tion. Had we allowed our technology to tive society where food is the limiting change as it didgenerally to become factor, people know that you die of an order of magnitude worse in pol-starvation if there isn't enough food to lutant emission than it was in 1947 garound; a system of taboos and but reduced the United States popula- other social practices evolve, resulting tion by 86 percent, we would also have in the control of population growth. now the same essential environmental Demographers tellus thatin every situation that we had in 1947. In other Western country, as the standard of words, the alternatives faced in 1947 living has increased, people have lost would have been to achieve the same the motivation for having large families. result with either an 86 percent reduc- Human beings translate a rising stand- tion in population or a 30 percent im-ard of living into a self-motivated control of their own fertility. This is even U.S. Departmentof COMIllefCe,Washington. 0. e, happening in the Third World today. "We are in ecological trouble The birth rate is still high. but in aallow us to develop ecologically cen- number of places itis dropping. Tosible technologies rather than ecologic- _ because of our economic extrapolate into the future you mustally foolish. but profitable. Ones. The interest in raising or look at both the direction of the curvepeople have to decide among these al- maintaining rates or profit." and its slope. ternatives.A scientificexercise can The point I am making here is veryreadily obscure the possibility of such simple. At the least; an objective sci-a decision by wrapping it in a political entific examination of the populationassumption. Then the people geta question would hold that there are twofinished product without knowing that alternate ways to regulate population they have a choice to make. The public growth. One is enforced populationhas been deprived of the right of con- -control. The other is raising the stand- science. ard of living. These are both 3riemific The environmental crisis, carried to statements.However, the choice be-itsorigins. confronts us withlong- tween them is not at all a matter ofstanding questions of socialjustice. science, but of morality, social justice, How can you discuss environmental is- and politics. To pretend otherwise issues in the classroom without raising to hide a political issue behind a sci-the questions of racism, unemployment entific cloak. and profits, or the question of the war in Vietnam? If you start talking about AVERY interesting examp!-: in aherbicides, you end up with herbicidal similar area is the recent reportwarfare in Vietnam. If you talk about on growth published by the Club ofphosphate pollution, you will have to Rome.:: What this represents is a com-discuss the high rate of profit in the puter analysis of the relationship be-chemical industry. tweenvariousfactorspopulation, This is a responsibility that we must food, and so onin the future.Past face. The people who have to decide trends were used as a basis for extra-your students and their parents, and polation.If you look at the curvessociety as a wholesimply can't get you will find that the authors acceptedthis kind of information unless you and curves which can be changed by theI and the rest of the academic commu- stroke of a pen. For example, the rela-nity help bring it to them. The ecologi- tionship between pollution from feed-cal victories which have been won thus lots and the production of beef is onefar have been achieved by getting the that could be changed tomorrow if thefacts to the people, who have then government would abolish Grade Aunderstood that there is an issue. What beef. Feedlots produce Grade A beef;impresses me about the recent history if Grade A beef wire no longer sold atof the environmental issue is that the a premium price, the feedlots would go.people of the United States and in most In Limits to Growth a hypothesis about countries of the world have consciences growth has been put forward which ex-that are ready to work on it. The peo- cludes the alternative -of solving theple arc ready to act. What they need problems by social action. The resultare the facts. They don't need to be says: Horrors!if we don't reduce thetold what to doto favor population population, all hell will break loose.control or improved livinRstandards, to The alternative of for example, abol-support the profit system or oppose it. ishing the profit system isn't mentioned. They will he able to decide for them- Yet that is an alternative which mightselves. As scientists and teachers we must be willing to educate the people !.hullo to Growth. Donclla II. NIcathms. Dennis I..Meadom, JorgcnRanders. and W, and to have faithintheir wisdom; Behrens Iii.l'otontac Associatec. Inc.. Washington. IL C. 1972. (The authors arc researcher, at Massa- to believethatthe people, thus in- chusettsInstitute of Technology. The study was formed, will choose a humane course sponsored by the Club of Home .end the Volkswagen Foundation.) toward survival.

16 =Man's Vironment ROBERT W. LAMSON Z,1 Staff Assistant Office of the Assistant Seeriteity for Water-Qucility and Research e0artment of the Interior- Washington, D.C.

t i .

IN THINKING about and acting toman will inhabit during the next half population could grow by 125 to 280 influence man's future environment, century? millionovertoday'spopulationof we must consider many factorsthe What is the possible range of these about 200 million. physical,biological, and social; the alternative future environments? Throughout the world, people have "man -made" as well as the "natural." What might be done to influence been moving from rural areas to more Man's future environment will includethese trends so as to shape the future densely populated urban areas, and in thehumanpopulations,thecities in desired directions? the United 'States, a very large per- and institutions which man has created, This article discusses these questions, centage of the growing population lives as well as the physical, chemical, andspecifically as they concern the United and is projected to live on a very small non-humanbiologicalsystemsthe States. percentage of the land. oceans, continents, river basins, and Supplyand use of resources.The the populations of various species of Trends and Conditions United States contains a supply of re- plants, fish, insects, birds, and animals Confronting the United States newable and non-renewable natural re- upon which man depends for- his sur- Important trends which will affectsources which is not unlimited, which vival and well-being. man's future environment include pop-can be depleted, but which can also be If we wish to protect and improve ulation growth and distribution,re- expanded and upgraded through ap- the social, physical, and biological as- sourcesupply anduse,outputof plication of scientific research, and used pects of our environment, we must at- wastes, and growth and use of tech- more efficiently through better man- tempt to answer and act upon the nological and organizational power. agement. answers to the following three critical Population growth and distribution. Use of many resources in the United questions: The current world population of about Statesisprojected toincrease even What and the trends which are3.5 billion could double and reach 7 more rapidly than population, due to helping to modify or creatc.thc natural billion or more by the year 2000 if._ increased per capita demand for re- and man-made environments whichcurrenttrendscontinue. Projected sources caused by increasedindustriali- United States population for the yearzation and use of technology; urbaniza- This articlerepresents only the views of the 2015 ranges between 325 and 483 mil- tion, rising levels of income and in- author and not those of the Department of the Interior. lion.In just 50 years, the nation's dividual expectations, increased leisure,

17 and outdoor recreation. Increasing de- Growth of technological and organi- food and energy, transform raw mand for resources sometimes involves zational power.By applying our knowl- materialsintofinishedproducts a requirement for higher quality re- edge and experience to solve practical through industrial processes, and sources, for instance, water. problems, we are increasing our tech- transportpeople, goods, energy. Outputofwastes. Outputofnological and organizational ability to: and information. wastessolid, liquid, and gaseousis 1. Push back many of the constraints Changing proportion of "natural" increasing for the nation and per capita, of nature, of distance, time, andand "man-made" aspects of the envi- thereby intensifying the threat of pollu- disease, and of our formerly lowronment.As a result of population tion to our air, land, and water. Sources capacity to manipulate the environ-growth and of using our increased tech- of pollution include cities, industries, ment; nological andorganizationalpower. farms, heat from power generation, au- Shape and create widespread, in- more and more cif man's environment is tomobiles, recreation, mining, boating, tense, and long-lasting changes inbecoming man-affected or man-made, and commercial shipping. The types, the natural environment; some of except where special provision has been sources, and amounts of wastes will these changes could be irreversible made to keep the influence of man and tend to increase with the erowth of and adverse to man's long -term sur- h!s machines at a minimum (for ex- population. industry. and use of tech- vival, health, and well-being; ample, in wilderness areas and natural nology and resources. Many types of 3.Create "artificial" or man-made en-areas created to provide a base line for wastes are also projected to increase vironments (for instance, cities and ecological studies). more rapidly than will population. manned satellites), and to live in The primary threats to man's physi- The factors which help to increase new environments (under the oceancal and psychic survival, to his health demands for resources, for clean water, and on the" moon);------and well-being, now increasingly stem pure air, and unlittered land, also help 4.Perceive, predict, and monitor asfrom his own treat ens, from the en- toincreasetheoutputofwastes, well as to control,influence, orvironments wh::h he has created or thereby making demands more difficult manage environmentalchanges, altered, from the natural forces which to satisfy.While we have placed infor example, via new techniqueshe has harnessed, and from the institu- creasing demands upon the environ- (systems analysis), tools (micro-tions, techniques, and toolswhich he ment, we have alsoincreasedour scopes, telescopes,satellites, andhas invented in order to remove the dumping of wastes into it. computers), laws (domestic rulesconstraints of space, time, and low Although' we may not be in imme- as well as international agreementscapacity to manipulate the environ- diate danger of exhausting our supply concerning conservation, use.of re-_Anent. _ of many types of resources, we are in sources, and technology), and in- Man no longer has the margin for danger. because of declining quality, st:c.dions (river basin commissions); error which space, time, and his rela- of jeopardizing our usable shpply. 5.increase rapidly the production oftive lack of power once provided for his ecological mistakes. He must, therefore, take care, in his Estimates and projections of the population of the United States, 1900 to 2015. The relation to the environment and in his figures relate to 50 states in all years and to armed forcesoverseas. (Source: Popula- tion Estimates, Series P-25, No. 381, December 18, 1967, Bureau of-the Census.) actions to shape it, that he does not 550 make himself and his society more vulnerable to sabotage, disruption, and 500 disasterfor example, if -a small ele-

450 ment of the system which he designs does not perform perfectly, if his shaping of the environment should have ad-

Z.; verse effects, or if disturbances in the z 350 environment, such asfloods,earth- 300 quakes, and hurricanes, should affect z the areas in which he has settled. z250 0 We have had some sharp, recent ex- 200 perience with systems which created. potentially disastrous effects when a 0 - ISO small part of the system failedfor instance, the Northeast power failure and 100 the Torrey Canyon tanker disaster.

50 In attempting to use our power to influence the environment, we should 0 I design for a range of contingencies 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2 010 2020 YEAR for the optimist when all works well

18 and for the pessimist when much goes trends which are helping to shape the effectsrapid or slowwhich are wrong. The test of our technical crea- enviiiinment and upon man's actions adverse to man and irreversible tionsisnot how well they perform to influence these trends. Increasing pressures to mass produce when all parts work -as designed, but The crucial problem in looking at and construct. in a short time, large how well the system runs and how the future is to decide what is desirable numbers of new buildings and housing widespread the damage is when a part among the range of possible futureunits could cause a decline in diver- of the system fails. events and then to work for it. takingsity. quality. and choice in our cities. Sincetheenvironmentinfluences into consideration the probability thatWithout proper protection, the quality man himself, and since man has in-the future event will occur, the diffi- of the countryside, also. could continue creased power to influence his environ- culty and costs of bringing it about, and to deteriorate because of junkyards. ment, man is, in many ways, through the consequences of not doing so. billboards, power lines. overenriched intent as well as inadvertence, and per- With n the range of possible future lakes ruined by algae growth fed by haps in ways he dots not understand, socialand ecologicalenvironments, wastes from cities and farms, polluted increasingly influencing his own ge- many pessimistic possibilities could bestreams, and erosion of hillsides and of netic, physical, and psychological na- realized in the absence of adequatethe many new inadequately protected tureandthatofhischildrenpolicies to prevent their occurrence. construction sites. through the environments which he For example, problems of external The cumulative and mutually rein- creates. defense, international order, and warforcing effects of many environmental Because man's increased power to could become worse, with general nu- changes on the ecology and on man's Manipulate the environment has cre-clear war one pessimistic possibilityphysical and psychic health arc poten- ated a total environment which is in-for rapidly decimating our population,tially dangefous but not well known. creasinglyniiin-made and in which and, at the same time severely damag- For example. we donot know man's margin for error is reduced, hising our natural environment -and our.enough about the long-term ecological. only protection now is knowledge and cities. . somatic, and genetic effects of various wisdom in using his technological and Large-scale loss of life due to eco-chemicals used in fertilizers; pesticides, organizational power. Man's ability to logical and technological disastersis and herbicides; of such environmental create adverse effects may be greater not impossible, particularly if large and contaminants as radioactive wastes and than his ability to perceive, judge, pre-densely concentrated populations de- lead; of the concentration of various vent, and control them. As a result of pend upon an ecology and large-scalepoisons through 'the food chain,-or of his inability to control wisely the pur- systems of technology and organization their cumulative and interactive effects. poses to which he puts his power, manwhich are highly vulnerable to disrup-Nevertheless, the outpoufing of toxic may find that he is creating effects-in"tion, breakdown, and misuse. materials into the environment is al- his "natural.' and "man-made" envi- In the absence of adequate policies ready great and increasing. ronments, as well as in himself, which to protect against such.natural hazards Even though the nation's economy, he cannot control and which are ad-as storms, earthquakes, and floodsour gross national product, and our verse and irreversible. larger numbers of people could becomeper capita income will continueto vulnerable to disaster. grow, individual standards of living Range of Alternative Other possible adverseeffectsofcould decline because of inadequate Future Environments misusing our technological power have policies and programs to protect the In attempting to look at the "nat-been mentioned, for example, global environment. Since the social, physi- ural" as well as the"man-made" as- ecological imbalances and more intense cal, and biological aspects of man's en- pects of man's future environment, one and widespread disasters caused by: vironment interact, deterioration of the can project a number of possible alter- 1. Environmental pollution which up- non-human environment could help to natives, ranging from optimisticto sets the chemical-thermal balance create economic and social decline. pessimistic. of the earth's atmosphere because Moreover,, failure on the social and . The many elements which will make of increased burning of fossil fuels, political level could, in turn, contribute up man's future environment vary with pollution of the upper-atmosphere, to deterioration of our physical and respect to: (1) probability of occur- and impairment of the cycle bybiological surroundings. For example, rence; from impossible to inevitable which the carbon-oxygen balance the educational system could fail to or zero to 100 percent; (2) popularity, in the atmosphere is maintained, transmit to succeeding generations the or the-extent to which the event is de- through photosynthesis, by plantscultural values which underlie the na- sired by thepublic or by specific or. land and in the ocean tion's political system as well as the groups, today or in the future; and (3) 2.Soil depletion and increased salinityattitudes and skills essential to main- desirability. of the soil taining environmental quality. The actual future environment which 3.Poorly planned, large-scale, envi- Internal order as well as ecological man will inhabit depends upon the na- ronmental engineering projects balanceandenvironmentalquality ture andunfolding ofthevarious which trigger world-wide ecologicalcould break down or become more dif-

19 ficult to maintain.Or. their mainte- On the other hand. if the future is edge and powerful technologies with- nance could be based more and more regarded as open and subject, to sonic out, at tho same time, acting to prevent on "external controls" and repressive extent. to human manic lation, then and limit the damaging side effects of pleasures. on the threat of punishment this will tend to leave room for the using this knowledge and technology. and constriction of freedom. -ativc exercise of human wisdom, There is a need now to restore the Man's actions to avert the variouswill, and effort. balance in our use of science and tech- environmental threats which now con- nologyin our attitudes. laws. and in- fronthimwillhelptodetermine Control or Influence of Trends stitutions. For science and engineering. whetlier or not his future environment Having outlined some of the impor- by themselves, cannot save us from our will be one in which he can thrive as tanttrendsconfrontingtheUnited lack of wisdom and vision- in using well as exist. States, and a range of alternative en-science and in managing our techno- Depending on his actk'is to prevent vironmental outcomes associated with logical- power. the occurrence of future pessimistic these trends,thequestionarises: Additional technological power and possibilities. and to realize optimisticShould we attempt to "adjust" to the efficiency. applied in the same manner ones, man could enjoy more wide-trends. or to "influence" and "control" that we have applied them in the past sprcad and heightened values of, forthem. or both? . to our environment and to the forces exan.ple:natural beauty, cleanair, Assuming that "adjustment," by it-of nature, will not necessarily save us water, and unlittercd huid; cities which self, is not an adequate guide if wefrom our lack of balance and wisdom are beautiful. exciting, and a joy to wish to promote economic growth, inin using that power. live in; rising .levels of living; tran- dividual well-being, and environmental We need, therefore, to perceive, pre- quillity and silence; privacy as well asquality. we then need to consider whatdict,evaluate, influence, and control sociability; diversity, individuality, andcan be done to "control"or at leastthe effects of using our technological choice; justice and security; Political to "influence" the various trends which and organizational power so that the freedom, the opportunity to influencewill affect man's future environment. optimistic rather than the pessimistic and participate in the decisions whichWhat can he done to make moreprob- possibilities will come to pass. affect his welfare and that of his chil-able the optimistic rather than the pes- To carry out the research, planning, dren; democratic, representative gov-simistic projections? and operational programs to perform ernment; and the opportunity to de- Technologicalandorganizationalthese activities, we need to create the velop his personality to the ma..imum power. It is crucial that we control the necessary laws and institutions,_in gov- extent. tises of our increasing technological and ernment, at the federal, state, and local We must remember that the opti-organizational power to affect our en-levels, as well as in the private sector, misticprojections willnot automat-vironment since to date, we have used in universities and industry. ically conic about without human effort. this growing power in an unbalanced We need to use our technological Nor will we prevent the. pessimisticway: power in such a way as to affect the projections from coming true if we do To limit deaths, but not, at the trendswhich,ifunchecked, would not work at it. In fact, projections cansame time and in the same degree, to realize the pessimistic possibilities.In become self-denying or self-fulfilling limit births. As a result, no matter how other words, we need to influence pop- prophecies, depending upon their effectefficient the technology, skill, and or-ulation growth and distribution,the on human attitudes, effort, and will. ganization devoted to producing, ex- supply of and demand for resources When people view any particular fu-panding, and making more efficient use and services, and the output of wastes. ture alternative as necessarily inevitable, of resources, population now outpaces Population growth and distribution. such an attitude tends .to generate self-'production in many parts of the world, Problems of population increase as fulfillingor self-denying prophecies,with tragic results. well as density could seriously jeopard- depending on whether we see the in- To use, Jestroy, and deplete re- ize the ability of this and other nations evitable as optimistic or pessimistic.sources for immediate benefit, without to meet, concomitantly, their national For example, a pessimistic projection sufficient regard for the resource needs goals for security, economic growth, which is viewed as inevitable can be-of future generations and without pro- welfare and well-being, resources, con- come a self-confirming prophecy viding adequate knowledge and skills servation, and environmental quality. through reducing any effort to preventto compensate for the depletion. There is, therefore, a need to develop its occurrence, thereby increasing the To pollute our land,air,and a -population policy based on analysis probability that it will come true. Anwater, but not to prevent pollution, to determine: optimistic projection which is viewed clean it up where it occurs, and restore I.What,if various alternative pro- as inevitable can become a self-deny- the damaged environment. jections forfuture population ing prophecy through reducingthe To promote economic and popu- growth and distribution were to effort devoted to bringingitabout, lation growth, but not to protect and come true, the effects would be on thereby reducing the probability of itspromote environmental quality. the success and costs of our poli- coming true. To create and apply new knowl- cies:

20 A. To .supply and conservere- sources (land, water, air, food, minerals, energy, timber, wildlife, wilderness, outdoor recrea- tionandparkareas,open spaces, natural beauty, silence, etc.) B. To provide services (transportation, health, welfare, housing, sanitation, education, etc.); and C. At the same time, to protect andpromoteenvironmental quality; that is, to prevent further pollution of our land, air, and water, to clean up what pollutionremains,torestore the damaged environment, to rebuild our deteriorated cities and to create new ones; D. To solve these problems within the existing framework. of government and political and personal values. (to protect and strengthen freedom of choice

and,representative, popular government and to limit the extent of intrusion of government into th'e personal lives of citizens)'. should this stabilization occurin 40, which we depend. We must, therefore, 2.Which, if any, of the various alter.- 60, 75, 100, or 200 years? prevent,limit,manage, and control native projections for future popu- Supply and use of resources andwaste and pollution at each step in the lation growth and distribution weservices. To help satisfy the increasingprocess by wh;ch our economy and in- should regard as goals for popula-demands for resources, there isneed dustry transform energy and materials, tion policy, and the costs and bene-toincreasetheavailablesupply,from raw materials through to finished fits of achieving each; and through research and exploration pro-products, to ultimate use and disposal. 3.How, by what methods, we could grams, and to make more efficient use This requires us to create more effi- achieve each goal.Programs forof the existing supply through improvedcient and less wasteful industrial and actiontoinfluencepopulationconservation, management, and pricing. economic processes, and to provide for growth rates and distribution could Moreover, if our aim is to increaseuse, reuse, recovery, and recyling of be based on such analyses. individual well-being and standards ofthe waste productssolid, liquid, and Alternativegoalsforpopulationliving, access to resources and services,gaseouswhich are generated at each growth might include,for example: as well as to promote overall economic stage in our economic system. (1) to insure that all American familiesgrowth,thenthequestionarises will have access to information andwhether we should attempt to limit the Personal and Political Values services that will enable them to planrate at which demand grows as well asand Control of Trends the number Wand spacing of their chil- to "satisfy" increasing demands for re- To control and influence the trends dren, and thereby, to insure that anysources and services.This would re- outlined above requires "management" futureAmericanchildwill .bea quire us to limittherate at whichand control of people and institutions "wanted child4; (2) to achieve popu-population grows and puts pressureas well as of the environment. What is lation growthintheUnited Stateson our not unlimited ability to provide the relation between:(1) "manage- which would increase more rapidly orresources and services. ment" of the environment and of the more slowly than is projected; and (3) Control of waste output.If we are "trends" which will affect the environ- to stabilize United States (and world) to protect the environment adequately,ment, and (2) personal and political population at less than its present size,we must bring under control and man-values? or double its present size, or greater byage the wastes of our society which "Environmentalmanagement"in- a factor of 2.5, 3, or 4. Here, the ques-threaten to poison and bury us and to volves the monitoring and manipulation tion arises: At what level and whendestroy the ecological systems uponof physical, chemical, and non-human

21 biological systemsthe oceans, rivercontrolsrather than on the external We must restore wisdom and balance basins, watersheds, airsheds, industrial; threat of law or punishment.And, ifin our actions, in the use of our power, agricultural, and municipal wastes, andsuch internal controls are to be usedand in nature.Time is short.Much populations of various species of fish,with a rapidly expanding population,of our damage to the environment is birds, animals, insects, and plants. then great reliance must be placed onirreversible; what we destroy cannot be But such objects are only part of the education for conservation and envi-restored and is lost forever. environmental quality problem. Humanronmental qualityat each stage of a The accelerating damage which we persons,theirattitudes,ideologies, person's lifein the, home, throughdo to nature a ll to ourselves will not practices, social systems, and institu-school, and in other areas of activity.wait for us to catch up, nor willit tions are also part of the problem of The need to promote and to recon-wait while we refine our understanding maintainingenvironmentalquality. cile "environmental quality" and "en-of this damage. They must also be part of the cure. vironmental management" with such We must learn, and science teachers Ifmore"efficientenvironmental va'ues as freedom, privacy, and auton-must help future generations to learn, management" involves human persons,omy of personality, dispersal of power,to restore the balance: attitudes, and institutions, then whatand pluralism is one which places a Between our power and our wis- are the implications of "efficient en-critical responsibility on the educationaldom in using that power vironmental management"forsuchsystem in general, and on the teachers Between our power to create and values as freedom, privacy, autonomyof science in particular. our power to destroy and d''?t of personality, dispersal of power and Between our efforts to ,- event in- pluralism(particularly under condi-Conclusion jury and our efforts to heal the dam- tions of rapidly increasing population), Our current environmental crisis isaged environment industrialization, urbanization, and usedue to man's misuse of powerto one- Between our efforts to understand of technclogical power to manipulatesided use of his capacity to control theenvironmer :al problems and our ac- the environment? forces of nature and to his lack of un-tions to prevent and correct these prob- How can the United States promotederstanding of himself and his lack oflems environmental quality, and, at the samewisdom in using his power. Our power has exceeded our wis- time, protect and promote various im- Much remains to be done for envi-dom. portant personal and political valuesronmental qualityin many areasin Our power to destroy the environ- under conditions in which an additionalterms of attitudes and education, lawsment has surpassed our power to cor- 100 million people are projected to beandinstitutions,research,planning,rect the damage, to conserve and create. i added to the United States populationand operational programs. Our efforts to prevent have lagged in a short 30 years? Science teachers who convey the at-behind our efforts to cure. If the United States is to control thetitudes and skills needed to protect and Our Cures have been too little and effects of its citizens' actions on thepromote environmental quality arc on too late. environment, and at the same time, the forefront of man's effort to restore And, we have often allowed the quest to protect their personal and politicalbalance and harmonywithin himself,for more perfect knowledge to deflect values, there will be a ..ved to rely, towithin nature, and between himself andus from acting now with what knowl- a large extent, on internal psychological nature. edge we have. 0

22 ON THE NATURALIST

Richard R. GraberNATURE OF MAN

EXCEPT hithelovethatone world and how it works; capable of human has for another, there isknowing all the parts, living as well perhaps no greater delight in life thanas nonliving; and capable of under- the pursuit of knowledge about nature. standing how theparts worked to- To feel reverence for the earth and thegether, how they were related to one lifeit supports. to sense the endlessanother. The problem of understand- complexityandvariety,theinnate ing this immense machine was beyond beauty of this fantastic laboratory, is the comprehension of any human mind, or should be, part and parcel of theor any generation of human minds. gift of life. A child's curiosity, born ofNot only were the earth's inhabitants ignorance freely admitted, is much ofseemingly infinite in variety, but each that gift, and to see this trait die withyear the machine differed subtly from the sophistication of young adult what it was the year before. To under- is something of a tragedy not only it,. stand all this was a problem, or actu- the individual but for the world.It isally billions of problems, to tantalize ing parts. Each year hundreds of new a tragedy for the individual because it and delight the minds of men 1. r allspecies of insects are found, and even squeezes his view of life into a narrowthi generations that would ever be.among the birdsprobably the best corridor so dominated by man that theThe metabolic proceSes that sustainknown groupnew species continue to real world isall but lost from sight. us are common to all living things, butbe discovered.But discovering the It is a tragedy for the world because understanding has become the uniquespecies, however difficult, is only the the earth and. allit contains requirehuman function. Yet, understanding is relatively easy beginning.Trying to understanding. not merely an end to itself, a kind ofunderstand the impact of that species By what circumstances a strong curi-climax to a game that satisfies the in- upon the world is the infinitely greater osity about nature is sustained in sonic tellect.It is probably the essential key problem. We cannot fully understand individualsisnot known, butthis, to human survival. the species until we know its relation- whatever the cause, is the naturalist's In a more primitive world, whereship with every other living and non- magni'acent blessing. He wants to unnatural resources seemed inexhaustible, livingpart of the earth and their derstand the earth; he keeps askingthere was neither the pressing need for relationship, in turn, with all the rest. questions and looking for answers. understanding nor the time to acquireThe threads which tic all living things From the time that life began on it.Later, the technology which accel- together extend beyond the horizons in earth,ittook perhaps threebillionerated our dominion of the world and alldirections around the world and years or more, to produce an animal gave us :,.hc to search for knowledge, back in time tothefirstmetabolic _ that was capable of understanding thealso greatly accelerated our need formolecule that passed its secrets on to it. Now, after a few thousand years of Dr. Graber is a wildlife specialist in the another generation.Man, likeitor Section of Wildlife Research of the Illinois study,farfromunderstandingthe not, is part of the system, he_cannot act Natural History Survey, Urbana. earth, we haven't yet found all its liv- alone, for when he pushes the earth,

23 the earth pushes back. So complex and understand the effects of their exist- INDEED, man does hate intricate is the system that we shouldence, they had no responsibility to the IElect. and thus,itsobligation. the not choose to lose one part of it forearth or to its future; no obligation tomanifestation of tlat obligation is the fear of losing ourselves.If. by some itspast.The pow er_that came withconservation of all forms of life. To tragiccircumstance,themillions ofintellect carried with it also obligationextirpate a species isto destroy not migrant birds which pass through everyand moral choice.The ultimate mo-onlythe present population but the country should not appear some spring, ralityis what Albert Schweitzer calledpromise of all thatit could eve' be would the land be just the same? Doesa reverence for life,not merely forCould the circumstance have arisen. this great energy pass without effect,human life here and now, but for allhow might we have judged our ow n or in sonic subtle but important andlife for as long as it may be. Whetherprimitive forebears? But conservation irreversible way would human survivalultimately for pride or tragedy. manis not simply blind altruism. We do be influenced?No one knows theseems to have the responsibility that not truly understand the role of a single answers, and we are probably a thou-goes with reason and the obligationsspecies in the ecology of earth or man sand years from knowing. Yet, seem-which attend unrivaled power. Or is it,Our judgments of other species are ingly oblivious to our own colossalafter all, that man, like all the rest, is superficialatbest and concern only ignoanc.we rend the land for almostmerely victim of his circumstance, andimmediate, pi oximate values. As f. ee- any economic expediency, The eartheven with the potential to understand, liv ine populationsarecontinually may play us back in kind, and thatacts without understanding? changing. so are the relationships be- might be sonic sort of justice, but is We are fond of the word "humanity." tween populations, and what today we it justice for all those who would neverIt calls to mind such terms as kindness,deem our natural enemy may a thou- know the incomparable privilege of life?compassion, reason, and we seem to-sand years from now be our allyin think these terms define us as a species, a different struggle. The world's nat- IT IS natural for us to dwell on day-but isit so? A peregrine falcon thatural resources do not belong to us any to-day problems, to think of sur-strikes a 'plover from its flock seemsmore than they belonged to our fore- vival from year to year, if at all; to bedevoid of compassion, yet itsinistra-bears. concerned only with the here and now.tions to its mate and to its young ap- First and last, naturalists are con- But a ye, y important part of the gift ofpear most tender. The peregrine killsservationists.Life and all the things intellect is the ability to learn from thefor food and probably for no otherupon which life depends are the ulti- past and to look to the future. For thereason. What the hawk thinks or feelsmate wealth, and the maximum pro- naturalist thereisa certain sadnessis beyond our keri; we judge the birdduction of life depends upon nothing in looking back, because naturalistsby what we see it do and thus, to keepmore than long-ter survival of the cherish all forms of life, and the in-perspective, shot.ld we judge ourselves.greatest number of species.This in evitable lesson from the past is that noA ,chef who drops a lobster inthe turn, now seems to Jepend upon the species endures.It seems to say that,boiling -pot may be as devoid of com-knowledge and understanding of one as in-some primeval marsh diere waspassion as the falcon in a stoop, orspecies. The billionc of living things a last lone Brontosaurus and ;s today the bombardier who drops his sticks ofof all species which could come after a small relict band of whooping :nines, death on strangers.It is humanity, too,,us on through the millenia can be sac- there w:ll someday be that last lonelythat kills itself en maw, that lets itsrificed by these millions who are here human, his species gone forever. Likepopulations run out of control in thenow.Wouldn't this be the ultimate everything else on earth, we as a popu-face of mass starvation, that does notcrime?to use our intellect greedily lation are continually changing, and itknow itself.Itis humanity that en-to push the earth too far and cross is comforting perhaps to think thatgages itself in racial strife, when geneticthat imperceptible line to mass extinc- there may be another human speciesvariability should be a source of pride tion?Itis even conceivable that we when we are gone. But evolution re-and comfort as one of the strongesthave already crossed it. So little do we quires time, and there is no one to saylssets toward long-term survival. These understand the ecology of earth that how much time we have.CountlessWings must be part of the definition,almost certainly we willnot know generations of thoughtless creatures,too, and they seem to belie both kind- when we have crossed the line toward now long since passed away, gave usnest and intelligence.Perhaps as weextinction. What a grotesque irony it the chance to beto think. To thatstriveto understand the rest of thewould be if billions of years of organic extent they are part of us, and what weworld, we will begin to understand our-evolution produced an intellect with have and what we are, we owe in sonicselves.It is self-deception to exagger- the potential to understand, only to degree to the lowliest form of life. Butate man's goodness, yet, in defining thehave it be the most destructive force what we owe we cannot pay the past.species there may be a certain logic inof all.For lifeis wondrous whether Nature makes no moral judgments.Ifstressing the kindly virtues, for itis we think of it; as a biochemical acci- wild creatures were ignorant, they wisein his compassionate conservation ofdent or as the product of a creator. alsoinnocent, withlittlepower toother living things that man seems Man's technological prowess, how- change the world very fast. Unable tomost truly set apart. ever magnificent, is no true measure

24 of human intellect. A far more impor-and insensitive,thenthespeciesis standing is not to debase any field of tant measure is how well we under-mindless, drifting senselessly. inquiry. Though ecology is biology. it stand thetotaleffects of our actions, As a species we are engaged in a does not end there.Indeed, it is prob- and how carefully we govern those vitalrace, and no human endeavorably w idiom end. Disciplines of study actions.There is an old truism thatwas ever so complex or so important.are no more isolated unto themselv es species doomed to extinction are oftenOn the one hand, with our technologi-than is man, or ant, or mollusk. Earth marked by some ki.h1 of overspeciali- calpower, we areplunderingthe ecology extends into the universe be- zation These species,in form andearth's resources at a continually in-yond the reach of man and concerns habit, fit neatly into some tenuous part creasing rate, and on the other, wethe invisible structure of matter, as well of the environment they are too suc-are pursuing ecological understanding as the social behavior of wasps. To cessful--up to a po.i', and then theirat an agonizingly slow pace. The criti- placerestrictions on thepursuitof narrow approach to life pays them offcal question isthis:Is there time to knowledge isto make our view too with oblivion. The human mind too acquiresufficientunderstandingto narrow.Whether by design or acci- narrowly used in pursuit of untram-keep from passing that point of nodent. man has come to have a noble meled technological power may repre-return from the void of oblivion? Totrust--theconservationoflifezind sent a form of overspecialization thatunderstand erough to know both whatearth, through understanding. To that is carrying man too far too fast. Weweshoulddo and what we dare nottrust and tothat understanding °tnr must understandwhereitis carryingdo is the monumental intellectual prob-energies as a species should be dedi- us, what we are doing to the world.lem, awesome by itself, but beyond cated. So great are the problems that If the net effect of man's existence isthatisan equally important moral we could put all the human resources to accelerate the extinction of species.qr:stion: Will any people deny them-not required for food production and includiag himself, to what avail is tech-se,. es wasteful programs which prom- essential commerce to work on ecologi- nology?Perhaps the human speciesise immediate gain for the benefit of cal investigation and education, and we could go on another million years orthose unseen strangers who will be our still might lose the race. more, but when we consider what hasinheritors?To solve the intellectual It is interesting to contemplate what been done to this continent in just twoproblems without solving the moralhistory will reveal. Was man an in- hundred years, the long haul seemsproblem is probably pointless, and thetelligent species after all? Or w;11 the very long indeed.It is regrettable thatpossibilities for failure on both issues last humans decide that men never we do not understand how our day-to-seem very high from where we stand. truly realized their potential, that in- day livingas individuals affects theIn the last analysis only survivalis tellect was sham, that over strife for long-term survival of our species, butmeaningful. If we don't survive as bio-petty causes, the one real cause was itis far more regrettable that all toological entities,all elsepolitical and lost?It should be our hope that for often we seem not even to care. Eacheconomic considerations, everythinga long time to come, men will ponder individual represents the species andis academic. The problems of survivaltheir potentiality, learning to measure bears responsibility for itscharacter.are ultimately biological problems, butsuccess not so much by what they had, If, as individuals, we are thoughtlessto stress the need for ecological under-but what they left behind.

25 t

Freedom andaVaried Environment

R. THOMAS TANNER

Assistant Professor Department of Science Education Oregon State University Corvallis

CONSERVATION of natural re-plow around hillsides rather than upof habitatranging from metropolitan sources is a venerable topic inand down them."It has been taughtcomplexes through isolated villages to the secondary-school science curricu-as student activity, such as the plantingwilderness.In such an environment, lum.The concept hasnever been of fir seedlings or the building of woodthe urban and urbane have access to more important than itis today, andduck nests.It has been taught as anthe cultural amenities of the city, but yet it seems to have lost its vitality inextension of conceptual schemes, suchothers are not denied the possibility of the curriculum.It is the thesis of thisas- the complementarity of organismfloating a wild river if they so desire. article that the concept must be newlyand environment. Itis proposed hereIn such an environment, those prefer- defined and set in a new intellectualthat conservation be taught as an idea,ring the atmosphere peculiar to small context if its present import is to bean idea of vital importance to man asand isolated communities may find em- clear to educators and students. Thiswe hurtle toward the 21st century.ployment in such places and are not article is an attempt in this direction.First, the term needs a new and viableforced into urban migration. Generous Conservation will be defined as thedefinition: samples of pastoral and agricultural maintenance of a maximally varied en- Conservation- is the maintenance ofhabitats are available to those who wish vironment, and the relation of conser-a varied environment offering maxi-to live near them. All species are pre- vationtohuman freedomwillbemum freedom of choice to mankindserved in their wild state along with demonstrated.'I shall explore the de-and to its individual members, in per-the ecosystems necessary for this. As nial of freedom which follows frompetuity. one chooses, he may place himself an expanding economy based upon an Individual freedom is the most basicshoulder-to-shoulder on Broadway or expanding population. I shall concludetenet of American democracy. We havealone on a desert mountaintop. "May with implications for the teaching ofalways held it worth fighting and dyingplace himself" are the key words; free- science and with a summary of closelyfor, and rightly so. Today, we find in-dom of choice the ideal. Maintenance related issues and writings. dividual freedom increasingly threat-of such an environment is a proper Since this is an essay, a statementened, not just from without, but as aconcern of conservation' today. of personal opinion, the reader willresult of our own technology and its Probably few students would deny forgive occasional use of the first per-societal concomitants. It was obviouslythe desirability of a maximally varied son singular; such usage is simply lessno series of random events which sawenvironment, once they comprehend clumsy in an essay than is the consis-Brave New World, 1984, Walden Two, its inseparability from the idea of free- tent avoidance of it. andFahrenheit 451 writtenin this cen-dom. Even young people who have no Conservation has b'en taught in dif-tury of science. desire ever to set foot beyond the sub- ferent ways.It has been taught as a The concept of freedom subsumesurbs will be slow to deny the right of set of rules, such as, "Farmers shouldthe idea that each man shall have free-others to do so, to beableto do so. dom of choice:in diet, in dress, inThis suggests that the pleas of conser- I The writer is indebted to Jim Harleman for his faith, andin habitat.From this ideavationists and preservationists may of- insight into this relationship. follows the desirability of a spectrumten fall on deaf ears because of two

26 major fallacies in their argument. Dis-verge upon the Sacramento and San river,buttomorrow's demands for cussion of these fallacies will serve toJoaquin valleys.In such a habitat, apower necessitate another dam, and the illustrate,b-yicontrast, thepower offew dammed canyons serve to increaseentire river is gone. An ever-larger por- this new definition of conservation. the variety of the environment and thustionofthepopulacefindsitself First, appeal is frequently made toextend the freedom of choice. Then,unable to escape the suburbs except by the obvious desirability and inherentthe water-ski crowd are not depriveddriving most of the weekend. Thus beauty of wild species, wild places, andof their rights any more than are thepopulation growth combined with ma- pastoral-agricultural settings. But mostnaturalists, nor should they be. terial wealth brings a steady homogen- of the populace are simply unrespon- Of course, our students should comeizing of the environment, a reduction sive to such appeal because they oper-to appreciate the distinction betweenin the choices available, a limiting of ate from different premises. For some,a few dammed canyons (which maxi-human freedom. thedesirabilityisnot obvious,themize choice) and a hundred dammed Students must come to realize, then, beauty not inherent. For many others,canyons (which eradicate choice). Theythat optimum freedom of choice will the appeal is not foreign, but this con-should be able to distinguish also be-be possible only when we have a stabi- cern is not very high on their personaltween the damming of a carbon-copylized population. But to stabilize our list of priorities.The conservationistcanyon and a unique one, such as Glennumbers we will have to revamp an argument is thus akin to that of theCanyon. It is proposed here that theeconomic system which is dependent religious zealot, profoundly convincedsoundest principle which they can useupon population expansion. Our stu- < s of his own faith but unable to proselyteto judge- the worth of new projects isdents must see the fallacy in equating an unlistening, listless public. To thethe principle of an optimally varied en- `growth" with "progress." They must zealot I can offer no advice; to the con-vironment.At the same time, theyunderstand that production of material servationist-teacher I suggest appeal tomust realize that fundamental attitudesgoods must be a national means, not a the principle of varied environment asregarding population and progress alsonational end. They might well examine the only possible physical setting for a bear examination in light of this prin-. the role of advertising in the creation free society.In this I am encouragedciple. of superficial needs, and the role of by the unrest of today's youth. Among consumership in America today. They their rallies for human rights, freedomTi IS mandatory that students nextmight study the problems of education of speech, peace, and love, there hasI comprehend the following hypoth-and training appropriate for bringing been little mention of the conservation esis: from this point in time onward,about more worthwhile utilization of of a varied environment; however, theirfreedom of choice will vary inverselyhuman time and energy. They should very concern for the aforementionedwith population.In former times thisbe brought to'question whether the pro- concepts argues for their potential aswas not always truelarge familiesduction of large numbers of more little a generation of conservationists, even ifand growing urban centers were neededconsumers is really the ultimate patri- it grows from a respect for mankindto assure freedom from want. Today,otic duty. They must come to under- rather than from a love of nature. Theytechnological advances have removed stand the distinction between freedom need only understand the relation be-the necessity for continued populationand power as exercised by both man- tween a varied environment and thegrowth. Yet the population does growagement and labor. They should dis- freedom of man. (Of course, these re-and accumulate greater personal hold-cuss the morality of trade in leopard marks should not be interpreted as aings of material wealth at the samecoats, crocodile handbags, and exotic blindly liberal blanket endorsement oftime. Consequently, the distribution ofpets, and of washing-machine advertise- all youthful dissent, with its fair mixtypes of habitat becomes increasingly ments which lionize large families. They e of carping, pseudo-issues, and evenand inevitably unbalanced. Megalop-must realize the inappropriateness of self-seeking.) olises spread where farms existed. Acomplacency.(Only 57 impoundable The second fallacious appeal of thewilderness areaislegislated but be-miles of the Columbia River in the conservationist-preservationistishis comes so overrun with visitors that it U.S.remains undammed, andthis frequent opposition to dams, highways,is wilderness only in name. (Sanitationstretchisscheduledforinundation and tracts, per se and in tow. In thehas actually become a major problemsoon.[a] There were an estimated face of the steady one-way homogeniz-in some federally-designaIwilderness 1,000 white rhinos in the Congo in ing of the environment, one can cer-areas.)Certain habitats .trio their in- 1960; the present population isesti- tainly sympathize with this view. Adigenous species are destroyed by pol-mated at 100 to 200. Poached trophies more widely acceptable argument, how-lution or development. The viewingrepresenting 700 were recently seized . ver, might be that development de-and the logging of certain lumber spe-enroute to the Middle East.[1] Such cisions should be based upon the prin-cks become mutually exclusive. Sup-illustrations of the urgency of the situ- ciple of varied environment.Permitplies of fresh water, minerals, and evenation would easily fill a volume.) illustration.In California, a hundredoxygen become depleted. A low dam What has allthisto do with the carbon-copy canyons cut through theis built today in order to supply neededscience teacher? One answer, of course, chaparral of the coastal ranges to con-power while saving a few miles of wildis that the problems discussed herein

27 are products of our science and tech-sponsiveto anintelligentpopulace. religion. business and industry, even govern- nology. The population problem is a(4) Footnoting and reference to otherment itself,are all bogged in timid con servatism,stilloperatingonlastyear's manifestationofmedicaladvances, writings have been minima; tothisprecedents and this year's clichés. Talk of based inturn upon increased basicpoint. Yet the issues discussed herein "excellence," talk of "automated learning," knowledge inbiochemistry, genetics,should be placed in the perspective oftalk of ''science and the humanities." They all die on the tongue as essentially trivial in and other sciences; the corollary homog-writings dealing with inextricabiy re-the face of global requirements for a mas- enizing of the environment is accom-lated issues. Some prime examples, allsive change in educational outlook,The plished by sophisticated means of en-of which contributed in sonic way toschool's necessary role is one of social van- guard.Its clients are the young and their ergy utilization.Further connectionsthe formation of the present article,destiny is to take charge of the future. The willbe obvioustotheecologicallyfollow. school's job is that of reconstructing present- oriented biology teacher. A lecture by Snow [13] was theday civilization. Nothing short of this can The science teacher may ask, "Butclassic elucidation of the chasm thatseriously be considered truly educational? ifIfind time for such matters in the has grown between scientific-technolog- References science curriculum, when am I left time ical advance and our outmoded insti- I.A fricana 3:3; September 1968. to teach science? Why not leave thistutions and modes--of thought. Recent /.Ehrlich, Paul it The Population Bomb. to the social science teacher?" papers by Hurd [7] and Fox [4, 5] Ballantine Books, Inc. New York. 1968. Whether the -ideas presented herein 3."Foes of Dam Plot Struggle." The Sun- are addressed forcefully to the need for day Oregonian. Portland, Oregon. De- .:: are more properly the domain of onethe science curriculum to concern itself cember 22, 1968, p. 26. discipline or another is a moot point.anew with the humanistic ends of sci- 4.Fox, Fred W. "A Better Climate for Someone must be responsible for con-ence and technology. Some of the best Science."Mimeograph, Oregon State University. 1968. veying such ideas to the students.Ifpresentations of the problems of popu- 5. . "Forces Influencing Education: an interdisciplinary effort among teach-lation growth are those by Ehrlich [2], Present and Future."in Designs for ers of science, social science, literature,Udall [15], and the Department of the Progress in Science Education. David P.Butts,Editor,NationalScience agriculture, and so forth, is impliedInterior [8, 10, 11, 14] under Udall's Teachers Association, Washington, D.C. then so be it.If a completely new cur-secretaryship of that department. Ribi- (In preparation.) riculum in the secondary schools and incoff [12] proposes programs for re- 6.Gary, Romain. The Roots of Heaven. the training of teachers is impliedso Simon and Schuster, Inc., New York. vitalizing the .economy of rural areas 1958. be it.If entirely new academic special-and isolated small cities. The novel by 7,Hurd,PaulDeHart. "TheScientific ties for secondary teachers is impliedGary [6] will be deeply moving to Enterprise and the Educated Citizen: An Unfinished Task." Paper presented so be it.If the schools must reduce thesome students;itis an artistic and at the meeting of the Kansas City, Mis- study of "pure" and "genuine" science,aesthetic expression consistent with the couri, Science Teachers, November 17, in favor of increased discussion of im-ideas discussed herein. 1967. portant social issues affected by science Some readers (like the writer) may 8. "Man ... An Endangered Species?" Conservation Yearbook No. 4.U.S. and technologyso be that as well. enjoy classifying statements of educa- Department of the Interior, Washing- tional philosophy under such taxons as ton, D. C. 1968. T HAVE tried to avoid being overlyrealism, idealism, or experimentalism. 9.Morris, Van Cleve. "The Philosophy of Education." In Becoming An Educator. I diffuse in this brief essay.Allow The present essay is unabashedly rep- Van Cleve Morris. Editor.Houghton acknowledgment of some omissions: resentative of a Reconstructionist per- Mifflin Company, Boston. 1963. (1) The discussion has been largelysuasion. (One should consult the writ- 10."The Population Challenge." Conserva- nationalincharacter, with frequent tion Yearbook No. 2. U.S. Department ings of George S. Counts and Theodore of the Interior, Washington, D. C. 1966. reference to the American ideal of free-Brameld for important enunciations of 11."Quest for Quality." Conservation Year- dom. This does not preclude the ex-Reconstructionist philosophy.) I should book No. I. U.S, Department of the tension of the argument to other na-like to utilize Van Cleve Morris' [9] Interior, Washington, D, C. 1965. 12.Ribicoff, Senator Abraham A. "Needed: tions; in fact, the argument assumes thedescription of Reconstructionism as a New Directions for Rural America." necessity of a world order of free men.fitting conclusion for this paper: Reader's Digest 93: 107-112; September (2) I have addressed myself exclusively 1968. A desired future does not come about by 13. Snow, Charles Percy. The Two Cul- to the rights of men. That the-rights ofmaking adjustments to changing conditions. turesand theScientificRevolution. other beings deserve recognition is ac- A desired future comes about because men Cambridge University Press, New York, want it, plan how to achieve it, and execute knowledgedenthusiasticallybythis 1959. their plans to reach it. And if men do not 14. "The Third Wave." Conservation Year- writer; however, thatthesisrequires soon take a militant and activist stance con- book No. 3. U.S. Department of the In- longer exposition than can be devotedcerning the kind of world they want, they terior, Washington, D. C. 1967. will most certainly be blown to cinders. 15.Udall, StewartL. The QuietCrisis. to it here. (3) 1 am not so naïve as The school's job, then, is not merely to to assume that the creation of an en- Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New teach the young "how to manage change," 'York. 1963. lightened citizenry is alone sufficient forbut to teach them how to promote and incite necessary social change.Those whochange toward a specified social goal. No other institutionin modern society, so the exercise power and wealth must be 2 mortis, Van Cleve."The Philost.pii, of Edu- adherents of thisposition contend,isso cation."In Becoming An Educator.Van Cleve equally enlightened. They must be re-aptly fittedfor this new role.Organized Morris. Editor. Houghton Mifflin, Boston.1963.

28 AN ENVIRONMENTAL

James D. SearsAND ECOLOGICAL INVENTORY

NATURE is never static, por is a Environmental planning imposes a there has been some research in the totally natural env ironment always number of new and broad requirements past on various specialized aspects of the most suitable for civilization. We upon the planning process and the environmental problems. very little re- must use and reuse our resources and planner. In general terms these are: search has been interdisciplinaryin shape our environment so as to leave 1.The environment must be consid- nature or oriented toward applied prob- a better quality of living to future gen- ered from an ecological or systems lems, although some of the larger uni- erationsgenerations which must also point of view. It must be recognized versitieshaveinitiateda few such face a challenge intheir use of re- as an infinitely complex system of projects. This deficiency stems largely sources. This means that we need to interrelating and inseparable ele-from the fact that most existing re- be far better informed about our re- ments and relationshipsa system search institutions and researchers are sources, and about our historical and in which any impact upon one ele- not problem oriented but, rather. are culturaltreasures,thanwe areat ment orrelationship has conse- specialized along traditionaldiscipli- present. quences of varying degrees through- nary lines. As a result, there is a de- What we do to,for, or with the out the whole. cided dearth of informatidn and ana- environment must begin with a plan Thefullrange of likelyconse- lytical and evaluative,methodology with a planaimednotatdetermining quences of proposed environmental which to understand, assess, and deal whether a specific engineering solution manipulations. both upon the envi- with environmental problems. Thus, it is economically justified, but at finding ronment and upon man, must be is impossible in many cases to predict the best solution to the problem and defined more clearly and assessed accurately the effects of a given action at meeting the varied needs and aspira- with greater sensitivity. or to define the values which,the public tions of the people. Planning seeks not 3. New kinds of environmental infor- places upon these effects. to justify projects, but to identify and mation must be systematically col- The obvious need is to improve the evaluate the consequences of alternative lected and evaluated. overall state of environmental arts and means for soh Mg problems and satis- 4.The planner must insert himself to sciences and the institutions responsible fying needs.Planning seeks to illumi- a greater degree in the public arena for their development, particularly in nate the choices available for the peo- and be prepared to face problems terms of making them more responsive ple and their representatives who must and issues of ever-growing scope,to interdisciplinary problems. Over the make the final decision. involving conflicting objectives and long run, this will require a relatively values. He must obtain not only massive joint effort by the scientific and The author is chief of the Environmental the physical and ecological infor- academic communities, with the sup- Resources Branch, South Pacific Division, mation necessary for good plan-port of the private and governmental Corps of Engineers, San Francisco, Cali- ning, but also a knowledge of the sectors.Existing and evolving basic fornia. The outline for a regional environ- public's desires, needs, and frus- knowledge must be synthesized, inte- mental and ecological inventory presented here was prepared for the 1970 Westing- trations. grated, and reworked into usable, ap- house School for Environmental Manage- 5.The environmental planning effort plied information, criteria, and working ment.It was designed as a blueprint for must be multidisciplinary, including tools which .can be applied by the study of an area under consideration for a power facility, to assure ecological and the natural and social sciences. planner. cultural compatibility of the installation with Environmental questions arc, for the other aspects of the area. The comprehen- most part, extremely complex, involv-THE environmental inventory should sive outline could well be used by envi ing combinations of social, psychologi- be a brnad regional inventory, ac- ronmentalists and by teachers and their classes in studies of the ecological and cal, economic, ecological, and a variety companied by a project-related study historical characteristics of regions. of other problems and issues.While if the inventory is undertaken for the

29 purpose of siting or planning an instal- E. Unusual plant or animal com- VI.Barren Land lationcontmercial, industrial. recrea- munities VII.Population Distribution tional. or otherthat might affect the 11.Man-made A. Communities with architectural environment. The broad regional in- Project-Related Environmental Inventory integrity The purpose of this inventory isto ventory may be envisioned as an envi- B. Outstanding architecturalex- provide the planner or decision maker ronmental data bank, obtained largely amplcs with basic information as to the environ- from a review of pertinent literature C. Transportation systems mental quality of the project area during and existing reports by others. The D. Mineral extraction plan formulation.Itwill indicate those E. Land use (unusually aesthetic project inventory will contain detailed environmental features that are unusual. results of agriculture. forestry, valuable, or rare, as well as those espe- in forniation obtain,!d through field trips or commercial endeavors) cially important to the local residents. and contacts with local residents. F. Recreational (exceptional vis- We arc concerned about those features of The regional inventory will, for ex- ualimpactofnaturaland high quality and with unusual character- ample. identify the broad boundaries commerca1 areas and develop- istics. We are also concerned about those ments) of a delicate or scarce ecosystem, his- a; ea sites, or conditions that have become degraded and that offer an oppor- torical or archaeological areas. public Ecoi.orucm. tunity through advance planning to be re- recreation areas, stretches of wild or I.Land Physiography A. Estuarine claimed, improved, or beneficially altered. scenic streams, and unusual ecological B. Coastal plain Thc information for this inventory can conditions. including plant or animal C. Picemont be obtained through field nivcstigation. communities far removed from normal D. Foothills including visual observation and contacts with local public representatives, private ranges. E. Inland plain or vatic), organizations. and individuals.In addi- The environmental features which F. Mountains 11.Lifc Zones tion, the newspaper files and county rec- should be inventoried in both a regional A. Plants ords should bc utilized. and aproject-relatedinventory are B. Animals Specific cnvironmcntal features should classified under four headings: Important Rangcs of Aquatic Lifc bc discussed with the following types of I.Historical and archaeological A. Marinc groups or individuals: A. Spccial interest groups 2.Visual B. Brackish C. Fresh I. Lcaguc of Womcn Votcrs 3.Ecological D. Anadromous 2. Sicrra Club 4.Land use (cultural) IV.Important Ranges of Wildlife 3. Audubon Socicty A. Concentrations 4. Izaak Walton Leaguc Regional Environmental Inventory 1., Breeding 5. Scrvicc clubs This inventory dcals with uniquc or 2. Feeding B. Elected and appo'ltcd officials outstanding occurrcnccs which arc sig- 3. Resting 1. County supervisors nificant to the statc or nation, which may B. Migration routes 2. Mayors not necessarily bc dcsignatcd formally. C. Winter/sultana ranges 3. Councilmen D. Rare and endangered species C. County agents ARCHAEOLOGY-HISTORY V.Spccial Arcas D. Historical societies I.Archacology A. Wild and sonic rivcrs E. Ncws media A. Dcsignatcd archacological areas B. Parks I. Editors or sitcs (Indian mounds, caves, C. Conservancy districts 2. Feature writers pctroglyph) D. Mugs F. Fish and game field rcpracnta- B. Potential archacological areas tivcs (Conditions of terrain, climate, LAND USE (CULTURAL) 1.Federal and cover similar to known Arcas that arc uniquc or outstanding or 2. State sitcs) of extreme economic significance withia G. Academic departments C. Tribal or cultural boundaries the region, statc, or nation arc those used 1. Biology Ii.History for: 2. Landscape architecture A. National-statc dcsignatcd sitcs Mincral Extraction (gold, coal gas, 3. Urban planning 1. Prc-Revolutionary War oil) 4. Sociology 2. Prc-Civil War II.Cropland (agriculture, forest) 5. Architecture 3. Post-Civil War III.Water Bodies (reservoirs, canals, H. Interested Citizens (obtain B. Known historic land and watcr rivcrs, streams) names from news clips or in trails IV.Developed Arcas discussion with others) C. Important but undcsignatcd A. Industrial B. Commercial sitcs Project Area Environmental inventory C. Institutional This inventory dcals with uniquc or VISUAL. D. Residential outstanding occurrcnccs which arc sig- I.Natural 1. Urban nificant not only to statc and nation but A. Overlooks, vistas, panoramas 2. Suburban also to thc county and community. B. Unusual land forms V.Reservations (public or private) C. Woodlands. marshes, meadows, A. Parks and recreation land ARCHAEOLOGY-111MM agricultural arcas, etc.. with ex- B. Wilderness I.Archacology ceptional visual qualities C. Historic or archaeologic A. Dcsignatcd by National Park D. Outstanding watcr resources D. Wildlife refuges Scrvicc or statc agency

30 13. Known archaeological sites- G. Land-use areas A. Timber but not designated 1. Agriculture 13. Grazing 1. Excavated a. Orchards C. Orchards 2. Unexplored b. Vineyards D. Vineyards C. Petroglyph, cave,cliffs,etc.. c. Others III.Water Bodies with legendary history 2. Timber management areas A. Reservoirs 1I.History H. Recreation B. Harbor channels A. Designated site of national or 1. City parks C. Locks and dams state significance 2. Amusement parks D. Canals I. Pre-Revolutiona ry War 3. Trails E. Rivers 2. Pre-Civil War 4. Ski slopes Developed Areas 3. Post-CMI War A. Industrial B. Site of first building in com- B. Commercial munity ECOLOGICAL C. Institutional C. Oldeststandingbuildingor I.Land Physiography D. Residential buildings A. Marine 1. Urban D. Knownhistoricallandand B. Estuarine 2. Suburban water trails C. Coastal plain V.Existing Zoning in Project Area I. Fur trappers D. Piedmont A. Indication of direction of 2, Immigration routes E. Foothills development 3. Commercial F. Inland plain or valley B. Initial indication of community G. Mountains feeling VISUAL. II.Life Zones VI.Reservations (public or private) I.Natural A. Dominant species A. Parks and recreation land A. Overlooks, vistas, panoramas I. Aquatic (floating and B. Refuges B. Unusual land forms bottom) C. Historic or archaeologic I. Cliffs, palisades, gorges a. Plant. D. Natural areas 2. Balanced rocks, castle rocks b. Animal VII.Barren Land 3. Exceptional glacial remains 2. Terrestrial VIII.Population Distribution 4. Cages a. Plant 5. Natural brkiges b. Animal 6. Mineral outcroppings B. Subdominant THE placement of all environmental C. Outstanding water resources 1. Aquatic features on a map or maps will pro- I. Lakes. ponds 2. Terrestrial vide a visual resume of the features and 2. Rivers. streams, white water Ill.Seasonal occurrences their relationships to each other. It will 3. Waterfalls, springs, geysers, A. Aquatic artesian 'flows- I. Anadromous fish migration provide a basis for discussion, in detail, 4. Beaches, islands 2. Spawning activities-finned of the manner in which the features 1). Visually unusual plant and ani- and shell were considered, enhanced, retained, or mal communities 3. Feeding-high seasonal mitigated in plan formulation. Of par- 1. Rookeries productivity ticular importance is a determination 2. Virgin stands of timber B. Wildlife 3. Natural prairies 1. Feeding of the particular feature's status in the 4. Specimen trees 2. Breeding range of scarcity. In addition to a map II.Man-made 3. Resting showing particular features considered A. Architecture 4. Migratory routes desirable or scarce, the project envi- 1. Individual buildings IV.Rare and Endangered Species ronmental inventory will contain a de- a. Church V.Special Ecological Areas b. House A. Refuges scription of "indicator"plants and c. Tavern 1. Dedicated animals, with some indication of 2. Groups of buildings 2. Undeveloped land ecological factors which have resulted a. Villages B. Parks in their existence, as well as their status b. Waterfront blocks C. Wild and scenic rivers in the range of scarcity. c. Farm sets D. Conservancy districts 3. Bridges VI. Areas of High Food Productivity Such inventories willpresent data a. High trestle for an evaluation of the features as b. Suspension to scarcity; national, regional, or local c. Covered LAND USE (CULTURAL) importance; and the potential or neces- B. Scenic roadways Areas that are unique. outstanding, orsity of improving, protecting, or miti- C. Historic Routes of extreme economic significance to com- I. Canals munity, county. or state are those used for gating the environmental features af- 2. Covered-wagon trails . I.Mineral Extraction fected.Inadditiontoraising "red 3. Indian A. Gravel flags" about features which should he D. Dams and reservoirs B. Marble preserved or left undisturbed, the in- E. Lighthouses C. Gold ventory can also raise some "green F. Mineral extraction D. Coal I. Quarries E. Salt flagS" about areas that should be im- 2. Mines (strip and shaft) 11. Agriculture proved or enhanced. 0

31 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE COIN

R. M. Billings

SIR Isaac Newton said itbriefly,dent of science examines both sides of "To every action there is an equal the coin. and opposite reaction." He calledit How do you go about getting people a law of motionsEmerson saidit to think? Your pronouncements must lengthily in application to people. Henot be in error even in partbecause called it "The Law of Compensation."if you make statements that can be I intend to talk. about the same prin2-disproved, you lose your credibility as ciple, neither as briefly nor as lengthily.a scientist.Neither can you build a And certainly *not as profoundly, for Istraw man and pummel him as a politi- call it simply, "The Other Side of thecian can, or take the approach of an Coin." author who writes a book which de- The statement that a coin must al-pends upon senstationalism for sales. ways have two sides is hardly an earth=Sometimes you don't even dare to tell shaking one. Yet this, one of the mosta student what is on the other side of straightforward and simple of facts,a coin that he is viewing if you your- seems somehow to be completely over- self haven't just chikked it, because in looked in most of the discussions werecent years,itmay have changed. hear today concerning pollution abate-About all you can do is to make cer- ment and our environment. tain that the student understands the One of your professors said to meneed for turning each coin over and the other day, "Teachers of sciencethat he realizes that the coin always dare not make unidimensional attackshas the same value regardless of which on multidinicnsional problems," and I side is up. could not agree more. Because of the I would like to discuss a few "coins" respectin which your opinions arehere. As an engineer, I intend to state held, because the statement of scientificfacts and let you draw your own con- fact is a statement of truth (and weclusions.I know that I will be unable are all seeking truth), and because theto resist offering my opinion from time scientific approach is the unemotionalto time, but when Ido, Iwill try to consideration of all pertinent facts, itpoint out that it is an opinion only. follows that itis the responsibility of teachers to mike sure that every stu- LT US look at one ofthe"Re- processing Coins" whichtoday Mr. Billings is the director of environmen- are being held up for all of us to sec. talcontrol,Kimberly-ClarkCorporation, Almost everyone has viewed "heads" Neenah, Wisconsin. This article is adapted and has expressed his approval em- from his address to the NSTA North Central Regional Conference in Milwaukee, Wis- phatically and vociferously, but very consin, on October 1, 1971. few have bothered to look at "tails." Letus turnthepaper-reprocessingstitutes the major portion of all pulpsreproduced over and over again. But coin over, then, to see just what is onproduced in the United States. cellulose fiber, which is paper's chief the other side. The disposal of the sludge resultingconstituent, is not reproduced by some First: We see that "paper" is a veryfrom the 25 percent shrinkage and the synthetic chemical or physical manipu- general term like "animal" and thatincrease in BOD resulting from the lation.Itis the result of the growth therearc many types,classes,and drinking process may thus open a process, which makes use of air, with grades of paper. To say that paperPandora's hox of pollution-abatement its carbon dioxide, and water and sunshould be and can be recycled is asproblems. A paper mill which has light.Only by this growth process is indefinite a statement as to say thatoperated for years on purchased pulpcellulose fiber recreated in such things a woods camp is being overrun bymay be unable to install a deinkingas trees or sugar cane or flax or cotton. animals and that something must beproees because of lack of space forOn the other hand, the decomposition doneaboutit,withoutspecifying installing facilities to reduce the BOD,of cellulose into its building blocks of whethertheanimalsaremiceoror for lack of disposal methods for thecarbon dioxide and waterrapidly by monkeys. increased amounts of sludge produced. combustion, more slowly in the soil Second: It is not generally realized On the other hand, dcinked pulp isis the ultimate recycling process for that paper can be reused in its ownnot required for the production of suchpaper, a process which renders insig- grade and class or downgraded to a thingsas paperboard, carton stock, nificant all others devised to date. less critical one, but it cannot be usedroofing felt, or building bOard. There- Still another point is that anything to proditee a higher grade or class.fore, no such shrinkage is encountered,like 100 percent recycling of paper is While we can make newsprint andand the BODs resulting from the manu-and can be only talk.In addition to magazine paper from recycled busi-facture of such products are of a muchthe factors already discussed, many ness papers and tissue, we can't makelesser magnitude. Accordingly, manypaper articles are not available for tissues and high-grade bonds out ofgrades of wastepaper can be reused forrecycling. Books and wallpaper, rec- magazines and newspapers. these products. This is nothing new,ords and building materials are ex- Third: The production of deinkedhowever.Paperboardmanufacturersamples. A figure of 60 percent may be pulp from recycled or reclaimed paperhave been doing this for years. In fact,a realistic estimate of the maximum creates a truly enormous pollution-their processes are built around re-reuse attainable. abatement problem.The suspendedcycling, and they couldn't stay in busi- These considerations when we look solids per ton of pulp produced, which ness without it. at the "tails" side of the coin in no emergeaswasteinthedeinking A fourth point that becomes evidentway change the "heads" side.Re- process, represent a very high ratio ofwhen the "other side" is carefully ob-processing is desirable in many cases waste to product.Itis standard toserved is that the use of paper overand absolutely essential in others. Cer- assume that fOr every 100 pounds ofand over again by repulping, recycling,tain papers are given superior qualities waste paper entering a deinking plant,or reusing is a technical impossibility.by the addition of reprocessed pulp. only 75 pounds of deinked pulp will beEach time that fibers are used, parts We can and should do more reprocess- produced. Twenty-fivepoundsofbreak off, ends fray, and surfaces un-ing than we are doing now.Re- broken fibers, ink, and foreign mate-wrap and gelatinize. Each pass, thus, processing of paper wastes will extend rials must be disposed of in a mannerchanges the characteristics of the fiber our forest resources. that will have a minimum effect uponand those portions broken off or gela- the environment.It should be notedtinized lose their paper-making prop- TAKE another coin, such as the also that this 25 pounds is no longererties. The good fiber remaining usu- recovery of good fibers currently in a condition to be burned as was the ally shows somewhat different qualities escaping from the paper mill in the raw waste from which it came, as it isfrom those of virgin fiber.Some ofwaste stream. A view of "heads" now 80 percent or more water, To drythem, like dimensional stability,are shows us immediately-that these fibers it out again will use up precious energy very definitely improved. are of a quality that we could use in resources. All reprocessing, however, results inour products rather than lose in our Likewise, from the standpoint ofloss of fibers. This is true even in thewastes; that here is a resource that if biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),less-critical grades, and in the case ofrecovered would reduce the total de- a problem of major proportions exists.the higher grades of paper, as statedmand upon the natural resource from The amount of BOD resulting per tonbefore, the loss may be 25 or 30 per-which it came; that recovery would of dcinked pulp produced is approxi-cent. This loss is irretrievable. Metalsbe profitable; and that the technology mately double the HOD derived fromcan be remelted.Sulfur can be pre-exists for this recovery. This is a coin the production of a ton of kraft pulp.cipitated from sulfur compounds. Cal-of high value and, accordingly, most Typical values are 60 pounds BOD percium carbonate can be burned andof us have picked it up. ton kraft pulp vs. 110 pounds BODslaked back to lime. By these physical All of the facts listed above have per ton deinked pulp. T use kraft pulp- and chemical processes, the usable andbeen demonstrated, but we have found ing for comparison, since kraft con-useful form of the substances can besonic interesting ones on the "other

33 side." They arc based on the funda-production -will occur, but thisis aland disposal.Tests made by inde- mental fact that as you remove thelone, long c)cic as compared with thependent and by local and grit ate lab- good fibers from the waste, that por-25 or 50 or 75 years needed for trees. oratories rocal absolutely no effect. A tionremaining becomes more and Note that in this last example, I said literature search conducted in the Li- more difficult to handle. Thickening of"as the coin appears to me." This is abrary of Congress at the direction of paper-mill wastes from which longtacit admission that I am really not tooSenator Allan Cranston of California, fibers have been removed has provedsure exactly what I do see, and thisfailed to turn up a single piece of in- to be a technical impossibility beyondopens up an entirely different numis-formation to substantiate the theory a certain point. With a higher percentmatic consideration.Is there a cointhat the presence of colors in tissues of water in the waste, difficulties inactually present and, if there is, what is affects the environment in any way. sludge disposal increase almost geo-its denomination? This certainly is a metrically. Where land fill is employed,question of fundamental importance to I COULD continue with examples of trucking costs are greater; and withevery teacher of science. other types of coins. incineration, the added cost of drying Heads: The iadustrics which are quickly offsets any gains in raw mate- EFFECT of coloredtissue really making gains in pollution abate- rialsavings.Inaddition,valuable THEupon the environment is an excel-ment and improvement of the environ- energy sources are required to supplylent example of a coin that wasn'tment. Tails: Those which are not. the heat needed to evaporate the waterthere.Some people justthoughtit Heads: Rivers and cities which are :o the point at which the sludge willwas. They saw colored diluents be- improving.Tails: Those which are purn. We find that in certain cases,low some paper mills; they had heard declining. it may be desirable to let sonic of thethat the dyes used might not be bio- Heads: My responsibility to my un- good materials pass out in the wastedegradable; and somewhere they hadborn grandchildren. Tails: My respon- so that the composite can be handled.been given the idea that colors in tissue sibility to my verrnutch born son and Such an approach 2is necessary untilinterfere with biological breakdown.daughter trying to exist in this eco- technology gives us a better answer.Under better illumination, every onenomic climatesothat my unborn Recovery, I repeat, is a coin of highof the above specuptions is revealedgrandchildren can get horn. value, but it is not of universal tender._to be a mirage. And thus itgoes, coin after coin: - Because-dyes have such a high affin- always a "heads," always a "tails." OR AGAIN, take the maVer ofity for fibers, what has been seen is col- True interest in ecology should serve separating paper from garbageored fiber escaping, not dyes on theas the common bond between all men at homeand I *carefully add thatloose. Colored fibers pollute no moreof all nations, creeds, and colors, for while my point here is based on fact,and no less than do white fibers. Theman is an integral part of our eco- itis primarily an opinion. answer is to minimize the loss of fiber logicalsystem. Butsimplybeing Here "heads" tells us that removalof any type, colored or white, since ecology-minded no more makes a man of paper front garbigc at the sourcethe formation of fiber beds in ouror woman anecologist than being rather than at some later stage at astreams and-watefways must be elim-economy-minded makes him or her an .recycling plantis more efficient andinated. economist.For the correct answers, gives a better quality paper product. The fact that dyes may not be bio-we must go to those who know. If they

We_ know also that the quantity ofdegradable infive days, the normaldon't know, at least these people arc , wastepaper normally a part of mu-time test used, is immaterial.All ofwilling to admit it. nicipal garbage increases the process-them will break down eventually; and Which brings us full circle back to ing load and cost, and, therefore, initialeven if the time were to be over ateachers and hack to the problems that separation is a better answer. period of years, this would make noconfront you in determining and dis- I question, however, from viewingdifference to the environment.Afterseminating ecological facts. Difficult as the coin as it appears to me, whether itall, sand or clay or stone are.not bio-these problems are, they are not inis worthwhile to remove.all of thedegradable. Also,biodegradability,surmountable if itis always borne in wastcparr contentinthosecaseswhich means by bacterialaction,is mind that man is ti creature and, there- where garbage is to be burned. Garbageonly one way in which a compoundfore, must be considered as a factor; must be dried before it can be inciner-may break down. Actions of the ele-if your opinions are given freely, but ated.Wastepaper which came origi-ments will probably be much swifter,always labeled as opinions; if you con- nally from trees, a renewable crop, canas every housewife knows who has ob-tinually counsel all to hold each coin furnish heat in combustion, with a re-served fading of dyed materialsin up to the light of day and carefully to sultant saving of oil or gas or coal. sunlight. inspect each side in this light, you will None of the latter is a renewable item The presence of dyes in tissue hashave done your task.L. R. Treloar because the world isnot producingnever been shown to interfere withdefines it thus: "The task of science is these materials today.Perhaps ina biological breakdown in the laboratory,to explain the universe."Correctly, million years another age of fossil-fuelsin the sewage treatment plant, or in I might add. 0

34 PART II ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM Some relevant background material

35 Decision Raking in Science Education

I EDUCATION IN AN OVERPOPULATED WORLD girGarrett Hardin

HOWEVER much we may com- the pivot of his emotional life, in order to tionsnow maladaptivc.Now and plainabouttheprofession of find in this way the peace and security which he cannot find in the narrow whirlpool of from here on ow.The seemingly educationthesedays,wecertainly personal experience. II] boundless frontieris gone, and sud- cannot complain that it is dull! Teach- "Peace and security"it is difficultdenly we realize we are crammed into ing can still bemadedull, of course;not to feel a twinge of nostalgia a;a spaceshirWith a diameter of al- but censorious students will soon dis-these words ring in our ears. There ismost eight thousand miles our ship is turb the equanimity of any instructorlittle peace in Academia these days;somewhat larger than an Apollo craft who closes his mind to "relevance." and no security save that which wethat holds three men, but in principle It was not always so. There was aearn by a vigorous defense of ration- itis no different.In the face of the time when most scholarly activity, in-ality and a willingness to give up anyexplosive power of exponential growth chiding science, was a genuine refugeparticular items of belief that provewhat difference does it make whether from the troubles of the world.This wanting in the face of critical ques-the diameter of the space craft is 20 happy state of affairs was hauntingly tioning. Peace is not for our genera-feet or 21million?Very little.In described by Albert Einstein a longtion, but we can survive. More thaneither case it is finite.It is not expand- generationago: that, we can change the worldand it ing.It can hold only so many people. Man tries to make for himself in the way is change thatis demanded once weThe inhabitants of a spaceship are sur- that suits him best a simplified and intelli- rounded by an effluvium of their own giblepictureof theworld and thusto ask, "What isthe relevance of our mercome the world of experience, for which specialized knowledge to the pressingwaste products. Recycling is a neces- he tries to some extent to substitutethis human prOblems of the day?" Thesity. Above a certain level of popula- cosmos of his. This is what the painter, the tionwhich we no doubt passed some poet,thi.speculative philosopher and the ivory tower is gone, and we have be- natural scientist do, each in his own fashion. come agents of change. time agothe greater the population, He makes this cosmos and its construction Nowhereis fundamentalreform the worse the environment in the space- more necessary than itis in the area ship. 131If we want to live in dignity, Dr. Hardin is professor of human ecology, of population.The development ofwe must find a way to limit the number University ofCalifornia,SantaBarbara. death control in the last five genera-of passengers on our fr:ffle craft. This paper was presented at the banquet session of the AISTA Convention in Wash- tionshas made attitudesthatwere At the moment we are completely ington, D.C., March 28, 1971., adaptive for three thousand genera-failing in this task. Fourteen years ago

37 the population of the world was in-control with population control.This message of the ZPG people (Zero Pop- creasing by 123,000 a day. [9] Nowequation is pait of the "conventional ulation Growth).Ifall women re- the increase is 190,000 per day. Next wisdom," to use Galbraith's term 121, cei% ed and acted on this message a year it will be greater. the wisdom that is almost right but not stable population would ultimately re- 1 pink of it: an increase of 190,000quite. Ninety-nine people out of a lion -__ because the amount of increase is per day. That's 2.2 more persons aliveBred think birth control is population zero. (In our rough analysis we ignore every second. Each time you take a control.Ninety -nine people out of a minor effectslike celibacy and sterility breath13 more people are stressing hundred are wrong. on the one hand, and multiple births the inadequate resources of our little It takes a hammer to build a house, from second pregnancies on the other. era' but who would equate a carpenter's Perhaps these would balance out.) That's no way to treat a spaceship. toolswith architecture? Similarly. Suppose the only message a woman birth controlismerely a tool withreceived was "A boy for you, a girl for 1AIHAT are we to do? Wheneverwhichpopulationcontrolmay be me,"which you may recognize as we human beingsarefaced achieved--but againit may not.It from the musical comedy, No, No, with a hard decision, our first impulse depends on w hat you use the tool for. Nanette what would be the popula- is to run away. Population control is A simple' systems analysis of the tional consequences of this?If she and a hard decision. True to form, we try population problem will help make this her husband decide they won't stop to run away from the problem of con- clear.The principal actor (or rather breeding until they have produced one trolling population.Some of us say actress)in the drama isthe woman. of each, how big will their family be? that we don't need to worry about the Itis she who pro,iuces the children. Probability clue's at this point; it turns finiteness of the earth because we can Men are needed too, of course, butout that the average family will hase always ship our excess population offthey are so ubiquitous and so readily approximately three children in it. The to other planets. available thatitissafeto think ofpopulationwillincrease 50 percent Unfortunately not one of the otherspermatozoa the way we think of aireach generation. (The U.S. population planets of our solar systemisany- and wateras nearly always available,is increasing not quite so fast as this where near as suitable to human ex-and virtually free. Systematic analysis now.) istence as is Antarctica or the top pf is best focused on the woman; she is Let's try another message. 'Liking. Mt. McKinleyand there's no sign the most powerful agent in population with many educated people in India of a real estate boom in either of those production. recentlyI became convinced that the two desolate places. Denied escape to Che birth- producing system can be message most commonly heard by an the planets of our own sun, we find decomposed into elements of Message, Indian woman is this: "An heir and a the next pass/hie refuge to be at least Reception, Performance, and Results spare."Immersed in the Indian cul- 4.3 light-years awaythat's 25 trillion (see TableI ). The target of the sys- ture, it seems essential to her that she miles. The triple sun Alpha Centauri tem, th. woman, receives many mes- have at least one son; and prudence might have sonic planets suitable forsagesfrom herparents,fromher dictates two, because one may be lost human life. Again, it might not. friends, from her religion, and from to disease. Given the directive to keep Consider the expense of such a mi- society at large.Let's sec what someproducing until she has two sons, a gration out into space. A number of of these messages are, taking them one woman will produce on the average years ago I calculated roughly the cost at a time, and deducing their popula-approximately four childret.India's of shipping people off in a suitable tional consequences. To begin with we present population growth rate-2.5 spaceship, minimizing costs outrage-will assume that the reception of the percent per yearis about what you ously to give the opposing view every messages by the woman is perfect and would expect from adherence to such an possible advantage. [4]It came to that she uses a perfect system of birth ideal, assuming most of the children S3,000,000 per earthly emigrant control. are produced early in a woman's breed- To keep the earth's population from One message the woman might re- ing years. increasing beyond its present level you ceive is "Stop at two," which is the In the _light of these mathematical would have to ship off 190,000 people every day. That would cost 570 trillion Table 1. A systems analysis of population growth. dollars per day.The GNP of the United States still has not reached the 1%1 I ssma RI CI PI ION Itl:ORNI '.NCI; surr iNCRI level of one trillion dollars per yew. Approximate Factor of Effectiveness Average Number Increase Well, it was a good try. Society's Ditectives. l'recision of Birth Control of Children per Implicit or Explicit Assumed Assumed per Family Generation

SO space is no escape. What next? -Stop at Two" Perfect Perfect 2 (ZPG) The next evasion is birth control. "A boy for you. a Does that statement surprige you?If girl for me" Perfect Perfect 3 1.5 it does itis because you equate birth An heir and a spare" Perfect l'erfect 4

38 !dation, Ices ask. "What is the popu-three children, and !dies entirely on lem deep in the minds of women and lation problem?" Conventional wisdom the pill for birth control: How many men. thoughtlessly presumes that all we need childrenwill she probablyhave? to solve overpopulation is birth con- Method failures before she ache:yes her WE t un away from hard prob- ol."If only we had a better method goal produce only failures in snacing. lemsand try to hide our cow- ofbirthcontrol." people say, "wenot in number: so let's focus oily on ardice from out selves.Let me illus- cormd bring population growth to a method failures taking place afte. shetrate this point.At the end of 1970 halt."L. theresultsindicatedin has achieved her goal of three and the Department of Health, EdmMtion.

Table 1 assume a perfect method ofsee what the populational consequen- and Welfare put out alittle booklet birth controlonly the first message ces will be. entitled ."The Federal Program in Pop- produces ZPG. Neither of the other Assuming she has the desired three ulation Research." [I I]It claims that messages does, andthesemessages children by the time she is 25 yearsthe toil funds allocated to population circulate widely thioughout the world. old, she now has 20 years of risk ahead research in 1970 amounted to 163 mil- These messages are received and acted of her.If she uses the pill, and if welion dollars.Sounds fine.At lastit upon. The message "Stop at two" is assume the risk rate is 0.1 percent per sounds as though we're doing some- still very uncommon among the world's year, she gill(statistically speaking) thing about population. But are we? 3.7 billion inhabitants. produce 0.02 of a child more than she Burrowing around in the tables, one Let's look at the matter another way. wants in her remaining fertile years. find. that 80 percent of those millions Suppose the commonest message in a Following the directive, "A boy forwent for "Data Generation and Com- society is the second one, "A boy foryou. a girl for me," and using a birthpilation Activities."What does that you. a girl for me." With a perfectcontrol method thatis99.9 percent mean? Well. 96 percent of that money systemof birthcontrol,three-child perfect. women will produce an aver-.went to the Department of Commerce. families would be the average.Such age of 3.02 children each, instead ofand you know what it was used for: a perfect system is within our reach in an average of 3, as they would if they the Bureau of the Census. Is that pop- the United States: the perfect system used a perfect method. ulationresearch? Ifputting outa consists of contraception. plus abortion But the numbs; desired(3.0)is telephone book is carrying on research as a back-up for contraceptive failures, much greater th..o the number needed ininform atic ntheory,then census- to be followed by sterilizationafter for ZPG. Because of mortality, celi- taking is population research.That's the reproductive goal has been reached. bacy. sterility. etc.. the true ZPG num-stretching the meaning of population But some Americans are reluctant ber is not (contrary to Table 1) 2.0research too far. But it looks nice in a to employ abortion and sterilization. per woman. but closerto 2.11per government repot!. The reluctant fraction of the popula- woman in the U.S. Women .who pro- What about the remaining 20 per- tion is rapidly diminishing. but let's putduced 3.02 children would exceed thecent, 34 million dollars, which might that fact asid.: for the moment. Sup-ZPG number by 0.91 child. To what classify as population research?It's pose abortion and sterilization are re- should we attribute the excess over the risky trying to dcduc.; the contents of jected and only the best method ofZPG number? research programs from their titles, but contiaceptionisused: How serious The excess can be divided into two perhaps we can reach a first approxi- would its imperfection be'? portions: mation to the truth: Looking over the

a.excess due to error of method printed titles,I estimate the projects HOW reliableis the contraceptive .02 .91 2% of excess can be assigned to the categories shown pill? Christopher Tietze (101. the b.excess due to error of goal in Table 2.Out of ever; thousand leading authority in this matter, says .89 ÷ .91 9S of excess dollars spent for population research, that it has an intrinsic failure rate of Now we see why fretting about theonly about two dollars seem to be only 0.1 pregnancy per hundred wom-technology of birth control is a way ofaimed at altering the populati m mes- an-years of exposure to the riskof running away fromthepopulation sage or improving the reception of it. pregnancy. Much higher failure rates problem. A birth control method that Perhaps as much as 110 dollars cer- than that are probably due to "forget- is 99.9 percent reliable is really goodtainly no more. The rest is spent- on ting." to a woman's ambivalence about enough. Why knock ourselves out totrying to improve the performanc; of taking the pill.In such cases; it is not improve it'?If too many babies are alreadyexcellentmethodsofbirth the Performance of the technology that beingproducedit isbecausethe control. is at fault, but the Reception of themethod is not being used, whether out Table 3 puts the matter more bluntly. message.Since I am concerned here of ignorance,fear, or prejudice; orWe spend 89 percent of our money to only with the consequences of Perform- because individual women want more tackle only 2 percent of the population ance error., I will take 0.1 percent per babies than are needed on a spaceship. problem; by contrast, to 98 percent of year to be the intrinsic failure rate of In any case, the problem of population the problem, we allocate at most I1 the contraceptive pill. control is not a technological problem,percent of the money, and maybe as Suppose a woman electsto have not in the ordinary sense. It is a prob- little as 0.2 percent.

39 e got our prithities mixed up. Plainly that she just has to become aavailable to nonparents. A significant c had better stop twining away from mommy when she grows up. Nothing part of our success in population con- the problem. else is normal. That's the message oftrol will come as a "fall-out- from per- the Dick and Jane books. suading and makingitpossible for SUPPOSE we dostoprunning. I think it's time to change the mes- more womentobecomescientists. what then? What can we do? I sage.Ihave suggested [5]that we artists, machinists, business women- don't know: Idon'tthink anybody augment thatmessaee withanother the list is endless. It even includes work knows for sure.13ut I think we must one. a contradictory one. Let us intro- in the nursery-the community nurs- make a beginning with the Message. duce the first- graders to delightful Aunt ery. that is-as professionals in child Some of the messages children are Debbie-forty years old, pretty as a care. We not only have too many' chil- getting are utterly unsuitable for peo- picture, fond of men, and fond of children. we have too many poorly taken ple living on a spaceship. Among con- dren (but only in small doses).She care Etf.We need to pay women to temporary children's book I know ofis a working woman and Res her job. fulfill this role, so important to the nano more sinister example than oneShe likes her freedom. 1 ne childrention. instead of expecting them to be called Always Room for One More. just love her and look forward to her unpaid slaves.Paradoxical as it may [7] The writing and the art work arc visits. seem, if we pay them well for taking of the highest quality, but the message Jane. in the depths of her subcon-care of children they w...illprobably is vicious.Don't worry,itpreaches, scious, wonders whether she wants to breed less. we always have room for another per- be like Mommy when she grows up. We live on a spaceship. There are too many of us. Some of the decisions son; isn't this crowding jolly? . ..This orlikeAunt Debbie.She doesn't benighted book was published in 1965. know. She just doesn't know. we will ultimately have to face [6] four years after Yuri Gagarin became And she shouldn't, not at her age. may require a long political reorienta- the first traveller in a man-made space- Let Line grow up hearing two mes-tion first. [8]But it is possible even ship. The author had apparently not sages: being a Mommy is nice-but sonow to begin on the challenging task yet caught the insight into human prob- is being a Debbie.Let her find herof educating our children so that our lems generated by the space effort. own identity.Later. And let societygrandchildren will live in a spaceship Idon't know how many children makeitpossiblefor her tolive aless crowded than ours, and live a have lead this immoral book: not many, psychologically rich and respected life better life.Let's get at 0 Ihope. But millions have read theif she decides that parenthood is not lower-key Dick and Jane books. Re- for her. We will all benefit if women References

member them? They had a population are freed to find their own identities 1. Einstein. Albert. The World us I See It. message in them too, though I'm sure and not pressured into having children John Lane, London. 1935.P. 124. the authors were unaware of this fact. needed neither by them nor by society. 2.Galbraith, John Kenneth. The Affluent The neighbors on the left had children; The major population problem im- Society. HoughtonMifflin Company. Boston, Massachusetts.1958. the neighbors on the right had chil- mediately ahead of us is educational, 3.Hardin, Galt-cu. "Everybody's Guilty. dren; the ones across the street ...in not technoloeical.In the elementary The Ecological Dilemma."Ca/i/otnia fact,allGod's chillun hadchillun. grades we must keep the option of Medicine 113:40.47; 1970. 4. . "Interstellar Migration and the Nothingelsewas conceivable.Ex- childlessness alive in the child's mind. Population Problem." Journuf of Ile- posed at a tender age to such a mes- At the secondary level we must display tedi y 50:68-70; 1959.

sage, what is a little girl to conclude? a wide spectrum of enticing vocations 5. . Population,Evolution,mul 't Control. Second Edition. W. H. Freeman and Company, Inc., San Fran- Table 2. Allocation of federal funds for population research in 1970. cisco, California.1969.P. 312. 6. . "The Tragedy of the Com- CA I ICORY FI.RCI:NT or FUNDS mons."Science 162:1243.1248; De- cember 13. 1968. Performam e research (birth control. delkery of services) 88.9 1.codhas, Sorchc Nic.Always Room 10.9 7. Uncertain classification (academic sociology for One More. Holt, Rinehart & Win. frysage and Reeepthm teseatch, apparently 0.2 stop, Inc.. New York.1965. 100 8.Nash, A. E.Rein"Going Beyond JohnLocke? InfluencingAmerican Population Growth." A/Wm& Memo- rial Fund Quarterly 59:7-31; 1971. Table 3. Allocation of federal funds nearly irrelevant to population research 9.Population Bulletin 13:133: 1957. needs. 10.Tietre, Christopher. "Oral and Intrau- terineContraception." info nafiona/ MtSSW,AND lomnal of Feuility 13:377-384; 1968. RiC1.1,1IONARI.V; ARt 11.U.S. Dept. of Health. Education, and Welfare. The Fedral Provamin Distribution of the money 0.2% - 89(4 Population Research. U.S. Government Distribution of the problem 98% 2% Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 1970.

40 4

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,144----

er "E:N674

PHOTOS. U S. BUREAU OF OUTDOOR RECREATION

THE term AN H IROPOLOGY often con- ordersaffectinglargesegmentsofveloping nations where the quality of jures up an image of scientists insociety. Th widespread use of drugs,life is less than in the advanced nations. pith helmets filming the tribal rituals ofalcohol, and other "cultural chemicals- The plight of today's cities and of remote natives. reflects personal frustration with thetheir inhabitants can be attributed to a While the study of primitive andgreat social disorders in the humanfamiliar pattern of problemspoverty, ancient peoples has added immenselysettlements of the world. unemployment,crowding,pollution, to the understanding of man and the Rapid increase of the global popu-poor housing, unsanitary conditions, growth of culture, modern civilizationlation in recent years has intensifiedalienation, and, for many, a low edu- is in trouble. Today, in spite of the stresses on man and his environment. cationallevel.Urban crowding has tremendous advancesintechnology Projections indicate that the popula-been related to high infant mortality over the past century, man strugglestion is likely to double in 30 years torates, higher admission rates to hos- through crisis after crisis in a world6 billion by the year 2000. There may pitals for contagious diseases, menin- filled with anxiety and hate, crime andbe 25 billion peopleonearth by 2070,gococcal disease, anemia, respiratory violence, starvation and ill health. Weless than two life spans away. ad digestive diseases, and a variety apparently know far too little about As our numbers grow, we tend in-of heart and circulatory diseases.It is population dynamics; about increasingcreasingly to congregate. By l975, ac-associated with increases in the rate of agricultural production; about the pol-cording to United Nations estimates,household andtrafficaccidents and lution of air, water, and land; ( r about44.3 percent of Europe's populationaccidental poisonings.Crowding has the chronic physical and mental dis-will be living in localities of 20,000 orbeen causallylinkedtoalcoholism, more.In the United states by 1980,drug abuse, and a host of diagnosable more than half the population will bemental and behavioral problems. ar. Novick is the director of the Bureau living inthe 52 largest metropolitan Yet, the masses continue to crowd of Community Environmental Management, areas, compared to 45 percent in 1960.into the urban areas. Despite the poor Health Services and Mental Health Admin- istration of the U.S. Department of Health, Of the world's 36 largest urban agglom-social and economic conditions con- Education, and Welfare. erations, nearly half (I 7) are in dc-centrated there, rural-urban migration

41 continues. And those who live there 'leered an entire artificial environment which were thought to be directly re- remain. which proviaTfiltered air and water, sponsible for the problems of the city. The poles of attraction are strong. a normative temperature, and adequate Masskeurban renewalcampaigns Cities are "where its at" in terms of light.It is possible to design out noise begun in the 1960s were to pros ide jobs, culture', education, entertainment,_and inst.et pests, provide refrigeration housing for large numbers of people. people. Despitetheirshortcomings, and cooking facilities for food, and de-More and more socialand welfare cities offer a broad diversity of advan- velop systems to rid the immediate en- services have been ()tiered. tages not available in rural areas: more vironment of sewage and solid wastes. Yet, these efforts have met with only medical care facilities, environmental Even with all of the available tech- marginal success. Many a major urban sanitation, welfare, a variety of rec-nology, large portions of the world renewal project has fallen into disre- reational and entertainment activities. population and a significant numberpair within the first three years of oc- There art. also more professionals per of Americans do not enjoy its bene-cupancy,. And the cities have been in- capita in the cities than in the country. fits. There are, for instance, nearly 12 creasingly plagued with a variety of Unfortunately,thc growth of thc million crowded, substandard dwell- social disorders. cities has taken place without proper ings in the United States, about 15 per- More recently, the government has consideration for or application of prin-cent of allavailable housing.Four focused on restoring the quality of the ciples gained from the study of man. millionof theseunits lackone or physical environment, attacking air and Planning has been neglected. Develop- more essential indoor plumbing facility;water pollution,solidwaste,noise. ment has taken place piecemeal, with nearly 3 million are in such poor con-radiation, and other hazards to man. regard primarily to land use economics, dition that they cannot be rehabilitated The thrust of the programs of the new with little thought to thc personal and without major repair. Environmental Protection Agency has social needs of the inhabitants or the About one-third of all nonfatal in-been to clean up the natural, outdoor total cost to society if those needs arc juries occur in and around thc home.environmentthe rivers, the landscape, not met. Poor housing creates many unhealthy thc air. The ultimate impact of this uncon- conditions: 25 million home accidents trolled development is not known. But inthe United States each year are ONLY lately we have begun to rec- statistics on disease, the growing social caused by faulty electrical conncctions ognizt that perhaps thc most vital disorder throughout the world, andor appliances, poor lighting, broken part of man's environment is his man- empirical observations of human be-furniture and equipment, and dilapi-built world: the place where he works, havior strongly indicate that mankind dated stairs, floors, and walls. his home, his neighborhood, his com- is heading for monumental disaster un- Additionally, there are 60,000 cases munity. Today, people spend at least less he learns more about himself. of rat bites and 6,000 cases of rat- 80 percent of their entire lives indoors. transmitteddiseasesaycar; 3,000 Congress and thcAdministration AS THE citieshave grown and deaths and Imillion injuries from acci- have recently come to grips with the spread, governments have trieddental poisonings of all kinds, ducio_potential problems of the man-built to grapple with thc stresses on modern inadequatestoragefacilitiesinthe envirc..ment, the ecosystem of human man in his new, self-made environment. home aswellas inadequate safety settlements. The Bureau of Community Entire networks of services. includingconsciousness; 400,000 children withEnvironmental Management (BCEM ) education, consume the biggest part of unacceptably high levels of lead in their of the Department of Health, Educa- the domestic tax dollar, not only in the blood from ingestionof lead-based tion, and Welfare has been assigned United States but in many of the de- paint chips in old, unmaintaincd apart- responsibility for many aspects of urban veloping nations as well. ments and homes; and at least 1,000 environmental healthamong them, But thc results of these programsdeaths and 5,000 injuries from carbon rat control, lead-based paint poisoning, cast serious doubts on thcir effective- monoxide poisoning caused by im- home accidents, and pedestrian safety. ness. Advanced nations like the United properly constructed, installed, or main- BCEM has been working with a States arc still plagued with spiralingtained home heating devices. small but growing band of investiga- unemployment, growing numbers of Landlord abandonment of buildings,tors searching for more meaningful people requiring support from public widespreaddilapidation,abuse andanswers to complex urban problems. sources, rising costs of health care, in- vandalism of structures, and the asso- Drawn from a variety of disciplines, creasing pollution, and more crime and ciated health effects are problems char- shifted from a number of study areas, social disorder. acteristic of thc inner city and rural this small corps of scientists is emerg; Much of the effort by government neighborhoods alike. Deterioration and ing in a field which can aptly be called has bccn aimed at the provision of bct-poor sanitation provide a depressingurban anthropology.These researchers tcr housing. As civilization has pro- setting for life. are concerned with the study of man gressed, more and more of man's needs Major efforts aimed at solving the modern man in his contemporary urban have been met in the design of shelterproblems of thc urban environment environmentfrom biological, psycho- and its components. Man has cngi-have centered on. a number of areas logical, and social perspectives.

42 Nearly 12 million dwellings in the United .-111111 States, about 15 percent of all available housing, are crowded or substandard.'

Through a variety of studies we are attempting to understand more about man's needs ashe perceives them. From these studies we are beginning to piece together some of the root causes of health problems and social disorga- nization and alienation whichchar- acterize many human settlements. We are beginning to understand from these new studies that many, if not a majority, of acute and chronic diseases in man cannot be properly explained by a direct relationship to single causal organisms or physiologic defects. Even in the area of infectious disease, micro- biologists now recognize that man in the natural environment is everywhere exposed to potentially pathogenic organisms, while only infrequently is he overcome with illness.While man is born with a fixed genetic endowment, he is highly susceptible to the stresses of lifephysical, biological, psychological, socialwhich can precipitatethat crowding and lack of territorial of social activities create tensions which. clinical disease.It is possible, we feel, control leads to marked and persistentwhen prolonged, cause anxiety, aliena- that diseases like cancer, arthritis, em- hypertension, increased maternal and tion, and apathy. When people become physema, diseases of the central nervous infant mortality, reduced resistance to apathetic they display indifference tosystem, mental disease,tuberculosis, bacterialinfections,anddecreased ward their neighbors and community. and other infectious diseases may all longevity. Changes in group member- Apathy is a major cause of pollution have long dormant or latency periods ship and the "quality" of group rela- and urban decay.It means that the during which the normal bodyre- tionships have been shown to be ac-homes will deteriorate from abuse and sponses compensate or hold in check companied by neuroendocrinal changes. kick of repair.It means withdravd1 the incipient disease. At some time in including major changes in the hor- from school, from responsible involve- man's life,apparently, the balancingmone balance ofthe body.These ment in the community and from soci- force is overcome and clinical disease changes can markedly alter the balanc- ety. Apathy leads to a host of maladap- begins. ing mechanisms of the body and the tivesocialbehaviors: drug abuse, That social stresses can stimulate a responses to a wide variety of stimuli.crime, sexual deviation, violence, and variety of diseasesphysiological and What this means, obviously, is thatdestruction of private and public prop- behavioralis indicated by recent epi-if man's responses are similar to those erty, even of the individual himself. demiological studies showing that the of experimental animals (and we have The result is the tearing down of both frequency of disease, especially somestrong reason to believe they arc) many the physical and social structure of the of the chronic, degenerative, and men- of the health problems of the alienated, human settlement. tal disorders, is highest in urban set- the poor, and those in overcrowded and tings,particularlyin crowded inner dilapidated housing and neighborhoods LITTLEis known or understood about cities and in areas housing migrant are caused by pollution and other phys- the processes thatresult in this populations attempting to acclimate to ical problems reinforced by the gross social decay. We need to find ways to urban fife. lack of meaningful social life. interrupt these processes or to turn Researchis now focusing on the With urbanization, people have be- them to positive outcomes. relation of health to the pattern of rela- come increasingly exposed to the social Our studies indicate that part of the tionships that exist in the residential processes which can cause health prob- solution is careful design of the dwell- environment. Animal studies indicate. lems. Urban crowding and interruption ing to provide adequate space for each

43 individual, along with a"sufficient" amount of privacy.It has been shown in Europe, for instance. that the tension buildup in the dwelling during the course of a day is likely to lead to abnormal behavior which can harm the family or the individual unless there is at least 80 square feet of !king space per person. in cases where there is an incapacitated person in the household, howoer, 130 square feet per person Is required. This finding is significant for the design of housing units which might accommodate sick or incapacitated persons. Obviously. other design factors of

B11OT05. U 5 BUREAU -the dwelling can also help relieve ten- OF OUTDOOR RECREATION sion.of daily living: proper cooking and eatingfacilities;adequatesanitation facilities; good lighting, heat, ventilation, and soundproofing; clean. moden furniture in good repair and adequate conditions of the dwelling, including safe stairs and floors, electrical equipment, and clean, painted walls and ceilings. But the environment in which modern man lives is not merely the dwelling.It is necessary that man get away from his work place or home for part of his relaxation. entertainment, and ,ffxrcultural pursuits. Man needs and seeks a variety of New York City dwellers find opportunities for relaxation and recreation in city parks and fountains; in forms of relaxation andrelief from blocked-off street sections; and in i"pocket" parks, tension. such as Paley Park (lower right).Lower left, an Inestablishedcommunitieswith elderly woman finds solitude on a rooftop. strong social tics, tension can be relieved by visits with a neighbor or relative or to the local recreational or entertainment facility where there are tag familiar faces.Alienation can be reduced as these affiliations form the support for changing aspects of community living. In congested urban areas, where land is at a premium, occupants find shelter where they can, or where they can af- fordit.Little space is set aside for recreation or cultural activities.The time required to get to available tension-relieving facilities is often too long to encourage more than an occasional visit. Studies indicate that most Aeri- cans fail to use facilities which are more than five to ten minutes away from the home. For certain groups. especially the

44 aged, scientists working with BCEM demonstrated the need for an approach that have shown thin solutions lie only in have found that facilities and oppor-fully takes into account the interrelation- a fully integrated approach. taking ac- ship among many variedfactors.As the tunities offered to the community-at- environmentalperspectiveofallcitirens count of the interrelationship of many largeare not necessarilyusefulor matures to embrace greater concern for the varied factors. We must learn more appropriate.In studies of older resi- quality of life, it is hoped that the plight of about modern urban man. the inner city may commandin govern- dents of the community, for instance, it ment and in the private sectormore broadly The teacher's rob in this process is was found that many of the recreation based efforts of a Nation gross ing more in- %ital. As society becomes more aware facilities were "taken over" by youngtent upon improving thelifesettingfor of its problems, it becomes increasingly people, wherever they may live. people to the exclusion of the elderly; important to understand human ecol- and the elderly,refusing to subject People are individuals, each reqilir- ogy and the human environment. As themselves to the harassment of these ing differentservices, each withhis teachers attempt to add environmental younger people, failed to take advan- own goals.The startingpointforconcepts to their programs and plan tage of such facilities available to them. meeting these needs is in the design ofmore and more interdisciplinary work. Many choseself-imposedisolation, the residential environment and in the they must become more aware of the rather thanface embarrassment or education of those who will live there.advances made in the field of urban hazard at the hands of teen-agers orWhen we understand people's needs, anthropology and of the studies of young adults. the physical and social environment can modern man in the urban setting. Far too often, community facilities be monitored, maintained, and changed There is a small national scattering have been planned without due con- to help reduceundue urban stress. of courses, beginning at the interme- sideration for the needs or wishes of diate level, which involve studies of the various segments of the residential NDERSTANDING urban man is urban ecology. Some are based in biol- environment.Swimming pools add the key to providing for his needs. ogy, some in environmental science, tot-lots are good for the young. But a Many of the studies now underway bysome in the social studies, some in quiet corner, a reading room, or even a investigators across the nation are de-geography, history, and other disci- 'neighborhood grocery store may be signed to supply the answers needed plines. Wherever thesubjectfalls, necessary to meet the needs of theto "cool" the cities, to alleviate thewhatever the base, there is a neeirtO elderly. Without full knowledge of the tensions in the residential environment, develop an awareness on the part of needs of the various segments of soci-to satisfy the needs of the people. the young people of this nation, to etyage and ethnic, social and eco- One new program aimed at helpinghelp them recognize that in a great nomic groupsitisimpossibleto local communities identify their prob- many social institutions there is a gross design or plan a community which will lems and set their priorities is the com-lack of understanding of the environ- serve all its members. prehensive, action-oriented Neighbor- mental, social, and technological forces The President's Council on Environ-hood Environmental Evaluation andas they interact to produce ill-health mental Quality recognized- these prob- Decision System (NEEDS) developedand social disorder.Itis important lems of urban living when, in its second by the Bureau of Community Environ- that, courses or segments of courses be annualreport'h.;uedinAugust,itmental Management. NEEDS is de- developed to stimulate this awareness, signed to help recognize the cause-to help define actions that will correct The sometimes bitter Lxperience of the past effectrelationshipofenvironmental these deficiencies, to monitor the so- years has taught the ksson that improve- and social stressespollution, noise,cial, environmental, and technological ments in the daily environment of people must be sought with theit help and guidance, crowding, poor housing, and neighbor- processes that underlie many of the not imposed on them by those who claim hood instabilityand individual health, society's greatest ills. to know what is best. both physical and _mental.NEEDS The Bureau of Community Environ- But the Council also recognized that: uses locally recruited residents trained mental Management is working with a ... Many of the forces that shape the inti- to interview families and groups aboutfew schools providing technical assist- mate environment of the inner city resident their perceived needs and their neigh-ance for the development of course are often beyond his knowledge and control. borhood environment.Thus, the materials to be used in teaching about The recognition on the federal level NEEDS program gives the communitythe ecology of human settlements or of the deep social strife affecting theback sufficient information to analyze urban anthropology.The Bureau is community is an important first stepboth the, severity of existing problemsactively seeking help from teachers toward solving these problems. The and the areas of potential crisis beforeand school systems which are devel- Council noted that: the crisis occurs.Several other com-oping or have developed their own The experience of the past 10 years in try- munity-based organizations are nowapproach to the subject. ing to deal with inner city problems has developing innovative programs, aimed It is obvious that as man's concern at comprehensive environmental im-for the quality of life grows, more I Ensfronmentat Quality-1971, the second annual report of the Conned on Environmental Quality, provement in inner-city areas. broadly based efforts must be focused August 1971.For sale by the Superintendent of Years of experience trying to dealon improving the life setting for all Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash- ington, D.C. 20402; $2. piecemealwithinner-cityproblems people. 0

45 MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT:'

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ALLAN KAIN, CINCINNATI ENQUIRER . THE, women of Schneeberg andthey absorbed grossly excessive quanti- far we have actually traveled.If we Jachymov in Bohemia used to out-ties of the element. These two occupa-compare the life expectancy of a child live three or more husbandsmen whntionally induced illnesses are examplesborn in the United States in 1970 with worked insilver mines from whit of preventable diseases which resultthe life expectancy of one born here in uranium is now extracted. The Madfrom environmental causes.Students 1770 or 1870, we can see how far we Hatter described by Lewis Carroll inof antiquity can document a multitudehave come. We have added some 30 or Alice in Wonderland was a fictional of diseases caused by the environment; more productive years to the life ex- character, but the men preparing felttheir prevention is a matter of com-pectancy of the 1970 child in compari- for hats in Danbury, Connecticut, usedparatively recent knowledge. son to his forebears. And we have to behave in many respects just like In 1911, Alice Hamilton reportedadded those years in large measure by thoseinthe Carroll creation.The on her survey of occupational diseases.improving the environment. Though SchneebergandJachymovminers By so doing, she helped to alert our theprophetsof gloom may paint worked in an environment in which nation to the need for corrective actionmacabre picturesand we do have a there were excessive concentrations ofto prevent needless disability and death lolig road ahead that needs consider- silica and radioactivity. The hatters ofresulting from hazardous conditions inable improvementwe have come a Danbury were following the traditional industry. In her lifetime, Alice Hamil-long way. procedure for making felt, by treating ton, now 101, has witnessed and helped the fur with mercury. In the processto make many changes in the environ- WITH regard to further improving ment of American industry; and the our environment, it is time for Congress continues to debate legisla-reform,for rationalism rather than - Dr. Zavon is executive coordinator, Miami tion-tO-sernational health and safetyemotionalism. For the rest of this dis- ValleyProject,University of Cincinnati, standards for the protection ofthe cussion I will show you a public health Cincinnati, Ohio.This article is adapted worker. view of the environment and man's from one of the NSTA-Sunoco Science Seminars presented at the annual meeting Looking forward, the road may seem relation to it by considering some of of the National Science Teachers Associa- endless.Looking backward is some-the various bits and pieces that go to tion, March 16, 1970, in Cincinnati, Ohio. times the only way to appreciate howmake up the environment.

46 Water.Aside fromair, the most tion. The day of the cracker barrel is vital environmental factoriswater. gone, but so also is the day of the small When Snow removed the handle from processor. Most food is now processed the Broad Street pump in London in in large food plants, so vast numbers 1854, he halted,an epidemic of cholera of people are affected if there is a break and demonstrated the source of the in sanitation at any one point. cholera, though it was many years be- In order to make production easier fore the causative organism actually and to improve appearance, palatability, became known.Waterborne diseases or shelf life, many additives are placed such as cholera have long been the in food.It used to be that preserva- scourgeof mankind.Eventeday, tives such as sodium benzoate were schistosomiasis, a parasitic disease of added without much control of the man which is transmitted in water with amount added. With passage of food a snail as an intermediate host, is the and drug legislation in 1906, however, second most widespread serious disease the situation improved and has been of man. Schistosomiasis may deny to steadily improving sincethattime. Egypt the projected benefits of the Gross adulteration of food is no longer Aswan Dani and threatens to under- ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERVICE commonplace in the United States. In- mine the benefits of other irrigationAmong the industrial and mining hazards stead, we are now faced with the need projects. are the diseases brought on by inhaling to know more about the long-term The introduction of water purifica- dust or toxic gases. Proper safeguards are effects on man of the many additives encouraged by the Environmental Health tion is the single most important public Service, which also researches new sources used in food processing. The public health measure of modern times. Waterof risk to the worker. assumes that we know a great dealor distribution systems were built in .an- perhaps that we know everything cient times, but purification, whethercan cause life-threatening disease, air-about common foods and chemicals. by chlorination or other means, hasbornepollencan cause happiness-Unfortunately, this is a false assump- been the big advance of recent times. threatening hay fever, and airborne tion. In many respects we are ignorant In large measure We have learnedgases, vapors, and dusts can cause allof the effects of many common foods to protect ourselves from waterbornemanner of disease. We talk of airand food additives. That is, we do not bacterial diseases, though we don't yetpollution when we should discuss spe-know their precise method of action at know how to protect ourselves fromcific pollutants. There is no doubt thatthe cellular level. We must learn more. waterborne viral disease, such as excessive quantities of carbon monox-Don't, however, accept the idea that Jectioushepatitis.I am concernedide, sulfur dioxide, and a long list ofour food supply is not safe. There is 'about the problem of waterborne viralother compounds can cause illness orno evidence that this is true. disease because it does not appear toeven death; but we must find out at Planning. Water, air, and food are be as amenable to solution and is notwhat concentrations these compoundsessentials for man's survival. Survival as obvious a problem to the public. alone or in combination cause adverse is a minimum condition, and as we look Of equal concern is the question ofeffects on human health. We have sus-at our environment in 1970 we must chemicals in the water. We are justpicions based on animal investigationsinsist on more than survival. Our en- beginningtoreallyinvestigatethe and large-scale studies of-human popu-vironment must be planned to provide effects of trace quantities of chemicalslations, but as yet we do not have pre-the varied types of habitat that are in our water. We are also concentrat-cise answers.Until we have betterdesired by man. Unplanned land use ing more attention on the problem ofinformation, our aim must be to reduceresultsin unnecessary transportation excess algal growth in our waterways. all types of air pollutants by all feasible costs, excessive cost for provision of Water is an essential commodity for means. Feasible means will be the bone utilities, and may result in an offensive, man's survival. We must learn to useof contention, and itisthis sort ofunpleasant environment. Good plan- it and not abuseit,to maintain itsphilosophical and operational problemning can avoid a corruption of our quality and maximize its availability.which will be the nub of contention inenvironment. Scarcity of water may force us to makeall environmental control arguments. Too frequently, as we attempt to some difficult political decisions, suchAgain, reason, not emotion, must pre-improve the general environment, we as the desirability of bringing water vail. are hindered by the Balkanization of to deserts merely because subdividers Food. The third of the essentialmany of our metropolitan areas.Air have sold desert building lots. needs of man, food, is available in un-masses do not recognize city or town Air.Fiveminutes without goodprecedented quantity in this country.boundaries any more than do the quality air th.iy result in irreversibleAt present we need increased attention waters in our rivers.If air and water changes in theentral nervous system to food sanitation in all phases of itspollution are to be reduced, political of man. Moreover, airborne bacteriaproduction, processing, and distribu-science will frequently be of more im-

47 portance than physical or biological ment in order to allow man to live in science, and support of political reform reasonable relationship with the other may prove more important than scien- creatures on this planet have become tific research. a matter of widespread concern. Un- less the real problems are looked at following are additional con- carefully, critically, and without allow- THEcerns we must deal with. Roentgen ing emotion to become the overriding discovered X rays in 1895 and intro- factor, we may well end up with dis- duced a new type of energy into man's aster. If the public health is to be pro- environment. The bomb blast at Ala- tected, those charged with its protection mogordo in 1945 set the stage for a cannot be unmindful of the needs of wider dispersion of ionizing radiation, other creatures, but the health of man and we have been seeking new ways must be primary.Recently the em- of using th!.;ionizing radiation and phasis in our country seems to have nuclear energyeversince. At the same shifted to a non-man-oriented concern time we have been seekingbetter to a considerable extent. We must once methods of protecting the public from again put man in the center of the the adverse effects of this very valuable NATIONAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL stage. We must recognize that we do discovery: ADMINISTRATION not have unlimited resources and must The pesticide DDT is probably the Alexander Hamilton suffers greatly from air use those resources, including our most pollution.This statue stands one blockprecious resource; man, wisely. most valuable invention of the past from the White House in front of the Treas- 100 years in the benefits it has con- ury Building in Washington. To be successful in protecting our fermi on man. More lives have been environment, we must treat the disease saved, more people have been able tothe standard of living has risen, noiserather than the symptoms. At times work productively because of DDThas become more and more of a prob-the changes in our thinking required to than because of any other development lem.Hearing loss can result fromtreat the disease will be painful. We of our time.Malaria, that ancientexcessive noise for a prolonged periodcannot speak against "air pollution" scourge of man, has been controlled;of of hearing loss canand not consider the cost of improved and vast areas of the earth previouslyoccur in a boiler factory, a jet enginepublic transportation. We cannot speak rendered uninhabitable for man havetest cell, or listening to a rock-and-rollagainst unsightly and offensive solid been opened up for productive use byband. Lesser noise intensities can bewaste dumps without recognizing that the application of DDT and otherannoying, irritating, or fatiguing. Wecorrective disposal action may require organic insecticides.From the view-are just beginning to look at the public transport of waste to your home com- point of the public health in the 25health aspects of noise, and we havemunity or to mine. Above all, we must years- that DDT has been available,yet to define community noise limitsrecognize that improvement of the en- there is no question that benefit has on an objective basis. vironment 'is likely to cost large sums far exceeded harm.The questions Above allelse,the need to stopof moneymoney which will, there- raised by conservationists, biologists, population groWth has become an over-fore, not be available to build schools, and others about the effects of pesti- whelming concern of public health andhospitals, or airports. We will have to cides on organisms other than man r-icularly of those concerned withmake choices, and no choice will be have put the continued use of DDTcontrol of the environment. Unless thecompletely the right one. 0 and many other pesticides in jeopardy. population is limited, all other prob- From the public health viewpoint, itlems, including our ability to sustain Selected References would be disastrous to abandon the the present standard of living, become 1.Cleaning Our Environment, The Chemi- use of DDT. We have no adequate insoluble. cal Basis for Action. Report by the Sub- committee on Environmental Improve- substitute for malaria control. Caution Many other problem? alsoexist. ment, Committee onChemistry and should be exercised in urging the aban-Solid and waste disposal, acci- Public Affairs, American Chemical So- donment of any pesticide without realdent prevention, improved housing ciety, Washington, D.C. 1969. 2.Directory and Index of Safety and Health evidence of significant harm outweigh-all are environmental problems which Laws and Codes.Superintendentof ing benefit. Too many people in thisdeserve hours of discussion. This should Documents, U.S. Government Printing country no longer recognize that foodsuffice, however, to signal the nature Office, Washington, D.C. 1969. 3. Manual for Evaluating Public Drinking does not originate in the supermarket. of the problems. Water Supplies. Superintendent of Doc- It must be grown on farms and trans- uments, U.S. Government Printing Office, ported and storedsubject to attack has become an Washington, D.C. 1969. Ion emotion-laden term. Pollution is'4. "Toxicologic and Epidemiologic Bases by insects, fungi, and other pests atE for Air Quality Criteria." Journal of the every step in the process. applied to anything that isn't liked. Air Pollution Control Association. Sep- As the population has increased andThe problems of planning our environ- tember 1969.

48 sy

MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT:

ONE INDUSTRIAL POINT OF VIEW R. W. Comstock

tries and institutions, including education.I want to discuss three aspects of this new impact of cnvironmcnt on our institutions. First, I will make some guesses as to why environment has become a national issue. Second, I will suggest why utilities have been in the forefront of this crisis.Third, I will indicate the lessons we must apply from today to tomorrow (and these lessons apply equally to education). To begin, then, why the concern about environment? What are the dimensions of the issue? Whcrc are we going with it?I want immediately to establishthatpart of my viewpoint which rejects scicncc as being of primary importance in developing solutions to cnvironmcntal problems. To speak bluntly, The current preoccupation with scicncc (and its teaching) gets in the way of and is an impedi- ment to cnvironmcntal problem solving.I am deliberately being somewhat extreme, but let me try to rationalize that position. Among our major environmental problems,withrareexception, we alrcady know what to correct and how to correct it, in a technical sense. We largely know what causes air pollution, ALLIED CHEMICAL CORPORATION where most of it comes from, its com- Our enormous production and consumption,f electric power contributes greatly to the ponents, and the available corrective degradation of the environment. Hard socialchoices face each of us. methods. The same is true of water I AM faced with a difficult task, forI may not change that opinion, I'd atquality. While there surely is much to I am a representative of an industryleast like to share one man's perspcc-be learned about ecological cause and which, perhaps more than any othertivc with you. effect, I still ask: How much more do in recent times, has been cast in Larsh- This seminar itself is one indication Mr. Comstock isdirector, Environmental est terms as a wanton despoiler of ourof the extent to which the issue of Affairs, Northern States Power Company, environment.In the minds of many,environment has ct ne to dominate Minneapolis,Minnesota.This paper is cicctric utilities wear only black hats,public and corporate conscience. This adapted from one of the NSTA-Sunoco concern clearly reflects the winds of Science Seminars presented at the annual Indeed, to an increasing number of meeting of the National Science Teachers people, all industry can be collectivelychangc blowing upon the entire cicctric Association, March 15, 1970, in Cincinnati, lumped together as "bad guys." While industry and indeed upon many indus- Ohio.

49 we really need to know about the en- problem. We must choose among alter-sota atleast. of extreme government vironmenttoeffecttechnologically natives and do so fairly soon. But un- proliferation, particularly in the metro- sound solutions? Very little, I submit. less society has goals specified at tnepolitan area. For an extensive trans- A great deal of our energy and timetime we turn to the technicians, we are mission-line system within our state, we is spent establishing and re-establishing in danger of placing the problem in had to deal with 127 separate govern- the fact that there is an environmental the hands of people who are simplymental units, each one having a black- crisis. Admittedly, the process of stat-not trained, not committed, and notball capability. To expect comprehen- ing and restating problemsis much chargedwiththeresponsibilityforsive planning, to expect sound decision more fun than being hopeful, and it making social choices. making to occur in that kind of frag- certainly iseasier.But I think itis Minnesota is now faced with just that mentedgovernmentalsceneis,of time we pull up our socks and get onproblem. U.S. Steel has a large manu-course, foolish. with problem solving. We all agree the facturing plant in Duluth which is in In part, the failure of government is barn is on fire, perhaps itis burningviolation of the air quality standardsattributable to the general public,to down.Let's get the bucket brigaderecently established by the Minnesotathe press, to the environmentalists, and, going.Attention has too- long beenPollution Control Agency.U.S. Steel yes, to industry, because we often do diverted from the more fundamentalhas clearly stated that the plant is now not permit government toactina questions: how to implement what weonly marginal, and it may close the esponsible and responsive manner.I already know and how tochoose plant down rather than add severalurge you and your students to attend rationally among technical alternativesmillion dollars in stack emission equip-a meeting of some governmental forum and their alternative costs. The process ment. Duluth, although a large city, iswhere environmental decision making of choosing does not involve science. in a rather remote part of the state.It is going on, Le it at local or state level. It is political and social. Let there behas severe financial problems. The U.S.I predict you will be appalled, for often no mistake about that. Steel plant employs over 2,500 people, these meetings look like an SDS meet- The scientific community must bear and the loss of the plant would be a ing out of control. We don't give gov- part of the responsibility for divertingcrippling blow to the city and probablyernment a chance to function. If that public attention and the public con-to the economy of that part of Minne- is to change over the long runand it science from the social choice process. sota.If the people of Duluth were tosurely must if we are to survive as a By the same token, the scientific com-decide, they might well choose to ac-peoplethe educational system must munity his the opportunity and indeedcept the plant asitis.The decisionimpart an understanding of the prob- the responsibility to help direct ourwhether or not to rz,etire compliancelem-solving process, both in terms of its public and private concern to the arena clearly involves a so.,)1 choice. We all weaknesses and its strengths. of social choice.This responsibilityknow who will decide this question falls particularly upon educators. (the Pollution Control Agency), but ONE FINAL shot at science. You If the next generation isto avoid the real questionis whoshouldde- may be astounded to learn that some of our current mistakes, theycidetl. eople of Duluta, the people people mea nonscientist, ^ lay- must have a perspective of the problem- of the". ate of Minnesota?Shouldmanfind it easy to believe that just solving process not commonly found Wisconsin inhabitants, whose environ-around the corner is some new magic today. How many schools today inte-ment is affected, have some input? Onwhich will enable me to avoid making grate the scientific aspects of environ- what basis should a decision be made?hard social decisions.I can continue mental education with social studiesThese are hard questions; not only areto drive my car wherever and when- inthe sense of developing studentthere no answers at present, there areever I want, becau :e science soon will awareness of the whole range of re-not even mechanisms to search forproduce theelectr.;car, _or a new straints involved in environmental de- answers.Soon, we ',war be able toengine, or electronicar.y guTded high- cision making. These include scientificanswer such questions. ways. Maybe I won't even have to restraints to be sure, but they also in- travelatall.Perhaps, I can sitat volve political, social, economic, andI TS FAIR to say that we get "hunghome and conduct my business over legal restraints.Solutions to environ-I up" because we really don't havethe tube. mental problems do not occur in aany established forums for this kind I am reminded of a theatrical device vacuum. Are we really teaching that of problem solving.Historically, ourused by ancient Greek playwrights. technological answers are just the be-major problem solving institution hasTheir plays were-16-n, and plots be- ginningnot the endof the environ-been government. Yet, by and large,came terribly complex.In order to mental problem-solving process? Thisthere has been a failure of governmentconclude within a reasonable time, the is a concept that is hardly perceived atonalllevelstoproduce bold andGreek playwrights developed the so- all by the general public. thoughtful solutions to environmentalcalled (leas exmachina,a machine of MI of us, but particularly:educators, problems. The reasons for that failurethe gods which descended from the must recognize that the environmental are complex. heavens inthethirdact andina problem is essentially a social choice In part, it is the product, in Minne-twinkling set everything aright. There

50 is danger that idolatry of science will control.But this time the issues areundergoing transformation. The young lead too many of us to wait for the last easy to understand, and the solutionsand, increasingly, the not-so-young are scene of the third act for the plot to seem comparatively simple.Further,rejecting traditional solutions, institu- he straightened out. But there are nothe crisis does not relate to some re-tions, and values.This isthe rear\ miracle solutions. There are only hard mote part of the world.It is my airrevolution! This is the real credibility choiceshard choices for me, for you, being fouled, my water being polluted, gapthe gap betweenanordered for my corporation, for all institutions.my horizon being cluttered.I think itsociety and those who reject not only it is clear that the tremendous concernthe solutions but, more importantly, LET me play a game of semanticsabout environment acts as a relief valvethe problem-solving mechanisms of the with you. There probably is anto express frustration about the wayordered society. We are thus experi- "environmental crisis."Most of thethings are generally. It is a deep-seatedencing on all fronts a withdrawal of major writers with science backgroundsexpression of a compulsive need to put toleration for inaction,_ an impatience seem to agree on that. They agree onat least a part of the world in order.with dialogue unaccompanied by con- the inevitability of results, assumingThe frustration of nonaction becomescrete results, continuation of certain current condi-intolerable. tions. They disagree on the time scale EVen on the environmental scene, WHY IS the electric industry in the within which those results will occurthe had guys are hard to identify. The forefront of this issue? For two (ranging from a generation or less tomunicipality 20 miles upstream whichreasons: one obvious, one perhaps not several thousand years). They disagreedischarges raw sewage into my riverso obvious. Obviously electric utilities A on thereversibility ofresults, evenseems remote. The thousands of carsare physically out front. We are and assuming certain current cc nditions canand the burning trash barrels are nebu- will continue to be involved in a major be changed. So while itis clear thatlous targets.But, a major corporationway with the environment. we probably have an environmentalor industry or government is an ideal Our nation has been and is yet faced crisis,the precise factual edges gettarget, for it can be identified. Further, with an inexorable and accelerating fuzzy. it is an institution, and for one of thehunger for electric energy. This han- However, itis undeniably clear welittle guys whose world and lifeare ger will not be abated or.denied if we are smack-dab in the middle of a "crisis increasingly being managed by others,continue to be a high-energy society, about environment." I speak now about itis imperative to shake the founda-Yet, thereisan increasing number feeliiigs- and attitudesnot facts. Wetions. Then too, a public utility in a ofresponsible .voices who question don thear or read much about thissense belongs to everyone. Each month, whether economic and industrial growth aspect of environmenthow we feel over a million people send us payments.should be allowed to continue. They about it, what its emotional and atti-Most feel that such payment entitlesquestion whether we can have an afflu- tudinal dimensions are, and how thesethem to pass judgment on the way weent economy and a high-quality envi- affect the problem., conduct the business. ronment. This is the ultimate question We must start talking about environ- Somewhere inthis perspective weupon which many hard social choices mental concernfor whatit isanmust include youth. A significant seg must be made by each of us. One hard attitudinal set, a feeling.It is a socialmein of the young generally care very choice: Corporations must examine the movement with all the force for revolu-little about history or tradition or insti-extent to which corporate responsibility tionary change that concept implies. If tutions. Almost all young people wantto society may in some instances tran- we fail to recognize this, we'll blov it.a better world, and they want it now.scend marketing goals.This is new I me tell you how I see the crisisThus, our time has been characterizedand uncharted territory in which I find aoout environment, as a social move-as one of noninvolvement with estab-it very difficult to predict the future. ment. lished society and of anti-institution- There is a second reason for environ- Itis clear that the United Statesalism. Margaret Mead in Culture andmental discord with utilities, less obvi- (indeed the world) is in the throes ofCommitment points out that for the ous, perhaps.I suggest to you that in a massive revolution on many fronts.first time in the history of man, changesubstantial measure much of the cur- We are besieged by a host of problemsand rate of change are so rapid that rent abrasiveness _between industry and too complex to understand and toothere is little that is, historically relevant environmentalists arises because public remote for us to manage or influencewhich an older generation has to passopinion has changed the rules without Vietnam, poverty, inflation, racial ten-on to the succeeding generation in theprior noticeand industry has been sion, to name but a few. To many, itway of morals, tradition, or custom.caught short. Less than a decade ago, seems like a world out of control, orEven the facts we teach have an in-the importance of environment in gen- at least out of our individual control. creasingly short life. eral was something people read about We are uneasy. We see clear signs all around us.in the works of Emerson and Thoreau. Now place the problems of environ-The structure of the political system isIt was delightful and inspirational and ment within this c3ntext. Here again, rapidly changing. The institutions ofintellectually rewardingbut no more it seems as though the world is out ofeducation and of organized religion are than that. A tree was something to cut

51 courages (if not requires) that perspec- The law will change; italready is tive. This perspective must be broughtchanging. The legal literature increas- toneworrestructuredforums inglydiscussespossiblebasesfor eventually,thesewillprimarilybe an "environmental lawsuit" involving governmental. some radically new concepts. What will be the nature of these new forums? That will probably be ALL of us, and I include industry, determined by time_more than anything must stop the search for simplistic else; i.e., failure by one level of gov-labelsbad guys vs. good guys, white ernment to deal effectively with thehats vs. black hats, my side against problems in a timely way will causeyour side. The title of this seminar im- them to go by default to another level.plies that somehow an industrial point The temper of the times will not permit of view will be different from all others. the problems to go unsolved. TheA fragmented society cannot, I believe, states have in many areas defaultedproduce bold and thoughtful solutions. responsibilityto the federal govern-The idea of compartmented groupism "There is, as I view it, one central problem ment.The most recent example isis deeply ingrained; our society breeds at- the root of the environmental concern water quality.Statesto speak gen-it. Yet this discontint,;ty and fragmen- wit!) which all industry is strugglingthe old ules of the game have changed, but erallywould not now have water-tation are hostile to the new problem- the new rules are not yet developed." quality standards unless encouragedsolving forums which must be created. and goaded by federalpursestrings.The crying need is to give prime atten- down; a marsh was something to fill in. Perhaps that is a very valid role fortion to establishment of new forums We spun a network of high-voltagethe federal governmentto goad, towhich allow room for participative de- lines over the countryside, and thepersuade state problem solving. cision making. We must come to these economy bloomed. And nobody cared! These . new governmentalforums forums recognizing their validity and Now, there is an overwhelming con-eventually must look to regional prob- freely surrendering the prerogative of sciousness about the importance of ourlem solving, which ignores the un-unilateral decision making. To ignore environment, accompanied by a na-realities of political boundaries. How-the character of the forum is to ignore tional guilt-complex about what weever, I believe that a regional approach one of the major influences on final have done to it.Our affluent societywill be a long time coming.States' solutions. has begun to worry about the price it rights is a concept still dearly held. Industry often decries the lack of paid to get there.It was inevitable, of Electric industry representatives perspective of others when dealing with course, that industry would be sweptoften suggest that what we really need industrial environmental problems. The into this maelstrom, because, by com-is more government, more regulation;long -range solution to lack of perspec- mon consent, industry had become ai.e., justtell us what the rules are. tive must occur within the educational major offender of the new code, evenWhile increasing regulation is probablyprocess itself. This means that teachers before there was a new code. what is going to happen (and in somemust achieve an overall perception of There is, as I view it, one centralareas what must happen), I don't think the problems and, more importantly, of problem at the root of the environ- itis a complete solution. There is, tothe problem-solving process. To me, it mental concern with which all industryhe sure, a compelling need for someseems to boil down to four main inis strugglingthe old rules of the gameorder and for rulesboth proceduralgredients: much more money, both by have changed, but the new rules areand substantiveupon which industryindustry and_by government; more edu- not yet developed.What is worse,can rely. However, a call by industrycation; stronger leadership; and imagi- there are, for the electric industry atfor governmental regulationwhethernative new ways of thinking about the least, four separate and distinct umpires state or federalmust never be a sub- problems. refereeing the game: the ratepayer; thestituteforindividualcorporatere- There are several nev ways for in- shareholder;theregulatory commis- sponsibility.The end result of this dustryto think about environmental sion, or other governmental units; andapproach foi corporations is only toproblems. To those industries, such as the general public, which in turnis place some of the real managementmy own, which are heavily involved composed of severalsubgroups. Aopportunities in the hands of a political in environmental matters, there is one utility must try to serve at least fourbody. Please don't misunderstand thesekeystone proposition which must be masters, each of which has a differentremarks to be a polemic against gov-understood and accepted.To many viewpoint. ernment regulation.I amsaying that corporate executives, and I suspect to corporations must always recognizesome educational administrators, it will WHAT can produce workable solu- that the letter of the law is but thesound radical. tions? Broader perspective is the beginning and not the end of corporate Thecorporation'sbasicinternal key, together with a forum which en- response. problem has been the method it has

52 used for making environmental de- irtuallyallenvironmcntal,'conscrva- mentalmonitoring programs? Then cisions.The problem is not peculiartion gimps into a Citizens Advisory facilitate integration of that experience to any particular industry butisa Task Force, together with the Gov- into the classroom. product, simply., of the way the insti-ernor's Environmental Cabinet, and Another example: Much of the lob- tutional process has historically func-we are talking together. Perhaps more lying for environmental,'conservation tioned.Industries make internal judg-significantly, we are listening.It is an legislation, at least on a state level, is ments based on our evaluationof experimental effort,to be sure, anddone very inartfully and by inexperi- economicsandoperationalheeds, there is no assurance it will be con-enced people. Too often lobbyists for thoughincreasinglythese judgmentsstructive. There is much at stakefor this kind of legislation have little under- have been tempered by our interpreta- the community as well as for NSP. standingof thelegislativeprocess. tion of the public will.While that Formation of this Task Force has beenMost corporations lobby only for or basic process is obviously valid andnoted nationally, and its progress will against bills that directly affect their must continue, it has one fundamental surely continue to be observed by allbusiness interests.I would like to see weakness. The "public" does not havethose seeking better ways of makingcorporations evaluate proposed envi- an opportunity to participate until afterenvironmental decisions. ronmental/conservationbillsandin we have made the decision and often appropriate cases lobby actively for not until after we have passed a point SUCH new ways of corporate think-sound legislation, lending their experi- of no return. ing can produce muchjn the wayence and clout to the process.Such The unacceptability of "institutional- of new programs, some of which maya legislative posture seen c to me to be ized decision making" focuses mostbe of particular interest to you. Fora logical extension of the social and sharply in those areas where the publicexample, the last session of the Minne-community responsibility many corpo- feelsitis most intimately involved.sota Legislature mandated that "con-rations now exhibit in other areas. Thus, students and faculty feel theyservation education" shall be a part of Let me close by making one last ought to have a larger role in university the public school system curriculum. point.Increasingly, corporations are policyformation.UtilityratepayersUnfortunately, no money was appro-"where the .action is." In the corporate feel they ought to be able to declarepriated, and there the matter sits, insetting there are ever larger aggrega- how their money should in part be limbo. tions of material and human resources. spentforenvironmentalprotection. My company is now examining the It has been increasingly clear in recent Citizens feel they have the right toways in which we might make a mean- times that the problems of poverty, judge the environmental impact causedingful contribution to the environmen-housing, race, education will not be by extraction of mineral resources.It tal education proce0: -Such examina-solved within an acceptable period un- is clear that, in the futurc, institutions tion inciudes helping with curriculum less thereissubstantial involvement will be less and less able to decidedevelopment and involves interrelatingand commitment by the private sector. unilaterally what their respective pub- the physical and natural sciences withThis conclusion is equally true about 1,es should have. Increasingly, the cor-social sciences. We are looking at pos- the problems of environment. We must porate task will be to determine what sibleinserviceteacher-trainingpro-not lose sight of the fact that while the public wantsi.e., what the publicgrams. We are looking at educationalcorporations are environmental prob- is willing to pay for.Utility obligation software. We are seeking student dia-lem causers, they also are fast becom- will more and more involve a completelogue opportunities with environmental ing prime problem solversof their disclosure of facts, and less and less decision makers. own problems and also of problems willitinvolve passing judgment on Most power companies are heavilytotally unrelated to their economic in- those facts. involved in environmental monitoringterests. The fast emerging change in This analysis produces one basicprogams at power plants. The moni-the role of some American business conclusion for me. Any corporat? en-toring programs produce more con-corporationsfrompurelyeconomic vironmental program (either short- ortinuous and comprehensive data aboutinstitutions to socio-economic-political long-range) must be built on the as-the biosphere than probably is avail-institutions may well prove to be one sumption that the corporation is willingable anywhere else. What happens toof the more significant developments of tosignificantlyalterthetraditional those studies? They are forwarded tothe last decade. decision-making process. Anything lessa regulatory agency where they are We allire struggling to shape new thanthatisartificialandwillnotexamined for compliance, and theycriteria by v.hich to judge corporate endure. then gather dust. What a waste! Why responsibility. Any such creative effort My own company, in an unprece-not try to integrate that data with ap- is always painful and halting. Speaking dented action, announced that sitingpropriate laboratory and course mate-at least for my own company and for aid development of all future plantsrial? Why not an honors program formyself, Isay we have a deep and and transmission lines would be dis-outstanding science students wherebygenuinb- willingness to search for that cussed in advance of decision makingthey would be employed for the sum-consensus. What better place to start with the public, We have convenedmer to participate in these environ-than with being willing.

53 MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT:

THE ARCHITECTURAL POINT OF VIEW

Elliot L. Whitaker

OUR entire society is finally caught crctc boxes marking the ccntcr.In and later by trolleys. Commuliication up in a common concern for man many instances, only the upper storiesbetween cities was by rail or boat. The and his cnvironmcnt. By any or all are visible, while the lower stories swim motor age and the population explosion standards of evaluation, the presentin a sea of smoke, smpg, and pollutedwere yet to come. conditionofman's cnvironmcntis air. Approaching the city center, one Today, our cities and cars are on a shocking and abysmal. How, in thispasses acres of monotonously arranged collision course. Annually, more peo- enlightened age of sophisticated science suburbs of look-alike individual housesple are killed or injured by auto acci- and advanced technology, did we arriveseparated from the ccntcr by billboards,dentsthanbyallrecordedwars. at this state?Individual blame is notstripdevelopmentsofuncontrolledChoked roads are replaced by choked easy to assess. We are a nation blessedbusiness, and industry. Farther in, theconcrete superhighways which snake with good land, an abundance of nat-once elegam residences of yesteryearand finally bludgeon their way into the ural resources, rivers, lakes, and for-are evident. They no longer scrvc theirheart of every city.Americans have ests, and a favorable climate; but weoriginal purpose, but rather are con-become mobile, and the new mobility have all misused our natural assets.verted _into overcrowded apartments,has resultedinunbelievable sprawl, We are all guilty of carelessness inrooming houks, and business and com- strip developments, and the despolia- allowing the quality of our cnvironmcntmercialestablishments.Interspersedtion of roadside and recreation areas. to deteriorate. The question is, "Whatare used-car lots, more billboards, anThe urbanized areas of the East Coast can we do to improve the quality of ourarray of motels and eating establish-of the United States (extending from environment?" ments, each with a sign or signs more Portland, Maine, south through Bos- Man's environment is many faceted. blatant than the next. The total look iston, Ncw York, Ncw Jersey, to Balti- It is the aggregate of all the externalone of ugliness, dreariness, vulgarity,more and Washington) are considered conditions ..nd influences affecting hisand despaira strangecomparisonone huge, sprawling, continuous city, life and development.Thcrc isthewith the sparkling new buildings at theoften referred to as Megalopolis. The natural cnvironmcnt of air, water, andccntcr.The ccntcr may sparkle, butsame conditions exist in parts of the land, contrasted with the intangible cn-often it wears a daytime glitter andMidwest and along the West Coast. vironmcnt of man's mind, intellect, andbecomes just as dreary as its surround- One might imagine that poor planning, spirit.It is this intangible cnvironmcnt ings after the completion of thc work-jammed highways, overcrowding, dirt, which gives man the ability to exist in aing day. Then the daytime occupantsnoise, and ugliness could only scrvc as troubled and hostile world and thefight their second daily traffic battica warninl to newer cities and that the ability to determine his own scale ofto return to their suburbsleaving be- same . 'stakes would not be made values in deciding what is important,hind theeconomically andsociallyagain.Unfortunately, thisis not the useful, and beautiful. Still another facetdepressed, who are literally closeted incase. There is a strange similarity in of environment, the one with which thisthe slums and ghettoes of the inner city. cities, and all in one way or another paper deals, is the constructed cnvi- seem to share the same problems. ronmcnt of citiesbuildings,roads, MAJOR cities at the turn of the bridges, and the elements of shelter. century and up to 50 years ago WE might askatthisjuncture Typically, many of our major citiesdeveloped and grew around a ccntcr whether citiesarc doomed. Is viewed from afar present a picture of inwhich,traditionally,government, there really any hope of solving the slick, multistoried glass, steel, and con-business, industry, and most servicescomplex problems of urbanliving? wcrc hor^".d. One recognized this cen- Archaeologists have discovered traces The author is director, School of Architec- ture, The Ohio State University, Columbus, ter; it was the heart of the city.Sur- of ancient cities in unrelated corners Ohio, and a fellow of the American Insti- rounding the ccntcr was housing; failher of the world which, for reasons yet tute of Architects.This paper was one of out was the iural or farming com-unknown, the inhabitants abandoned. the NSTA-Sunoco Science Seminars pre- munity. The amingement was logical,We do not have that alternative; what sented at the annual meeting of the Na- tional Science Teachers Association, March convenient, and orderly. Traffic withinthen can we do? Already, strong pub- 14, 1970, in Cincinnati, Ohio. the city was by horse-drawn vehicleslic opposition to certain new freeway

54 ... % t, --. ft . 4 i1 4 IiiII -.- ,./... sty. 4 4 k 1 i 1 ". q I.: I % "f..IZILL A. fl 2= % it{ j'ISI I a :ii 4 i -.... GilI ' It t? ; g Iliels-

The old and the new can contribute t..) the revitalization of our cities, Above: The Cannery (left) and Ghirardelli Square (right) are imaginative San Francisco examples of old manufacturing facilities which have been turned into attractive shopping centers, Below: Lake Point Tower (left), a very large high-rise apart- NO. ment building in Chicago.Illinois, and Greenbriar Shopping Center in Atlanta, Georgia, represent the exciting contributions AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS that modern architecture can make to the appearance of a city,

4,- r 4

55 construction in several cities, including Boston's BeaconHill, New York's Cities have al%%it), been the center, of Boston, Staten Island, Baltimore, New Rockefeller Center, Philadelphia's So- learning whether in formal institutions or merely by the experience of living in them. Orleans, and San Francisco, has effec-ciety Hill, Washington's Georgetown, When we talk about building a city. we tivelylialtedthe building of super- Colonial Williamsburg in Virginia, San think too much of the housing and often highways, which were proven to be Antonio's River Project, San Fran- too little of the services to people.In the United States. for example, we are preoccu- disruptive to existing good patterns of cisco's Cannery and Ghirardelli Square, pied with rebuilding ghettos, yet the houses urban living.Most of these actions and Columbus's German Village. we teal down are far. far better than those delayed the new flow of auto traffic that the hulk of the world's population live in. their materialre- ALTHOUGH some recent gains have Countries varyin only temporarily.However, in Balti- sources and in the degree of development more, through constructive alternative been made in housing through of these resources.. . every country has proposals of an interdisciplinary team slum clearance, the Model Cities Pro- human resources in excess of our ability to gram, public housing, and private en- use them fully. Therefore,we' Altould con- of architects, engineers, planners, and centrate on people servicesin thenew cul- sociologists, the once halted superhigh- terprise, the total picture is not good. ture, recognizing that we are all in the sell- way is now going ahead. But it is pro-A rapid rise in urban population, de- ice of others. ,without servility. The new ceeding in more favorable locations and terioration of existing housing, high cultureshouldvalue humanservicesto human beings more highly than the shelters using new design concepts which allow interest rates,inadequate new land for for living. both the highways and the neighbor- development, skyrocketing construction I dream of a city where the dwelling units hoods to benefit. The superhighway as costs, antiquated construction practices, arc simple and adequate but the services in education, sanitation, health, recreation. art. charactrrized by the best of the Inter- outdated building codes all add up to music. and all forms of culture are magnifi- state System and parkways and roads a dismal outlook. Replacement of decent.In my proposal for the experimental to recreation areas are excellent ex- teriorated and obsolete housing alone city ... essential people-services will be pre- planned for the number of people the city is amples of good design and preservation is a staggering task. Some neighbor- tocontain. Entirely new technologies of natural resources.By employinghoods can and are being saved; some pollutionlessfactories;noiseless,fumeless new, imaginative, interdisciplinary so- new neighborhoods are under construc- transportation; reuse of waste; and a com- tion, but it will take a dedication equal plete inforniation utility would be planned. lutions, the superhighway can also be Buildings will be demountable as rapid tech- a major element of good city design. to the efforts which set our astronauts nological and social change makes them Major cities throughout the Unitedon the moon if the United Statesis to obsolete. Even community structures should States are discovering new excitementsolve its housing problems by the end be completely flexible as the uses and needs of the community develop.' and new economic gains in revitalizing of this century. the downtown areas. New architecture, It is estimated that in the next 30 One of themostpromisingand ex- open spaces, separation of pedestrianyears this nation must build asmuch citing possibilities for the improvement and vehiculartraffic,the return ofhousing as it has in the past 350. This of man's environment is in the develop- naturetrees, plants, grass,flowers, means we must build the equivalentof ment of "new towns" described above and waterattract people and bring one new city the size of Toledo every by Dr. Spilhaus.Already in Europe money back to the city. The list ofmonth from now to the end of thethe new towns of Tapiola, Finland; these cities is long and impressive. Itcentury, just to keep pace with popula- Vallingby, Sweden; and Cumbernauld, includes Boston, New York, Baltimore, tion growth. England, are completedexamples Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Atlanta, Co- John W. Gardner, chairman of theworthy of easeful study and emulation. lumbus, Indianapolis, St. Louis, Kansas Urban Coalition and former SecretaryIn this country, Reston, Virginia, and City, Dallas, San Antonio, Seattle, andof the Department of Health, Educa- Columbia, Maryland, now underCon- San Francisco. In Cincinnati, where the tion, and Welfare, in a paper pre'ented struction, are the first American "new National Science Teachers Association to the 1969 Panel on Science and Tech- towns." met in March, annual meeting par- nology and the Cities, of the Commit- The "new town" concept provides ticipants had an excellent opportunity on Science and Astronautics, U.S. for an orderly, planned development of to witness a city in transition.The House of Representatives, claimed that total new communities. These com- story of the Fountain Square Projecthousing is our mosturgentproblem. munities arc not considered substitutes in downtown Cincinnati, now nearing He said that federal assistance at all for cities, but are planned in addition completion, dates back to 1963. It is levels, new concepts of construction, to existing cities. The characteristics of worth a visit. new and innovative uses of laborin a "new town" include a full range and Concurrently withtherevitalizingfact, theentire spectrum of supportbychoice of housing and job opportuni- process, cities have also learned the the entire economyare needed if weties and commercial, industrial, com- lesson of preserving the best of our past areto succeedinmeeting housing munity, cultural, transportation, and in architecture, landscape architecture, needs. educational opportunities. Ideally, the andplanning.Thesepreservedareas, Athelstan Spilhaus,former presidenttotal environment will include the en- protected against encroachment, are re- of the Franklin Institute of Science in Philadelphia, reported in a paper given turning new taxes to the city coffers. Sec also Athcistan Spilhaus. "Why Have Cities?" Notable among many examples are to the same panel: TST 36:16.18: December 1969.

56 vironmental enhancements described by ArANIC.1101.1--.4110111all..s.....e Dr. Spilhaus. Ma; 1-11 IMML Max Ways, in the February 1970 issue ofFortunemagazine, says: The chief product of the future society is destined to be not food, not things, but the quality of the society itself. High on the list of what we mean by quality stand the ques. lu tions of how ne dealwith thematerial world, related as that is to how we deal with one another. That we have the wealth and the power to achieve a better environment 1r issure.That we havethe wisdom and charity to do so remainsand must always remainuncertain? Alfred B. Garrett, retiring president of NSTA, asserts, "Science education t .4 must 'gear up' to meet the challenge ig of.. .the most critical century that £1. 4 111%,,,, civilization has ever faced." In accept- vessiewm=amittEIVA ingthis eharge,tlie science teacher One of Europe's new towns, Tapiola, Finland. must also accept the responsibility of sharpening his own knowledge about Reston, Virginia, is a 7,400-acre development 18 miles west of Washington, D.C. the environmental problems ofthe Its present population is 8,000, but this is planet on which we live and the peopleprojected eventually to reach more than who inhabit it. Then, in turn, he must 75,000.The project uses mixed zoning laws to integrate low-, medium-, and high- share this new knowledge withhis density residential communities with shops students. and commercial facilities. Over 1,000 acres Today's students will not wait for a are set aside for government and industry. Recreational facilities and permanent open new century. They are anxious, frus- space are included in the master plan. COURTESY. AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS trated, and personally concerned. They I' I"" seek immediate and 'relevant solutions tothereal-life, environmental problems of today! Understandably, there is no ready- made environmental cure-all but certainly, by the effective use of known scientific methods applied to science teaching, the science teacher can help in the search for answers to the qualitative improvement of man's physic'al environment. Out of this action could possibly develop new scientificap- proaches to the entire range of environmental problems, even to a new science of the control of man's physical environment. A better future is indeed within our grasp, how does the science teacher propose to respond to the challenge? To repeat President Nixon's words in the environmental issue of Fortune magazine for February 1970, "If we are to materially improve our environment ,.. thenallof our people must join in that effort." 0

Ways, Max. "How to Think About the Environ- ment,"Fortune 81:166: February 1970,

57 uman Ecoogy

STANLEY A. CAIN

. Assis nt Secretary ofe Interior for F h and Wildlife a d Parks ashington, D.

This articles adapted from DCain's address at a "oint general sessf of all science teat ing societies dur ng the 1966 Annual Meeting of the A erican Association or the Advance nt of Science in W shington, D. C., De ember 29. While seing in the Depart ent of the Interior,i r. Cain is on lea e from his po.sition =s professor of bo any at the Uhiversi of Michigan.

ECOL GY is the branch of biology whi treats there < tions between o ganisms and the r environment. aking the broad st approach possib e, human ecology is no more thanfocus of attentioon man's re- latns withhisenv ronment.But der this headinge find a broad array of differenceHere are a few of them. Individual hu an beings are studied in relationt.the environment very much as ot r animals are, and from the datastained generalizations are made out populations. We find both thephysiologistandthegeneticist dying people invarious environmental situations. The kinds of situations that seem attractive are those where populations are under stress, such as heat and cold stress, water stress, high-altitude stress, or where groups of individuals are under activity stress, such as athletic stress or the stresses of certain occupations.

58 This approach to human ecology istions. or to comparing stationary and the natural and social sciences. Hence well illustrated by the UNESCO "Arid nomadic and long-established and im- one finds a growing interest in human Zone Research Report VIII. Humanmigrant communitiesthat branch ofecology in the fields of medicine and and Animal Ecology." Under Human ecology (to refer to another dictionarypublic healthmental health, environ- Ecology, the contributors were asked definition)ofthesociologistscon- mental health, epidemiology, pathol- to cover the following aspects: cerned with the spacing of people and ogy, and the like. I. The influence of environment on human of institutions and their resulting in- With the growing pressures of ex- communitiesinaridregions andthe terdependency. adaptation of such communities to con- ploding human populations and the ditions existinginthoseregions, with Emphasizing thislatteraspect ofconsequent need to intensify produc- specialreferencetohousing, clothing. human ecology, another paper in the tion and the productivity of human ef- food, and other social conditions, and UNESCO report is by Regina Roche- comparing (a) stationary and nomadic fortespecially, but not by any means peoples, and (b) long established with fort, who says: exclusively, in developing countries recently immigrant communities. Few arid regions today are left untouched there is more attention being given to The influence of environmentinarid by modern civilization. In the place of tradi- whole economies and to relationships regions on the anatomy. physiology, bio- tionaladaptationtolocalenvironmental chemistry. and pathology of human be- possibilities to ensure the livelihood of the between economics and ecology. Slow- ings, to include the adaptation of local group, powerful techniques are now em- ly there is arising the realization that and .inimigrant populations tothis en: ployed to transform the natural conditions uncoordinated scientific, technoloiticat vironment. and to bring these countries and their inhabitants within the orbit of modern civiliza- fiscal,political,social,andother In response to this directive, W. S. S. tion.However, these new techniques for attemptsatchangearefailingto Ladell, Director of the Hot Climate agricultural development or for the produc- accomplish the needed adjustment be- Physiological Research Unit, Oshodi, tion of new sources of wealth through the exploitation of the sub-soil are often intro- tween human needs and their fulfill- Nigeria, treated the subject of human duced purely for speculative purposes, the ment. This change is showing up in ecologyin the typical autecological- aim being to derive immediate profit from UNESCO, WHO, FAO, in the various physiological manner, as shown by the these plants set up by private companies. The new ways of exploiting the environ- international banks, in AID, and other following topics taken up in his review: ment may thus have harmful effect on the bilateral and multilateral programs of .Heat regulation development of the arid regions either be- assistance.Even at home, state and Body temperature and thermal equilibrium cause they seriously jeopardize the natural Heat loss equilibrium (by exhausting water supplies or federal agencies are seeking devices for The skin through soil erosion), or because they bring coordination of effort. Skin temperatur about a crisis and impoverishment of the Insensible water loss traditional communities, riding roughshod To the extent that we are shifting Sweat secretion over them. toward a concern for interactions and Composition of sweat In the primitive case, the human inter-relations in what we do, we are Circulation of heat Water metabolism ecology is based on close adaptation to moving in the direction of ecological Fluid and electrolyte changes environmentalconditions,including thinking. As we do this, however, we The endrocrines in heat suchinstitution.alized are discovering a relative dearth of in- Heat tolerance practicesthat Acclimatization to heat make for adaptation and that assure formation and understanding because Tolerance to heat itsmaintenance.In the other case.our attention has been on other mat- Air movement ters. This gap will not be filled readily Limiting environments the intruding actions of institutions of Modifying factors in heat tolerance industry and finance include the appli-because of the complexity of the inter- Clothing and housing cation, in the desert environment, of relations and also becauie our_ste- Radiation things and conditions characteristic of cesses in the areas where quantificatiOn Nutrition tt Mental effects of heat temperate-zonedevelopedcountries, is a god and prediction is secure, leave Desert thirst including import of water and power, many scientists and engineers uncom- Pathology of the desert fortable and sometimes unwilling to Effects of solar radiation food and machinery, and the negating Prickly heat of the natural environment by air-con-forsake the security of their familiar Testicular changes ditioned housing and other devices for technical niches. Tropical fatigue comfort. This problem is clear in the field of Salt deficiency dehydration Anliidroiie heat asthenia (lack of strength) conservationwheresocietycan no Heat stroke longer afford the uncoordinated de- Racial differences velopment and use of natural resources, Metabolic rate and heat production Skin color ECOLOGY is a science that hasthe consequence of which has been an Blood its analytic aspects; but its es-accelerating deterioration of the quality Anatomical differences sence is integrative. Its principal busi-of our environmen' It is this growing Inthis contribution thereisnot ness is synthesis because it tends toecological awareness that is producing much attention given to part of what deal with dynamic complexes that sub- public concern with all forms of pollu- UNESCO was interested in:housing, sume the various systems which occupy tion, loss of open space, natural areas, clothing, food, and other social condi-the attention of the specializations of and natural beauty.

59 THE first phases of conservation familiar ecology of the organism as a energy. he has been remodeling the were correctivetheearly and wholeinrelationtoitsconstantly, natural world and bending it to his will. weak efforts to apply ecologic.: think-changing environment and a different If them is angrowing revulsion to ing to stopping the processes that were ecology,of monospecific populations. this, itis not because of his intentions deteriorative of the human environ- and of plant-animal communities. but because of his mistakes. Even the ment and that were reducing man's This array of relationshipsisthe extreme preservationist. who is a de- productivity of goods and services. Thisecology that man shares with all other fender of nature qua nature and would might be dubbed the study of "inhuman organisms. Human ecologyinthis grant any species an implicit right to ecology" and the taking of efforts to sense differs little if at all from general existence, is generally concerned w ith humanize man's activities. ecology, even at the community level nature in relation to manits interest. If, however, we look closely at the where human effects on the ecosystems its beauty. and its relation to his on basic ecological problem, ve find that are negligible or ignored in studies of personality. there is a fundamental similarity for all terrestrial and aquatic situationsfor- But there islittle present sense in life. Any organism, if it is to stay alive. ests. grasslands. hot and cold deserts. viewing human ecology in any other must solve the problem of acquisition. lakes. streams, and oceans. reference than to contemporary indus- transformation, use, and disposal of trial society. with the expression Indus- matter and energy, The working out trial society" encompassing the entire of this problem is a matter of inter- gamut from the Neolithic to the con- relations between living units and their WHEN the focus of attention is temporary. Industrialization is a mat- environments. There is, then, an in- on man, we find that in most ter of how man obtains from the en- tracellular, perhaps molecular ecology. situations he has become a predominant vironment what he needs in the way of as well as the complicated relationships influent in nature.In going about his matter and energy.I would like to within the organism among its tissues biological business, that is. in attempt- turn, then. to a general model of the and organs and the substances and con- ing to solve his fundamental problemhuman ecosystem whichtreatsthe ditions they produce. There is also the of the acquisition of needed matter and same problem as the usual models of

ECONOMIC UTILITIES

I NATURAL RESOURCES

ZONE Or INTERACTION

/ INSTITUTIONS

I CAPITAL I LABOR

HUMAN RESOURCES

SIMPLE' SCHEMA OF GENERAL OA NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS SANS HUMAN CULTURE SIMPLE SCHEMA OF THE HUMAN ECOSYSTEM

60 natural ecosystems, but does so in a In this schema, labor is conceived tovelop, and reproduce. Man, not being strikingly different way. include all of man's personal means ofa primary producer, participates like all The simple form of this schema ofproduction. This implies correctly thatanimals in the food web through which the generalized human ecosystem saysthe human ecosystem is a productionminerals cycle and energy flows. But that man's contacts with nature occursystem just as truly as does any modelman, very differently from other ani- in the social context.In a diagram,of general ecosystems. Under "labor"mals, has created a fantastic demand one sees that the economic utilities thatwe would includethetotal human--forexternal,nonphysiologic,matter support both the individual and thepopulation of a given ecosystem as welland energy.This includes all of the human community are wrested fromas the labor force which is that portion materials that are usedinclothing, natural resources by man's institution-productively engaged at any period ofhousing, and other constructions, and alized application of hislabor and time.Itis not enough; however, tothe external energy resources that pro- capital. Contemporary man carries onknow how many persons are involvedvide environment control, such as heat- scarcely any productive activity alone.or how large the labor force may be.ing and cooling and humidity regula- Itis clear that the wresting of rawTo evaluate this aspect of the function-tion, and that power his machines and materials from nature and the use ofing of a human ecosystem, we need to instruments. nature's products;And processes is ac-know what skills the labor force has Although there is some control of complished by concerted human effort.and the relative abundance of each one.environment by animals, such as nest- To accomplish this concerted effort,Besides knowledge and skills, the per-and den-building. slight use of tools. man has created a great many institu-sonal means of production arein- such as picks and stones, by a few tions related to agriculture, forestry,fluenced by health, understanding, con-vertebrates, and some rudiments of fishing, mining, and so on, as well ascepts, aspirations, and the impingingnoninstinctual socialization in the col- to business, financial, industrial, com-influences of other segments of the eco-lective action of family groups, such mercial, and social endeavors. system. as hunting packs of wolves, there is not The human ecosystem, however, is Capital in this schema has no directreally a shadow of things to come in involved in the production of muchrelationship to money and land or the any animal group other than the early more than goods. In this connectionownership of natural resources.By hominoid primates.Human ecosys- we readily recognize the institutions of"capital" is meant all of the physical tems, then, must be studied entirely dif- the family and larger social groups asmeans of production that man hasferently if we are to grasp the differ- well as those related to religion, educa-created.Here, then, are thetools. encesratherthanget stranded on tion, politics, law, security, the creativeimplements, weapons, machines, and studies of biological similarities. arts, communication, and the use ofphysicalfacilities that man hasin- Human ecosystems are capable of leisure time.In fact, there is almostvented,built,and employed inthe attaining a state of homeostasis or self- nothing that modern man does that isproduction process. regulation. The products of the func- without some institutionalized aspect. The flow of labor and capital throughtioning system are used to sustain the This usage of the term "institution"institutions in the production processsystem. In the simplest of biological to cover any established cooperativemeans that all contemporary humanterms, food produced as an economic effort is broad but fully warranted. Inproductive effort is socialized. Institu-utility is employed to nourish the labor addition to an organization or estab-tions,likethetools of capital,are that produced it, and the materials that lishment for the promotion of a par-human inventions: in their case, forare produced are used to develop and ticular objective, and a concern en-the cooperative use of the productive replenish the capital that labor uses in gaged in some commercial activity, thecapacity of labor in wresting goods andthe production process. Thus the inter- term properly includes any organizedservices from nature. action between the human resources pattern of group behavior, well-estab- The economists' ancient concept ofand the natural resourcesthat is, be- lished and accepted as a fundamental"land" is here required to include thetween labor, capital, and institutions part of culture, and any established law totalenvironment that contains theon one hand and land on the other or custom. natural resources; that is, the things,in a given human ecosystem can main- conditions, and processesinnaturetain that system as long as the system that man can utilize in his life proc- isviable and the supply of natural esses, both biological and cultural. resources is not exhausted. THE simple model of the human ,e At this point we must cm; hasize the The final and very important point ecosystem that I have proposeddifference between human and general to this simple but fundamental concept uses the economic concepts of labor,ecosystems.Ihave already stressedof the human ecosystem is that itis capital, land, and economic utilities inthe biological identity that resides incapable of growth, development, and a flow scheme that gives institutions athe need for matter and energy that evolution.If the functioning system central role and which, as a system, ischaracterizes all lifeto sustain the produces an excess over that necessary capable of homeostasis and evolution,.organism and to allow it to grow, de-to maintain it, and if the surplus is

61 productively invested, the system canhis capital of tools and the institutions fulness, appreciative standards of ap- grow and develop.Inthe simplestby means of which his ecological sys-propriateness, or moral standards of terms, this means that the populationtem works, he can no longer safely ap- rightness." Finally, when relationships can grow. In a more meaningful sense, proach nature in terms of natural re-between human groups and institutions it means that the population can besources as though they were discretehave become the norm, an individual improved as to its socioeconomic con- and isolated one from another.I findcannot violate the cognitive, appro- ditions. For example, a surplus Inputit hopeful that some countries are ex-priate. and moral standards without a to the labor sector can result in an im- tending ecological knowledge and prac-feeling of guilt. provement in the institutions of educa-tices to the landscape, as distinct from This line of reasoning leads me to tional and social, political, and eco- thefamiliar product orientation,in the conclusion that planned change in nomic organization so that the produc-both urban and rural land-use planning.human ecosystems will not succeed un- tivity of laboris increased. A more The key to these changes, slight though tilthe cultural pattern has been in- skillful. better tooled labor force canthey may be. is to be found in what internalizedandsufficientindividuals increase its rate of production and.the first instance may be little morewant to conform to the cultural pattern consequently.its wealthproductionthan slogans, such as "quality of theand show guilt and distress when they being the only operational source ofenvironment," "polluition abatement."do not. -Many felt needs lie between we..Ith. Similarly, on the physical side,"naturalbeauty-," --maintenanceof the individual's physiological needs for the feedback of surplus production canhuman scale," and "integrated resourcefood. shelter, family, and security and mean improvement of the physical and development and use." the environment and itsnatural re- institutional means of production. Among the necessary conditions forsources and natural resistances. But in satisfactory relationships between man any case. the individual first selects a and environment are knowledge of the cultural vehicle for the satisfaction of physical environment, of man's livinghis felt needs, and ends up by being HUMAN ecology, when it becomesassociates, and oftherelationships committed to it.This would seem to more than the autecology of manamong them. But this is not enough.be both the explanation of the forma- livingunder stressfulenvironmentalMan is more than an animal. His ecol-tion of human ecosystems Lind a hint conditions, gets involved in that fasci-ogy must encompass also what manas to how their change may be guided. nating nest of problems that includeshiinself creates. The institutions, which form such an ethology, comparative psychology, and important part of the human ecosystem. social structure.Having suggested a are not easily changed, because with simple but general model of the human time they develop their own quasi- ecosystem,I have hoped that itwill MY MODEL of the human eco-organismal characteristics and reason serve certain purposes.If itis sound. system, simple but capable offor being. Many an institution that has it should: endlesselaboration,isessentiallya outlived its rational basis continues for I.Aid the organization of existingtheory of human action. The social decades, even centuries, because of the knowledge and extend the rangeaspect of this lies in the properties ofvested interestinit.Examples are anu implication of hypotheses the system of interaction of human everywhere. I will mention by way of Hcip guide research and the for-,groups vis-a-ris the institutions throughillustration the institutions of slavery, mulation of new hypotheses which they act. The orientation is thatroyalty, latifundia, the penal treatment . Help overcome some of the biasesof the individual, the actor in the actionof povertyor alcoholism, and the and inadequacies that flow fromsystem. but an institution exists because anachronistic continuation of single- compartmentalization of knowledgethere is a "collectivity of actors," as purposebusinessorgovernmental in the processes of education, re-Talcott Parsons and Edward Shils state practice's and agencies after their func- search. and technological applica- itin their book,Toward a Generaltions have exhaustedtheirrational tion Theory of Action.In a strict sense,basis. 4. Help in the design, regulation, andthe concept of motivation applies to My intentionis not to end on a improvement of human ecosystems,the individual, but in the organizedpessimistic note, nor to have discour- i.e., help in the conservation man-systems of institutions, there is motiva- aged any branch of research on human agement of human environmentaltional component in thci concerted ac-ecology, but to say that more attention inter-relations tion of a group when it is guided by the needs to be directed toward under- Our considerable present interest inmeaning which a human attaches tostanding human ecosystems as compre- putting ecology to work for human the institution in relationship to his ownhensively as possible with the ultimate betterment should be accompanied bygoals and interests. Furthermore, with-goal of managing them insofar as may serious but cautious efforts to manipu-in this action system, the scope forbe feasible for the humanistic as well late human ecosystems.At the samechoice rests on "standards which mayas for the materialistic benefit of man-

time, because man has invented bothbe either cognitive standards of truth- kind. 11* It*

62 SOUND POLLUTION- Peter A. BreysseANOTHER URBAN PROBLEM

I N A RECENT article entitled "Noiseence in the environment of noise re- physical energy to the auditory nerves. andUrban Man,"RobertAlex ilting from human activities. which isThe normal ear distinguishes between Baron states: of sufficient quantity and quality to sounds by detecting the different tones Noise abatement and the need forit areadversely affect man's well-b:ing, either of which each sound is composed. The virtually neglected issues in American life ph)siologicall) or ps)ehologieally and/ audible tones (Figure 2) range from today, Unless the medical and public health professionsbecomedeeply involved in these or interfere with man's fulluse and approximately 16 Hertz(11Z) to problems. itis likely that apathy and inertia en;oyment of his property. 16.000 HZ (HZcycles per second). till defer any &coke action for another To fully appreciate the complexityThe principal speech range extends decade or e%en longer.Butue. the public. of the sound pollution problem, we may cannot tact that long. Air pollution killsus from approximately 300 to 3,500 HZ. slo%%1) but silently. noise makeseachday a need to review briefly this phenomenon At the lower and upper ends of the tot ment. called sound. Sound consists of a series spectrum. higher energies are necessary Noise, defined as -unwanted sound," of vibrations in an elastic medium. A to discern these sounds.1 zlow 16 HZ surrounds today's urban dweller in an vibrating 1-Jdy, such as a guitar string. we are in the region of vibrations, and excessive and gradually increasing diet produces compression waves. As these above 20,000 HZ inthe ultrasonic of decibels.While itis generally ac- waves emanate from the vibrating body, region.The threshold of discomfort cepted that noise is unwanted sound.molecules of it e transmittinemediumbegins at 120 decibels (db) and the _thereisno universally agreed-uponair, for examplearc alternately com-threshold of pain atI 30 db. definition for sound pollution. Sound pressed and expanded(rieurc1). The characteristic sounds of the ur- pollution may be defined as the Res-Thus, soundistransmittedthrough ban environment consist of pure tones compressible matter. Sound waves gen- (sound of single frequency) and ran- Robert Alex tuse and Urban Man:" erally travel faster in dense materials. dom sounds (those with no consistent A men, nn Journal ol Mild:. Health 5$. 20(0;2066: The velocity of sound in air is 1,130tone, such as a waterfall): This com- Novi-tuber 1965. feet per second (ft/sec); in water, 4,500 bination of pure tones and random Mr. Breysse is a research assistant profes- ft/sec; and in steel, 15,000 ft/sec. sounds form what are called complex sor in the Environmental Health Division of When sound is transmitted through sounds. the University of Washington, Seattle. This the atmosphere, the vibrations may im- The human ear is an amazing instru- paper is adapted from his talk on the same topic at the 1969 NSTA regional cory,rence pinge updn the human car which, if ment.It can recognize and classify in Seattle on October 18. functioningproperly,transmitsthe approximately 340,600 separate tones,

/40. 1 IrmizE5HOLO of Ao14/N ". .%%.*:.t:::::1. " ahlESNOLD OFD4SCOiffoiri- /20 : -% + + + I + 4- 4- + =! . ' :';::; . 4:1;;:::t.. ".:.' !, sr.. /op 14-:1!._ f , . . + +1 ++ 4- + + :. ..-;.%,. ;:;;V:.:::.*:. so + +1 + 1- + ComAtessiiiry Ezevistom 771:CTSNOt 0000 P/SA"Vi Figure1.Alternate compression and ex- 6o + I + pansion of molecules of the transmitting PRINC/1-14 medium creates sound waves. rSPE101 RANEE 40 + l t+ + /A141/0/41LE + + +1 + + /A/AU0/1fLe

1 1 1 11 Figure 2.The auditory field of humans /e 3 62f /20 Anyalto /000£000 1000 deo. /Moo SZ000 ranges from approximately 16 to16,000 cycles per second. PR gyn./en/4-y(41)

63 0.0002 (dynes/cm2) GO SCALE: Source SPL (db) Jet plane (100 ft) 140 -01 Riveter 120 /0 /0 4000 Iloo Rock and roil music 120 Cub Scout meeting (attimes) 110 PkirftIiriVCY 6/0 Subway train (inside) 95-110 Figure 3. Weighting characteristics for sound-pressure-level measurements. Most sound- Automobile (inside level meters are equipped with three electrical weighting or filter networks (A, B, and C), window open) 95-110 which enable the instrument to approximate the response of the ear at different sound- pressu.'e levels. City traffic 90-110 Normal conversation 60-70 Quiet office 40-60 Whisper 40-60 Threshold of hearing 03

MS lin=ft): indiiduals. Since SPL is based on a logarithmic to relationship,intensitiesofmultiple -,...... sources cannot be added arithmetically. 43 -30WU The additive effect of two SPLs of the iv same magnitude would theoretically in- SO40WU crease the SPL 6 db, provided that b the two sounds are exactly in phase. --..,...... ir.v.-- If, on the other hand, the sounds are Inso 60VAIS not in phase, thentheoverall SPL O would be increased 3 dbthus 90 db 90 db = 93 db. v -40

INSTRUMENTS for measuring sound S'o are called sound-level mctcrs and ... , . analyzers. The sound-level meter con- ei do 14, sists of a microphone, an amplifier, and _ an indicator. The mctcrs respond to Z 7o frequencies between 20 to 20,000 HZ. Current instruments are designed to /000 ZOoo Soo* 4000 5.000 meet specifications establAcd by the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI). Most sound-level p.RE-0 uFNG y 64) meters are equipped with three eke- Figure 4. Results of five studies involving hearing loss with age in men.

64 4s

The oncoming generation will need mented. On the one hand, these de-aided by w hates er the photos can re- to cope in .every pocsible way with thecisions are not likely to be wise onesveal, the species composition o. the problem of making the supply of re- unless the two preceding steps (inven- vegetational areas is obtained.Other sources from croplands and wildlands tory and analysis) have been properly classifications made are indirectly re- meet, the ever-increasingdemand forexecuted. On the other hand, regard- lated to the aerial photos. them. The resources of our dwindling less of the care with which steps (1) An example of the photo classifica- croplands and wildlands must bc man- and (2) have bccn executed, nothingtion that is done in the forest Service aged asintelligently as possible.A of consequence nas been done until theTimber In% entory appears in Figure 1. first step leading, to such management third step is taken. The objective is to By quickly accomplishinlAle classifi- is that of obtaining accurate inventories achieve more intelligent management cation that is shown here, it is possibrc of the resourt.es associated with these and consequently to increase the yield for the photo interpreter to reduce the lands, including their soils, water, and of croplands and wildlands.Inventory amount of on-the-ground timber survey vegetation. and analysis do nothing unless action to approximately 1/1000 of what it Sonic highly ingenious means have follows. --- previously had to be. Thisis not only bccn developed recently for making a saving in time and money but is also such inventories periodically on crop- AS OUR first example of an inven- of tremen ions value in that itis pos- lands and wildlands.This increased tory technique,letus considersible to inventory all of the resources ability to acquire accurate, timely in-one of the important current projects in a vast forest area quickly. One can, -ventory data can lead to the bettzr man- of the United States Forest Servicetherefore, arrive at an intelligent man- agemen of such lands, therby helping taking an inventory of the nation's tim- agement plan famnore speedily than if to solve some of man's most Dressing ber resource. As authorized by Con-old, conventional, on-the-ground tim- problems of supply and demand. gress,thisinventory (known as the ber-cruising techniques were used with- Improved resource 'inventories lead Forest Survey) includes 'among otherout the aid of aerial photography. toimprovedresourcemanagement things the determination of our focst through three successive steps.These land acreage, the existing timber vol- MANAGERS of cropland and wild- are:inventory, analysis, .,fld operation. umes on those lands, and present po- land resources realize that ac- In theinventorystep (the one with tential timber growth. curateinventories are necessary for which most of my remaininy, comments The process of obtaining these factslivestock as well as for vegetation and will deal), an effort is-fliffircrfirdeter-begins with a classification of vegeta-other resources. Among the inventory mine -how much" of "what" isrwherc" tion made on aerial Photos taken from data desired hy livestock managers arc. throughout the area that is to be man- an aircraft flying three or four miles livestock counts in each field by kind of aged. The "wh: ,athisinstance above theearth. The classification animal (e.g., cattle, sheep), use (e.g., usuallyreferstospecificiesources in three ways. First, it providesdairy cattle, beef cajtie), breed, sex, within ate cropland or wildland area. 0 Area inventory of the various timber age, and vigor.In addition, they need Among such resources are the soils;and other vegetation types. Second, it an estimate of each factor affecting the water, minerals. vegetati( and usually ,gives a "sti atification" of timber stands animal-carrying capacity of an area, (

trical weighting or filter networks A, B, and C, which enable the instrument to approximate the response of the ear at sound-pressure levels about 40, 70, and 100 db. Figure 3 represents the ap- O proximate weighting characteristics for the A, B, and C networks. /0 Because the various networks cut moV exioiosero out certain portions of the lower frequencies, it is important that the net- 10 work utilizedfor obtaining an SPL measurement be part of the designation for that measurementfor example, 40 78 dbA, 78 dbB, or 73 dbC. If the network is not shown, then it must be assumed that the measurement was made utilizing the "C" scale.This 2;:rp0.4irp network aspect can be confusing, since a noise source may have sound-pres- 7o sure-level readings of 75 dbA and 95 dbC, while another source may have readings of 75 dbA and 80 dbC. If we So. /00 0 .200. 4... "Pee compare these two sources by their "A" scale readings, it might be assumed C4 4) that they are of equal intensities. On PREpuemoe the other hand, their "C" scale readings Figure 5.Hearing losses by a group exposed to industrial noise (90-100 db) foi an are quite different.' It is, therefore, im- average period of 26 years exceeded those by a nonexposed group. portant that these facts be kept in mind when attempting to compare intensities of different sources. Other physiological effects besidescharacteristics of the soundits inten- A numberofsound-measuring.hearing impairment have been reported. sity, frequency, intermittencyas well meters also contain frequency analy-Certain noises may produce alterationsas the inappropriateness of the stimu- zers, which are capable of determiningin respiration, circulation, basal meta-lus, interference with speech communi- intensitieswithdiscretefrequency bolic rate, and muscle tension. Workerscations, and the unexpectedness of the ranges. The most common type of fre-exposed to noise have complained ofnoise. The type of noise, rather than quency-band analyzer periuits analysisirritability and sleeping disturbances.the intensity,isusually the deciding of frequency bands one octave in width. Reactionsmaybemanifestedby factor in influencing emotional reac- nausea, vomiting, and disturbances of tions. A sudden scream, a grating piece EXCESSIVE exposure of humans equilibrium. Noise-exposedworkersof chalk, and a dripping faucetall to noise can produce both physical have also been subject to chronic gas-involve different yet characteristic emo- and psychological manifestations. The tritis.Increases in peripheral vasculartional responses.Unfortunately, our initial :ymptoms of noise exposure be-resistanceand decreasesinarterialknowledge has not yet reached the point low the threshold of pain are usuallyblood flow along With diminution inwhere the complaint threshold asso- discomfort, headache, and temporarysalivary gland and gastric secretionsciated with a given noise stimulus can hearing loss. If the exposure is allowed may als,- result.Foreign studies havebe predicted with any degree of re- to continue 'Over a period of years,reportedanincreasedincidenceof liability;thevariationsofhuman gradual permanent hearing impairmentcardiovascular ailmentsin workmen reponses are simply too great. Further- may develop.During theyouthful routinely exposed to high levels of in-more, we are totally ignorant of the yearsup to 30noise-induced dam-dustrial noise.In some cases, a fatal overall long-term effe.cts to our physical age is rarely permanent, with th _ effects effect has been ascribed to highly in- and psychological Nell-being from these being sufficiently mild to be reversible. tense jet plane noise. continued annoyances. Equally as important and very likely I The "C" network represents essentially a flat re. sponse between 50 to10,000 HZ while the "A" moreimportantthanthephysical HUMANS develop hearing loss with net corkfiltersout asignificantportionofthe aging. Figure 4 is a summary of intensity below 500 HZ.It can be concluded that effects are the possible psychological the source represented by the 95 dbC reading con- effects. Psychological reactions, similar five studies involving hearing loss with tains much more of its energy in the frequencies below 500 HZ than the source represented by the to physical responses, involve a multi- age in men.In the past the gradual 80 dbC readingThus the frequency spectra of the two sources will be dificrent. plicity of factors which vary with thedegradation of the hearing ability of the

65 /20 general population was thought to be strictly due to the aging process. A hearing study conducted among one African tribe indicates that the tribal OZ0 elders suffered much less hearing loss SRRIOOus RISK. thandidtheir modern urban con- temporaries. These tribesmen lived in an atmosphere of virtual silence. On the other hand, a similar investigation _APPROAcHwiGi was conducted among an order of cloisterednuns whosf exposureto urban noises was limited. The hearing NeQL.Iatel-E" 0.15K acuity -ofthis group of women was the same as, and in some instances less than, that of a comparable population. Obviously, the question of the influence of aging on hearing loss has not been entirely settled. 70 I I I I I A significant portion of our population has, in the past, been exposed to 7s /so Yo. deo /2.0 2000 4Woo industrial noise in addition to urban /ro Yoo 600 /20o Zioo 41000 9600 droc?) (200 noise.Hearing surveys (Figure 5) .//as) (2,0 (.0-4 o..0 owe) have, in fact, shown that hearing sensitivity is poorer in factory workers and OCTA teE al A10(Nig) other industrial groups than in a population with a minimal occupational ex- Figure 6. Noise levels associated with a planer, two feet from the machine. posure. An example of somenoise levels associated with industrial operations are shown in Figures 6 and '7.It /2o should be noted that the risk curves are higher in the lower frequencies, implying that the lower frequencies are less damaging than are the higher frequen- ao Sas cies.Itissignificant, however, that industry has made rapid strides by the am. SE R.10 5RISK 1 o=m INIMO use of noise control techniques and loo hearing ;protection in its attempts to MIN minimize this problem. lu APPR.OACHINk_NARMF1.4 L. Noise levels in urban communities OC are on the rise. The causes are many, tiso including expanding transportation and industry, population density, and in- N641 Gt I BLERASVA. IMIONI =IMO 01. creased construction. One of the most k critical aspects of the urban noise prob- 0 Ilo lem involves therapidly expanding transportation system, both highway and air travel. There are, at present, in excess of 100,000,000 vehicles on our 70 highways, and the number of new vehiclesincreases every year.The 76" /0.0 Soo boo /2 so 24fo. so problem is magnified by the tremen- Iro Soo ioo 12.00 2400 411. No, C/2 r)(2ro)(sW) / too (4.") dous increase in freeway systems, where 00.0 both tire design and roadway composition contribute to noise output. oc7-4 vr a.IMvos (NE) A few years ago, in a medium-size community, a thoroughfare was located Figure 7. Noise levels from a Presto-log machine. adjacent to an office building which had

66 t, Noise Levels in Office Building and Street Adjacent to Building. and mentally the price of being exposed to ft om one to fifty booms 1.0C%110ti OVCRAI SM. (dbC) per day from SST? Second floor office Should people "Fly" the price of Office "A" ...,11.1m%. open annoyance and discomfort from be- 13ackground--no traffic 58-62 ing exposed to the booms from a T,, Light traffic 64,72 'commercial SST? ogging truck empty 64-80 Logging truck -- loaded 95 3.Will the society of the United States Dump truck 84 "pay" the price of annoyance and Motorcycle 90-94 discomfort from being exposed to Office "A" windows closed the booms from a commercial SST? Backgroundno traffic 48-58 Logging truckloaded 80-92 Even in and around the home individuals are exposed to relatively high Outdoorsfront of main entranceno traffic 64-68 Logging truckloaded 100-104-110 levels of noise.Responsibility for this Dump truckloaded 100-102-105 assault rests with equipment and ma- Light traffic 80-82 1949 sedan 90 chineryincluding home workshop Pick-up truck 86 machines, TVs, radios, hi-fis, food mix- Transit bus 87-90 Nlotorcycle 90-94 ers, air conditioners, washers, heating systems, vacuum cleaners. lawn mow- formerly been situated on a dead-end jets. today there are 150 airports that receive ers, etc.Noise levelsat home may street. Following this roadway addition. jets.Itis estimated that nearly 350 airportsreach 100 db and even higher. %%ill set vice jets in 1970 and more than 500 Measurements made by the author noise levels within the building reached airports Will service jets by 1975. intensities as high as 95 dbC. (See the during a rock and roll dance reached a Furthermore, Mr.Burnard,ina maximum of 122 dbC with the average table.)Levels on the street corner statement before the House Subcom- reached 105 dbC. As a result of the intensity exceeding 104 dbC. A Florida mittee on Transportation and Aeronau- his teen- noise, many tenants were forcedto physician concerned about tics, reported the following figures foraged daughter's difficulty in hearing. move. aircraft and aircraft movements. In 1968 noise measurements were lifterattending adance,. selecteda made in schoolrooms where student Aircraft group of '10 teen-agers and tested their hearing screening tests were performed. Movements healing an hour before a dance and Those schools located close to busy Year Jet Air (millions) again immediately after the dance. All streets, freeways, and airports experi- 1960 224 (turbojets) 26 suffered significant temporary hearing enced noise levels 10 to 15 db above 1966 896 47.8 impairment. with the greatest impair- the levels in the other s 'ools. Recently, 1974 2240 95.6 ment being in the high frequency range. continuous noise monitoring was ac- The sonic boom controversy presents complished in a school located imme- ONE can conclude that man is -ex- some_ very_ interesting aspects. A Spe- diately adjacent to a freeway. During posed to noise from many sources cial Study Group on Noise and Sonic the school day, background noise in- and that all of these sources contribute Boom in Relation to Man reports that tensities in an empty classroom facing to the potential damaging effects. The although the sonic boom from an SST the freeway averaged between 70 to 74 question most often posed is:What would not be harmful to the human ear dbC with maximum levelsreaching can we do about noise? Here we have and although it has not been demon- 92 dbC. some answers-vid technology but many strated that "startle" responses to theothers that take us into the area of boom would have significant, harmful, PROBLEM of aircraft noise value judgments and considerations that psychological effects, it appears that the THEexistsat every major airportin are political, economic, or sociological psychological, sociological, and politi- the world.Despite the attempts to in nature. cal reactions of millions of people to limit jet engine noise, this problem will The recentinterestin operational the sonic-boom environment from the undoubtedly get more severe before airport and aircraft noise and the fu- SST will be extremely adverse and may adequate controls are promulgated. To ture advent of supersonic transports, be of significant magnitude Sand preva- the many persons clustered in homes with the resulting sonic booms, has lence to cause partial, if not complete, and apartment buildings below or near prompted a good deal of public atten- curtailment of the overland operation the flight paths, life can be almost un- tion to the problem of urban noise. of an SST. bearable. E. Thomas Burnard, execu- As a consequence, there has been an This study group indicated that the tive vice president of the Airport Oper- increasing demand forlegislation to issues may be clarified through the fol- ators Council International states: combat excessivenoise.In general, lowing questions: Aviation is still a fast growing industry in two types of laws have been used in theU.S.In 1960 only 16 airports serviced 1. Can people "pay" physiologically attemptsto control noise:nuisance

67 laws and performance zoning codes.nuisance if the following factors are validated foiuse in community regu- Nuisance laws arc intended primarily part of the problem: lations.Control of community noise to restrict annoying or unpleasant noise . The dog must bark of howl. must be recognized and accepted as a sources which are neither easily meas- 2.The barking must be excessive. major factorin urban planning and ured nor controlled by physical means. 3.The dog must annoy more than development.For this to he accom- The most frequent forms use time limits one individual in different house- plished, it would he necessary to estab- to prohibit Operation or the phrase holds. lish uniform standards and criteria for "loud and annoy ing to persons of nor--4.It must be at a time generally con-evaluating and controlling noise.Be- mal sensibilities."In many cases, the cededthatquietshouldreign cause noise is both a local and an area- action is to prove that the complainer throughout the neighborhood. wide problem, it seems to me that we possesses other than normal sensibili- When the Humane Society receives will have to take the following steps: ties, which may be true or untrue. a complaint regarding a barking dog,Appropriate local, state, and federal Performance zoning codes typically a letter is sent to the owner informing legislation must he forthcoming in order specify the maximum allowable noise athim that his neighbors have complained to support and effect compliance with afixed point and providerelief byand requesting that the nuisance bestandards; the manufacturers of me- specifying limits for noise emitted from abated.If the dog owner refuses tochanical equipment for all phases of variousactivities. Nominally,these comply, the complainants may, with use, domestic and industrial,_must_be laws are proposed for promoting the the assistance of two others not of the made aware of the need to produce public's health, safety, and general wel- same household and so affected, regis- quieter equipment; construction codes fare while conserving property valuester their complaint at the "In Person must also recognize the need for acous- and encouraging the most appropriate Complaint Department" in the public tic treatment in homes and buildings. land use. Both nuisance laws and zon- safety building. This department may A major. effort will he required To ing codes have been used in a number authorize court action. solve the noise-abatement problem.It of places in the United States. A review There appears, however, to be some will be mandatory that many facets of of most of these codes and laws indi- reluctance on the part of the judiciary our societyprivate, industrial, gov- _ cates-that they are usually ineffective to levy "stiff" fines on individuals whose ernmental, educational, and technical or unenforceable. In either event, this animals have created a nuisance.It assume greaterresponsibilityinthe approach has not proved realistic inhas been put forth by some that thequest for aquieter city.The only

controlling urban noise, at least at the way to solve the problem is for the question now is. . . are weready for level that I consider desirable. judge to confiscate the animal. How- the. challenge?If we are not, thew

Many common sources of noise are ever, legally, titis tends to be impossiblethere is one consoling fact ... as you not amenable to control by these meth- as the animal is considered personal the reader grow older, you will be dis-

ods. The automotive vehicle, a major propertyMost judges would not haveturbed less by noise . . . youwill, of source of community pollution includ- the right to confiscate personal property course, hear less. ing noise, requires special attention as from an individual as the result of a does aircraft noise and noise produced misdemeanor.Ithas been suggested Bibliography by mechanical devices. Here it becomes that perhaps one way to solve the prob- I."Aircraft Noise." Enrironnuunal Scicnce imperative that noise control be de-lem would he to issue a permit to keep and 7.e, hnology 1:976-83; December signed into the basic product.I hope the dog, rather than a license. Then, if 1967. 13187ier, W."Criteriafor Control of that this can he accomplished volun- the dog becomes a public nuisance, the Community Noise." Sound and Vibra- tarily,If not. then I foresee that federal "permit" could be revoked, thereby thin 2: 11-15; May 1968. legislatiop will he required. forcing the owner to remove the animal. 3. . "Sonic Boom inRelation to A look at the problem of toe barking Man." Scionist am! Citi;cn 10: 223-229:- Such a procedure would probably be November 1968, dog gives some insight into our attempts acceptable but _would stillnecessitate 4. Cohen. A."Industrial and Community to control noise sources.Each year legal action. Noise Problemsand LegalEffortsat Er rironmoual numerous complaints are registered be- Control."Journalof Health 30: 516-24; March-April 1968. cause of noisy dogs. According to one AS YOU can well imagine, noise 5. . "Location-Design Noise Control local Humane Society, the harking dog pollution control is an extremely ofTransportation Systems." United and its relation as a public nuisance complicated endeavorinvolvin; nu- States Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Washington, D.C. January have long plagued the Humane Society merous variables and factors, many of 1967. and law-enforcement agencies. Existing which arcstill unknown. Much has 6. , and R, Scherger."Correlation laws tend to state that a barking dog been gained from past studies involving of Objectionability Ratings of Noise with Proposed Noise Annoyance Measures," may be a nuisance under certain condi- aircraft and industrial noise as well as UnitedStatesDepartmentofHealth, tions. No komn law adequately definesviewpoints from other countries. With EducationandWelfare. Washington, a nuisance as it applies to the harkingthe possible exception of -aircraft and D.C. May 1964. 7.inductria/ Nofre Manual. American In- dog. The courts generally feel that avehicular noise, no set of maximum dustrialHygiene Association.Detroit. barking dog can only become a public noise levels has as yet been adequately Michigan. 1966 Second Edition,

68 HOW PLANTS FIGHT "MAN-MADE" POLLUTION

H. E. Heggestad

FOR MORE than a century, scien-between the air and surface of leavespart per billion or less of HF in air, tists and others have been con-results in removal of pollutants. Dur-some plants accumulatein a single cerned about plant injury caused bying the day, when photosynthesis ex-season st.veral hundred parts per mil- air pollution) [7]It is only in the pastceeds respiration, the oxygen supply oflion of fluoride in foliage without visible few years, however, thatthere hasthe air is replenished. Even unpleasanteffects. [II]Other plant species are been active interest in how plants helpodors may be removed or masked with injuredwhenconcentrationsreach to fight pollution and to -improve thepleasant odors from vegetation. about 50 parts per million. Also, plants quality of the air we breathe. Had others previously suggested theexposed to sulfur dioxide (SO2) tend Robinette, a landscape -architect ofuse of plantsinthis way?Search to increase in sulfur content. the University of Wisconsin, wrote inthrough the1949 USDA Yearbook As these examples show, information 1968, "At a time when there is muchTrees, which contains articles on a widehas been availableonremovalby talk about air pollution, it appears that range of subjects, reveals only relatedplants of particles and gases from air, one of the greatest sources of natural information.2 Shelterbelts are used onbut little effort has been made so far air conditioning iv being overlooked. the Great Plains to reduce wind erosionto apply this information as a means Plant materials are among the mostof soil, but they were not planted toof improving the environment. effectiveairconditionersinexist- catch airborne soil-particles. The Year- ence." [19] book does mention the trapping ofScope of the Problem Robinette's graphic drawings showed snow by trees and the value to agricul- What is the magnitude of the air- how plants can remove airborne par-ture of the resulting increase in soilpollution problem? In 1969, an esti- ticles and condition large volumes ofmoisture. [21] Of course, if trees trapmated 281 million tons of pollutants air. He pointed out that air is slowedsnow, they can also trap drifting soil.were emitted into the atmosphere in the down as it moves through trees. caus-In addition, shelterbelts, by reducing United States. [4] About one-eighth of ing precipitation of particulate impuri-wind, create more favorable conditionsthis total of pollutants (35.2 million ties.At the same time, interaction in orchards for pollination by bees. Thistons) were particulates, and the re- wind reduction is a form of "air con-mainder were gaseous pollutants. The

I Pollution implies the introduction of any untie- ditioning." latter include carbon monoxide (151.4), simble substance in the ensironntent. Air pollution We have known for many years thatsulfuroxides(33.4),hydrocarbons may include varing amounts of mutual substances in air, for example. dust of soh:mite origin, mate- plants also remove gaseous pollutants, (37.4), and nitrogen oxides (23.8 mil- rial~ from living plants such as pollen, spores, fine seeds, terpettes, and other volatile products, many such as hydrogen fluoride (HF), fromion tons). volatileproducts from biologic decay,etc. An the atmosphere, With only about one According to Altshuller [3], more assessment of this material is be and the scope of this paper. than two billion tons of carbon dioxide with the public's reneed interest in trees, this USDA Yearbook can be a valuableinformation (CO2) are produced annually in the Dr. Heggestad is leader, Plant Air Pollution resourLe ror example,itprovides a key to help United States from fossil fuel consump- Laboratory, Plant Science Research Divi- identify trees and detailed recommendations as to %%Inch trees arc aeaptcd to different parts of the tion.While some of this CO2 isre- sion, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. De- country. The book is out of print, but your library partment of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland. may base a copy. moved by dis ;olving in seawater, itis

69 possible that plants also removea sig-Air Cleansing Action by Plants nificantquantity,thoughtheexact According to Rich et al. [171, re- amount- is unknown. The level of CO. moval of ozone by plants is regulated in the atmosphere is rising slightly, but by the :,ane factors that control the there is no evidence at this time that exchange of water vapor between the the increase is of serious consequence. leaves and the atmosphere. The cuticle, It is primarily the particulates in airor leafsurface,destroys verylittle that reduce visibility and call our at- ozone compared to that removed when tention to air pollution.However, as thestomata(microscopic breathing the data above reveal, gaseous pol- pores) are opened, permitting ozone to lutants(excluding CO_)are sevenenter the leaf. times greater, on a weight basis, than Depending on theplantspecies, particulate pollutants. These figures do ozone concentration, and other factors, not include secondary pollutants pro- uptake of ozone by leaves often results duced by the action of sunlight on in acute injury,. premature aging, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and on certain senescence in plants. Even with severe hydrocarbons to form ozone(03), injury to some leaves, removal of ozone peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), and alde- from air continues as long as there are hydes such as formaldehyde. newer leaves that are functional.Of The fact is, however, that ozone and course, the primary functiotrbf leaves PAN are more toxic to vegetation than is to carry on photosynthesis, which are the primary pollutants involved ininvolves intake of carbon dioxide and their formation.If ozone concentra- release of oxygen. The levels of oxygen tions exceed one -tenth of a part per in the atmosphere on a global basis million, visible injury may result, espe- haveremainedconstantat20.946 cially on sensitive vegetation grown in percent. .1 the humid eastern United States. Even Greenbelts have been suggested to The author studies grasses in a growth lower concentrations of PAN will cause reduce gaseous and particulate air pol- chamber; they have been exposed to a acute injury to some species. lutants, as wellas to provide other mixture of ozone and sulfur dioxide. benefits.However, littlequantitative information is available on the rates range of 0 to 24 parts per hundred mil- Table 1. Removal of NO2 from Salt Lake Valley.° and significance of pollutant removal lion. As length of exposure increased, by plants.Most of the studies thatthe uptake remained linear with the RLMOVAL RAIL have been made deal with sulfur diox- range 0 to 8 pphm but became non- NO: CONCEN- RAT!: FROM TIII: ide; a few are concerned with nitrogen linear and was reduced in the range TRATION FEILACRE--- VAI.I IN'. dioxide, fluoride, and other compounds. 8 to 24 pphm. Alfalfa absorbed (24-hoar average)(.1,/ day) (tons/day) According to -Gudcrian of Germanyin excess of 150 microliters per square 2 pphm 72 33.00' 1 pphm 36 16.50 [6], sulfur absorption is least when the meter of ground area per minute when 0.5 pphm 18 8.25 concentrations of SO2 are highest. Ab- exposed to 16 pphm NO:. Oats showed From Tingev. 1221 sorption of sulfur increases with de- uptake similar to that of alfalfa during t. Based on 489.1,00 acres in Salt Lake Valley. 85 percent covered by vegetation in summer. creasing concentrations of and the day, but uptake by this crop was his law is wisalent to about 43 percent of increasing exposure times.For ex-erratic at night. estimated daily emissions. ample, absorption is greater when the The diurnal uptake responses for exposure time is 20 minutes and con- NO2 were similar to those for the Table 2. Solubility in water and centration is 1 ppm than when the con-assimilation of CO2 and for transpira- pollutant uptake rate by alfalfa.° centration is 2 ppm and the time is 10tion. Data based on extrapolation from minutes. Sulfur accumulations may oc- the NO2 absorption data are presented UPTAKE RAT is SOLUBILITY POLLUTANT ALFALFA Al 20°C cur even under pollution conditions in Table 1 to show estimated removal which do not depress plant yield of NO2 from the Salt Lake Valley. The (at 5 pphat) or the / ininhie)(cc gas/ cc11,0) quality of plant products. removal of this amount of NO2 by CO 0 0.02 plantsgreatlyreducestheamount NO 3 0.05 CO: 10 0.88 Restilts'with-Alfalfa and Oats available for photochemical reactions Os 50 0.26 According to Tingey 124 who wasand production of ozone Ind PAN. NO: 57 Decomposes a student with Hill [81 at the Univer- CI: 62 2.30 Hill4Sf -provides quantitative infor- SO: 85 39.4 sity of Utah, the initial uptake rate ofmation on removal of several pollutants HF 113 446.0 NO2 by alfalfa and oats was directlyby plants. Most of the studies were From A. C. hill. 181 proportionalto concentrationinthe conducted ina laboratory chamber.

70 However, uptake of radioactive SO, by during the day. [15] The removal at high aren't absorbed by- green plants. alfalfa in the chamber was about thenight is probably due to absorption of [2, 8, 9J Inman et al. [9, 101 demon- same as in a fieldin Utah. At low the gas in surface moisture, since' leaf strated that soil was capable of ab- concentrations of SO, (5 to 25 pphm),stomata are normally closed in dark-sorbing CO and that its activity was uptake was directlyproportional to ness. From a study involving 900 due to the fungal mieroflora. This work concentration. The rate of absorptionspruce trees it was learned that those showed that treatments such as heat was 17 microliters per square meter of which are most sensitive to injury bysterilization and antibiotics destroyed ground area per minute for each part SO, removed more of the gas than did the capacity of soil to remove CO from per hundred million of SO, in air. resistant trees. [161 Species of Benda the surrounding air. Alfalfa removed gaseous pollutants (birch), Fagus (beech), and G rpinus More than 200 different species and in the following order: hydrogen fluo-( hornbeam ) absorbed more SO, than strains of fungi, yeasts,and bacteria ride most rapidly, followed by sulfurdid some_ species of Acer (maple), were isolated from the pott:ng soil. 1101 dioxide,chlorine,nitrogendioxide,Sorinis (ash), and Popidtts (poplar).Only 16 cultures,allfungi, proved ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrate, and nitric[13] capable of removing CO. Active fungi oxide. (Table 2) The absorption rate of In England, significant reductions in incl tided Penicilliunt &Outwit, Peticil- nitric oxide was very low, and it wasatmospheric SO, were measured above licutt Muor Mph,- not possible to detect any absorptiona hawthorns hedge. (141 Intake of thesporangium parytun,, Mortierelkt vesi- of carbon monoxide. Pollutant uptakegas was through stomata during the (tibia, and four species of Aspergillus. is influenced by wind velocity, heightday, whereas at night absorption wasThe investigators estimatedthatthe of plant canopy, al.(' light intensity. primarily on wet surfaces. No loss oftotalsoilsurface of the continental Hill also observed a close relationSO, from the air was measured when United States is capable of removing between the uptake of these pollutants the hedge was too cold, too dry, wilt-some 500 million metric tons of CO and their solubility in water. (Table 2) ing, or fumigated suddenly with a sharp per year, or more than twice the esti- A relationship between the uptake rate increase in SO, for a few hours. Earlier mated annual worldwide production of by plants and the water solubility ofstudies in England with barley seed- CO by main. pollutants is not surprising, since pol- lings had -revealed that the intake of Fortunately, the ambient level of CO _ lutants entering the leaf contact cell radioactively labeled-SO, Was through in the earth's atmosphere is remaining surfaces, which arc always moist. Asstomata and was greatest when hu-essentially constant, even though the stated by Hill, the ability to continue to midity was high. [20]Significant ab- world's oceans are significant natural absorb the pollutant for long periods sorption occurred in thin films of water, sources of CO, and man's worldwide of time depends upon the plant's ability whether on living or nonlivig surfaces. production of this poisonous gas is an to metabolize, translocate, or otherwise Roberts [18] in the United States estimated 151 million tons per year. remove the pollutant from the absorb- confirms the earlier report from Europe Similar studies by a team of workers ing solution.With respectto SO2, [161 that ability to absorb SO_ is re-at USDA and by workers elsewhere when concentrations iin the leaf are low, lated to the relative sensitivity of plantdemonstrated that soil was also a sink all the toxicant is oxidized to the rela- speciestoinjury by the gas.The for ethylene and other hydrocarbons. tively nontoxic sulfate form: but when foliage of white birch, which is very[ I] However, while evidence was pre- concentrations are high, the sulfite ionsensitive, absorbed 48 percent more sented that microbe, of sonic sort were accumulates, and there may be an in-SO, pe7 area of leaf surface than didrequired for absorption, their identity crease in sulfurous acid. the foliage of red swamp maple, a rela- was not established.It is important to Hill made no mention of hydrocar-tively tolerant species: point out that soil is only one way for bon uptake by plants. About 70 per- The capability of two tree species to hydrocarbons to he removed from the ccnt_of, the hydrocarbons produced by remove dust was estimatedin Ger- atmosphere. Research has shown that man originate from transportation ac-many. [12] One acre of beech forest avarietyof hydrocarbons arede- tivities. They include acetylene (about removed 27.6 tons of dust compared :o graded photochemically in the presence 25 percent) and ethylene (20 percent). 12.9 tons by an acre of spruce forest. of oxides of nitrogen and by ozone. While thesegases arereasonably When the dust was washed off by rain, Soil also acts as an effective sink for soluble in wate (1.00 cc acetylene and the filtering capacity of the trees was SO.. and NO...At any rate, the soil 0.25 CC ethylene per cc water, respec- restored. becomes the ultimate sink for all pol- tively), there is no evidence that they lutants as vegetation dies, falls; and are absorbed by higher plants. [2] Role of the Soil decays in the soil.It seems reasonable While vegetation serves as an impor- to assume that the net activity of man Action of Woody Plants (ant sink for some pollutants, the soil will he tellected in the changed com- In Europe, it has been established it grows in also plays a role in air puri- position of soil and the water that that spruce and pine needles absorbed fication. This observation seems to be flows from itinto the 'inal sink, the SG, in winter as well as summer, andespecially important for gases, such as oceans. trees absorbed SO, at night as well as carbon monoxide (CO) and ethylene, Higher plants fight pollution in more

71 ways than by removing air pollutants. tion is essential. However, we should 9.Inman, R. E.,e: al."Soil. A Natural They hold topsoil in place and thereby know more about the plants which are Sink for Carbon Monoxide."Science 172:1229-1231: June 18, 1971. reduce the amount of sediment and available to us and strive toward even 10. - tnd R. B. Ingersoll."Uptake excess nutrients available to pollute our greater functional and graceful use of of Catbon Monoxide by Soil Fungi." streams. Trees, shrubs, and tall grassour plant material. Journal, Arr Pollution Control Assoehr- thm21:646.647: October 1971. make effective sound barriers and thus There is sufficient diversity in plant 1 I.Jacobson. J. S., et td. "The Accumula- reduce noise pollution. Cook and Van species to meet our requiremelltg. As tion of Fluoride by Plants."Journal, Haverbeke 151 found that certain treepartners with nature; we must be con- Air PoIhrtion Control Association16: configurations reduced sound levels by cerned about safeguarding this variabil- 412.417; August 1966. 12.Keller. T. The Effects of Air Pollution half, while combinations of trees and ity, as well as about utilizing it for our on Vegetation"(Auswirkungen der grass cut noise to one-third compared maximum benefit. We have a respon- Luftverunreinigungen auf die Vegeta- with readings over equivalent distances sibility to wilderness areas, to maintain tion).Suredtehygierre(Uelzen'Ilani- burg) 22 (6):130-136; 1971. of open hard surface. agricultural and forest lands, and to 13.Kohout. R.. and L. Materna. "Sorption utilize the plants for the beautification and Propagation of Sulfur Dioxide in Side Effects of our cities and homes. We are re- the Assimilation Organs of Some Forest Removal of particulates by plantsminded, also, Woody Plants." Conference on Effect that more should be of Industrial Emissions,Forestry,Janske has little, if any, effect on the vegeta- known about the myriad specks of soil Lazne, Czechoslovakia. pp. XVII-I to tion itself, but plant removal of gaseous microflora.They remove pollutants, XVII-6; 1966. pollutants, such as ozone, PAN, high decay organic matter, fix nitrogen, and 14.Martin, A.. and F. R. Barber. "Some Measurements of Loss of Atmospheric levels of sulfur dioxide, chlorine, etc., otherwise enrich the soil, which in turn Sulfur Dioxide Near Foliage." Atmos- may cause injury to the plants. This sustains our green plants. In addition, pheicEnvironment5:345-352; May damage is of economic importance, es- plants in oceans and other bodies of 1971. pecially to growers of foliage plants 15. Materna, L.. and R. Kohout. "The Ab- water help maintain oxygen reserves sorption of Sulfur Dioxide by Spruce where disfigured leaves arc worthless. and supply food. It is on all the plants, and Pine Trees."Naturtrissenschaf ten In addition, the accumulation of fluo-and the environment which nurtures (Berlin) 50 (II): 07; 1963. ride in forage crops can result in severe them, that we depend. 0 16.l'elz, E., and L. Materna. "Studies of the Problem of Individual Smoke Re- injury to animals eating the foliage, sistances of Spruces."Archly fur Forst- especially if it contains 50 ppm or more References eserr13 (2):177-210; 1964. fluoride, and very little,if any, other 17. Rich, S.,et rd."Ozone Uptake by Bean Leaves." Science169:79-80; July3, feedis available.This problem has I.Abe les, F. IL.et al."Fate of Air Pol- lutants: Removal of Ethylene, Sulfur been identified, primarily in cattle, on Dioxide, and Nitrogen by Soil."Sci- 18. Roberts, IL R. 'Trees as Air Purifiers." farms down wind from some large ence 173:914.916; September 3, 1971. Arbori.st News. In press. fluoride-emitting industries. 2. ,etal."Mechanismsof Hor- 19. Robinette, G."Plants as Air Condi- mone Action: Use of Deuterated Ethyl- tioners." Horticulture 46:26-29; 1968. ene to Measure Isotopic Exchange with 20.Spudding,D.J. "Uptake of Sulfur Need for Greater Knowledge Plant Material and Biological Effects of Dioxide by Barley Leaves at Low Sulfur We know that plant productivity can ()emended Ethylene." Maw Physiology, Dioxide Concentrations."Nature224: be reduced while the plants remove 1972. In press. 1229-1231: 1969. 3.Altshuller, A. P. "Atmosphei ic Analy- 21.Stoeckeler. L. H., and R. A. Williams. gaseous pollutants, from the air. We sis by Gas Chromauovaphy." Advances "Windbreak: and Shelter Belts." Year- need to know whether there is a reduc- in Chromatography5:229-262; 1968. b./okof,fgrieulture:Trees. 1949. tion in plant productivity because of 4.CouncilorEnvironmental Quality.En- l'p. 191-199. 22. Tingey,I). T.Foliar Absorption of removal of gaseous pollutants by the vironmental Quality. Second Report (transmitted to the Congress). 1971. Nitrogen Dioside.MS Thesis, Depart- soil. Also, does this process alter pop- I'. 212. ment of Botany, University of Utah, ulations of fungi and other organisms 5. Cook. D. I., and D. F. Van Haverbeke. Salt Lake City.1968. needed in the soil to remove the pol- Treesand .Thrub.s. fur Noise Abatement. lutants? Research Bulletin 246, U.S. Forest Serv- It should be noted that soil ice. July 1971. AUTI ioR's Not E: microbes also remove other pollutants 6.Guderian, R. -The Correlation Between Grateft Iacknowledgmentis madeto in soil; for example, they detoxify cer- SIIfur ContentinPlants Sulfur F. IL Abeles, USDA, Beltsville, Maryland, tain pesticides. Dioxide Content in Atmosphere." Zeit- and toB. R. Roberts, USDA, Delaware, fiir Pllanzenkrankheiterrturd Ohio, for assistance in the preparation of There should be no question about PflanzerrsehutzBand 77. Hell. 4-7, pp. this manuscript. the value of plants in controlling pol- 200.220, 290.308, 387-399; 1970. The AgriculturalResearch Servicehas lution, as well as in providing food and 7.Heggestad, H. E., and W. W. Heck. two new publicationsoffering classroom -Nature, Extent, and Variation of Plant activities related to the work done by the other material needs for our expanding Response to Air Pollutants." Advances AirPollutionLaboratory.They arcAir population. Furthermore,inurban in AgronomyVol. 23. Actlemi4 Press, Pollution: A Threat I: PlantsandTesting .areas, trees and other plants provide New York.19711 Ppl fur Air Pollution.Both are available free an aesthetic link between man and his Hill. A. C. :*Vegbation:_; A Sink Jor bywriting totheEdVcationalServices - Atmospheric-Pollutants;'Journal, Air BranchrAgriculturd RiiStIirch Service, Room wilderness heritage. To satisfy these Polharon C'efinrentilViiiTiirn21:341- 117,-131Tildhir-3077Agricultural Research varied needs, an abundance of vegeta- 346; June 1971. 1 Center, deltsville, Md. 20705.

72 TRACE ELEMENTS AND HEALTH

Wayne A. Pettyjohn

NEAR the close of World War 11 gions, vvere suffering from a strange. shimaIsland.betweenJapanand the badly damaged Japanese in- sometimes fatal disease that caused the Korea. where cadmium, zinc, and lead dustrialmachine was attemptingto bones to become so thin and brittle are mined.IffOitac was discovered keep production in pace with military that they easily snapped.The very there also, although it had not been rec- losses. Throughout several regions of painfulafflictionbecame known asognized previouslyperhaps because thecountry,mining operationsfor"itac-itae." which litcrally means "ouch- early symptoms are more easily diag- heavy metals were proceeding with ouch." Its_cause was unknown. nosed as backache, headache, arthritis. greathaste. Good industrial waste - In 1960 Jun Kobayashi 161, a Japa- rheumatism, or lumbago. Without some disposal practices were largely ignored. nese researcher. examined bones and clue as to the cause of the disease, it Along the upper rcaches.of the Zintsu tissues of itac-itac patients. He found'is nearly impossible to diagnose. River basin, milling wastes from a mine in them large concentrations of lead. Of special significance are the unusu- producing zinc. lead. and cadmium werezinc. and _cadmium; consequently, he ally low concentrations of the metallic dumped untreated into the river. Down- began to carry out experiments to test elements in the contaminated water as stream. the contaminated eater %vasthe effects of these elements on soilcompared to their concentrations in soil used by farmers for drinking, cooking. and plants. Chemical analyses showed or plants. Sixty river samples from the and washing. as well as kir the irriga-that the rice plants had selectively ab- Zintsu basin were chemically examined, tion of rice fields.In a relatively short sorbed and accumulated large amounts but most of them contained less than time, the yield from rice paddies irri-of these metals from the soil that had 1 ppm (parts per million)' of cadmium gated with the muddy water began tobeen contaminated by theirrigation and less than 50 ppm of zinc. Twenty- decrease. and many of the rice plantswater. The plants continued to absorb three mud samples, however, had a showed evidence of stunted growth. dangeriffc heavy metals from the con-cadmium content as high as 620 ppm Sometime lints it was recognized by taminated soil y ears after the original and zinc content as much as 62.000 Japanese health authorities that many pollution, source had been removed. ppm. That is, the sediment commonly people in the Zintsu basin, as well as Ingestion of the cadmium-contami- contained 10 times more cadmium and throughout several similar mining re-nated rice by tilt. local farmers appar- 1.000 times more zinc than did the ently had caused ostcomalacia, a bone contaminated water! These metals ac- Dr. Pettyjohn is a professor of geology at disease. This disease causes bones to cumulate in living plant and animal The Ohio State University, Columbus, and become thin and brittle because of a tissues and are introduced into a food is also an attorney. Portions of this article loss of (Achim from the bone; the have appeared previouslyinThe Ohio calcium is replaced by cadmium. State University Chapter, Phi Delta Kappa A WM of chemical ine.oistet aimlopoic to one News Letter. April 1970. Similar studies were made on Tsu- penny in $111.000.

73 chain. which often leads to consump- palatable.On the other hand, e% en Widespreadpublicationofthese tion by man. minor amounts of substances such as shocking factsbythenews media arsenic.. lead, cadmium. mercury. and soled to forewarn the general public Pollution and Trace Elements stimium may cause serious ad% erseof the possible toxic effect, of sonic Many industries throughout the %%odd physiological effects in man. industrialeffluents. Ina matter of disposeofcastes containing heat) A great deal of national and inter-tecks. carious state and federal agen- metals by dumping them into %%ater- national concern »as generated folltm- cies began to look at the concentrations way s.Just hecause a11% er contains ing the mercury poisoning of several of minor elements in wafer supplies. industrialeffluent, howo er,doesn't members of the Fluckleby family in .Many people assume that the pres- mean that the cater is harmful. In fact,New Mexicoand from the disco% er) ence of toxic or potentially toxic trace most of the elements found in waste of mercury-bearing fishin Lakes St.elements in eater and 'food- has only waters are not as harmful as cadmium. Clair and Erie.In each of the aboe recently been discos ered.This is ac- Man) of the trace elements, those that cases the source of the toxic material wally far from the ease. The phrase occur naturally in concentrations gen- was traced, found, and identified.In "mad as a hatter" was coined in the erall) less than I ppm in natural waters. New Mexico. the source was an organ- nineteenth century and refers to brain are essential to man's »ell-being.In ()mercury compound used as a prehar- damage ellects arising from the use of many cases. howocr. there is only a %est fungicidal seed-dressing for corn.mercury compounds used to treat felt small safetyrange bemeen require-The treated corn was fed to pigs, and inhatmaking.Reports describing ment and toxicity. the pork was consumed by the family. "Minamata- disease, a form of mer- For example, cobalt is a component The toxic effect of the mercur), whichcury poisoning, began to appear in of vitamin which is essential to life. remained in the pork tissues even afterJapanese journals in1959, follming The lack of minute amounts of copper cooking, resulted in ,severe brain dam- the death of more than fort) people. in the diet results in nutritional anemia age to two children. In Lakes St. ClairThe problems at Minamata Bay in in infants, but large concentrations may and Erie, mercury contamination »as Japan began as early as 1953. 1111 In cause liver damage. Iron is an essential traced to factories disposing of theirfact,scientificandmedicalreports component of the protein in red blood effluent directly into Lake St.Clair. from throughout the world for years cells, and iron deficiency anemia mayThe subsequent ban on fishing in this have pointed Out that many trace ele- create several physiological problems. lake and in the western part of Lakements are common in waste waters; But when iron is present in concentra-Erie profoundly affected the commer-that they tend to be removed from the tions greater than about 1 ppm, thecial fishermen in that area, as well :is water and mud by plants and by ab- water will taste so metallic as to be un-_slimily recreational enterprises. sorption on silt and clay; and that to determine the presence of such elements it was not enough to test only Table 1.Public Health Service recommended limit of selected trace ele-the water. Those who believe the mer- ments in drinking water supplies and the concentration of a few trace cury problems in Lakes St. Clair and elements in municipal water supplies at five major cities in the U.S. Eric arc solved arc sadly mistaken. The mercury is in the mud on the bottom of Tit set l'IlS t the lakes and rivers where it will be fitLAO N I' PARIS Pt k A111 I ION CLI VI I %NO G %KY SAN Jost Moutt.i: rA slowly released to plant and animal life Arsenic .05 for decades. Barium 1.0 .032 .032 .084 .025 .034 All water contains some trace elements, but their significance in metal,- Cadmium .0I ()Ism is a long way from being com- Chromium .05 .0035.,.(02 .001 .0019 NI) eletely understood in spite of years of Fluoride variable -sw work and research by health scientists. Charles Dorfor and Edith Becker com- Lead .05 .1)079 .02 .011 .001 ND piled a mass of chemical data on raw Selenium and finished water supplies from one Silver .05 .01)023 .00054 .00032 0.00009 ND hundred of the largest citiesin the United States: Every sample contained Aluminum None .25 ,096 .049 .094 some trace elements. [2] In some cases Cobalt None NI) NI) NI) ND ND sufficient information is available to set Copper 1.0 .006 .0017 .003 .00062 .0012 up specific water quality standards, but in others the standards are no more Line 5.0 NI) NI) ND ND ND than mere educated guesses that can not looked for. NI) nut 411:u:tied. serve as only temporary guidelines. C. N. Oorfor Edith Decker. "Public Water Supplies of the 100 Largest Cities in the United States." (ieologieal Surrey Water Supply Paper I "12.1962.P. 364. (See Table 1.) .

74 Arsenic The toxicity of arsenic to humans ishas contributed to the unusually high Arsenic is a well-known poLon that well known. The element accumulates concentrationsofleadinroadside occurs naturallyin many rocks, min- in the body, causing arsenosis. The ef- plants.In addition to automotive ex- erals. and soils.It may be present in fects of the poison. when ingested in haust, lead arsenate sprays and fumes relatRely large magnituck s in coal and. Sala!! .111101111h. appear %ciy slowly. it fromcertainmanufactmingplants. when released to the atmosphere as flue may take soeral years for the poison- such as smelter fumes, can also intro- dust. may act as nuclei for the accunui- ing to become apparent. Chronic ar-duce large amounts of lead into the lation of moisture, w hick in turn may senosis.initsmost extreme form. atmosphere. soil. and %egetation. Near lead to arsenic-rich rain. causes death. Arsenic may be carcino-major highways in British Columbia Several industrial processes involved genic. and it is known to affect the liver and in southern England. cerevi. and with ceramics.tanneries,chemicals. and heart. vegetables contain 5 to 10 times the and metal preparation require the use normal amount of lead.In both Fin- of arsenic. but the manufacture of pes- Lead land and the United States, food crops ticides consumes the largest amount of Perhaps the most toxic element ingrown near major highways contain 4 this element. the heavy metal series is lead. Lead is to 20 times the normal amount of lead. a cumulathe poison. Many children 1121 These high concentrations are Members of the Kansas Geological suffer the effects of lead poisoning after mainly the result of pollution. Survey have found 10 to 70 ppm of eating small flakes of lead-base paint. Localizedexcessive concentrations arsenic in presoaks and household de- Lead poisoning may produce mentalof trace elements led H. V. Warren. a tergents. 11j Even in the Kansas River retardation. palsy. and perhaps severe geologist at the Udiversity -of British the amount ofarseniccloselyap- personality and behavioral problems. Columbia, and his co-workers to point proaches the recommended limit as set Moonshine whiskey is a source ofout that "abnormal concenleations of by the Public Health Service.Its pros lead poisoning among unborn or nurs- copper, zinc and lead. can, in a geo- enceis due to waste-water disposal ing infants as well as adults. The leadgraphical sense, be related with arzas from municipal treatment plants and dissolves from soldered connections in where the over-all mortality rate and septic tanks. Arsenic compounds are automobile radiators, which arc usedthe mortality rate for cancer -of' the common in surface water, owing to the fordistilling. Childrenbornfrom stomach are well above average.' 1131 disposal of industrial and municipal mothers addicted to moonshine mayThey also investigated several regions effluent and as a result of runoff of rain show retarded growth before birth, asin England and Scandinavia and found water and snow melt, which erodes soil , well as spastic and other nervous dis-that in every area where multiple scle- containing arsenic pesticides.Investi- turbances after birth. The editors of rosisisespeciallyprevalent, garden gations by the Illinois State Geological Environment report that lead has been and farm products contained abnormal Survey show that the uppermost part of found in 96 percent of the moonshine amounts of lead. the sediment on the floor of the south- whiskey sampled in the southeastern Two researchers at The Ohio State ern part of Lake Michigan contains-- - part of the United States: of this about University found that in all"but one of arsenic ranging in concentration from 30 percent contained as much as I 27 samples of snow collected over a 5 to 30 ppm. 19j The presence of the ppm. 131 20-square mile area in Columbus, Ohio, arsenic has been attributed to man's Another source of lead in drinkibgthe concentration of lead exceeded the activities in the watershcid surrounding watersmore prevalentinthepast Public Health Service recommended the lake. than in the present. thanks to the nowlimit for drinking water.Lead con- As indicated, the presence of arsenic widespread home use of copper tubingcentrations in the January 1970 snow in water supplies is not solely the re-is the solution of lead pipes.It has ranged between 0.05 and 1.09 ppm. sultof pollution.Arsenic poisoningbeen suggested that one of the reasons It was suggested that automobile ex- leading to sickness and death amongfor the decline of the Roman empire haust was the probable source of the cattle in New Zealand was attributedwas lead poisoning. Apparently, many lead. 151 to drinking water containing large con- of the patricians had water piped into Murh of theI 2-million pounds of centrations of arsenic of natural origin. their homes and baths through lead lead shot expended annually by hunters 141 Naturally occurring arsenic com- pipes; they drank their wine from leadcomes to rest on the bottom of shallow pounds in waters from the western part contaiifers. The constant ingestion of lakes and swamps. Eventually the pel- of the United States have also beenthis lead-bearing water and wine may lets become food for unsuspecting water reported. have caused mental retardation of thefowl, causing mass .nortality from lead 'Small amounts of arsenic are in-. ruling class. poisoning.It has been estimated that gested by humans every day.It occurs The major source of lead in theabout one million birds die annually naturally in food, especially fruit and atmosphere is the combustion of lead- fror., ingesting lead shot. vegetables, and as a residue of agricul- based gasoline.It has long been known On the other hand, abnormal con- tural spraying.Itis also present in that emission of lead7containing auto-centrations of lead iii the environment public drinking supplies. mobile exhaust along major highwayscannot always be attributed to pollu-

0 tion. Some local soils are known to production. Some common vegetablestypes or concentrations of trace ele- contain a great deal, because the bed-may not contain sufficientzincfor ments occurring in the municipal sup- rock from which the soil was deriveddietary requirements. and. coupled with ply. Third. industries are not likely to also contains large natural amounts of the general decline in the use of gal- give out information concerning either lead. vanizedmaterialsinplumbing andthe quantity of waste water discharged Se%cral common lead compounds cooking utensils, the availablity of zincor its chemical composition. Nonethe- ma) be major sources of this toxic to humans and other animals has been less, projects of this type would tend to heavy metal in water supplies.Lead greatly reduced. point out some of the many problems acetate is used in the printing and dye- On the other hand, zinc is highlyfacing state, federal, and local pollution ingindustry. Theinsecticideused toxic to fish and other aquatic animals. control and health agencies as well as mainly for the control of the gypsyApparently, the zinc may act as an interested environmentalists. 0 moth and bollweevil contains leadinternal poison, orit may form an arsenate, which could :let as a major insoluble compound with the mucus References source of soil pollution. Lead chloride that covers the gills of fish. [8] I.Angina. E. E.. et al. "Arsenic in Deter- is used in the manufacture of lead-base Largeconcentrationsofzincin gents:Possible Danger and Pollution paints and in solder. The high concen- drinking water are undesirable for sev- Hazard."Sewn( e168:389-390. April tration of lead in some sediment sam-eral reasons. Zinc produces an objec- 17. 1970. ples below some effluent outfalls neartionable taste; it may cause water to 2.Dorfor, C. N.. and Edith Becker. "Pub- lic Water Supplies of the 100 Largest oil refineries is probably the result ofappear milky or. upon boiling, to ap- Cities in the United States." U.S. Geo- lead tetraethyl-the substance that also pear to ha% e a greasy surface scum. logicalSurveyWater SupplyPaper causes lead to occur in large concen- 1812. 1962. P. 364. 3.Editors. "Worst News of the Month." trationsintheatmosphere throughConclusion Environment 12: S -4; (No. 3) 1970. the burning of gasoline. Many different kinds of trace ele- 4.Grimmett, R. E. R.. and I. G. Mclntoch. ments in hundreds of different chemical "Occurrence of Arsenic in ,Soils and Zinc Water in the Waiotapu Valley. and Its combinations await us in food, water. Relation to Stock Health." New Zea- Various types of zinc salts arc used and air. Some are toxic, some arc not; land Journal of Scientific Technology in galvanizing and in the manufacturingbut little is known of possible side ef- 21:138A; 1939. ofpaintpigments,pharmaceuticals, fects that can occur following their in- 5.Hamilton. W. L., and J.E.Miller. "High Lead Concentrat km in Columbus cosmetics, and several types of insecti- take over prolonged periods.Trace Snow." Ohio Journal of .Seience 7 1:313- ,7ides. The solubility of many of these elements, by definition, arc present in 316; 1971. salts in water accounts for their pres-only minute amounts. Yet even small 6.Kobayashi. Jun. "Special Researches on the Behavior of Cadmium in the Zantsu- ence in industrial waste. quantities can causeserioushealth River Basin." (in Japanese )JaPanc3e Seawater contains an average of only problems. Illnesses caused by them are Bureau of Science and Technology .01 ppm of zinc [7], but soils deriveddifficult to diagnose, and it may require 39:286-293; 1969. from a zinc-rich rock may contain sev-years for physiological changes to ap- 7.Mason. Ili ian. Piinciples of Geochemi3- try. John Wile':'and Sons, New Yoi k. eral hundreds of parts per million. Thepear. Once they contaminate the soil 1952.I'. 195. zinc in the soil may, in turn, be re-they will remain there to be slowly re- 8.McKee, J. E., and H. W. Wolf. "Water moved by plants. which may concen-moved by plants and animals for per- Quality Cr iteria." California State Water Quality Control Board. Publication 3-A. trate it to as much as 20,000 ppm. haps centuries. Only rarely are food 1963. P. 140. Except at very high concentrations, and water supplies chemically examined 9.Ruch. R. R.. L. J. Kennedy. and N. E. zincalonehasno known adversefor them. At least, let us beware. Shemp. "Distribution of AI scnie in Un- consolidated Sediments from Southei n physiological effects upon man. But Lake Michigan." Illinois State Geologi- acid drinks, such ,as lemonade or fruitClass Projects cal Survey. Env/mune/mil Geological juices, shmid,:mot --be made or mixed Interesting class projects might be to 10.U.S,,eD3e7p:a1r6tn:11 Department0.e9n7tof Agriculture."To- with zinc-bearing water because cer- att "mpt to determine the amounts and ward the New." Agricultural informa- tain organic zinc compounds may be kinds of trace elements that occur in tion Bulletin 341.1971;.P. 60. poisonous. the municipal water supply or in waste 11. U.S. Department of the Interior. "Mer- cury Content in the Natural Enon- Oti the other hand, zinc is bothes- waters released to the environment by men!. 4 CooperativeBibliography.` sential and beneficial in human nutri- local industries. These projects would Governn'ment Painting Office. Washing- tion.It is a component of insulin and not be easy for several reasons.First, ton. D.C. 1971f" invIlved in the utilization of carbo-the chemical determinationof trace 12. Warn. IL V. "Some Aspects of the Relationship Between Health and Geol- hydrmes and protein. Some evidence substances requires both expensive and ogy." CanadianJournalofPublic seems to indicate that itaids in the highlysophisticatedinstrumentation Health 52:157.164; 1961. healing of wounds. [10]Zinc is not that is commonly not available to col- 13.Warren. II.V.. R. E. Delavault. and C.II.Cross."Possible Col !elation, stor:d in the body- and very littleis leges, much less high schools. Second, Bemcen Geology and Some Disease known about its deficiency in man, but even the local water-treatment plant Panel its." .annual, Nen' Yor4 Academy zinc deficiency does affect animal re- operator may have no idea as to the of Science 136:700; 1967.

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441. , v% r r e . f. ?"-2; tv -ti` :: ;i tt, Figure 1.Vertical aerial photograph of a wildland area in which vegetation types have been accurately classified and delineated. As a result, the area has been "stratified" into essentially homogeneous units as regards: (1) age class of timber (left half of numerator), e.g., 0= old, Y = young, (2) density of saw-log size timber (first digit of numerator) and of all timber, regardless of size (second digit), e.g., 1 signifies 80 to 100 percent of ground is covered by crowns of trees;(3) vegetation elements present (denominator), e.g. C= commercial conifer, H= hardwood, etc. N in numerator Indicates, nontimber site, i.e., soil too poor to grow timber at a sufficiently rapid rate for commercial purposes.

TODAY'SYOUTH, more than thosesupply from those lands. We already TAKING of. any previous generation, shouldhave mentioned the rapidly increasing be knowledgeable about the world'snumber of people to be served and the INVENTORY croplands and wiidlands and insistentdecreasing land area from which their that these lands be wisely managed.demands might be satisfied. The third OF CROPLANDS Each generation comes to realize thatfactor is the increase in demand per astheworld's populationincreasescapita. AND WILDLANDS there is a commensurate increase in In this regard we need to recognize the amount of the earth's surface thatthat the "affluent society" is only one Robert N. Colwell is occupied by people, buildings, andsegment of the world's population that transportation facilities and a conse-asks each year for more andmore quent decrease in the area occupied by"creature comforts," including those the world's cropland and wildland. But that can only be provided by croplands it will be during the lifetime of today'sand wildlands (e.g., better food, cloth- youth that this relentless trend will leading, and shelter; more opportunities for for the first time to a critical situationrecreation in rural and wildland envi- for all mankind. ronments). A much-larger segment of Not just two, but three factors arethe world's population are the millions working in concert to hasten the com-and perhaps even billions of people of ing of that critical day when the de-the world who have had a standard of mand for goods and services from crop- livingbarely above thesubsistence lands and wildlands will exceed the level.In the last few years, the voice of these people has become so pro- nouncedthatsocialscientistshave Dr. Colwell is a professor of forestry at the coined a new term to account for the University of California in Berkeley.This phenomenon.Perhaps youalready article is adapted from his address to the 1969 Youth Conference on the Atom in have heard that term.It is known as Chicago last October. "the awareness of the have nots."

77 4jj

tography would also contain valuable examples for the construction of photo interpretation reference materials for the identification of livestock. Once this work had been performed, simulated operational photography of re preTeilfa t ve range and pasture lands LP. ". could be flown to optimum specifications. Then livestock inventories could be attempted on this photography under truly optimum conditions.It seemed necessary to strive for such conditions because the aerial photo interpretation of livestock is at best a difficult task. The two photos comprising Figure 2 are representative of the more than two hundredverticalphotographstaken from the catwalk of thewater tower on the Davis campus of the University- of California. They illustrate how livestock of various kinds, breeds, sizes, and sexes appear in the near vertical view when photographed from an altitude of 150 feet with a camera having a focal length of 6 inches. Of these two photos, the one on the bottom (taken with infrared film) permits the photo interpreter to distinguish between Here- ford cattle and cattle which are the 1 offspring of a Hereford-Angus crpss. By tones registered by the dark parts of the labeled animals, they can be differentiated as to breed. On the upper of this pair of photos (taken with pan- chromalle film), such tonal separation cannot be made. This observation is Figure 2. Simulatcd vertical aerial photographs of various kinds of livestock taken representative of the many that can be from the catwalk of a water tower.Tife camera station was 150 feet above the made from photos when the objective animals. From careful study of the animals and their shadOws, a photo interpreter can learn to recognize type of animal (cattle, sheep, pigs, goats) and sometimes is to (feminine the most suitable film- breed, sex, and vigor. Note on the bottom photo (taken with infrared film) that filter combination for use in livestock there is a tone difference between animals labeled "A" and "B", whichare, inventories. respoclively, a Hereford and the product of a Hereford-Angus cross.However, these two beef animals cannot be differentiated on the top photo whichwas taken It is interesting to note in Figure 2 with panchromatic film. the very close similarity between, the shadow of each animal and the cor- taken undel;_cakfully controlled condi- varying but precisely known amounts responding appearance which the ani- tions from the top of a water tower, of stereoscopic parallax. Furthermore,mal itself would r, esent to a ground for example, with representatiye live-the animals composing this array could observer. Thus these examples provide stock on displiry near the base of the be made to assume various stances rep- information as to bath the vertical and tower. Tli-e near - vertical photos thusresentative of those encountered on horvzontal configuratioYrof each type of obtained would permit the photo inter-operational aerialpl.tos.It seemedanimal. There is a far better prospect preter to make a realistic and detailed likely that a study of this photography of identifying each animal as to type, analysis of each animal image and of and of actual aerial photography ob-breed, sex, age, and vigor if both the the shadow cast by the animal. Manytained of the same target array at the vertical and the horizontal views are photos of this livestock array could be same time would indicatetF.e most considered. The photo interpreter who taken from the tower quite econom-suitable film-filter c mbination and the realizes this important fact will take ically, at various sun angles. with vari- best time of day for photographing live- pains to interpret both the animal and ous film-filter combinatiOns, and with stock Th aerial and water-tower pho- its shadow whenever possible. The livestock inventory tests just described arc now in the process of bCing evaluated. Preliminary findings indicate that on aerial photos taken from alti- tudes as high as six to eight thousand feet, it may soon be possible to make livestock inventories on a nationwide basis mole quickly and accurately than through use of conventional on-the- ground enumerations.

VERTICAL photo of a vineyard .Aof Thompson seedless grapes, taken shortly after the grapes have been ^141Ii111- --,imm.; +- harvestedforraisinproduction.,is ALiAL, '__Arra...!;.. /1 ooo shown in Figure 3. Trays on 1N hid the 221...uLatt±212 f o I grapes have been laid for drying are o I fa readilysecn between the rows of vines. To In order to appreciate the need for counting the trays both quickly and ac- 11-L Sl000ssio I ct 21...LOA... 40111 . . 1 on aerial photos, the following P." brief statement is needed as to the na- o of,. s g III I I ture and purpose of a raisin-lay survey. H.. if ti41.o-ki.atta11*

A raisin-lay survey is a determination rams/MIN. of the acreage of vineyards within which

grapes have been harvested for raisin - - tr:...2f 80,., soOoo es production and the total fresh weight -01II 11,101,/00 ...- I Ia. of these Jun vested grapes. the San 4._1 JoaquinValleyofCaliforaia,both , f 11 . . I., .1, -", ,111 D DR r f #Of sofa -_...--../...1------a .zraisins_and brandy for dessert wine arc s 4 f .4 4 ff." ...... , commonly produced from the same *T . .4. . 1.1 o e. .11 I IIf- .11f 00 ._44-4.r m/a4-41 -4,43 var;ct} of grapes. The raisin grapes are g I. w foo. f laid out for drying several weeks before 4- ....a-/414 Al w a. _ so s wf a . . - the grapes for wine production are har- vim wr15 . vested.If, in any given year, the quan- Figure 3. 3. 'Vertical aerial photograph showing a portion of a vineyard in-the San Joaquin tities of grapes devoted to raisin pro- Valley of Ca.'ilornia shortly alter grapes have been harvested for raisin-lay production. duction and to wine production can he Trays between the rows of vines are readily seen.

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.. Figure 4, A photo-like image obtained with side-looking airborne radar_ equipment (left) on which a lake and major landforms and vegetation types are recognizable. Unlike conventional aerial photography (right), radar imagery is obtainable at night and during cloudy or rainy weather.

80 made to conform to demands, the needs of the consumer will be better met and the producers will realize greater profits. From the information obtained through the raisin-lay surveys, the rate at which raisins arc being made can be determined and compared with a prede- termined optimum rate. Grape growers and the producers of wine and raisins , to can use these periodic reports, during 6"r any given harvest season to: determine whether too many or too few grapes are 6 ..- being laid to supply the raisin market; make unofficial forecasts of the total tts raisin production for the season: and estimate what quantity of grapes will be *available that season for wine produc- tiori.With the aid of these surveys, both the grape and wine industries can be operafe-a on a more stable and profitable basis. 446 Untilrecently,raisin-laysurveys were attempted strictly by means of' on-the-ground observations. Since nearly 1,000 square miles of vineyards ,had to be sampled, these methods proved to "Poi:41.11 44inwimmilt, be too slow, too expensive, and too itf- Figur& 5. Two imagesof the same area, using panchkorn atic film in an aerial camera (top) accurate. The prt procedure, em- and a thermal infrared sensing element in an optical mechanical scanner (bOttom). The ploying aerial pho ..phy, overcomes top photo maps lightreflecta,.,. diflerences while the bottom photo maps thermal these difficulties.. tie photos are taken em1.7.qion differences. More information is obtainable from a study of these two types of images in concert than from a study ofeither type al6ne. on each of seven-suitably-spaced dates during the raisin-producing period so that a determination can be made of ILLUSTRATION of a Midlandimagery of this high quality results from when enough raisins have been pro-ANurea in the Sierra Nevada moun- itsabilityto reveal certainfeatures duced. Beginning at about 10 AM ontains of California as imaged with a more clearly than those features -might each of the seven selected dates, a pho- special kind of remote-sensing devicebe seen even on high-quality conven- tographic aircraft begins systematically known as side-looking airborne radaltional aerial photographs. An example to photograph the entire raisin-produc-is shown in Figure 4 (left). The imageshown in this figure is the drainage net- ing area from an altitude of 17,000 ft.was obtained from an aircraft flying atwork of streams and canyons. These Approximately four hours later,the an altitude of approximately 5,000 feet. can be clearly seen on the radar image. photography has been completed:OnceNotice that the quality of the image is The longer wavelengths of energy used the photographic plane has landed, thesufficiently good to compare favorablyin forming this radar image, as com- film is promptly processed, and a shortwith a conventional aerial photographpared with the wavelengths used in timelaterphotointerpretersstart (right). The importance of this typeforming a conventional aerial photo- counting raisintrays.Even thoughof capability results from the fact thatgraph, apparently permit the features limiting their counts to small sampleside-looking airborne radar equipment that are obscured by foliage of the trees areas, they work thro:;hout the nightcan produce images of thisqualityto be more clearly seen. It is not known counting trays on the photographs Soeither day or night and regardless offor sure whether these longer wave- that producers can be given the neededweather conditions.This capability,lengths actually -penetrate the leaves information by the following morning.therefore, is especially valuable whenthemselves or are able to bend around In one recent year the accurate infor-the desire is to obtain information aboutthem, but in either event, better regis- mation thus provided is credited-by theareas that arc obscured a great deal oftration of ground detail bolcath_ the producers with having saved them fivethe tinie by adverse weather conditions foliage is the net effect. million dollars. Each year the makingas well as areas which, for a variety of Thermal infrared energy also travels of seven such raisin-lay surveys is con- reasons, may need to be studied duringat wavelengths longer than those of visible light. An example of a photo- sidered to be an eininently worthwhilethe night-time hours. *. eCort. An additional advantage of radarlike image that can be formed with

81 modern thermal _infraredremote-sens- taken on each of several different dates ing equipment is seen in Figure 5.In throughout the year. By comparing the this same scene,. a conventional photo appearance of the fieldsin terms of taken from an aircraft is provided so presence or absence of vegetation on that a direct comparison can be made. each of these "sequential photographs," It will be noted that certain features the photo interpreter can identify each (such as the important soil boundary type of crop. Since the photograph it- running VA leftto right across the self is a map for all practical purposes. middle of these two illustrations) are the photo interpreter also isable to bctcr sccn in the infrared image than determine the acreaee of each field and in the conventional photograph. Cer- in this way the total acreage devoted to tain other details, however, are far bet- each type of crop. Then; by making ter seen on the conventional photo- limited observations on the ground as graph. This illustrates one of the many to the yield of product from each type examples of obtaining what is known of crop that is being obtained per acre, 15 "multiband imagery." Such imagery simple calculations provide the photo is obtained in each of several wave- interpreter with total yield by product length bands of the spectrum. for the entire area that is to be inven- This- same advantage of multiband toried. imagery applies to imagery 'obtained ,This kind of information is of tre- from earth-orbiting vehicles. This fact mendous value to those who seek to is well illustrated in Figure 6. Shown determine. year after year, what the here are two photographs taken by the total yield is likely to be in each vast Apollo 9 astronauts at an altitude of agriculturalbasin for each type of approximately 100 miles. The Salton crop. The information is needed by Sea in Southern California is clearly those who decide when we will have a seen on both of these photographs as surplus or a deficiencyin any par- a very large, dark-toned feature occu- ticular crop, thereby necessitating ex- pying most of the upper left quadrant in port or import of that crop.Others the two photos. Immediately below it Figii re6.Multiband space photographs who need this kind of information as is v heavily vegetated area known as the taken from an altitude of approximately 100 far in advance as possible are the farm Imperial Valley, in which important miles by the Apollo 9 astronauts in March workers who will be employed to har- agricultural crops are being grown.It 1969. The to,' photo was taken with panchromatic film through a light-red filter so vest the various crops, workers in the will be noted that the agricultural crop:- that only energy from thervisible red wave-canning and storage industries, work- themselves appear dark in tone on the length bend was uses. The bottom photo ers in the transportation industry, and uppermost photo(taken withpan- was taken with infrared- sensitive, film and a in the various industries which produce very dark red filter so that only energy in chromatic film) while they appear iight the infrared wavelength band (lust beyondsuch chemicals for agricultural use as. in tone on the lowermost photo (taken the visible red) was used. fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and with infrared film). No other features :asecticides.There is increasing evi- in the entire area exhibit this sameate planted and the months when thosedence that this kind of information can "tone signa turcr Consequently, evencrops reach maturity and are harvested. Le obtained in the near future on pho- though only a limited amount of detail For example, barley, which is com-tography obtained sequentiallyfrom can be seen on these two photographs.monly grown in this arca, normally is earth orbital satellites, especially if pho- one is able to readily differentiate aeri-planted in the month of November andtography is taken with the right photo- cultural 'vegetation from all other fea- harvested three months later.Sugargraphic films.Thus we sec,inthis tures. When these two photographs arebeets normally are planted in August orspecific example, an illustration of the suitably enlarged. it is possible to de-September and harvested approximately value of making an inventory Will termine, for each field within the pi-nine months lam.Cottonisnevereither aerial or space photography in pet-W. Valley, whether or not itcon- planted in this area until after thc bar-order that important management detained healthy vegetation at the timeley has been harvested and hence iscisions can he arrived at and imple -. when a given set of photographs wasordinarily planted in May or Junc. In mented. takeirTii order to exploit this capabil-order to exploit this fact as an aid to Hopefully, many of today's youth ity, photo intepr-ters have developed the identification of agricultural crops, will give serious thought to the servicc for areas such as Imperial Valldy what field-by-field,thephotointerpreterwhich they might render to all mankiild are known as "crop calendars." must have not only the crop calendarby becoming experts at using aerial and Crop calendars indicate the months butalso space photographs such as pace photography toinventory crop- of the year when various types of crops those shown in Figure 6. ',These werelands and wildlands. 0 0

THE "GREEN REI'lLUTION"- Paul J. FitzgeraldSELECT-16NAND GENETIC VARIANTS

PROSPECTS of mass famine inknowledge of genetics, statistics, and somedevelopingnationshave plant pathology.Plant breeders have' dramatically focused attention on thealways relied on differences or genetic urgent need for improved crop pro-variation among plants.They have duction throughout the world:Scien-usually had as an objective the com- tists kom both public and private or-bining within a single variety of favor- ganizations are meeting this challengeable genetic traits, such as high yield, with missionary zeal. Their recent ac-resistance to disease and insect pests, complishments in India, Pakistan, Tur-resistance to Iodizing. resistance to shat- key, and Africa have been beyond our tering (tenacity of grain in the chaff), most optimistic expectations. Hope isspecific quality characteristics, growth replacing despair in many food-deficithabit, and the like.Progress has gen- countries. What is the secret of thiserally been stepwise, with breeding and "greenrevolution?"Have we nowselection occurring in parallel lines of found a formula that works? improvement for different characters. In my opinion there are two ,inajor A significant breakthrough in wheat reasonsfortheunprecedentedin- breeding ocq.-,rred with the introduction creases in the production of cereals inof the very short, stiff -strawcd wheats developing countries:superiorplant from Japan in 1946 and their subse- breeding and the "package concept."quent introduction into the Agricul- Plant breeding as used in this discus-tur^ Pesearch Servfee (ARS)-Wa-.h- sion implies much more than the art of ,21..,;State, cooperative wheatim- visual selection.It includES ,Work; ,ovemeat program,The Japanese variety. Norin 10, was crossed to the Dr.Fitzgeraldisassistant chief of U.S. varieties Brevor and Bawl. Selec- Cereal Crops ResearchBranch, .cops Research Division, Agricultural A-Research tions from these crosses provided the Service, USDA, Beltsville, Maryland. basic term plasm for Gaines and Nu-

83 gaincs,the former aworldrecord NOTALL the advances in produc-with high lysine coin in Centraland holder with 209 bushels per acre in tion can he ascribedtoplant South America bypersonnel ofthe washington. Needing alone.The "package. eonInternational Maize and Wheat Inr- This same germ plasm was intro- cept- has been a highly significant fac- provement Center (CIMMYT) have ducedintotheRockefeller-Mexicantor in all cereal crops w here% ericids demonstrated the improved nutritive program and pros ided part of the basichave improved. This concept embodies ,due to both humans and livestock, parental material of the set ies of im- severallogicalprinciples.You start The potential for improved human nu- proved semidwarf varieties that havewith the best variety available; planttrition in this region, where 30 to 60 performed almost unbelievably in many it in a well-prepared seedbed properly percent of the daily calorie intake is diverse parts of the world. The signifi- treated with the right kind and amount from corn, staggers the imagination. cant characteristic of the semidwarfof fertilizer, and insecticide or herbicide Additionalimprovementinyieldhng varieties has been their ability to growas needed, and where water is avail- capacity of high-lysine lines is needed under very high levels of fertility andable, apply' timely and controlled irri- before they are widely acceptedin under irrigation without lodging.Be- gations.This concept of maximizing the United States. cause these varieties fillet (shoot) pro- all production inputs has avoided many The discovery of genes for improved fusely and produce heads of normal of the early failures to bring about sus- prtftein quality in corn triggered similar size, their y ielding potential is usually tained improvements by breeders or efforts in other grain crops.Consid- much greaterthanstandardheight soil scientists working alone.It is gen- erable effort by CIMMYT and by the varieties.In addition,the Mexicanerally recognized that the concept must A RS- Nebrask a whe tt- improvement semidwarf wheats- possess a gene for go beyond the production phase if theprogram is 'directed toward the im- photoperiod insensitivity that permits a age icultural sector is to become a vital provement of protein in wheat. Total _ very wide adaptation in many latitudes. economic factor in a country.It must protein has been markedly improved, A similar story can be told for thealso include the manufacture of ma-but selections with promising Ivels of remarkable advances in rice breeding chinery, production of fertilizer and_lysine and other deficit amino _acids bj't scientists at the International Rice agricultural chemicals, a seed industry, have been difficult to stabilize. Breed- Research Institute in the Philippines. storagefacilities,transportation, and ing morenutritivewheatsappears These woi kers also recognized thc po- pro,hiction credit.These things are feasible, but the breeding and testing tentials of shot ter varieties and success- happening ininany countries. will be demanding. To date there has fully combined the semidwarf germ been no strong indicationthathigh plasm with the traditional types to pro- NEW production records are beinglysine mutants exist inrice and sor- duce the wiCely acclaimed IR-8 and recorded each year in many coun- ghum, although the chemistry of the IR-5 varieties. While these varieties do tries from the use of new crop varieties proteins of ,t,-,,gituin suggests that a not show a pelf(wee superiority in i esponsiv e to the new and improved search for mutants similar to opaque-2 the USA and lack quality characteris- management pi actices. The fear of star- is justified. Oats do not Have the same - tics for our market, they have virtuallyvation is greatly reduced for the mo-iplbalance of amino acids common to revolutionized rice production in sev-ment. but the critical problem of protein other cereals, but striking improve- eraltraditionalrice-producing coun- quality and quantity has bcen brought ments in total protein appear possible tries. Because of their production char- into focus. Hew. too. :rere is hope. with the recent introduction of Avow acteristicandassociatedimproved With the discovery by Edwin T. Mc. tz Aterilis lines from Israel. High levels of management practices, grain produc-and Oliver E. Nelson in 1963 that the resistance to crown and stein rusts were tion has been increased two- to three-mutant genes opaque-2 and floury-2 in bonuses in this discovery. fold in some areas. corn were associated with much im- Indeed, these are exciting times to The understanding of genetic varia-proved levels of the essential aminobe a plant breeder.It is generally esti- tion and the manipulation thereof hasacids, lysine and tryptophane (usually mated that the breeder has made a laid the foundation of a sound corn-.in short supply in normal corn), breed-major contribution in aveiting immc- breeding program in Kenya with influ-ing for,improved nutritioningrain diate and massive famine.His con- ence radiatingthroughout eastern crops immediately became high-priority tinued effectiveness in contributing to Africa. The combination of the vigor- work. Research at many, locations has adequate food production will depend ous Central American germ plasm withproduced experimental lines of corn largely on his success in making new the native types in Kenya and effectivewith lysine and try ptophanc content combinations of genetic traits in new selection procedures produced varietal double that in normal corn.In addi- varieties.Where known sources of hybrid:, with yield increases up to 400 tion, totaiprotein content has been im- germ' plasin arc not adequate, it will he percent. The cern-breeding effortin proved. The feeding value of opaque-2 necc to search for new types. The this small country, with associated cul-corn to swine has been shown to becollection, identification, and mainte- tural practices and seed production, in equal to skimmed milk, greatly reduc- nance of genetic stocks of all crops is a few years .changed Kenya from a ing the need of expensive protein sup- vital to any sustained Lion to improve corn-deficit to a corn-s irplus country. plement.Extensive evaluationtrials world food production. 0

84 Dr. Hansen isdirector, Physical Ocean- andthe key toavoidil g potential ported by the federal government either ography Laboratory, Atlantic Oceanographic planetary disasters. in the name of basic research or na- and Meteorological Laboratories, National hastionaldefense.In1966,President Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Most oceanographic research Miami, Florida.This paper was presented been and continues to be done by a fewJohnson announced a new focus on at a Sunoco Science Seminar at the NSTA relativelyaffluentnations,notably, clearer objectives in marine affairs and annual conventioninCincinnati,Ohio, Canaea, France, Germany, Japan, theasked for establishment of a commis- March 14, 1970. United Kingdom, the United States, andsion to chart the new course. But in Russia. The oceanographic capabilityspite of initial high expectations and SIGNS abound that the 1970s areof this country has grown most im- numerous studies of how the objectives to be a decade of concern for thepressively in the last two decades, espe- were to be reached, the oceanographic environment. These are favorable signscially during the post-Sputnik scientific community has grown increasingly frus- for those interestedin the scientificrenaissance. About 1960, oceanography trated. Debate over objectives and, their study of the oceans. As concern andbecame a glamour field of science, and implementation continues, and more displeasure grow over the unsightlinessa considerable national effort was put recently there has been flagging support af. environmental pollution, we are be-into strengthening it.Due to the con-for oceanography, a condition shared ginning to see that knowledge of thesiderable investment required for facili- with many other fields of science. behavior of the water-covered portionties and equipment and due to the lack While thenation'sinvestmentin of the earth is an essential ingredient toof immediate economic return, mostoceanography has been small relative rational decisions on the local scaleoceanographic research has been sup- to that for space technology and other

OCEANOGRAPHY FOR THE 1970s,_Donald V. ansen

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# ?Si t5' ' `,4°.4: Great Plains. But in more dispassion- ate moments we accept that the ocean and its contents are, like the rest of our planet,finite.Fishermen know that with modern technology and the size of modern fleets, even pelagic stocks are easily overfished. The history of a 1 number of important fisheries shows that the catch increases with effort up to a point, after which the return begins to decline.Herring and rod of the North Atlantic and the global whale fishery are prime examples, The solar energy requirement for photosynthesis certainly sets an upper r limit on sustainable food yields, but NOAA conditions of life in the ocean, such as Menhaden, a type of herring, is extremely abundantoff the east coast of the U.S. generally lower fertility in the photic major programs, progress has been,$15 billion annually. Shipping is notzone, n:ake the ocean less productive good.Discoveries have been madean exploitable resource in the sense ofthan comparable land areas.Due. to which arcat!castas important asextracting useful substances -from thethe larger ocean area, the total bio- those in space. We have reached aocean, but substantial benefits are tological production appears to be al); point where progress in the 1970s willbe gained by further improving andequal to that on land.But condlia be determined more by what we chooseextending this most efficient means offor life in the sea force much of 11 to do than by What we.are able to do.transport to new regions. The 1970product to be microscopic and so di; It is appropriate,-therefore, to attemptcruise of the super-tanker Manhattanpersed that itis not likely-to be har- to place our expectation of ocean bene-was an ambitious industrial experimentvestable.directly. There are no pelagic fits in perspective so that the slenderin this area. ees or cereals, ; 7nce the product must resources may be used wisely. The monetary value of the world fishbe concentrated to harvestable packets and shellfish catch is on the order ofby intermediate organisms. Evaluation half the world freight bill. One com-of this complex process is difficult, but Ocean Resources present estimates suggest that the har- monly hears expectations that the "lim- r Present Perspective itless" stock of food from the sea willvest could be increased by from two to The "wealth of the ocean" is doubt-feed untold billions of future earth five times present levels. less commonly oversold. Man's majorpopulation. The great magnitude of The, value of gas and petrolatm from offshore ?fellsis nova perhaps three- 1 activity in the ocean--771 percent or sostanding stock of some unexploited of the earth's surfaceis still the sim-species is indeed misleading; it is wellquarteriliat of fisheries and is growing ple matter of making his way about it.to remember inthis connection thevery rapidly. For example, approxi- The world's ocean freight bill is aroundbison herds that once populated themately 20 percent of U.S. petroleum resources and 15 percent of our production is from offshore sources. Pro- duction of other minerals from oceanic iy sources is still relatively minor, but it is certain to increase tremendously as high-grade ores on land run out. to' For the United States, the order of thingsis somewhat peculiar in that 14. a... marine-oriented recreation ranks near

A 11 transportation in dollar value; offshore petroleum production is flourishing; but -r our fisheries constitute a disaster area Wake disposal probably would rank quite high if one could put a realistic dollar value on it, which we as a nation have been disinclined to do. The NOAA =AREAS OF ::..1..-r.:FERTILE AREAS ability of the ocean to absorb large PROTEIN OEFICIENCV OF THE OCEANS but finite amounts of waste material is

86 certainly a major resource, whether we fossil fuels could alter the atmosphere'sour ability to understand the ocean and like to think about it or not. radiation balance and result in globalto use its resources wisely. Once resources are defined, the ma-climate change.Less generally recog- jor impact of oceanography will be itsnized. however,isthe factthat theOcean Basins contribution to efficiency of operationsocean is the planet's great reservoir of A revolution in geo ")gic concepts is in the marine realm, including provi-carbon dioxide, as well as water. Uponunderwa) and that revolution is tired sion of guidelines to avoid ecological'dissolving in the ocean, carbon dioxide by oceanographic. research. The con- disasters. DecimationofexploAlt- becomes available for photosynthesis.cept of continental drift, advanced by speciesisof immediate concern to Itreacts with water toprovide thethe German geologist Alfred Lothar fishermen, but more subtle problemscarbonate ions used by calcareous or-Wegener about a half century ago, long can involve us all. it hits been esti-ganisms.In consequence, the oceanstood in poor repute, primarily because mated that perhaps two-thirds of allcontains 50 times as much carbonthere were no apparent forces capable the DDT ever produced still' exists anddioxide as does the atmosphere, andof pushing a continent.Geophysical is making its way to the oceans. Like more than 90 percent of a perturbationsurveys ofite ocean basins are now wire, herbicides and lead and otherof atmospheric carbon dioxide will ulti- providingstrongsupportforthis heavy metal compounds may be accu-mately reside in the ocean. The ques-theory.Presentinterpretationsindi- -mulating to the detriment of primarytion, then. is how rapidly atmosphericcatethat new oceanfloormaterial biological productivity in the ocean. carbon dioxide is equilibrated with theemerges from within the earth alone Anothersubtleandcomplicatedocean and distributed within the greatthe midocean ridges. The material is problem concerns the relationship be-mass of its waters. This rate will deter-conveyed across the ocean basin and tween climate and the oceans.Most mine how much carbon dioxide candisappearsbeneaththecontinents, members of the scientific communitysafely be released to the atmosphere.shifting the continents in the process. are aware that the increasing amounts I turn aucntion now to some recent A primary line of evidence for the of carbon dioxide released by burningactivities and new insights which affectcontinental drift concept ;s the pattern

Robert S. Dietz and John C. Holden' of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration recently worked out this sequence of maps that for the first time identify the 200-million-year journey the continents have made across the face o' the earth.

PERMIAN 225 million years ago TRIASSIC 200 million years ago

JURACSIC135 million years ago CRETACEOUS 65 million yearsago 87 a complete history of the earth locked in the ocean sediments, undisturbed by the erosion and turmoil through which the continental record of geologic' history must be read. Now it appea: s that -7 the ocean floor is in fact younger than P' the continents and younger than the ocean itself.

Sea-Air Interaction Anotherscientificendeavorthat came into being in the last decade and 9 will likely continue is large-scale study Teo, of sea-air interaction. At present, we are primaril) interested in the influence of the oceans on weather, but it is gen- mally accepted that the behaviors of the two fluids, ocean and atmosphere, t" are inseparable and must be studied as kr A 41'' whole. The basic energy source for AAAL the circulation of both mediums is solar NOAA radiation.This radiationis not effi- It is being increasingly recognized that the behaviors of the two global fluids, ocean and ciently absorbed by the atmosphere; atmosphere, are inseparable and must. therefore, be studied as a whole. rather, it penetrates to the earth's surface 'predominantly the ocean) from of magnetic anomalies. It appears.tliat which it is relayed to the atmosphere the magnetic field of the earth has re- as longer wave radiation and latent heat Solar radiation is the basic energy source versed polarity a number of times. As forthecirculationofboth ocean and of water vapor evaporated from the atmosphere. Studies like BOMEX (the Bar- igneous rock emerges from within theoceans. The ocean circulation in turn bados Oceanographic and Meteorological earthitfreezes-inthe contemporary is driven by wind stress and exchanges Eroerime ) seek to analyize. the various kinds of interactions. --- magnetic orientation, which is retained of heat and water with the atmosphere. NOAA thereafter. As the sea floor moves away The ensuing circulations serve to trans- from the point of emergence, the record fer heat from low latitudes (where inof magnetic reversals is preserved ascomingradiation exceedsoutgoing though by a geophysical tape recorder. radiation at the top of the atmosphere) Events of the lt few years are pro-to high latitudes where there it a radia- viding po t.erfui confirmation of tionaldeficit.The early studies arc these hypotheses. being done in the tropics where the The most exciting results have come energy flow is initiated. from the investigations of the Glomar Two such experiments were under- Cluillmger,a deep-ocean-drilling' ship taken in 1969: the Atlantic Tradewind operatedby ScrippsInstitutionofExperiment (ATEx), which involved Oceanography under contracrWith thefour shipstwo from the United King- National Science Foundation. The first dom and one each from Germany and year's work of theGloinar Challengerthe United Statesfor a three-week resulted in discovery of oil and gas inperiod in March and April; and the the central Gulf' of Mexico (the first Barbados Oceanographic and Meteoro- such discovery in a deep-sea environ- logical Experiment (BOMEX), which ment), and only small amounts of fer-used, in all, 12 ships, 28 airplanes, and romanganese nodules in sediments at 1,500scientists. Preliminaryresults depth; these are both findings of im- from BOMEX indicate that more solar ...11 toga. - 74C.1113111'' mense practical value. This project has radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere been extended until 1973 and is ex-than has been thought and that the pected to produce further exciting re-ocean currents are very different than sults on. the origin and nature of the indicated on charts. ocean basins. The enormous number of environ- Short years ago we expected to find mental measurements made will require

88 used by the Spanish as earl) as 1 5 19In their annual voyages to and from the New World. Although a considerable body of practical knowlethte was used by the great Anterican whale fisher). the Stream was not chat for mote systematic 'Ise until the .,0s. At that time, Benjamin Franklin. in his capacity as Postmaster General, had a chart of the Gulf Streamoff New England drawn by Timothy Folger. a Nantucket whaler. The chart was printed by the General Post Officefor use by the

'"` U S NAVY PHOTO mail packets. This empirical approach The sinking of theTitanicin 1912 renewed interest in ocean currents because of their was picked up and systematized by importance in transporting icebergs into the North American shipping lanes. Matthew Fontaine Maurynow fie- quently cited as the father of American months or years for complete analysis.currents.During the birth of the in-oceanography=who- collated the infor- The results-of these and larger projectsdustrial age and before the decline ofmation appearing in navigation logs of to come will be appearing throughoutthe sailing ship in commerce, the trans-sailing ships, using the records of their the 1970s. port of greatest interest was that ofdrifttoinfer the ocean surface cur- surface ships.(The. speeds of oceanrents. In use of such data, averages of Decade of Ocean Exploration currents were not inconsiderable coin,a large number of observations must be Presidents Johnson and Nixon bothpared to thoseorthe sailing vessels.) taken because of the imprecision of endorsed U.S. leadership in an Inter-In the twentieth century the transportsindividual observations. Though many national Decade of Ocean Explorationof great firerest are much moreof the interesting and useful variations (IDOE) in the 1970s.Itis unclearsubtlrThe4afirrent favorites are trans-of the current are obscured by averag- how vigorously IDOE will be pursuedport of heat asitinfluences ,global ing, this technique is still the primary because of our current social, military,weather and climate, transport of chem- source of knowledge of the surface cir- and economic commitments and be-ical nutrients as it influences fisheries,culation in all published oceanic cur- cause a substantial contribution fromand transport of a variety of trouble-rent charts. other countries is required. At leastsome substances introduced by the ac; During the same period the Coast one project for IDOE, the Cooperativetivities of man. and Geodetic Survey, directed by Alex- Investigation of the Caribbean and Ad- Close of the Suez Canal has alsoander Bache, Franklin's grandson and jacent Regions (CICAR) appears to berekindled interest in the effects of cur-an eminent scientist, among others, be- gaining momentum and may serve as arents on shipping. Experiments are ingan a remarkable series of investiga- prototype for later projects inlargo-progress on optimizing use of, the GrIftions of the Gulf Stream off the south- ocean -basins.It also appears to be ofStream to help tankers save a few hours eastern U,:ited States, from the Carib- considerable value for the U.S. interestbetween Gulf of Mexico oil fields andbean to Cape Hatteras. The Stream and in the Gulf of Mexico. The Gulf re-U.S. East Coast-cities;- but the real itsvariations were 'metereddirectly ceives almost two-thirds of the water- interest is in finding methods applicablefrom anchored shipsa feat not dupli- borne natural, industrial, and tOricul-for the run around Africa. cated -ifritirii6F-recent titres and tural pollutants of the United 'States, I will outline briefly some of the mile-some of the measurements are still the making it a likely candidate for 'pollu-stones in evolution of knowledge ofbest available. tion disaster.The flow of the-Gulfcurrents in the North Atlantic Ocean, With the passing of the age of sail, Stream into and out of the Gulf is suffi-which, with the possible exception ofinterest in ocean currents declined for cient to completely renew Gulf watersthe waters around Japan, is the besta number of years. The sinking of the in 30 months, but the extent to which known major ocean region. I will focussteamship Titanic in1912 provided the deep water and water of the western on the Gulf Stream system as a familiarnew impetus for the observation of Gulf participate inthis circulationis point of reference for North Americanscurrents, because of their importance almost entirely unknown. and the most salient feature of the sur-in transporting icebergs into the North face circulation of the North Atlantic. Atlanticshippinglanes.These ob- Ocean Currents servations have been continued by the Orie ofthecentral problems ofEarls' Charting of U.S. Coast Guard to the present.In physical oceanography has been andthe'Gulf Stream such studies, average currents are of remains that of transportsthe move- A general knowledge of the surfacelittle value; week-to-week changes are ment of materials and energy by oceancirculation and of the Gulf Stream wasall important. er., km. ,.fix'skl r. Si kiI t 1f.1.%%.

This method was applied in scientific investigations of the Gulf Streamsoon following establishment of the Woods K MAU X.,.4. HoleOceanographicInstitution in 1931. The major goal was to monitor 6./ Gulf Stream transr-tsas they might 1Nto.L affect fisheries and di- late in the North 7-v Atlantic and,westert Europe. To ob- .... itt ima at 1..111 ffffffffffff t , Sty itain sufficient' ineasureipents forit "de- J dailccfdescription of jlic Gd=firetun ;:f.. wag' both. tatita'and-exiiin'sive-.-7-' The basic transport (of water) of the-Str-com could, howeiver, he inferred fromver- tical soundings at just two stations.It 01.41.1 A was noped to define standard stations ft/j.:41..1. S. that could be monitored for correlation I with other events of interest. im /I 7.1 .1 Because 40CHARTA Lkil.P, _Nu of confusing variations and indications G.'7. '0'37714:1,/ of multiple streams, it was not possible to define the standard stations before 1 . the program was interrupted by World NOAA War "II. Ben Franklin had this map of the Gull stream Prepared when hewas Postmaster General. Following the war, scientificocean- ographic research was pursued much more, vigorously, particularly Recent Analysis of the major ionic species dissolvedin atthe Ocean Currents seawater occur in almost constant ratio'major centers such as Woods Hole. Synoptic surveys, accomplished by Theice patrol work was madepos- and hence that determination ofany several ships working in coordination for sible by development ofa new tech-onesuffices. Determination of thetwo to several weeks, were done in niquethe gcostrophic methodsim-chloride concentration by titrationwith 1950 and again in 1960. Theseproj- ilar in principle to that by which windssilver nitrate was chosenas a-practical are inferred from pressure patternr; on zcts showed: the Stream to be coherent method. Only in the last decadehasover htindreds of kilometers, but sub- a weather map. In application to the the method been widely supplanted ocean, byject to wavelike meandering suggestive pressure cannotbedirectlymodern electrical methods; the density measured, however. of that of the atmospheric jet stream. Instead, advan-tables of 1901 are still used. fnee is taken -V. the fact (not always Theories based on hydrodynamic in- true)-that the surface curizotsarc much more vigorous than the deeper45° 75° -- 70° 65° 60° 55° waters, and the relative pressureis-- determined by integration of the density variations over the water column. ..-- '...) - ) In thestandard-tempciature-and- 200 tI.(ek1 k. ,1§3°°r - pressure laboratory world we usually ,-....,/ 1 ...\, I get by considering water as incom- / 1 ---' .,.--.4.1. pressible.Throughout the ocean, the .. / ; density of water varies by approxi-40 ....' -.....- ( 6 6 mately 7.5 percent, of which 5 percent is due to compression. The remaining 2.5 percent, the ipeortant part, is due to variation of temperature and salinity. To detect the Variations of importance required development of special ther- SEPTEMBER 11-18 mometers, special chemical methods,,35 and special glassware. OCTOBER 5-13 The chemical method was baseden NOVEMBER 9-16 the results of the Brit ishrhalleng,,rex- pedition of 1872-6 which showed that Changing position of the Gth, Stream during threesucces1 ive months in 1965. The lines show the month-by-month position' of thecore of the stye nt along the coast. stability.inwhich perturbations are fulmeasurements.Currentpatterns able to extract energy from the basic can change too rapidly for a single ship current, or on effects of bottom topog- to define more than their grossest fea- why,,were athanced to explain this tures, and investigations involving sev- behavior;buttheobservationsof eral ships are expensive and difficAuo, Stream paths were too few to pet organize.In the coming decade. how-4 film conclusions. A recent series ofever, thereis the real possibility of Stream pith observations at monthly observingoceanographicparameters inter% dis by ESSA vessels' has shown related to ocean currents using satellite- that none of the present theories satis- mounted censors. -These sensors would factorily explains allfeatures of the provide observations of entire ocean observations. basinsinshorttimes.COrisiderable It appears that we do have a sans- work is being done at present on ob- factol y explanation Tbr the basic ex- servations of sea surface temperatures istence of the Gulf Stream. Details are using infrared sensors, but development stillbeing debated, but the essential of very precige *satellite altimeters for ingredient.; are the winds, which drive observing variations t-f sea level can surface waters southward and westward bring about a genuine revolution in over most of the North Atlantic; and observation of ocean currents by pro- Z_ 7 the sphericity and rotation of the earth, viding at last the badly needed meas- which force a narrow return currenton urement of absolute pressure gradient. the western boundary of the ocean. Similarlogic applied tothe deeperThe Coastal Zone infrared view of eastern U.S. was obtained waters (but with the flow driven by in September 1966 by the research sate) - In the preceding pages, I have de- lite Nimbus II.In processing, the usual sinking of water in high hnitudes and scribed developments in knowledge of arrangement ofinfrared photographsin upward movement of deep water al- the deep sea. By most measures other which the warmest areas are the lightest most everywhere else)suggests that than national defense, however, the has been reversed, so that the warm waters of the Great Lakes appear dark and the the deep circulation should be the exact interest and cniphasis of the nation, cold ice-crystal cirrus clouds over Florida opposite of thatat the surface itsindividually and collectively, will prob- (lower right) are light. speed should be about 1 cm/sec; andably ,focus on what is described as the itshould be complete with a deep,coastal zone. This zone is broadly desires.With mounting population and opposite,counterparttotheGulftimed as extending from the edge of the economic pressures, this leads to a de- Stream. It is now clear that this coun--continental shelf, across the coastline, structive procedure in which each secs tercurrent exists, but attempts to dem- into the estuaries and the Great Lakes, a net personal gain in his personal con- onstrate the existence of the general and the land area affected by proximity tribution to overuse. Hence, this zone northWaill flow elsewhere have been to the ocean or the Great Lakes. will be the scene not only of increasing thwarted by the discovery of variable We are all aware of the growth of activities and lx.nefits during the 1970s, currents on the order of 10 cm/sec population generally.It is perhaps less but also of increasing conflict and con- which obscure the average flow.Be- well known to what extent this growth troversy. The general nature and im- cause the effect of these transient cur-is occurring primarily in the coastal portance of the biology and ecology of rents on the average flow is unknown, zone.Between 1860 and 1960 thethe .region is currently receiving con- it now appears that our understandingfraction of the U.S. population livingsiderable exposure. For all these rea- of ocean circulation may be as poor ain counties bordering the sea or the sons.President Nixon in1969 an- representation otreality as the Hadley Great Lakes increased from 25 percent nouncedincreased emphasis on the cell was of actual atmospheric winds. to 45 percent. This is the region wh.re coastal zone as one of the major na- One of the major problems in ad- man and the sea interact; and the inter- tional programs in oceanography for vancini, of ocean curraffaction is becoming increasingly a two- the coming decade. By personal orient has been thc difficulty of obtaining Use- sided proposition, as extensive 'notifi-tation and bec;.usethepressure is, cation becomes technologically possible. greatest there,Iwill focus primarily' Ilse National Oteamt and Atmospherit Admin. This is also the region where all marine on physical behavior of estuaries. istrat ion (N()AA) ttas created by President Nixon on October 3.1970. by Executive Order and as. economic activities have theit%greatest :,:nedtotheDepartmentofCommerce. The reorganualloil consolidated the elloris of 23 sepa concentration, now and for the fore- ratedepartmentsandagenciesof gOVer111111:111. seeable future. Originally the term estuary was used Aniouthesewere:theEnvironmentalSeiente Slime, Administrationt I:SSA I;theBureau 01 Inditionally, we have treated thisin reference to tidal portions of rivers, Commesciai Fisheries: "Marine Game Fish Research Program; Marine Minerals "'ethnology Center: Na margin of the sea, like other waterways, but usage has been broadened generally !tonal Otcanogrtphtc Data Center, National Meant, as property held in common, to be used to include any semi-enclosed body of paphie Instrumentation ("enter: and the National Sea Grant Program. .by all-according to their ne ds or de- water having more or less free exchange Estuary Surface. larger Chesapeake Bay is three-layered: inward at surface and bottom, outward River 4- -- at mid-depth.Although this flow is weak, it provides flushing of the harbor five times as rapid as is estimated by Oceanstandardengineeringrules. Instill Esti, other inlets, flushing takes place sea- -Ory sonally as water of different density, aott ustially because of varying river flow, occurs at the entrance. Such a mecha- Schematic illus.ration of estuarine circulation.In its most basic form, this consists of nism can be expected to be severely seaward flow of fresh or brackish water near the surface and landward flow of salt or brackish water near the bottom, with turbulent mixing between the layers. disturbed by riv r flow diversion or equaliLation pro?, There is also_ a wing body of evi- with the ocean and in which oceanto be more fertile than are surfacedence that these same general consid- water is generally diluted by fresh waterocean waters, both the landward flowerations apply in regard to movement from rivers or other upland drainage.and the river flow tend to enrich theof water between estuaries and open Extensiveoccurrenceofestuarineestuarinewater,leadingto _muchsea areas offshore, which is of quite areas, such as we have at present, ap-greater biological production than inobvious importance in regard to off- pears to be art ephemeral statein the open sea and, hence, to much moreshore waste disposal operations. geologic time, existing briefly follow- rapid biological sedimentation. ing a change in sea level.The pro- On a much shorter time scale, thisGoals for Science Teaching fusion of estuarine areas on our Gulfcirculation pattern is of importance to In conclusion, I wish to state three Coast, for example, is estimated to bethe interests of man.Itt is a primarysomewhat philosophical kaggestions for only five to six thousand years old; itreason why Puget Sound is nearly asscience teaching as it touches on ocean- can be expected to last another fourcold in the summer, as in the winter.ography or, more generally, environ- thousand yearsifthe sea holdsits Itis of obvious relevance to efficientmental problems. My thoughts hem are presentlevelandmandoesnot disposal of wastes. The value of estu-strongly conditioned by a personal con- interfere. aries and wetlands as nursery areas forviction that education for responsible There are several reasons for theoceanic speciesis being well publi-citizenship is a higher goal than educa- short life of estuaries. The most ob-cized; the larvae of these species have-tion for careers in science. vious is upland sediments deposited inpoor motility and ride this circulation First, there is the necessity to impart the estuary by rivers and streams. Moresystem into the nursery areas.Itis to students the realization that value important, however, arc reasons asso-clear that knowledge of the dependencejudgments must and will be made, con- ciated with the circulation of water.of the salinity stratification and circu-sciously or unconsciously.Secondly, The estuaryis a transition zone be-lation should be well established beforesince the first law of thermodynamics is tween fresh water of the river and salt-the modifications that have been andindeed irrevocable, students must be water of the sea.Because of its saltwill be made arlrelim. The generalmade cognizant of potential hidden content, surface seawater is about 2.5principles are in fact reasonably wellcosts in tedinological bargains. percent more dense than is fresh water. known. The basic controlling features Finally, students must be shown that This density difference gives rise to a are geomorphology (primarily depth), itis science properly understood and system of convection currents which isvolume of freshwater flow, and tidalused that gives us essential options.It so common in estuaries as to be termed regime of the estuary. An increase of isnot untilfaced withreally hard "estuarine circulation." Initsmost depth, tidal currcnt, or river flow canchoices, like resolution of the thermai basic form, estuarine circulationcon-generally be expected to increase thepollution problem, that we realize just sists of seaward flow of fresh or black-circulation.It is difficult to give quan-how much research is still needed, par- ish water near the surface and landward titative estimates, however, because theticularlyinenvironmentalmatters. flow of salt or brackish water near theflow is turbulent, and turbulent proc-Then we suddenly discover a great need bottom of the estuary, with turbulentesses havc proved extraordinarily diffi-to narrow the range of expert opinion mixing between the opposing layers.cult to handle in all fields of science andon the effect of elevated temperature on The landward flow near the bottom engineering. biota and long for better knowledge of carriesoceanicsedimentsintothe Thereareother veryinterestingseasonal temperature- and circulation estuary and impedes the movement ofvariations on this basic pattern. It haspatterns and more complex ecological upland sediment through the estuary,been shown, for example, that becausepuzzles in natural waterways.In the thus forming a self-destroying trap for there is relatively little fresh water flow-coming decade, it appears that these sediments from both sources. ing into the Baltimore harbor, exchangeneeds for environmental research can Also, since deeper ocean waters tendof water between the harbor and the only become more acute.

92 YV

Can Our Conspicuous Consumption of Natural Resources Be Cyclic?

LEALLYN B CLAPP

Professor of Chemistry Brown University Providence,. Rhode Island

3t)

SINCE a natural resource is neverbetween our supply and our demand isTable 1.Per person use of consumed (except for the sun'smade up (in several cases) by impor- resources in the United States energy), the answer to the title ques-tation of other people's resources. To(in tons) tion has to be yes. Exhaustion of thebe sure, we pay for the resources with RESOURCE 1950 1969' sun's energy will not be a real limita-food, tourists, plastics, and pens that Fuel . . 7.2 7.5 tion for a billion years. write under water, but these are re- Building materials . 5.4 5.8 By conspicuous consumption I meanplaceable while the importations (fuels Agricultural supplies 2.1 2.3 Metallic ores _ 2.55 2.65 the profligate American use of aboutand ores) are irreplaceable resources. Food . ... 0.75 0.75 19 tons (per person) of the world'sResentment against the Ugly American resources each year, compared to 2might be in part relieved if we tried to 18.00 19.00 tonslor everyJody else.2 In 1950 eachchange these imbalances. Extrapolated American was using 18 tons of the Two ways to do this suggest them-sees the problem of excessive con- world's resources divided into thoseselves. We could continue and extendsumption as one of converting the end categories shown in Table 1. our help to other people in developingproduct back to resource so that, in This imbalance' in our use of natu-their own resources (e.g., by peacefulfact, there is no "end product" but only ral resources is recognized by citizensuses of atomic energy); and we could a cyclic process.Since any or all the of the world and often resented buttryto make our own consumption steps in the cycle may consume energy, seems to be taken as -a natural right cyclic. the bottleneck in excessive consump- by unquestioning Americans. The re- Chemists hold thata naturalre- tion of natural resources is, in the end, sentmentagainsttheimbalanceis source isnever consumed3but onlyenergy. In the final analysis, the source compounded becausethedifference converted into new forms; e.g., a metalis the sun's energy, and this is nearly an into an oxide (iron rust), fuel intoinfinite resource. I Based on a lecture given at several colleges in the pact two years under the auspices of the Visiting carbon dioxide and water, falling fresh To make any resource cyclic, the ScientistProgramoftheDivisionof Chemical water into a reservoir of seawater, fer- Education t.1 the American Chemical Society. first requisite is a large supply of the The figure of 19 tons is a 19year extrapolation tilizer into protein, etc. The chemistoriginal resource, since a cycle may of figures available for 1950 from "Resources for Freedom," U.S. President's Materials Policy Com- not be completed for years or even mission.U.S. Government Printing Office. Wash- 3 The one exception is the element helium. which centuries. At present the use of only ington, D.C. 1952.Five volumes, The report was is lost to the upper atmosphere irretrievably when neither pessimist:: nor optimistic in outlook. itis allowed to escape from balloons or tanks. five resources, nitrogen [3], iron, cop-

93 per, lead, and lumber.' is in any sense The first copper ores in Michiganniques could be used to locate other cyclic.(However,. we are beginninacontained about14 percent copper. ores.Color aerial photograph) could to worry about air and water, resources The contentgraduallyretreatedto be used, for example, for exploration not included in the 19 tons.) 2 percent, and the ores` now mined infor other minerals. Of the five categories making up the A-izona and Montana.containing 19 tons. fuel, agricultural supplies, and 0.9 percent (even as low as 0.5 per- WILL AVAILABLE agricultural nictallie ores are meltable to the prcs- cent) copper.. arc still icconomic. supplies sustain the world in- cnt discussion. The problem of building A more complete recovery of tlfe definitely? Or eachUnitedStates materials is one of transportation. not metaLfrom its ore also helps to extendcitizen at the rate of 2.3 tons of rc- ,,upply,sothat energy remains the the original resource. A recent use of sourccs per year? The three necessary main. bottleneck. The problem of food, ion exchange in the leach liquors ofsubstances which must be renewed in is partly a matter of agricultural sup-mint tailings promises a 97 perccntthe soil continually are potash, phos- plies (fertilizer). recovery of copper from this source.phate rock, and nitrogen (as nitrate [2] or ammonia). The world supply of ENCHANTMENT of the original Iron ores wcrc once economicallypotash and phosphate rock is on the supply of a resource depends on unrewarding unless they contained atorder of 50 billion tons. At the rate of new discoveries oi on the use of slim-least 30 perccnt iron. Now taconiteconsumption cxpcctcd bytheyear mer and slimmer reserves t.:resources. ores of 15 percent iron are benefi-2000, the -supply will still extend for Both sources are available to increaseciated and compete with better grade 700 to 1,000 years.Only then will fuel supply. Geologists recognize ores from the Mesabi range. Mineralcyclic consumption be necessary. The Matoilandgasdiscoverieseven resources ordinarily suffer an orderlyleaching of these two resources from inthe United States have surpassed retreat Ito slimmer content as the eco- the soil eventually carries them to the usage by about 3 perccnt per year since nomic recovery of known resources rivers and finally, the ocean. Recovery 1920. Slimmer reserves (oil shale in gradually betomes more expensive. from the ocean may in the end be a Colorado and Wyoming) are untapped The story of uranium resources in necessity. at ,present but will extend the oil sup- the past few decades suggests another The supply of nitrogen is truly in- ply 135 years at present consumption way in which we have had to change exhaustible since 80 perccnt of the air rates.Coal reserves (new discoveries the basis of our thinking about natural is nitrogen gas.Synthetic ammonia, are not expected in the United States) rcsourccs. [5]In 1945 our uranium urea, and nitrate have bccn competing will last several centuries (500 years' reserves were so low that it was classi- with Chilean nitrate since World War I. supply under Utah). The world's sup-fied information to conceal a militaryThe limiting factor in making agricul- ply of oil, gas, and coal will last aboutweakness. By 1954 the uranium ore tural supplies undergo cyclic consump- 900 years at present rates of use, butreserves wcrc in the millions of tons.tion is again cncrgy (and ingenuity). only 200 years at rates cxpcctcd by the Now we have 80 million tons of proven Only recently, better technology cut the year 2000. reserves, and the United States govern-cost of ammonia synthesis in half. After exhaustion of fossil fuels, the ment has not been buying uranium ore combustion products (carbon dioxide since 1962. TO SUM up, scarcity of natural and water) may have to be converted How did the change come about in resourcesintheUnitedStates back to liquid fuels,first by atomicsuch a short time The search for ura- has actually bccn decreasing by 1/3 of encrey, and finally by the sun's energy. nium ores was turned into a national I percent per year since 1870. [4] Evidence that carbon dioxide content lottery in which the ticket was a Gcigcr Nevertheless,meeting productionof in the earth's atmosphere is increasing counter, the prospector rode in an air-metallic ores,to the extent of 2.65 beyond a safe margin may necessitate plane and not on a mule, and the prize tons per person per year,is fraught removal of carbon dioxide from the was a sizable bonus for discovery andwith uncertainties because of the im- atmosphere, most happily by recycling production.It was avery popularportation problem. The United States it back to a 'fuel. Alternatively, effi-lottery. The search provided amuse-obtains only two importantmetals cient fuel cells or some new inventionment, adventure, and even a serious completely from our own sources, mag- may speed the change from present patriotic purpose; and it worked. Per- nesium from seawater and molybdenum dependence on fossil fuels. haps the method would not work infrom Climax, Colorado. Molybdenum In the field of mineral exploration, the cast of other metal shortages, how -is used in steel manufacture, and we the reserves get larger every year, be-ever itis in the realm of possibility. have a virtual monopoly of it. The use cause new discoveries in technology Uranium is not a unique cast sinceofotherimportantmetals depends allow use of slimmer and slimmer rc-half the cicmcnts in the periodic table more or less on ore importation., sourccs.The twomostconvincingare more abundant than is uranium. This is especially true of the heavy examples are those of copper and iron. Though radioactivity could be used tometals. We import substantial quanti- explore for on:), two other ,elements, Conservationistshave bccn veryeffectivein ties of copper [6], iron, zinc, and lead making the lumber supply cyclic in character. thorium and potassium, other tcch-ores and all the tin that we use. We

94 _ J,

reached this stage with iron in1953 Table 2.Metal and mineral cycle of recovery. and the entropy of when the first iron ore shipments ar-equivalents (pounds) extracted our natural resources can increase so rived in Philadelphia from Venezuela. per 2.65 tons of ore that it takes energy to gather them to- In 1969, we are importing 23 percent Iron 1400 gether again. We do such a good job of our iron ore. By 1975 we will be Phosphate 150 of scattering our metals that someday Aluminum 98 iniporting 40 percent of our iron ore- Manganese 36 we may have to lengthen the 30-hour from Venezuela. Labrador, and Potassium 24 week back to 40- hcurs and spend the Copper 15 Liberia. We will soon have to induce Zinc 15 10 hours gathering scrap metal. foreign countries to dobble their pro- Lead 8 In conclusion, the totalresources -Calcium fluoride 7.4 duction of copper, icon, and lead, and Sulphur 0.72 of the world might be enough for three almost double zinc output.Among Molybdenum 0.33 times its present population but not at Gold 0.008 the light metals, we will, by 1975, also the American rate of consumption and need four times as much aluminum ifot.with our .present attitude toward and 18 times as much magnesium as the steel mills and fabricators gets back cyclic recovery. we did in 1950. We can supply theinto circulation, but of the 72 million magnesium by running more seawatertons used for containers, transporta- through our plants, but aluminum pro-tion, construction, and durable goods References duction will depend on other peoples. about one-fourth is recovered, one-half 1.Andersen. A. T. "Resource and Com- petitive Significance of Scrap 'Reclama= To produce aluminum we need__goes into a 26.5 -year recovery cycle, tion."PhDThesis, Harvard University, bauxite (an aluminum ore) and cryo- and one-fourthis considered nonre- Cambridge, Massachusetts.1961. lite to dissolve the alumina preparedcoverable. We do-a poor job of col- 2.Chemical and Engineering News45:62- from bauxite. We depend on Jamaica, 64;April 1967. lecting junk and getting it back as metal 3. Dclwiche, C. C. 'The Nitrogen Cycle." Surinam,Italy, and Mexico fOr into cyclic-consumption. Only about The Science Teacher36:14-21; March bauxite.In 1950; we thought there25 percent of scrap iron gets back into 1969. was only a 40-year supply from thosecirculation. 4.Fisher, J.L., and Potter,N.World Prospects for Natural Resourc ,s.The four countries. But-in 1942 a farmer The aluminum industry is not old Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Mary- had discovered a new supply of bauxiteenough to have formed a large scrap land, 1964. in Jamaica, because he wonders why industry.Two-thirds of allthe alu- 5.Jarrett, H..Science and Resources.The his land was so poor. -Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Mary- It took several minum ever used was made in the last land. 1959. years to find that he had discovered a10 years, and the 30-year cycle of re- 6. Murphy, R. P.What is the Future of 300-year supply.Aluminuin produc-covery is not nearly complete.Most the Copper Industry?Metals and Con- tion will depend on the willingness of of the aluminum is used in the airplane trols Division. Texas Instruments, Attle- boro, Massachusetts, Private Communi- Jamaica to supply our increasing de-industry, and the scrap problem has cation. mand for aluminum ore. not been faced. If Venezuela decided to keep her Copper gets back into the stream of iron ore and build her own smelters usefulness more completely than does Suggested Reading (or Jamaicadecidedtokeepher any other metal-about 75 percent is 1.Brooks, D. B. "Supply of Minor Metals." bauxite), should we just wave morerecycled over a 35-year period. This Colorado School of Mitres Quarterly58: 1; 1963: American dollars, to get the iron oreis because copper is easily' identified.-2. Brown, Harrison; Bonner, J.; and Weir, or otherwise make it economically im-It is red, and much of it in the form J.The Ne.tt Hundred Years.The Vik- possible for Venezuela to make an in-of wire. Three percent or copper now ing Press, Ncw York. 1957. 3.Hoffmann, S. '"How to Coexist in One dependent decision? in use is recovered annually. World."Daedalus:Spring' 1966. Could we make our consumption of Lead scrap, nearly 500,000 tons per 4.Landsberg, H. H. "Future Requirements metallic ores more nearly cyclic .byyear, comes largely from storage bat- of Major Metals."Colorado School of solving the problems of scrap metaljerks.Lead isthe most easily re- Mines Quarterly 58: 31; 1963. 5. Packard.Vance.The Waste Makers. recovery?[1]Ishall examine the- cycled metal, for melting and recasting David McKay Company,Inc.,Ncw metals separately since the scrap prob- are all that is necessary. Collection is York. 1960. lems are different for each one. Toalso easy, for batteries are not con- 6.Potter.N.,and Christy, F. T., Jr.Trends in Natural Resource Commodities.The begin we need to reduce this 2.65 tonsveniently ignored and are commonly Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Mary- of metallic ores to poundage of theleftat the point of exchange.The land.1962. metals themselves.Smelting and re-ftxcd -use period(threeyears)also 7.Preston, L. E."Exploration for Non- ferrous Metals."Resources for the Fa- fining reduces this figure to those given makes recovery steady and predictable. ture,-Washington, D.C. 1960. in Table 2. Each battery contains 25 pounds of 8. Ward, Barbara.Rich Nations and Poor Shouldn't we attempt to make ourILad. At present 50 to 60 percent of 'Nations. W.W. Norton & Company, steel consumption cyclic by using morethe lead in use is recycled. Inc., Ncw York. 1962. 9. Ward, Barbara,Towards a World of scrap iron? How well is the job being Arenaturalresourcesevercon- Plenty.University of TorontoPress. done now? Most of the scrap from :trued? No, but we can prolong the "`1964.

V TECHNOLOGY assessmentisa costs, most strikingly evident in thevironmental impact of proposed actions 1type of analysis which attemptsdegradation of the environment or and programs. These reports deal with to identify both the long -term benefitsecology. The sum total of these costs, Ach diverse proposals as those de- and .thelong-termcoststosociety if known to society when the decision scribed below: resulting from the introduction of awas made to introduce a new tech- A small city plan to expand its bus fleet new technology. The reasons for thenology, might very well have resulted (with federal aid). where the environmental recent interest in this type of analysisin a "no go" rather than a "go" de- impact may be to alter the concentration of are obvious.Virtually all of the na-cisionor atleast such information air pollutants, or to require the long-term commitment of previously unused land for tions of the world whose agriculturalmight have stimulated an examination a bus garage. or to adversely affect a re- or industrial technology is advancedof alternate ways to achieve the de- gional transportation plan designed to mini- realize that the utilization of techno- sired benefits. mize the construction of freeways. etc. logical advance _for immediately obvi- In the last Congress, environmental- A plan by the Army Corps of Engineers to dredgeitthree-mile channelinBayou ous benefits often results in long-termists and proponents of continued tech- Coden, Alabama, to give shrimp and oyster nological development alike, made first boats better access to clocking facilities in steps toward defining atechnology thevillageof Coden(population500). Here the considerations are the effect on Dr. Kushner is deputy director of the Na- assessment mechanism to guide the na- fish and wildlife of the Bayou and potential tional Bureau of Standards, U.S. Depart-tion in policy-making.In Section 102 damage to sonic thirty acres of wetlands. ment of Commerce. This paper was his of the National Environmental Policy as balanced by the expected economic gain part of an NSTA-Sunoco Science Seminar Act of 1969, all government agencies to the locality. at the 1971 Convention of the National At the other extreme is the Trans-Alaska Science Teachers Association in Washing-are required to report to the Council pipeline proposal, a plan to construct and ton, D.C., on March 28. on Environmental Quality on the en- operate a four-foot pipeline carrying hot oil

96 TECHNOLOGY, PRODUCT PERFORMANCE, AND THE CONSUMER Lawrence M. Kushner

over an 800-mile course southward from the ncering on how thelegislative and will not stand still. Policies which would northern oil fields of Alaska. The proposed and executive branches of governmenttry to make it do so are not only futile, line would deliver two million barrels of oil a day at the southern terminal at Valdez can be provided with capabilities whichthey-are self-destructive. The world- Day.It would cross regions of tundra and are adequate for technology assessment. wide population increasethe aspira- permafrost, four major river systems, and For the purposes of this paper, the tions of man for food, health, and free- numerous active seismic zones and would organizational alternatives suggested in domrequire more and new technol- jniCeobvious problems if a break or leakage should occur.In addition, a major- analysis the reports arc not important. What is ogy, certainly used with more discre- of the potential ecological_ effects must be of interest is the unanimity of opinion tion than in the past, but developed 111:Ilie. and the effect of opening up an 800- regarding the extraordinary-complexity and used, nevertheless. mile strip to human population growth must The impact of technology on the be assessed.Rational examination of theof technology assessment analyses and plan is demanding serious study by-earth the difficulty of using their results withconsumer, while massive, is also com- scientists.biologists. meteorologists, and a confidence. The overriding iaportance plex.Itconsists of directassaults, variety of experts in engineering. Active dis- of second- and third-order effects inte- such as in the technical sophistication cussion will continue for a long time. grated over a long period of time and-of the products he purchases, but it In the same Congress, 11 House Sub- the wide range of interactions between also includes more subtle ones applied committee on Research and Develop- adjacenttechnologiesvirtuallyelim- in shaping his wants, expectations, and ment, chaired by then Congressmaninate the utility of such analyses asshopping habits. Emilio Daddario of Connecticut, com-predictions of the future. At the same missioned studies and reports from time they highlight the importance ofTECHNOLOGY is defined by Web- both the National Academy of Sciences making rational decisions. And deci- ster as "the totality of the means and the National Academy of Engi- sions will have to be made. Technologyemployed by a soLiety to provide ob-

97 jects necessary for human sustenance seedsof consumerfrustration are today than years .ego. We shall return and comfort.-Note thestresson planted early. to this point. "means- as opposed to the objects. The shopping process.itself.has On the other hand. that product themselves.The ways in which we been shaped by technological develop- v Welt most of UN aspire to-- good satisfy our needs are as much a part ments. )The automobile, by making home at a reasonable price--is rapidly, of our technology as are the artifacts possible suburban dispersal. is at the disappearing because neither the tech- we produce and use. Marshall Mc Lu- same time bringing about the demise nology inherent in the structure. itself. han's "message- expands on this point. of the downtown, high-concentration nor-in. its production process reflects Itis useful to examine the impact ofbusiness districts in w hich comparath e the technological imp, o% ements ulna technological progress on the consumer shopping u as easier. and reasonably are possibleith today's state-of-thein this broader sense. knowledgeable sales personnel could art. The reasons for this arr complex: A major thesisofferedby John be found.Instead. one-stop suburban but the point is that unless products Kenneth Galbraith in his book. The shopping areas offer a limited number continuetoreflect new technology Nen' blimia' State,' is that the tradi- of products from which to choose; and either in themsel es or in their manu- tional %ersion of a free-market econ- salespersonnel,althoughgenerally facturing process. they soon become omy does not exist in the United States. willing, are unable to provide authori- unsatisfactory in terms of absolute pet- Itis no longer_ true.he claims. that tat'veassistance. "Lowoverhead" formanec or performance/unit cost. production responds to the needs ofmarketing technology. in fact, is-predi- consumers.instead, major manufac- cated on a minimum of customer/sales- RESPONSE by go% eminent turers such as those of automobiles. man 'interaction.By buying "in theTHEtothe increasing articulationof because of the massive investments carton.'the consumer concedes hisconsumer discontent hasbeenthe required to market a new product and right to expect any responsibility forcreation. at all levels from city to fed- .._ - the competitive necessity of offeringthe product by the retailer. eral. of consumer protection or con- new products every few years, cannot The ubiquitous credit card whose sumer affairs agencies.This signifieS wait for nor depend on the operation of very ubiquitousness is a direct result the political appeal of the problem, a freemarket. 1 lavingcommitted of computer technology applies the Notwithstanding the heroic efforts themselves to market a new product. "coup de grace- by making the con-of some very` talented and dedicated say a three-dimensional TV set, sonic sumer so susceptible to impulse-buy-people in these offices (whose powers two or three years hence. such manu- ingthathe buys what ho- doesn't are limited to persuasion and to ex- facturers must invest tens of millions needand perhaps can't affordwhileposure of improper practices)their of dollars in remarkably=effective ad- paying a surcharge for doing so. impact is slight, and there is a strong vertising campaigns to assure thata Finally, one comes to the technologypush for legislation to put the govern- ready and anxious market awaits the embodied in the product, itself. Therement in the business of setting stand- product. is no doubt that the technical sophisti- ardsforproducts:Such standards The effectiveness of this advertising cation and, in most eases. performance would go far beyond the traditional is at least as much a product of tech- far exceeds one's reasonable expecta- areas of 'governmentalconcern-- nological development as is the 3-D tions a generation ago. The contention he:alai- and safetyanddealwith 'IV set, itself. The full Power of com- that we no longer make things as we product quality and performance. With munications technology is brought to used to is absolutely correct. Today,due respect for the virtue of the mo- bear to deAclop consumer watts based products are far better. The modern tives underlying _such legislation, the on appeals to prestige, image. power, "home entertainment center AM/ potentialfor harm from the heavy tielPgratifleation, and sex." The issue FM radio and color TV, phonograph,_hand of bureaucracy on the tradition- of need is not normally addressed: The tape deckis a marvel of technical ally fast - moving and innovative con- consumer wants what he is led to want. sophistication and performance. Andsumer market limits the support for That this can be done so successfully the most sophisticated of its subsys-such a drastic program. would be inconceivable without ourtemsits electronicsis remarkably Responding tothis challenge, the highscience-based communications trouble-free since the introduction ofvoluntary standardization apparatus in technology. solid-state electronics and integiTted the United States is undergoing inten- At least as important. the consum-circuits. Today's automobile, notwith- sive self-examination and some recon- er's expectations regarding the product standing its monstrous effect on society. struction to deal with standards for are shaped by essentially emotional ap- is a vastly improved product over what consumer products. There are more peals which itis not likely to satisfy. it was years ago. The improvements in than 300 trade, industry. and profes- Buying a particular model of automo- ride, comfort,visibility,power,cfli- sional associations in the United States bile is not likely to turn the averageciencyand even safetyhave not which generate voluntary standards re- secretary into a jet-set swinger. Thebeen trivial. This is not to say, how- flecting agreements on the design, dura- ever, that owning an automobile is not bility, quality, and other aspects of the 3 iimighlon Mifflin Company. Boston. Mass. 1967. a much more frustrating experience performance of products.

98 44,

The problem isthat these are for merce. for the flammabilit) of wearing relo anttothe pelforniance of the the coo,part indutt cal products. and apparel and interior furnishings. product. that proper test methods for the ag :ements reflected in the stand In man) cases. the introduction of ac%aluating each of these attributes are ard .ne reachedbet)) conindustrial standard imposes additional costs on used. and that all manufacture's use bu)er and sellers.I3oth groups arc the manufacturer which are ultimately the same test method. general!)tedmicall)competent and passed on to the consumer. Ulm much This suggests thatit ma) not be strong!) motkated b) economic factors safety does the consumer want and at standardsforproductsv hichale to reach a coMpronlise which only ))hat cost and,"or inconvenience? The needed, but rather standards for the rarerri.11,:cts an explicit considera- consumer pays for seat belts in automo- information w hich should be pros ided tion of the ultimate consumer. biles and then sits on th.nn.Individu-with the product at the time of sale. als and society as a whole seem to find But even this provides no guarantee of THE American National Standards some levels of risk acceptable. As our rational judgment b) the consumer. Institute(ANSI),thiscountry's roads have improved over the years. A voluntary program along these-__ national standardization body. attempts we could easily have reduced autolines in the United Kingdom has not :7 to coordinate the activities of theseinjuries and fatalities by simply keep-elicitedthe kind of enthusiastic re- more than 300 organizations.It issues ing the speed limit constant: but, of sponse from consumers one might has e such standards as are developed tinder course. speed limits continue to in-cxpected, and a recent limited experi- ,the so-called -Consensus- principle as crease. signif)ing that thereis some mental _program in a -major chain of AmericanNationalStandards stilllevel of risk to which we have uncon-department stores in the Midwest ap- voluntary but meriting recognition as sciously become 'adjusted. pears to have had similar modest im- !Ming beendevelopedunderpro- Manufacturers of farm machinery.pact on the consumer. Additional ex- cedures which give all interested par-puzzled by their lack of success in re- periments, embodying new ways of ties the opportunity to participate in accidents by successiveim-providing the information and Meas- their development. provements in the safety features ofuring the impact, arc needed. The "consensus**principle means theirproducts.learnedthatasthe that manufacturers, distributors (whole- safety of their machines increased. the IF WE return to the automobile case sale and retail), and consumers are riskier became the ways in which they I astypifying the impact of tech- involved: but one doesn't need to bewere used.As tractors became less noloey on tile consumer through the very perceptive to realize that unless tippable. they were used on steeper-products he buys. the locus of discon- the consumer-3s -repriseirteii-by !filth!) hillsides. This is an important field of tent emerges clearly.It is the difficulty motivated. technical!) competent peo-study for social psychologists and be- of obtaining satisfactory service asit plethe equal of those representinghavioral scientists. We need to knowmay be required. Quite frequently the the other partieshe willget shortmuch --more than we do now about product is delivered defective: More shrift.Strom; consumer organizations these problems before we can effec- often difficulties develop as the product arc needed to get technically compe-tively legislate for consumer product ages.Iii the former case. the problem tent consumer representation into thesafety, no less, product quality, for the consumer is inadequate pro- standardization process and to get ap- cedures for honoring the explicit or propriate standards-developing bodies IN PRINCIPLE. the answer ;o the implied guarantee.In the latter ease, into the consumer product field.N, cry IIIproduct-quality issueissimply toone is concerned with simply one in- few consumer product standards mist.let the consumer know what he is get- stance of an endemic problem in the even dealing with safet), much lessting in a particular product so that heU.S. todaythe inefficiency of many of other attributes. can make any compromises or trade- our service industries. Theissueof consumerproduct offs he is inclined to in selecting among It is likely that the consumer is being safety highlights questions of economic competing products.For instance, ifhurt economically much less by the trade-offsandcoksumerbehavior. all electric steam irons at time of pur-high technologic:d content of the prod- Since the turn of the twentieth century. chase had tags on them which specified ucts he buys than by the low techno- there have been many, laws which regu- the rower consumption. weight, tem- logical content of the services he pur- late consumer products out of a con-perature of the sole plate, amount of chases.In this connection, we return cern for the safety of the public. Firststeam produced betweenrefills,ex- to the definition of technology which came the Food and Drug Acts, and pected lifetime of the handle, corrosion stresses the ways in which we Meet our more recently. the National Traffic and resistance of the sole plate, etc., the needs as well as the hardware, itself. Motor Vehicle Safety Act_of 1966 and consumer would have anintelligent The organization and manneement of the Flammable Fabrics Act Amend- basis for choosing among items. our railroads are at least as important* ments of 1967. Under these Acts the Of course, in order for such informa-components of that industry'stech- Department of Transportation issuestion to be useful. there must be some nology as its inventory of tracks, cars, mandatory safety standards for auto-assurance that the criteriaidentified and stations. mobiles, and the Department of Com- (i.e.,weight, temperature,etc.)are in the service industries, we sec

99- some remarkable contrasts that showincrease in the rate at which such pro-stream.Unfortunately. we have no clearly that the public is best servedfessionals can be produced in the nearmechanisms for generating this new wheretechnologykeeps advancing, future. technology which are as efficient as albeit under the effective management Returning once again to the auto-those we have used successfully in de- of those who understand it. Our tele-mobile, which epitomizes technological veloping the hard' are for our society. phone service in the United States isimpact on the average citizen, both asWe mustlearn what research and unparalleled anywhere in the world.It a curse and as a blessing, the lack ofdevelopment mean in the context of isthe most technologically sophisti-innovative technology in the servicesocial technology. cated civil industry we have.It is notside of the industry is striking. The The U.S. consumeror. if yon will. only skillful in exploiting scientific ad-principalinstitutionthroughwhich the publicis going to have to con- vances for useful technological devel-service is provided remains the indi-tinue to live with rapidly developing opments;theindustryhasactuallyvidually operated servicestation ortechnology. -This is not because tech- forced scientific advance in sonic fields.automotiverepairshop.Evert thenology is a heartless, irresistible, self- The -telephone industry did not waitservice operations offered by franchisedfueled juggernaut. The high wages and passively for solid state devices to comenew car dealers are essentially cottagestandard of living of U.S. workers as along and then use them. The industryindustry, in contrast with the sophistica-compared to those of their counter- force-fed the relevant areas of sciencetion of the technology of manufactur-parts elsewhere mean that U.S. prod- to assure that solid state devices would ing.delivering, and marketing newucts can continue to be competitive be available when they were needed.cars. Gas stations use essentially the inworld markets onlyifthey are The.public is served well by this indus-same equipment today that they didcontinually being improved and the try whose management, not coinci-30 to 40 years ago.Putting gas andproductivity of U.S. industry is con- dentally, consists almost completely of oilinto automobilesisidenticalto tinuously upgraded. Both mean new people with scienceorengineeringwhat it was two_generations ago. As atechnology. The long-term economic backgrounus. result, productivity is low, and priceshealth of the country depends on our On the other hand,themedical and discontent are high. technological prowess.Itis essential service "industryis plagued by poor One might be tempted to concludethat the public understands this. With- service, runaway costs, and the result-that the way to improve the serviceout economic health, satisfactory reso- ing clamor for "something to be done." "industries"isthrough bignessthelution of our pressing social issues be- There are other important problems efficiency of large organizations. Surely,comes much less likely. facing the health-care industry, such assize aloneisn't the answerwitness the underproduction of physicians, butthe railroads and the postal service: AT THIS-time in the human condi- the inadequateapplicationof evenOn the other hand, we note the change tion, perhaps the most dramatic presently available technology is surelyin car washing technologythe minuteresult of man's venture into space is one of its most important. The effec-car-washwhich has occurredina his new perception of his -own planet. tive use of new technological develop- small business but keeps the price ofThisbrightandhospitablejewel, ments is the answer to improving thea car wash competitive with what itfloating in a dark and endless void, is productivity of the industry, therebywas_ 10 or 15 years ago. seen as a limited and not a limitless making satisfactory care available at resource. Fortunately, this perception reasonable pi ices. - THE general public tends to thinkemzrees at precisely the instant in his- For instance, medical record-keep- of technology onlyinterms oftory that man's impact on he natural ing in our hospitals isestimated athardware, but a society's software isecological processes which'''llave kept about S4 billion per year. Our com-at least as important.Its analysis ofthe planet conducive to his develop- puter experts at the National l3ureau ofits problems, the way it organizes toment are no longer trivial. Frau, here Standards estimate that the proper usemeet them, and the way it accom-on it will take all of our scientific skill of computers and information handlingplishesitsobjectives alsoreflectits and technological ingenuity to manage techniques, within the currently avail-technological sophistication. intelligently the spaceship, Earth. able state-of-the-art, could probably One way of characterizing many of If there is an appropriate message cut this in half. our current problems is that the tech-to impart to science teachers today, it Of course, more physicians are alsonology reflected in our hardware has would appear to be to help the younger needed, particularly to make personaloutstripped that reflected in our soft-generationunderstandthetruena- medical attention more uniformly avail- ware. Our social institutions no longerture of technologyits pervasiveness, able throughout the country; but evenappear to be adequate to meet thedrama, and subtlety.For rightor modest increases in the productivity ofneeds. New social technology is re-wrong, technology has helped "turn present physicians and other health-quired to regenerate our educationaloff" our young people.Perhaps a care specialists would have a nuch system,todealeffectively withtherecognition of its challenge and oppor- greater impact, and in a shorter time,maintenance of law and justice, and to tunitycanhelpthem"turnon" than one can hope for from any likelybring our minorities into the main- again. 0

100 enercp4, technoio

17 Melvin- Kranzberg

physicists have defined energythe many climatic change's which oc-work for him; the other was by devising THEas the ability to do work, and theycurred during the cons of polo:* time,tools and implements which would am- have postulated thermodynamic lawsprehistoric men might not have sur-plify and extend the power of his mus- relating different forms of energy to onevived without fire to keep warm. It iscles. An increase in energy through the another and to work performed. Butnot surprising that fire was regarded asdomestication of animals, about the energy is more than a physical phe-sacreda gift from the gods, or, asseventhmillennium BC, couldnot nomenon: It is a social phenomenon.Greek legend had it, a theft from themake itself felt until more efficient use The way in which energy is produced,gods by Prometheus. could be made of animal muscle power controlled, and appliedused and mis- Fire also improved man's chancesby the invention of the wheel (about usedhelps determine the naturcloffor survival by increasing his food sup-2500 BC) and, much later, of a more society. Or, as Fred Cottrell, the sod=ply. By enabling him to live in colderefficient harness for horses. The in- ologist, stated, "The energy available toareas, fire enlarged the territorial rangecrease in power through tools had come man limits what he can do and influ-of man's food-gathering activities.Itmuch earlier. ences what he will do."1Certainlyalso made possible cooking, allowing man's material civilizationand muchunpalatable or indigestible foodstuffs to ONE of the first "machines" was of his cultural lifeis dependent uponbe converted into assimilable human the bow-and-arrow, which might a technological base, which in turnenergy. be viewed as a machine for storing rests upon man's use of energy. As Fire extended man's use of materials.energy and releasingitindirected man has learned to control and applyEarly man already used stone imple-fashion. When the bowstring is slowly energy in different ways, society hasments and tools, but the developmentdrawn back, human muscle power undergone concomitant changes. of pyrometallurgy, enabling him to usetransmits energy to it; this energy is Our prchuman forebears might neverthe store of metals locked in the earth,released suddenly when the archer have evolved into our present speciesgreatly extended his power and skills.shoots. The bow-and-arrow and other had it not been for their ability to con-Copper, bronze, and, later, iron pro-weapons expanded food supply by en- trol energy in the form of fire. Duringvided man with materials which heabling man to kill small game at a could utilize to control and subdue na-distance. Other early tools and devices ture, as well as his neighbor. also multiplied human muscle power; Cottrell. William F. Energy and Society. Green- wood Press. Inc.. Westport. Conn. 1955,P. 2. Yet even with the application of fire,this was especially true of the wheel, the greater part of energy available to which made it easier to transport heavy man for performing work came mainlyloads over long distances. By classical Dr. Kranzberg is head of the Graduate from his own strength. There were twoantiquity, Archimedes could classify Program inthe History of Science andways by which man could augment histhe "five simple machines" and analyze Technology at Case Western Reserve Uni- versity and editor-in-chief of Technology muscle power. One was by domesticat-the mechanical advantage which they and Culture. ing animals, so that they would performgave man in manipulating things.

101 Even with only rudimentary tools.flatlands where the fall of streams wascentury) and the tandem harness. mul- human muscle power can perform featstoo slight for a water mill and where atiplied the effeethcpulling power of of great magnitude if organized effec-mill dam would flood too much land.3horses by some three to four times en er tively. The chief example is the pyra- The medieval power revolution alsothat in antiquity.' A horse (Iris ing a mids. Although built before the Egyp-enlarged animal ',sower by improxementmachine with the new and more effi- tians had thewheel,the pyramidsof the harness, which had remained un-cient harness was the equivalent of I 0 demonstratetheprodigiousaccom-changed since about 3000 BC. The oldslaves. while a good water wheel or plishments of human muscle powerharness had been held in place by awindmill provided the work of up to wheneffectivelymarshalledinthestrap around the neck; as soon as the100 slaves. performance of a collective task. horse exerted a heavy pull, it choked Themedievalpowerrevolution. Ithas been claimedthatslaveryitself.Furthermore, the ancients didcoupled with technological innovations militated against more effective use ofnot know how to harness horses in filein_agrieulture and machines, laid foun- humanenergy.When faced with a inorder tomultiplytheirtractivedations for the renewal of town life problem requiring the exertion of morepower; no(lid they use horseshoes.and the beginnings of industrial tech- force,theancientengineer simplyand their horses often suffered foot in-nology.The Renaissance saw con- added more slaves to the work gangjuries on qiugh terrain.The rigidtinued growth in the exploitation of insteadof devising some ingenioushorsecollar, probably introduced fromwater and wind power as power de- mechanical solution which would les-Asia during the early Middle Ages, to-vices increased in size.By the seven- sen the strain on human muscles. Proofgether with horseshoes (ca. the tenthteenth century. the Marly.works which of this is adduced from the fact that the pumped water for Versailleshad a $ water wheel was known in Roman 3 Whim, 11.)nti. Jr.-medieval Roots of Modern times, but Romans scarcely made use Technology."In Pursperlitesn,Mediesal %%hitt!, Lynn. Jr.Methetal Te(Inrolog end Sil- K. P, Drew and F. S. Lear, Editors, Unbcrsity ofciol Change. (Word Usthcrsil Pros. New York. of it. Instead, they continued to rely on Chicago Pros. Chicago, Illinois.1963. 1962. Pp. 57-69. human and animal muscle power.

THE Middle Ages witnessed a veritable "power revolution." Rome's decline coincided with the decline of slavery and stimulated the application of new power sources. Water wheels came into widespread use andwere improved. The vertical water wheel, .T.-....- introduced in the- fourth century after 71:2C. Christ, for instance, had a power ca- 5.a 40 -.4,4 pacity of _2 kilowatts, compared with _ . BAs0----- A q only three-tenths of a kilowatt for the "-r,...!..0,;96- 54 earlier horizontal type? By the time of 1f. the Domesday Book (1086), there rs were some 5,000 millsinEngland, amounting to one mill to every 400 of 4: . _...._ the population. First used for grinding grain, water power was later applied to a great diversity of industrial uses, most importantly to drive the bellows of blast furnaces so that the economical process of casting metals could come into widespread use. Another source of inorganic power contributedtothemedieval power revolution: wind. Although wind had been used to drive sailing vessels since antiquity, itsuse asa power source in the West dates from about the twelfth century. Windmills provided power in ILLUSTRATIONS. LIBRARY OF CONGRCSO

=Starr. Chauncey. "Energy and l'owcr." Seim- Water power was depicted in this engraving of a saw mill and block house on Fort Anne lifiAmerican 225: 37-49: September 1971. Creek done by Thomas Anburey. (Travels Through the Inteiior Parts of America, 1789)

102 tom' 1

.1' 7-117K1h141:

a It 95

--14;41131.191 rum itAlMir,m1Kt7'4;".! IM11;111

Belmont Nail Works, Wheeling, W. Virginia, with Ohio River in foreground. (Illustrated Atlas of the Upper Ohio River, 1877)

power output of 56 kilowatc; Similarly,tion of the vast bulk of mankind. Menthrough animal and human power, was the capacity of windmills grew, fromlivedinrural areas,theirhorizonsquite limited. Then. in the nineteenth several kilowatts to as much as 12limited, and with a standard of livingcentury, man liberated the power of kilowatts. In addition, the Renaissancescarcely above subsistence. Industrial- fossil coal through the steam engine on developed complex gearing arrange-ization changed all that. The faLtorya scale never before possible. The new ments for the transmission of powerbecame the cent -A production; thepower, multiplied or divided almost at from watcr wheels and windmills socity became the -otter of human lifewill, was applied to uncounted tasks. that more efficient use could be made ofand production; familyrelationships Yet the steam engine had some dis- the energy input!". changed, while traditional institutions, advantages. It was heavy and cumber- By the eighteenth century Europesuch as religion, lost their hold uponsome; almost a century and a half after was in desperate need of new powermen's minds in the new urban sur-its development, a reciprocating steam sources. Windmills were effective onlyroundings. engine could operate at only 23 percent in flatlands, such as the Netherlands, A transformation also occurred inof therniarefficiency. Nevertheless, the where the terrain did not interfere with the centers of political power.Thepower revolution ushered in by the a steady wind. Water power was in-steam engine gave the industrial ad-steam engine expanded under the im- termittent in operation; the flow ofvantageto countries with abundantpetus of scientific discovery and tech- water would decline during dry seasonssupplies of coal. This advantage wasnological innovation which created a or freeze in cold weather. In England,reinforcedwhcn steel became the basic new prime mover, the internal-combus- all the good industrial sitesthat is,industrial material. Because the mak-tion engine, and a new form of energy, _where there was a sufficient flow anding of steel required more coal than electricity. fall of watcrwere already taken up byiron, the location of the energy re- factories c:owded close together. Thesource determined the center of steelTHE internal-combustion engine en- need for a new source of power wasproduction.Itis not surprising that larged, accelerated, and altered the especially pre% alent in the mining areas. Britain, with its iron and coal deposits,social changes already occurring as a to pump water from mines. The steambecame the world's industrial leaderresult of steam power. Small, light, and engine answered that need and becameand the dominant political power dur-powerful, the internal-combustion en- the characteristic power source of theing the nineteenth century. gine personalized the amount of power Industrial Revolution. The steam engine wasthefirst available for each individual, provided mechanical prime mover to providetransportation for everyone, and made THE steam engine, and the Indus-mobility. Through the steamboat andreadily available a source of power ' trial Revolution of which it was alocomotive, energy from steam revolu-with which to do a number of tasks, part, completely transformed the eco-tionized transportation and brought theincluding fulfillment of man's ancient nomic,Aicial,andculturallifeofworld closer together. dream of flying. The automobile's ef- Western Civilizationand ultimately Steam both epitomized and embodiedfect on American society is so marked of the entire world. For almost all ofthe fundame..tal technological changeas to require no recounting here. The human history, the hearth and homeof the modern eraan incredible jumpmobility of Amercian society is evident had been the center of production, andin available energy, Before the age ofin every facet of our daily lifeand agriculture had been the chief occupa-steam, the sum total of energy whichthis is the result of 'energy for trans- nian could effectively convert to hisportation made available to everyone A. Cis A Theriot. of Mochinec. The Mac. sultan Company. Nem, York 1964. purposesthrough wind andwater,through the automobile. Furthermore,

103 vs&

-tr

Drawing of the first American railway train as it appeared in July 1832 on the Mohawk and Hudson Railway.

the automobile represents a major fac-history. Yet it was less than a centuryFarm mechanization demonstrates how tor, perhaps the major factor, in theago (1882) that the first electric powerthe application of energy to food pro- American economy: One out of every station for private consumers, the Pearlduction has eased man's toil and, at the eight workingmen in the United StatesStreet Station, was established by thesame time, increased productivity. As is employed in a task directly con-Edison Company in New York City. Itlate as half a century ago, approxi- nected with the automotive industry. served a modest load of approximatelymately one-quarter of the farm acreage Equally portentous was thedis- 1,400 lamps, each taking about 83in the United States grew crops for covery, development, and utilization ofwatts and constituting an electric de-feeding the 25 million farm horses and electricity. A single comparison withmand of 33 kilowatts. mules; that sacreage has been freed to the past illustrates one dramatic change Electrical dnergy found still anotherprovide food for human beings. wrought by electricity.One of theuse in the twentieth century.In the The growing utilization of energy on romantic episodes of the Americancensus of 1890, the United States Bu-the American farm has meant that West was the Pony Express, begun in reau of the Census introduced machinesthere is less need for human and animal 1860, but it was only the ultimateto sort and tabulate data on punchedmuscle power.Rural workers have exploitation of a form of communica-cards, providing the prototype of newbeen displaced, for they are_no longer tion centuries olda message carriedmeans for storing and manipulating in- needed to till the soil; the family farm is by a man on a horse. The trip fromformation.Previousapplications offast disappearing, and agro-business is St. Joseph, Missouri, to San Franciscoenergy through mechanical devices hadtaking its place. A vast migration from took ten and a half daysten fewerlifted the burdens off men's backs. Now rural regions to citics has accompanied than the best stagecoach time. A yearthe use of energy for information pur-the growth of farm productivity, and later,however,thetranscontinentalposes began liftingthe burdens offthis has given rise to urban and also telegraph was completed, and the timemen's minds, freeing them from dullracial problems as southern Blacks for a message to reach the Pacific wasand repetitive tasks. have migrated to northern industrial again cut, this time to a fraction of a And, just as the development ofcenters. second. Within another 15 years theearlier energy sources had allowed the In brief, the manifold applications of telephone was a crude though workingexploitation of a wider field of mate-energy in production, both industrial reality, and the Atlantic Cable shortlyrials, so did the new electronic devicesand agricultural, have given rise to a after mid-century brought messagesallow for manipulation and exact con-new type of society where production, across the ocean in an instant._ Today,trol of the productive process. Auto-which had occupied so much of man's through telecommunications satellites,mation reduced the need for humantime and energies over the course of events occurring halfway across thelabor while increasing and standardiz-the centuries,no longer presentsa world are flashed immediately ontoing output. For the first time in humanproblem.° The census figures reveal the television screens in our living rooms. history, a society of abundance andmagnitude of the social changes. What Electricity has become so much aaffluence was possible.The implica-was primarily still a rural and agrarian part of our daily lives that we some-tions of this for work and leisure arenation at the beginning of the twentieth times fail to recognize how unique andstill not completely understood. century had by the middle of the cen- important it isuntil a storm or mal- Contemporaneous with the new ap- function cuts off our power. We failplidations of energy in the twentieth w. W. Rostow calls this "the age of high mass- centuryand, indeed, depensicnt,upon consumption. In The Stages of Economic Growth. also to realize how really new it is in Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. terms of the long time span of humanthemwas a revolution in agriculture. 1960. Chapter 6.

104 Americans are demanding a quality environment.They are appalledat ugly strip mines, oil slicks from tanker spills and leaky offshore wells, denuded corridors of land for energy transmission lines, sulfur oxides and fly ash from power plants, noxious emissions from automobile exhausts, and the real or imaginary specter of radioactive perils from nuclear centers.Scientists and technologists engaged in the production and application of energy are thus faced with a major problem: how to protect the environment and still provide for the "good life." That question posesbasicissues about values. The value scheme implicit in our past profligate use of energy was based upon a human history of scar- cityscarcity of material goodsto satisfy basic needs of food, clothing, and shelter. Now that we have the potentiality for a sufficiency of material goods, the environmental issue has be- comeofoverwhelmingimportance. Heretofore, American society, with its orientation toward material development, has always considered economic Harvesting on a bonanza farm. (Harper's Weekly, August 29, 1891) growth as essential to the nation's well- being.Yetif proper cognizanceis turybecome predominantlyurban.ergy in the form of unlimited, cheap,takenof environmentalfactors, we Late in the 1950s the number of peopleand ubiquitous energy which would, inmight have to stow the pace of eco- employed in the service sector of thea very real sense, set men free fromnomic growth or change its direction. economy surpassed those engaged in thelimitationsofpreviousenergy What message, then, does the story production of goods. sources."( of the development of energy and its But something happened on the wayimpact on man's history have for us? ALTHOUGH ushered inwith anto Well's Utopia.Neither man norIt tells us of the great opportunities actofdestructionwhichstill energy is yet free. What is worse, theoffered by human imagination and in- echoes in the conscience of mankind,country is confronted with an energygenuity in converting energy to man's a new form of cnergynuclear power"crisis,." On June 4, 1971, the Presi-use and how such uses inevitably affect marks one of the greatest triumphsdent of the United States sent a mes-our social destiny.With this knowl- of science and technology in our time.sage to Congress acknowledging thatedge in mind, we can face with con- Radioactivity had 11,_en discovered nearthe country had entered a period of in- fidencethect.. rentissuesinvolving the close of the nineteenth century andcreasing demand for energy and ofenergy production and application. We r- had caused excitement in a small seg-growing problems, of energy supplies.can examine our values, we can decide ment of the scientific community, butScientific and technological factors ac-how we want to live, and we can have the idea of harnessing this energy forcount partially for the energy crisis, butdue regard for the other peoples of useful purposes wr.s imagined only bymuch of the difliculfy has arisen fromthe world and for future generations science fiction writers. In A World Setsocial factors, especially public hos-within our own country. We can then Free, written in 1914, H. G. Wells pre-tility stemming from fears of thermalarriveata comprehensive national dicted that nuclear energy would bepollution and radiation hazards andpolicy which will take our resources, invented about 1940 and, most pre-alarm over danger to the environmentour science and technology, and our sciently, that it would be used in warfrom oiier forms of energy applications.aspirations into account. The present about 1950. Wells thought that about "energy crisis" does not bring man 7 Similar possibilities arc sct forth in a morc recent the middle of the1950s, the world work by Glenn T. Scahorg and William R. Corliss, into confrontation with his science and would come to its senses and realize Man and Atom: Shaping a New World Through technology; it forces man to confront Nuclear Technology.E. P. Dutton & Co.,Inc., the possibilities offered by nuclear en- Ncw York. 1971. himself. 0

105 level of man's technology hasTHEscience of energyiscalled THEincreased greatly within the past I thermodynamics. Through a study ENERGY few decades, with results both spec-of thermodynamics we learn to calcu- tacularlybeneficialandregrettablylate quantities of , lergy. Energy itself CONVERSIONS harmful. The average man in'a tech-appears in many utacrent forms. Water -nological society has a higher standardat the top of a waterfall has more AND of living, better state of health, andenergy than it has at the bottom; this ENVIRONMENTAL less arduous way of life in a world ofis calledpotentialenergy. When the almostlim.;ssconveniences.Thewater flowsdownhill,thepotential POLLUTION cost of these advances has only recentlyenergy is converted into cncrgy of flow become clear. By-products from man'scalledkineticcncrgy; this then rotates race to affluence make his gains lesssome type of turbine and eventually spectacular.In place of a desirablecreateselectricalcncrgy, which then Michael D. Henderson natural environment man now has, allcan be transmitted along power lines. too usually, smog, noise, urban sprawls, Energy stored in a fuel may be called R. Curtis Johnson junk yards,stripmines, anddirty chenticalcncrgy. A substanceby water. Many of these are by-productsits very existencepossessesinternal of our use of cncrgy conversions.If energy. we want to lessen or eliminate these There are two.ways by which energy by-products, we must give particuiiiris transmitted from one place to an- attentic1 to our energy consumption other.Tit:Tina! energy(heat) is cncrgy and to the methods we use to obtainin motion because of a temperature power for our technology. difference.Workis broadly defined as The annual consumption of all formsa force moving through a distance and of energy in the United States hasin-takes on many forms.Thermody- creasednearly twentyfold in the pastnamics allows one to calculate quan- century, [1, 2, 9, 11, 13, 14] (See Fig- tities of cncrgy in one form; given some ure 1.) During this period, fuel sourcesprocess by which work and heat trans- have shifted steadily. Fuel wood was fer energy from sonic othcr form. the dominant cncrgy source in 1850. Many books have been written on By 1910 coal accounted' for about 75 this subject, yet the basic principles of percent of the total energy consump-thermodynamics are summarized in a tion, and fuel wood had declined tofew very straightforward and dcccp- some 10 percent. In the 50 years bc-tivcly simple rules. One is that ,cncrgy twcen 1910 and 1960 coal lostits is conserved in all normal `processes. leading position to natural gas and oil. (The loophole "normal" is left because Today nuclear power is emerging as ain nuclear processes there is a conver- national cncrgy source. [15] sion between matter and cncrgy.) This is the First Law of Thermodynamics. Mr. Henderson is a graduate student and The Second 'Law of Thermodynamics Dr. Johnson is chairman of the Chemical Engineering Department at the University of imposessomelimitationsonthe Colorado, Boulder. amount of useful work that can be ob-

106 50,000 I .' I . ! I . i . 1 r i 20,000 / /. , 160 f/ 150 , 10,000

, , 140

130 5000 120 i

110

100 2000 90

i 80 it 1000 70

3.3 50 500

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0 100 I 1850 1875 1900 1925 1975 2000 1900 1920 1940 1960 1960 2000

YCAR YEAR

Figure 1.U.S. energy consumption (from U.S. Bureau of Mines). Figure 2. Per capita consumption of electricity in the U.S. tained when some form of energy, suchout the aid of electrical gadgets. Thiscontributes very little pollution. The as chemical, is converted into thermalpaper will not attempt to address anyautomobile exhaust .may contain un- energy. This latter process occurs inbiological problems.) burned hydrocarbons, partially burned an automobile or power plant. When hydrocarbons (such as carbon monox- the fuelis burned,itproduces high IN THE conversion of cncrgy fromide), nitrogen oxides (which are fixed temperature gases, which are used to one form to another, two vastly dif-as a result of the sudden high-tempera- move the pistons of an internal com- ferenttypesof environmentaldis- ture combustion followed by a sudden bustion engine or to turn "the Turbineturbances are created. Thcsc are heatquenching of the gases), and possibly of a power plant. Under these circum-and chemical pollution. Some authorslead compounds, as well as large quan- stances only a relatively small amountdefine "pollution" as resources out of titiesof carbon dioxide and water. of the energy can be converted to use-place or in the wrong place at the The latter two, of course, fit nicely into ful work, -the remainder is rejected towrong time. Certainly the rejection ofthe overall biological cycle, and so, the surroundings. The Second Law ofheat or chemicals to the surroundingsunless used or generated in excessive Thermodynamics allows the calcula-does represent a waste of potential, asquantities, are little cause for concern. tion of limitations on processes. well as an increase in what we callBecause there arc some 80 million Man wants cncrgy for two reasons. pollution. automobiles in this country, auto ex- One is for heat since he tends to live When airpollutionisdiscussed, haust adds up to a serious air-pollution in climates that are at times Irsh. Hefingers point at two major culprits.problem. Thcrc is also some thermal also needs cncrgy to "do things with,"First is the internal combustion engine.pollution because much of the cncrgy such as propel an automobile or oper-Most suchengine~ are installedin of gasoline is wasted in the form of ate electrical equipment. (Man also,automobiles. They form a very diffi-heat. At present, this heat is rejected of course,expends aconsiderablecult type of pollution to combat be-to the atmosphere and does not seem atitount of biological energy since hecause these sources are mobile, hard to cause any particular problems. How- still does some things for himself with- totrace, and each one individuallyever, we can riot say that this heat may

107

Kt. not become animportant problemother hand, can capture up to 75 per-crate at lower temperatures than do source in the future. cent of the energy and make it avail- fossil-fueled plants, resulting i!!. fuel-to- The other culprit in creating air pol-able for space heating. The averageelectricity efficiency of only about 30 lution is the powcr plant. In this caseefficiency of the conversion of fossil percent.Thus, the potenti.:Ith nal there may be fewer hydrocarbon c,I,is-fuels for space heating is now probablypollution from a nuclear plant is.most sions, but more fly ash as well as sulfurbetween 50 and 55 percent, or nearly50 percent more than that of a fossil- gases. In regard to some of the newertriple what it was at the turn of thefueled plant withth... same electrical and larger power plants there is con-century.In 1900 more than half ofpower output. siderablefearthatlow-gradecoals all the fuel consumed inthe United The challenge is to find something mixed with miscellaneous, and oftenStates was used for space heating; to-usefulto do with large volumes of unidentified, mineral deposits will tend day less than a third is so used. low-grade energy.Many uses have to give fly ash that contains metals The most dramatic increase in fuel-been proposed, but they seem to run such as mercury, molybdenum, and conversion efficiency in this century hasup against economic limitations. The cadmium, the effects of which are really been achieved by the electric -powerlow-pressure steam discharged from a unknown. These effects may be bio-industry.[ 10, 16]In 1900 less thansteam turbine has been used for space logical if the metals eventually become 5 percent of the energy in the fuel washeating in New York. Chemical plants dissolved in water and affect aquaticconverted toelectricity.Today theand refineries also use low-pressure life,plants, and man.Large poweraverage efficiency is around 33 percent. steam from turbines as process steam. complexes, such as those located inThe increase has been achieved largelyThis is being done in Midland, Michi- the Four Corners area (of Colorado,by increasing the temperature of thegan. Heated water released by power Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico), are steam entering the turbines that turnplants might be beneficial in speeding obviously causing a distribution of ma- the electric generators and by buildingthe growth of fish and shellfish in cer- terials over vast land. areas; this is ob-larger generating units.In 1910 thetain localities, or for keeping open a vious from the reduction in visibility in typical inlet temperature was 500 de-pond for waterfowl, asinBoulder, that once attractive part of the country.grees Fahrenheit. The latest units takeColorado. Nationwide, however, there This reduction of visibility is due rathersteam superheated to 1,000 degrees. seems to be no attractive use for the directly to large quantities of particu- The maximum theoretical efficiencywaste heat; a sad fact when the im- late material.Itis not known what ofa steam turbineor other heatpending shortages of fossil fuels are effect this will have eventually on theengineisexpressed by thefractionconsidered. biological cycle.Itisessentialthat(T1T2)/TI, where T1 is the absolute Intimately related to problems of someratherseriousandintensive temperature of the working fluid enter-heat discharge from pow er plants- is studies be started as soon as possible.ing the heat engine and To is the tem-the problem of weatherVodification Power plants also tend to produce perature of the fluid leaving the engine.caused by urbanization. [5,- 6, 8, 12] large quantities of thermal pollution.For example, with T1 of 1,000°F (orCities are often situated very near the This problem is often localized because811°K) and To of 100°F (311°K),power plants that service them with the heat goes into cooling water whichthe equation gives a maximum theo-electrical power. By far the most pro- isthen put back into the streams.retical efficiency of about 60 percent.nounced and locally far-reaching ef- Waste heat creates a serious problem.However, the heat cannot all be intro-fects of nian's activities on microcli- But there is also a great challenge toduced at this constant upper tempera-mate have been in cities. The change improve the handling of this heat soture,sothemaximumtheoretical in the heat balance (solar radiation plus that it may become a useful resource.efficiencyiscloserto53percent.man-made production less consump- This paper will not consider the airPresent-daysteamturbinesachievetion) is substantial. pollution caused by chemical, petrol-about 90 percent of this, with a result- When a rural area is changed to an eum, paper, metals, cement, and other ing overall efficiency of about 48 per-urban one, a spongy surface of low typesofindustrialplants,althoughcent. heat conductivity is converted into an these are extremely serious and should These figures deal with the conver-impermeable layer with high capacity be a subject for later papers. sion of thernial energy toelectrical for absorbing and conducting heat. energy.. When the efficiency of theAlso, the albedo or reflective power is efficiency with which energy inoverall plantiscalculated, however,usually lowered. These radical changes Thefuelis converted to useful formthe interesting comparison is betweenin surface lead to rapid runoff of pre- varies widely, depending on the method the amount of electricity sold to cus-cipitation and consequently to a re- of conversion and the end use desired. tomers and the amount of fuel pur-duction in local evaporation. This is, When wood or coal is burned in anchased. Inefficiencies in boilers (aboutof course, equivalent to a heat gain open fireplace, less than 20 percent of 88 percent) and other power-plantone whichis amplified by radiative the energy is radiated into the room;equipment reduce the overall efficiency heat gain resulting from the lowering the rest escapes in the chimney. A to about 41 percent. of the albedo. This heat is effectively well-designed home furnace, on the Present-day nuclear plants must op-stored in the stone, concrete, asphalt,

108 and deeper compacted soil layers of the than one can obtain from a combustion doubling period as much fossil fuel will city.Therefore,structuralfeatureschamber fired with fossil fuel. be extracted from the earth as the total alone favor a strongly positive heat If ever an energy source can be saidamount that has been extracted to date. balance for thecity.To this, localto have arrived in the nick of time, itDuring thc next 10 years the United heat productionisaddql. The endis nuclear energy. Twenty-two nuclearStates will generate as much electricity result is what has been called the urbanpower plants arc now operating in theas it has generated since the beginning heat island, which leads to increasedUnited States. Another 55 plants areof the electric cra. convection over the city and to a city-under construction, and more than 40 In 1970 the United States consumed induced windfieldthatdominates.are on order-. (At the time of writing1,550 billion kilowatt hours of elec- when weather patterns favor weak gen- this paper most construction had beentricity.If this were degraded into heat eral air flow. halted because of the failure of the(which it was) and distributed evenly An immediate consequence of theAtomic Energy Commissiontofile over the total land area of the United heat island of cities is increased con-appropriate environmental impactStates (which it was not), the energy vection over cities, especially in thestatements.)This yeartheUnitedreleased per square foot would bc daytime.This has been beautifullyStates will obtain 1.4 percent of its0.017 watt. At thc present doubling demonstrated by the lift given to con-electrical energy from nuclear fission;rate, electric power consumption is be- stant-volume balloons launched acrossit is expected that by 1980 the figufeing multiplied by a factor of 10 every cities. The updraft together with thewill reach 25 percent and that by 200033 years. ,Ninety-nine years from now, large amount of water vapor releasedit will be 50 percent. after only 10 morc doubling periods, by combustion processes and steam Other power schemes have beenthe rate of heat release will be 17 power leadtoincreased cloudinessproposed, based on using the wind orwatts per square foot, or only slightly over cities. solar energy collected at thc earth's less than the 18 or 19 watts per square surface. Thcir great virtue lies in thefoot that the United States receives IN AN effort to eliminate some offact that they would -add no hcat loadfrom the sun, averaged around thc , these problems, novel energy con-to the carth's biosphere; they can beclock.Long before that the present version systcms are now under devel-called invariant energy systems. Solarpattern of power consumption must opment. Two devices that have re-energy collectedinorbit wo:;Id notchange, or the technology needed for ceived much notice are the fuel cellstrictly qualify as an invariant systeminvariant energy systems must be de- and the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD)since much of thc radiant energy inter- veloped. generator. The fuel cell converts chem- cepted at an .altitude of 22,300 miles ical energydirectlyintoelectricity;would otherwise miss thc earth. Only PERHAPS the most fundamental fuelcells have been developed thatthc fraction collected whcn the solar question of national policy is: How can "burn" hydrogen, hydrocarbons, orpanels were in a line between the sunshould present resources be allocated alcohols with an efficiency of 50 toand the earth's disk would not add tofor the benefit of futurc generations? 60 percent. MHD is potentially capa-the earth's heat load. On the otherThe development of new speculative ble of serving as a high-temperaturehand, solar collectors in spacc wouldenergy resources is an investment for "topping" deviceto be operatedin put a much smaller waste-heat load onthc futurc, not a means of remedying series with a steam turbinc and gener-the environment than do fossil-fuel orthe problems of today.Itis equally ator in producing electricity.Some nuclear plants. Of thc total energy, inclear that the quality of life of the time ago MHD was being advanced asthe microwave bcam aimed at the earth peoples of the world depends on thc the energy converter of thc future. Inall but 20 percent or less would be con-availability "now" of large amounts such a device the fuel is burned at averted to usable electric power. Whenof low-cost energy inuseful forms. hightemperature, andthe gaseousthe electricity was consumed, of course, This being so, orderly development of products of combustion are made elec-it would end up as heat. [See the articlethe resources available with present trically conducting by the injection ofby Peter Glaser, p. 120-123.] technology must bc emphasized, and a "seed" material, such as potassium To appreciate the long-term impor-these are primarily power plants based carbonate. The electrically conductingtance of developing invariant energy on fossil fuels and nuclear fission. gas travels at high velocity through asystems one must appreciate what ex- A firststepinrestraining energy magnetic field,andintheprocessponential, growth of any quantity im-growth would be to give more scrious creates a flow of direct current.If theplies. The doubling process is an awe-attention to population growth. Popu- MHD technology can be developed, itsome phenomenon. (Figure 2) In any lation control is also basic to protecting should be possible to design fossil-fuel one doubling period the growth quan-the environment in all its aspects. Pol- power plants with an efficiency of 45 totitybe it energy usc, population, orlution is by and large the by-product 50 percent. Since MHD requires verythe amount of land covered by high-of an affluent society, not of poverty. high temperatures, it is not suitable forwaysincreases by an amount equalThis fact is overlooked by people who use with nuclear-fuel reactors, which toits growth duringitsentire pastthink of population control as a pro- produce a working fluid much coolerhistory. For example, during the ncxtgram necessary only where there is a

109 shortage of food. But population con-important as ever to economic growth, References trol is only part of the answer, liecause but man -deludes himself and perhaps Electric Power and the Environment. the major growth in energy demand is shortchanges future generations when Report' of the Energy Policy Stall. U.S. due to the continuing increase in the the price of electricity does not include Office ofScience and Technology. per capita consumption of electricity. the cost of the damaging impact its Washington, D.C. August 1970. 13, 7 17j 2.Gambs, GerardC., and Arthur A. production imposes on the air, water, Banal. "The Energy Crisis." Chemical It may be that energy consumption and land.If the total social cost of Engineering 78: 56.58; May 31. 1971. is growing so fast in part because the.electricity were included in its price, 3.Duet goternmental Coordination of price does not include the full cost to consumers would he better prepared to Power Development and Environmental Protection Act.Hearings before the society of producing and delivering it. consider the effect of their decisions on Subcommittee on Intergovernmental Re- Efficient power production is just as the environment. lations of the Committee on Govern- ment Operations. U.S. Senate, Ninety- first Congress. Second Session.1970. 4.investigating Your Environment.Bio- Suggested Student Problems. position. What happens as this work is logicalSciences Curriculum Study. done? If exhaust pollutants were elim- University of Colorado, Boulder. 1970. It is important that man have heat for inated by use of battery-powered auto- 5.Kornai, Tor D. "Thermal Discharges- several purposes in addition to the in- mobiles, estimate the amount of fly ash An Engineering Problem." Paper pre- dtistrialprocessing ofmaterials. Pri- and sulfur gaSes that would be emitted sented at the Winter Annual Meeting. marily, heat is used for comfort and for from fossil -fuel power plants to generate American Society of Mechanical Engi- neers. New York. cooking purposes. Investigate the amount the power necessary. 1970. of heat used to warm a home. This can 6.Landsberg.HelmutE. "Man-Made be done by estimating the amount of fuel Climatic Changes. Science 170: 1265- 1274; December 18, 1970. used anditsheating valueper unit Examine theelectrical gadgetry and 7.Lane, James A."Projected Cost of quantity (British Thermal Units per cubic other power-conversion equipment (power foot of gas or per pound of coal). Energy." Paper presented at the, Na- mower,transistorradio,wristwatches, tional Meeting, American Institute of Now assume that the home was heated gasoline-powered saw,etc.)around a Chemical Engineering. February 13-18, directly by electricity. How much would moderatelyaffluenthome.Listthose 1970. Atlanta, Georgia. is this heat cost as opposed to the direct considered essential, desirable, and frivo- 8.Males impact on the Global Environ- cost of fuel?Taking into account the lous. Make some estimates oi the power ment. Study of Critical Environmehtal Second Law of --Thermodynamics, how savings that might occur if the frivolous Problems,Reportof:Massachusetts much fuel might have to be burned at gadgets were eliminated. Institute of TechnologyPress, Cam- the power plant in order to furnish this bridge. 1970. electricity?(Note that energy such as 9.Morrison, W. E., and C. L. Reading. electrical can always be converted 100 Given the equations for heating of An Energy Model for the U.SU.S. percent into thermal energy.) water, examine how the quantity of heat Department of the Interior, Bureau of In some distant future, fuels may be energy carried away by a stream, such Mines Information Circular No. 8384. so expensive that we will no longer be as one flowing past a power plant, might July 1968. 10.Nuclear Power and Environment. U.S. abletoaffordtheluxury of electric hedetermined. Recognizingthatthe stoves and ovens.Because of the same temperature and velocity of the water Atomic Energy Commission, Division Second Law limitations, the production of Technical Information, Washington, -vary both across and with the depth of D.C. 1969. of heat in a stove by, electricity is more the stream, how could the amount ofII."Nuclear PowerStages costly of fuel when carried out electrically Conieback." heat actually carried away be estimated? Chemical and Engineering News 48: than by gas or other direct method of Ifpossible, make measurements above 48-51; November 9, 1970. firing. Make similar calculations to the and below a power plantin order to 12.Dort, Abraham. "The Energy Cycle of above showing the amount of fuel that determine thermal energy. the Earth,"Scientific American 223: would be wasted if every household in Think about similar types of relation- 54-63; September 1970. thiscountry had an electric stove asships that might be used to determine 13.Ross, 1'. N., and L. G. Hauser. "Sonic compared to a gas stove. chemicals diluted in water and carried Future Dimensions of Electric Power away.If possible, make measurements Generation, Circa1970-1990."West- above and below a chemical plant or inghouse En:zineer 41: 2; January 1971. If 80 million cars go 10,000 miles each sewage treatmentfacility.(Techniques 14.Singer, S. Fred. "Human Energy Pro- per year and they avcrz.ge 10 miles perand procedures for field measurements duction as a Process in the Biosphere." gallon of gasoline, estimate the amount are well described in "Investigating Your0 Scientific AntelieMt 223: 174-190; Sep- of gasoline used.How much heatis Environment." (41) tember 1970. releasedby combustion?How much 15.Starr, Chauncey. "Energy and Power." work is done? Assume the conversion of Scientific American 224:37-49; Sep- chemical energy to work in the automo- Talk to a local utility company and tember 1971. 16.Summers, Claude M. "The Conversion bile is 45 percent. Assuming that auto- find out its capacity and cooling require- of Energy."Scientific American 224: mobiles were converted to battery power, ments and whether cooling towers, cool- 149-160; September 1971. estimate the amount of power that would ing ponds, once-through cooling. or other 17. Towards a Rational Power Policy. A have to be generated at power plants in system is used. Calculate the efficiency report submitted to the Mayor's Inter- order to charge batteries. of operation. departmental Committee on Public Util- Estimate-the amount of air pollutants What is the flow of various rivers in ities by the Environmental Protection created by automobiles, given sonic in- your area, and what sort of heat load Agency of the City of New York. April formation on the average exhaust com- could these accept without damage? 1971.

110 GEOTHERMAL energy, inthe ,broadestsense,isthenatural heat of the earth. Temperatures in the earth rise with increasing depth.At the base of the continental crust (25 to 50 km), temperatures range from GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 200'C to 1,000°C; at the center of the earth (6,371 km), perhaps from 3,500'C to 4,500°C. But most of the L. J.P. Muffler and D. E. White earth's heat is far too deeply buried to be tapped by man, even under the most optimistic assumptions of technological development. Although drill- heat from the rock to a well aild thencemoves buoyantly upward in a column ing has reached 71/2 km and may some to the ground surface. Under presentof relatively restricted cross - sectional day reach 15 to 20 km, the depthstechnology, rocks with too few pores,area ( Ito 50 111t2).If the rocks have from which heat might- be -extractedor with pores that are not intercon-many interconnected pores or fractures, economically are unlikely to be greaternected, do not comprise an economicthe heated water rises rapidly to the than 10 km. geothermal reservoir, however hot thesurface and is dissipated rather than White 17] has calculated thatthe rocks may be. stored. If, however, the upward move- amount of geothermal heat available in Water in a geothermal system alsoment of heated water is impeded by this outer10 km isapproximatelyserves as the medium by which heatrocks without interconnected pores or 3 X I026 calories, which is more than istransferred from a deep igneousfractures, the geothermal energy may 2,000 times the heat represented by thesource to a geothermal reservoir atbe stored in reservoir rocks below the total coal resources of the world. 11] depths shallow enough to be tapped byimpeding layers. The driving force of But most of this geothermal energy isdrill holes. Geothermal reservoirs arethis large circulation system is-gravity, far too diffuse ever to be recovered located in the upflowing parts of majoreffective because of the density differ- economically. The average heat con-water convection systems. (Figure 1) ence between cold, downward-moving tent of each gram of rock in the outerCool rainwater percolates undergroundrecharge water and hot, upward-mov- 10 km of the earth is only 0.3 percentfrom areas that may comprise tens toing geothermal water. of the heat obtainable by combustingthousands of square kilometers and Many investigators in the past con- one gram of coal and is less than 0.01 then circulates downward. At depthssidered the water in geothermal sys- percent of the heat equivalent of fission-of 2 to 6 km, the water is heated bytems to be derived from molten rock able uranium and thorium contained incontact with hot rock (in turn prob-at depth. Modern studies of hydrogen one gram of average granite.Conse-ably heated by molten rock).Theand oxygen isotopesin geothermal quently, most of the heat within thewater expands upon heating and thenwaters, however, indicate that at least earth, even atdepths of lessthan 10 km, cannot Icc-ii.onsidered a potential energy resource. Geothermal energy, however, does TEMPERATURE have potential economic significance 10' C at ,.1,`Hot stelae A E see wore surface E4or Geyser where the heatis concentrated into 17 -'1-`t 0-0-4 restricted volumes in a manner analo- t ,Solong begins tr\-, 801.ng Devils gous to the concentration of valuable ',Curve I metals into ore deposits or of oil into / --Rocks of low -.=-1 I permeabdity=it commercial petroleum reservoirs.At 7- r-3 present, economically significant con- La roam I / '8 'eireSible._ 1KM \< , \/ centrations of geothermal energy occur 4 z F/ where elevated temperatures (40°C to \1Is/\ zsmoo Crystieine \--)roces >380°C) are found in permeable o- -5 t rs --I' H E A T rocks at shallow depths (less than _ / 3 km). The thermal energy is stored zoosoo-t //C1 I both in the solid rock and-in water and Convecting(?) magma it\1sy steam filling pores and fractures. This water and steam serve to transfer the Figure 1.Schematic model of a hot-water geothermal system, modified from White. (8, 91 Curve 1 shows the boiling point of pure water under pressure exerted by a column of liquid water everywhere at boiling, assuming water level at ground surface. Dissolved The authors are geologists with the U.S. salts shift the curve to the right; dissolved gases shift the curve to the lett.Curve 2 Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California. shows the ground temperature profile of a typical hot-water system.

111 European plates are in contact. and it appears to have been a subduction zone in the past. Geothermal fields are stable,continental samalivit.,z absent from the .:*75 shields,which are characterized by lower-than-average heat flow. Although there are no known shallow geothermal reservoirs in the non-volcanic conti- IFS nental areas bordering the shields, hot water has been found at depths of 3 to 6 km in the U.S.S.R., in Hungary, and on the Gulf Coast of the United Stags. [6]

42, Uses of Geothermal Resources

/PP Tht.primaryuseof geothermal energy to date is for the generation of Figure 2. World map showing loc. ation of major geothermal fields along plate margins. electricity.For this purpose, under Heavy double lines represent spreading ridges; heavy lines with barbs represent active subduction zones; heavy dotted lines represent rift valleys. Light lines represent transform existingtechnology,thegeothermal faults; dashed light lines represent approximate position of magnetic anomalies. Base reservoir must have a temperature of map and tectonic features from Coleman. (2, Figure 4) at least 180°C, and preferably 200°C. Geothermal steam, after separation of 95 percent of most geothermal fluidsridges; see Figure 3) or where crustalany associated water (as much as 90 must be derived from surface precipita- materialis being dragged downwardweight percent of the total (anent), tion and that no more than 5 percentand "consumed" in the mantle (sub-is expanded into a turbine that drives is volcanic steam. duction zones).In both situations,a conventional generator. World elec- molten rockis generated and thentrical capacity from geothermal energy Location of Geothermal Systems moves buoyantly upward into the crust.in 1971 was-approximately 800 mega- Geothermal reservoirs arc the "hotThese pods of igneous rock provide watts (Table 1), or about 0.08 percent spots" of larger regions where the flowthe heat that is then transferred byof the total world electrical capacity of heat from depth in the earth is oneconduction to the convecting systemsfrom all generating modes. Power from and one-Aalf to perhaps five times theof meteoric water. favorable geothermal systems is com- worldwide average of1.5 X 10-" Figure 2 shows that the geothermalpetitive in cost -with either fossil fuel caloriesper squarecentimeter perfields presently being exploited or ex-or nuclear power. The production of second. Such regions of high heat flowplored occur in three major geologic geothermalpowerisobviouslyre- commonly are zones of young volcan-environments:( I )along spreading strictedtoarea's where geothermal ism and mountain building and arc lo-ridges, (2) above subduction zones,energy is found in sufficient quantity. calized along the margins of majorand (3) along the belt of mountainsUnlike coal, oil, gas, or uranium, geo- crustalplates. (Figure2)Theseextending from Italy through Turkeythermal steam cannot be transported margins are zones where either newto the Caucasus.Although this lastlong distances to a generating plant material from the mantleisbeingzone is not a modern subduction zone, located near the existing load centers. added to the crust(i.e.,spreadingit is the zone where the African and Geothermal resourceshave other uses, but to date they have been minor. Geothermal waters as low as 40°C arc usedlocallyfor space heating and SPREADING CONTINENTAL RIDGE OCEANIC CRUST CRUST horticulture. Much of Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is heated by geo- 01:171/ > f. 1% L. I/ V A 2 < , thermal water, as arc parts of Rotorua _ 1 7 1-. .N I% I \ L. -I4 (New Zealand), Boisc (Idaho), Kla- E 40 - n > ZONE OF MAGMAGENERATION > .N A x > mathFalls(Oregon), andvarious _ L. `i< V L. 7 C ..1 a. 4 w -f '7 > r -7 r- towns in Hungary and the U.S.S.R. o > > -1 A ;it t-' V N manufacturing at Kawerau, New Zea- Ut...... ) Iv% -1 84SE OF ROD PLATEi v land, and has potential use for re- e, ri < A V A 7< 4 7r i ..> frigeration.Some geothermal waters Figure 3. Model of development of oceanic crust at spreading ridges and subduction of contain potentially valuable by-prod- oceanic crust at consuming plate margins. (Generalized from Coleman, 2, Figure 6.] ucts such as potassium, lithium,, cal-

112 -

Table 1. World geothermal power production, 1971. injected as water into the ground.If this binary fluid generating technology ELECTRICAL. CAPACITY,. MW Ci UNDER proves economically feasible,itwill OPI:R- CONS7 RUC- allow more complete extraction of heat COUN t RY I'irl o ATING TION from geothermal fluids and will allow ITALY I.arderello 358.6 use of hot-water geothermal systems of Mt. Amiata 25.5 lower temperature than are presently U.S.A. The Geysers 192 110 required for direct geothermal steam NEW ZEALAND Wairakei 160 Kawerau 10 generation. JAPAN" Matsukawa 20 The major known hot-water geo- Otake 13 thermal fields are Wairakci (160 mega- MEXICO Paths 3.5 Cerro I'rieto 75 watts) and Broadlands (100 megawatts U.S.S.R. Patothetka 5 proposed)in New Zealand, Cerro Par:it unka .7 Prieto (75 megawatts under construc- ICELAND Namafjall 2.5 tion;200 megawatts proposed)in 790.8 185 = 975.8 Mexico, the Salton Sea field in Califor- Freon plant. nia, and the Yellowstone geyser basins in Wyoming. Although the Yellow- cium, and other metals. Use of geo-Geothermal wells, however, are usu- stone region is the world's most inten- thermal energy to desalt geothermalally sited in nearby cool, stable groundsive display of hot-spring mid geyser water itself has been proposed, and thewhere near-surface temperatures arc phenomena, the area is permanently U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and thecontrolledbyconductionofheat withdrawn as a National Park and will Oflice of Saline Water are presently through solid rocks; the temperature- never be exploited for power. developing a pilot operation for pro-depth curve is therefore initially to the Whereas the salinities of most hot- ducing fresh water from the geothermal left of curve 1. wa,cr fields are 0.1 to 3 percent, the waters of the Imperial Valley, South- Water in most hot-water geothermalSalton Sea geothermal reservoir con- ern California. systems is a dilute solution (1,000 to tains a brine with more than 25 percent 30,000 milligrams per liter), contain-by weight of dissolved solids, mainly Types of Geothermal Systems ing mostly sodium, potassium, lithium,chloride, sodium, calcium, and potas- There are two major types of geo-chloride, bicarbonate, sulfate, borate, sium. In addition, the brine is rich in thermalsystems:hot-water systemsand silica. The silica content and thea variety of metals. [8] Although tem- and vapor-dominated("dry-steam") ratio of potassium to sodium are de-peratures reach 360°C, development of systems. [ I 1 ] Among geothermal sys- pendent on temperature in the geo-the field has been hindered by prob- tems discoveredtodate,hot-waterthermal reservoir, thus allowing predic- lems of corrosion, deposition of silica, systems are perhaps twenty times as tion of subsurface temperature from and disposal of unwanted effluent. Hot, common as vapor-dominated sys- chemical analysis of hot springs. [3, 4] saline brines also occur in pools along tems. [10] In ,hot -water geothermal systems, the median trench of the Red Sea where Hot-water geothermal systems.Hot - only part of the produced fluid is steamgeothermalfluidsdischargedirectly watergeothermal systems contain water and can be used to generate electricityonto the sea floor 2 km below sea at temperatures that may be far above with presort technology. For example,level. [8] surface boiling, owing to the effect of water at 250°C will produce only about Vapor-dominated geothermal sys- pressure on the bailing point of water 20 weight percent of steam when thetems. Vapor-dominatedgeothermal (curve 1 of Figure I ).A,typical hot- confining pressure is reduced to 6 kilo-systems, in contrast to hot-water sys- water system has temperature-depthgrams per square centimeter, the ap- tems, produce superheated steam with relations similar to those of curve 2. proximatewell-head ,pressurecom- minor amounts of other gases (CO.,, Little change in temperature occurs as monly used in geothermal installations. H2S), but no water. The total fluid meteoric water descends from A to 13, The steam and water at this pressurecan therefore be piped directly to the heat is absorbed from 13 to C, andare mechanically separated before the turbine.Within the vapor-dominated from C to D the system contains water steam is fed to the turbine. geothermal reservoir, saturated steam at nearly constant temperature (the Some attentionis currently being and water coexist, with steam being the "base temperature"). From D to Edirected toward a heat exchange gen- phase that controls the pressure. With pressure has decreased enoughfor erating system. Heat in the geothermal decrease in pressure upon production, tl water to boil, and steam and water water is transferred by a heat exchangerheat contained in the rocks dries the coexist.In major zones of upflow,to a lowboiling-point fluid, such asfluids first to saturated and then to coexisting steam and water extend tofreon or isobutanc, which is then ex- supersaturated steam, with as much as the surface and are expressed as boil- panded into a turbine. The geothermal 55°C superheat at a well-head pressure ing hot springs and locally-as geysers.water is not allowed to boil and is re-range of 5 to 7 kilograms per square

113 centimeter. Owing to the thermody-systems. perhaps 2 to 5.percent of thethe past 10 years. Large areas in the namic properties and flow dynamics ofheat in the reservoir can be extractedwestern United States appear to be steam and water in porous media, va-and converted to electricity. Therefore.favorable for geothermal exploration. por-dominated reservoirs arc unlikely_if the use of geothermal energy con-but knowledge of the nature and extent to exist at pressures much greater thantinues to be restricted primarily to elec-of our geothermal resources is inade- about 34 kilograms per square centi-trical generation by proven techniques,quate. Further investigations are neces- meter and temperatures much abovethen the potential geothermal resourcesary, not only of the distribution and 240'C. f5 jHot brine probably existsto 10 km is only about 10° calories. characteristics of geothermal reservoirs below the vapor-dominated reservoirsTo a depth of 3 km (the deepest wellbut also of the various ways in which at depth, but drill holes are not yctdrilled to date for geothermal power).geothermal energy can be used in the deep enough to confirm the presence ofthe resource for electrical generation by mostbeneficialandleastwasteful such a brine. proven techniques is even less, approxi- manner. Drilling has demonstrated the ex-mately 2 X 101°' calories. (7] Use of istence of only three commercial vapor-geothermal resources for other than References dominated systems: Larderello, Italy;electrical generation (e.g., heating, de- The Geysers, California; and probablysalination,horticulture,etc.)would I.Merin. Paul, "Coal Resources of the United States, January 1, 1967."U.S. Matstikawa, Japan. Two small fieldsgreatly .increase these geothermal re- Geological Suevey Bulletin 1275. 1969. in the Monte Amiata region of Italysource estimates, perhaps by 10 times, 116pp. are marginally commercial. Larderellobut all these uses involve special geo- 2.Coleman. R. G. "Plate Tectonic Em- placement of Upper Mantle l'eridotites was the first geothermal field to begraphic and economic conditions that along Continental Edges.- Journal of exploited, starting in 1904, and is still to date have been implemented only on GeophysicalResearch 76:1212-1222; thelargest producer of geothermala local scale. February 1971. power (350 megawatts). The Geysers 3.Ellis. A, J. "Quantitative Interpretation Production of electricity from geo- of Chemical Characteristics of Hydro- at present produces192 mw, butthermal energy is presently attractive thermal Systems." United Nations plants under construction will boostenvironmentally, because no solid at- Symposium onhe 1)evelopment and capacity to 302 mw in 1972,. and ulti-mospheric pollutants are emitted and Utilization of Geothermal Resources, Pisa, Italy. September 1970. Paper I/11. mate potential is in excess of 500 mw.no radiation hazard is involved. But 4.Fournier. R, a, and J. 1. Rowe. "Esti- geothermal generation is not without mation of Underground Temperatures The Geothermal Energy Resource environmental effects:Effluent from from the Silica Content of Water from HotSprings and Wet-SteamWells. White [7] estimated that the totaleither a hot-water or a vapor-domi- American Journal of Science 264:685- stored heat of all geothermal reservoirsnated system can pollute streams or 697; 1966. to a depth of 10 km was 102 calories.ground water.Consequently, federal 5. James,Russell,"Wairakei andLar- This estimate specifically excluded derello:GeothermalPowerSystems res- and state regulations require reinjecting Compared." New Zenload Mutual of ervoirs of molten rock, abnormally hotobjectionable fluids back into a deep .iWence 11;706-719: 1968, rocks of low permeability, and deepreservoir. Thermal pollution is also a 6. Jones, P. H. "Geothermal Resources sedimentary basins of near- "normal" of the Northern Gulf of Mexico Basin." problem, particularly in hot-water sys- United Nations Symposium on the De- conductive heat flow, such as the Gulftems, but it can be solved in part by velopment and Utilization of Geothermal Coast of the United Statesor Kazahk-reinjection of unwanted water and of Resources. Pisa, Italy, September 1970, stan in the Soviet Union. The geo-residual steam condensate. Noise, ob- Paper 1/24, 7, White, D. E."Geothermal Energy." thermal resources inthese environ-jectionable gases, visual impact, and U.S. Geological Survey Circular 519, ments areat. least 10 times greatersubsidence of the land surface due to 1965. 17pp, than the resources of the hydrothermal fluid withdrawal are other problems 8. "Environment of Generation systems, but they arc recoverable only of SomeBase-Metal Ore Deposits." that are faced in any geothermal energy Economic Geology 63; 301-335; Jt.ne- at much more than presentcosts. development. July 1968. Should production of these geothermal Geothermal energyisunlikely to 9. -. "Hydrology,Activity, and resources someday become feasible, Heat Flow of the Steamboat Springs supply more than perhaps 10 percent Thermal System, Washoe County, Ne- the potential geothermal resource inof domestic or world electrical power vada," U.S. Geological Survey Profes- all reservoir types would bc at leastdemand. But' in favorable areas, geo- ional Paper 458-C.1968, 109pp, HP calories, which is approximatelythermal power may be of major impor- 10. "Geochemistry Applied to the Discovery, Evaluation, and Exploitation equivalent to the heat represented bytance, particularly in underdeveloped ofGeothermalEnergy Resources," thc'world's potential resources of coal. countries that have few other energy United Nations Symposium on the De- For a hot-water geothermal system, resources. velopment and Utilization of Geothermal Resources, Pisa, Italy, September_ 1970, approximately one percent of the heat Although geothermal power was pro- Rapporteur's Report, Section V. stored in the reservoir can bc extractedduced in Italy as early as 1904 and in1 1, -, I..J.I'.Muffler, and A,H. and converted intoelectricity underNew Zealand by 1955, extensive inter- Truesdell. "Vapor-dominatedHydro- present technology. thermal Systems Compared with Hot- For the far less estingeothermalresources of the Water Systems."Economic Geology abundant vapor-dominated geothermalUnited States has developed onlyin 66:75-97; January-February 1971.

114 THE ROLE OF NUCLEAR POWER IN ACHIEVING THE WORLD WE WANT

M. J. Driscoll

--t

Isysappoi.s- t 4 § e 1,, 404 SC-

BABCOCK h INN.COX COMPANY The huge parabolic water cooling towers will mark the site of the Sacramento Municipal Utility District's Ranch Seco nuclear electricity generating staGon when the plantshown in this artist's conceptionbegins operation in mid-1973. The cooling towers will condense the steam, alter it has turned the electricity-producing turbines, for recirculation through the system,

DURING thepastyearnuclearzinc and newspaper articles, typify the NO ONE who has wrestled with one power, has become one of thegrowing heat, if not light, being brought of the bureaucratic service de- principal focal points of an often acri-to bear on this issue. partments of a public utility could be monious debate over the environmental In their book, Curtis and Logan con-blamed for regarding the entire opera- abuses of technology. Two books include that we should abandon nucleartion as one of the more staid and static particular,The Careless Atomby power. Many have already criticizedmanifestations of American industry. Novick, andPerils of the Peacefultheir motives,their facts, and theirThe truth of the matter is that electric Atomby Curtis and Logan,' togetherreasoning. Here I will only register thepower generation is an extremely dy- with averitableblizzard of maga-complaint that few 'of such critics sug-namic field.Electric power usage is gest practicalalternativeseitherforcurrently doubling approximately every See entriesIand 2 under the bibliographic meeting the burgeoning demand for10 years here in the United States. Con- heading "Critical of nuclear power." electric power or for dampening publictrastthis with doubling times of 12 enthusiasm for plugging in and turn-years for the U.S. Gross National Prod- ing on at an ever-increasing rate. Theiruct and Research and Development Dr. Driscoll is an associate professor of nuclear engineering, Massachusetts Insti- failure to define the problem beforeBudget, 15 years for the U.S. supply tute of Technology. This paper is based on suggesting or criticizing solutionsof scientists, and 37 years for the U.S. his NSTA-Sunoco Science Seminar at the prompts me to begin this review with apopulation.In other words, the power 1970 annual meeting of the National Sci- ence Teachers Association in Cincinnati, brief attempt at supplying some com-industry is being forced to forge ahead Ohio, in March. pensatory perspective. fasterthanthe supporting bases of

115 capital, manpower, or knowledge avail-reactors continue to dominate the U.S.of the maximum possible, or Carnot able to it. Jt is also clear that this isscene. This unhappy prospect has ledcycle. value: one problem which the universal pan-most of the major nuclear countries USE( el acea of population controlwillnot (including the United States, Russia, ENERGY 2 e =- 7 OTAL alleviate substantially.One can alsoGreat Britain, France, Germany, and THERMAL 3 TIIIOT appreciate the almost inevitable diffi-Japan) to focus upon development of ENERGY culties involved in developing a viablethe fast-breeder reactor, about whichwhere tHoT is the temperature (in de- nuclear power industry, which must more will be said iater. grees absolute: e.g., 'F 460) of the expand faster than the electric power While fromapurely engineeringsteam fed to the turbine, and Trou, is industry as a whole if it is to capturestandpoint the balance between nuclearthe temperature of the exhaust steam an increasing fraction of the market. and coal will be struck on the ledger indischarged to the condenser. For ex- The target doubling time for nuclearterms of dollars and cents,nuclearample, if 'film, is 100017 and TcoLD is plants is a strenuous seven years. power must still struggle against the100'F. then e is approximately 40 per- Approximately one hundred centralless tangible barrier of public accept-cent. an efficiency typical of a modern station nuclear power plants are either ance. Although present nuclear plantscoal-firedstation;whileifT110Tis in operation, under construction, or onhave been releasing, on the average,540-F, e is roughly 30 percent, a rep- order in the United States.Although less than1 percent of their total per-resentativevalueforapressurized 1969 sales slumped to only 7 units,missible radionuclide discharge, a run-water-type nuclear plant. projectionswerethat1970orders ning battle has been waged by inter- The energy discharged as waste to would reach 29 and that this annual venersagainstnuclearinstallations.the local environment per unit of elec- rate will be sustained through the nextThe most serious and most recent at-trical energy produced is proportional decade. Long-rimgc estimates are that tacks have been those made on theto (1-e)/e. Therefore the nuclear plant nuclear power will account for roughlyallowable limits themselves. To,put amust dispose of 50 percent more waste half of the total electric generation bycomplicated subject in somewhat over-heat than must the coal plant. the year 2000. Several problems standsimplified terms, these limits have been Since power plants will require a in the path to this rosy future: Nuclearset, in part, on the general presumptionheat sink equal to the entire dry season installations cost more to build than dothat radiation doses smaller than thosefresh water runoff in the United States fossil-fuel plants and are thus moreto which mankind is exposed by natureby the year 2000, it is clear that more sensitive to high interest rates; nuclear(cosmic rays, etc.) are acceptable. Thereliance must be placed on alternate plant construction has fallen behindcritics have been attempting to marshalmethods in the future. About 20 per- schedule as the fledgling industry strug-evidence that this is not sufficiently con-cent of the nuclear plants now under gles to tool up to meet its initial largeservative. Since the effects in questionconstruction are being equipped with plant orders.Present nuclear plantsare so small and so_probablistic in na-cooling towers, which discharge the have a lower thermal efficiency thanture, conclusive evidence .is difficult to waste heat to the atmosphere instead of have coal-fired plants and thus heat updevelop. At present the viewpoint thatto local water supplies. Anotncr 5 per- the local environment to a greater ex-present standards are safe until provencent are to use specially constructed tent.If cooling towers are required tootherwise seems to prevail among thecooling ponds.Th6se alternate solu- avoid overheating the available coolingvast majority of those most directlytions increase the production cost of water, it becomes as much as 50 percentconcerned with radiation safety. electricity about 5 percent: say from more expensive to so equip the nuclear 6.0 to 6.3 mills per kilowatt hour for plant. THERE are so many facets to thea new plant.Since the average resi- In fact, almost every current eco- I presentdebateovertechnologydential customer in the Northeast pays nomic factor would appear to fa-or theversus ecology that I have chosen onlysome 42 mills per kilowatt hour for the fossil plant except one: The nucleartwo for further discussion here: thermaldelivered product, the extra cost of plant has a lower fuel cost which stillpollution and some selected aspects ofusing these alternate heat sinks does not enablesitto compete on favorableradionuclide discharge to the environ-appear prohibitive.Other solutions, terms in many specific situations.In ment. such as increased use of occansidc or the near future, as the economic penal- One area of considerable ecologicaleven offshore siting, are also possible. ties involved in reducing air pollution concernis that of thermal pollution While nuclear plants are less efficient fromcoal-firedplantsincrease,a from power plants, both fossil and nu-than fossil plants at the moment, one greater relative savings will accrue toclear. The science of thermodynamicsshould maintain some historical per- the nuclear plants. tells us that to produce useful work,spective in this regard.In 1920, for In the slightly more distant future ahere in the form of electricity, we mustexample, average coal plant efficiencies more serious problem looms: the ex-discard some of the thermal energywere only about 9 percent; in1950 haustion of low-cost uranium reserves. liberated at the generating station. Theonly 24 percenta far cry from the This may well occur over the next 20conversion efficiency,e,achieved inpresent 40 percent, In the future, more- to 30 years if the present light-watermodern steam plants is about two-thirdsover, the advanced nuclear plants, such

116 demand a greater share of our attention in the future. Two radionuclides. tritium and krypton-85, are involved. These two nuclei are produced in approximately 1 and 30 of every 10,000 fissions, and they decay with half-lives of 12.4 and 10.4 years.respectively.At steady state there will be about 85 curies of tritium and 2,500 curies of Kr-85 produced for every megawatt of nuclear power (1 curie corresponds to a quantity of material which contains nuclei decaying at a rate of 3.7 X 10" disintegrations per second).Once produced, these nuclides must decay somewhere, preferably in a confined area such as the fuel element in which they were produced. Once the fuel element is sent to a chem- CONNECTICUT YANKEE ATOMIC POWER COMPANY The Connecticut Yankee Atomic Power Plant at Haddam Neck, Connecticut, is the largest ical reprocessing plant, however, these operating commercial nuclear power plant in the United States. The 575.000 electric&nuclides can escape to the environment. kilowatt power facility was started up commercially in 1968. Tritium will generally escape inthe chemical form of water in which one of as the liquid metal cooled fast-breedercoal-fired stations and low-level radio-the ordinary hydrogen atoms is replaced reactor discussed later in this review,nuclide. release from nuclear stationsby a tritium atom. Krypton, which is are projected to match the thermal effi-are a case in point. Although much ofa noble gas, can escape to the air. Al- ciency of fossil stations. theearlier controversy over nuclearthough large amounts of radioactivity power has focused on hypotheticalarc demonstrably involved, two factors UNLIKE thermal pollution, whichacute accidents which may never occurmitigate the potential problem. One is can even be used to advantage inin fact, recent interest has shifted to thethe enormous reservoir of water and spticific situations (fish-farming for ex-question of chronic exposure to theair available to dilute the releases to far ample), power plants exact some com-normal day-to-day releases. This sub-beneath permissible concentrations. The pletely negative tolls on the environ-ject is worth some discussion here be-second is the fact that the same chem- ment.Sulfur dioxide emission fromcause debate over this area is bound toical properties which make it so difficult to prevent release of these nuclides also reduce theit potential hazard to The San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station in southern California will provide 450,000 biological systems, which find it equally kilowatts of electricity, enough to supply a city of well over a half-million. Nuclear components are housed in the steel containment sphere near the center of the photo. difficult to accumulate large concentra- SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA EDISON COMPANY tions of these materials. Although krypton is produced in the largest amounts and would, therefore, ibe the bigger problem if unrestricted release were allowed, research on cryo- genic absorption of krypton is in progress, with some prospects for success. Thus, allowable tritium release may well be the more important long-term question. In fact, if fission reactors are eventually supplanted by fusion reactors, far greater amounts of tritium will have to be handled in the associated chemical processing: The tritium production rate in the fusion reactor is over 100,000 times greater than in the fission reactor! 44,11km,, st The total cumulative tritium production (but not necessarily release) by

117 nuclear power plants will equal the high-intensity agricultural effort. While natural inventory produced by cosmic this raises Sunday supplement visions raysofapproximately100million of "making the deserts bloom," par- curies somewhere aroundtheyear ticularly in the developing countries, it 1995, by which time the 1700 Million is a sobering fact that highly_sophisti- curies added by weapons testing will cmed technology is involved. This re- have decayed away (barring further quire, engineers, technicians, and, most tests). Since natural tritium contributes of all, highly skilled farmers, which a only about one-thousandth of 1-pereent developing country may have difficulty of the natural dose due to all sources, in providing. Centers of this agro-in- --rr this prospect is certainly no cause for dustrial type, which vary in the balance panic. Rational evaluation of the facts among the agricultural, desalting, and of this situation by the general public is industrialfunctions of the complex, a necessity, however. have been studied for construction in Puerto Rico, India, and the Middle ONE of the most interesting appli- East. Those involved are now debating cations of nuclear power, which whether the huge capital investment re- may become important in the future, quired to build such a plant is the best involvesexploitationof one ofits way to spend the limited resources strong points: great flexibility in plant available for satisfying all of their future TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY location because of low fuel transpor- needs. TVA's Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant tation costs. This has engendered the under construction at a site on Wheeler concept of treating energy as a ubiqui- Lake, 10 miles southwest of Athens, Ala- OTHER major application of bama. Shown is the containment shell for tous raw material for use in chemicalTHEnuclear energy being groomed for one. of three reactor units. The plant will processing plants. Depending on how the future involves the peaceful use of be the world's largest nuclear power facility, inexpensively electric power can be nuclear explosives. Some of the morewith a total generating capacity of nearly 31/2million kilowatts for the plant's three generated, there are numerous valuable spectacular applications, such as dig- reactor units. The first unit is scheduled for chemicalproductswhich can be ging a new Panama Canal and creation operation in the tall of 1971, with the other produced using it.Production of ace- of a deep-water harbor in northern two starting in the spring and tall of 1972. tylene, electric steel, magnesium, alu- Australia have received most of the minum, caustic, chlorine (hence poly- publicity, but the more fruitful uses crease the likelihood of the developed vinylchloride plastic), phosphorus, and may well be the use of underground countries becoming involved in World ammonia are well known to be practicalexplosives to extend the econowically War 111 over allocation of resources products at present. If power becomes recoverable reserves of various naturalsuch as Middle East oil. very cheap, then both gas and gasoline resources. The Atomic- Energy Com- could he synthesized from coal.This mission has already conducted tests in- THE NUCLEAR power plant of the latter development would obviously be volving natural gas prOduction. Shale future promisVS'to be of a type sub- of immense value in assuring a con-oil recovery is another immensely im- stantially different from those now in tinuing supply of two of our most important area under study. widespread use. The future plant will portantbutdwindlingnaturalre- The use of nuclear electricity to syn- probably be the fast-breeder reactor, sources. Present estimates are that this thesize new supplies of raw materialswhich has the capability of extending type of application will not prove eco-and nuclear explosives to free-up al-nuclear energy reserves by at least a nomic until the very distant future. We ready existing reserves provides us with factor of ten. need notlti51( 'far,however, to seea substantial insurance policy against Natural uranium inthe as-mined presently attractive potentialities. futuredeprivation. Preciselywhen condition consists of only 0.71 percent The concept of large nuclear energy these applications will come into moreof the readily fissile isotope U -235 centers is frequently combined with the widespread use depends prit arily upon the remainder is U-238. Today's light- use of dual-purpose power plants whicheconomic factors.If the relative cost water-moderated reactors require fuel not only produce electricity, but also of electricity continues to decrease and having about 3 percent U-235, and thus use turbine exhaust steam to evaporate the value of natural resources continues requireenrichmentofthenatural saline or brackish water to produce to increase, a crossover point will ulti- uranium in a diffusion plant.About fresh water for agricultural use. The matelyresultand thesealternate four-fifths of all of the U-238 ends up electricity can in turn be used to pro-schemes will be adopted. In my own discharged as waste from the diffusion duce phosphorus and ammonia, twoopinion, there is considerable incentiveplant.This U-238 would be almost important fertilizers.This synergistic foraccelerating work on these ap- worthless except for the fact that after system, dubbedtheAgro-Industrial proaches on national security grounds.capturing a neutron (and undergoing Complex, can serve as the nucleus of a For one thing it might substantially de- two successive spontaneous beta de-

118 cays) it transmutes into the plutoniumof hard work. Since small-scale pilot Bibliography isotope Pu-239, which is comparableplants have already been constructed One purpose of abrief review of the to, and even slightly better than, U-235 and have convincingly demonstrated typepresented :Moseisto stimulate the as a fissile material. Thus, one can use that the basic principles involved are audience toinvestigatethematter onits some of the neutrons produced in a own, Publications in the following list were sound, the program is proceeding with selectedwithseveralobjectivesinmind: nuclear reactor to convert worthless confidence in inevitable success. . striking a balance between the pros and U-238 into valuable Pu-239.Light- cons; suitability for, and availability to, a water reactors do this very inefficiently, highschoolscienceclassaudience; and. IT IS difficult to draw definitecon- more personally, those which played a part but sodnun-cooled fast reactors are very clusions on theroleof nuclear in formulating the opinions expressed in this good for this purpose because they have power in achieving the world we want, article. a greater surplus of leftover neutronsbecause this future role may well be Critical of nuclear power: available -from the chain reaction cycle. determined on other, than the strictly 1. Novick, Sheldon. The Careless Atom. Houghton Mifflin Co.. Boston.1969. In fact the fast reactor fueled with a technical and economic questions which 2. Curtis. Richard. and Elizabeth Hogan, mixture of Pu-239 and U-238 can have been operative in present and past Perils of the Peaceful Atom.Double- actually breed more Pu-239 from U- decisionmaking.For example, the day and Co., Inc., New York.1969. 238 than is consumed in the energy-flee market for electric power may Agro-industrial complexes and desalting: producing fission process. In this man-someday be curtailed. Some have al- 1."Nuclear Energy Centers, Industrial and neralmostallofthevast U-238 ready concluded that this is a necessity; Agro-Industrial Complexes,Summary reserves can be converted into Pp-239 Report." ORNL-4291. July 1968. (Avail- as typified by J. K. Galbraith's state- ableat $3from: USTI, NBS, U.S. and used to generate power; the even ment in a recent article that "For... Dept. of Commerce, Springfield. Virginia larger thorium reserves can be con- electric power... 22151.) , we are reaching 1. verted into fissile U-233 and consumed Young, G."Dry Lands and Desalted the socially tolerable limits of consump- Water." Science 167:339; January 23, through a similar bre-ding process. tion." Conclusions of this sort are un- 1970. Not only does the used fuel from a doubtedly prompted by considerations Peaceful uses of nuclear explosives: breederreactor contain moreplu- such as the fact that roughly half of the 1. See article of this title,p. 25, Nuclear tonium than does new fuel, but it should SO,ntul a quarter each of the particu- News. March 1968. also be possible to create this extra late matter and oxides of nitrogen in 2.Teller. E., et al. "The Constructive Uses of Nuclear Explosives."McGraw-Hill plutonium with a doubling time of 10 the air come from fossil-fueled power Book Company, New York. 1968. years, or exactly in pace with the de-stations. Accelerated adoption of nu-- The fast-breeder reactor: mand for new electric power. More- clear power would enable us to elim- I.July 1968 issue of Nuclear News. over, this can all be done in a system inate this problem or, more correctly, 2."FastBreedcrReactorReport,April having a higher thermal efficiency than to trade it in for other problems which 1968." Edison Dectric Institute, 750 3rd most other nuclear reactors-an effi-appear to be less environmentally detri- Avenue, New York, New York 10017. ciency comparable to that of fossil-fired mental and more readily controllable. Radiation standards and risks: plants-which will remove the blcmish It is clear that, in order to arrive at a 1. "Radiation Risk: A Scientific Problem?" of added thermal pollution. Science 167:853; February 6, 1970. It is inter-public consensus on smile of these 1."Radioactivity: Burden ftom a Boon." esting to note that unlike the case with rather sophisticated trade-off decisions, Power 113:66; October 1969. thermal neutron reactors, where a wide science teachers must equip all of our 3. The Peaceful Atom: Friend or Foe?" Time 95:42; January 19, 1970. variety of types have been developedhighschoolstudents withsufficient 4. Tamplin, A. R. "Fetal and Infant Mor- and where national differences are quite breadth and depth of knowledge to tality and the Environment." Bulletin of pronounced (e.g., light water moder-properly balance these disparate fac- the Atomic Scientists 25:23; Dccember ated in the United States, heavy water tors. 1969. In the long run it is (or should S.Starr, C."Social Benefit Versus Tech- moderated in Canada, graphite moder-be) the citizen and voter who sets ob- nological Risk." Science 165:1232: Sep- ated in Great Britain),allnationaljectives for the specialist to achieve. tember 19, 1969. programs reflect exactly the same con-At 6.Jordan, W. "Benefits vs Risks in Nuclear present the United States is pro- Power." Oak Ridge National Lahora- clusion on the type of breeder of great- ducing about 3 million new citizens toty Review. Fall 1969. est promise;namely, thesodium- each year as compared to only 30,000 Environmental pollution: cooled fast breeder. new engineers and scientists at the BS I.Sherwood, T. K."Must We Breathe This remarkable machine will not level. There is every reason to believe Sulfur Oxides" Technology Review 72: 25: January 1970. fulfill theseintriguingexpectations that the latter will be even moresuc- 2.Clark,J.R."Thermal Pollution and without considerable engineering de- cessfulthantheirpredecessorsin Aquatic Life." Scientific American 220: velopment. however, Sodium burns in achieving mastery over nature; thus, it 18-27; March 1969. air and explodes in water. Taming it tois imperative to ensure that the former 3.Nuclear News. September 1969. 4."EnvironmentalEficctsofProducing the point where a plant can be con- are also better equipped to assess and Electric Power."Hearings before the structed having the exceptional relia- define material needs and objectives JCAE, 91st Congress, Oct. 28-Nov. 7, bility demanded of an electric powercompatible with the needs of human 1969. Part I.(Superintendent of Docu- station will require 15 to 30 more years ments. USGPO, Washington, D.C. nature. 0 20402.$4.50.)

17.9 4- The solar-powered steam engine at the Paris Exhibition of 1878.

t!".,

energy sourcethe sun,which has sustained life and led to the complex interrelationships of the earth's ecology. We have always depended tn. this most abundant energy source, but only for its natural function ,of -,providing the NO, earthwithahospitablebiosphere through the processes of atmospheric, hydrologic, and oceanic circulation and through photosynthesis. The sun's cncrgy is low in density (we receive about one kilowatt per square meter at the earth's surface), and it is subject to diurnal, weather, and geographical availability.Ncvcr- thcicss, the sun provides 178 trillion kilowatts to the earthabout one-half million times grcatcr than the present Aft U.S. electrical powcr generating capacity, 5,000 times greater than the world's geothermal capacity, and 60,- '19000 times grcatcr than the total tidal cncrgy. We have not tapped more than a minute fraction of this colossal SOLAR ENERGY-14fiSPECTS reservoir of energy, even though solar cncrgy is available everywhere, is free FOR ITS LARGE-SCALE USE of pollution, and costs nothing to supply or distribute. Peter E. Glaser Solar cncrgy devices if deployed on earth would occupy large areas, which might be a significant diversion of land from Alternative uses: The area required depends upon the efficiency of conversion and the quantity of solar energy available in a specific location. If a device with a conversion efficiency of 10 percent were available, one acre of a typical site could produce one mil- OUR PRESENT effortsto meettrol the nuclear fusion reaction. Eachlion kilowatt hours per year, enough theburgeoningdemandforline of investigation is both encouragedpower to supply 200 typical American energyareproceeding alongthreeand constraincd by the need to reduce households. If the 3.2 million acres of paths: increasing the efficiency of fuelenvironmentaldegradation.Soare land disrupted by strip mining were plants,developing advanced nucicarother less advanced efforts, such as thecovered with similarly efficient solar- power plants, and attempting to con- useof geothermal energy or solarenergy conversion devices, about one I energy. million megawatts could be produced The two desired qualities, abundantwhen the stanis shining.Thus, the Dr. Glaser is head oftheEngineering Sciences Section at Arthur D. Little, Inc.,energy and minimal side effects, indi-disadvantage of diverting land to solar Cambridge, Massachusetts. cate that we cannot ignore our primaryenergy collection would have to be weighed against thebenefitstobe the sun's rays by lenses or mirrors tois transferred to the water or to stones.. gained by drawing on this source ofachieve high temperatures for use inReversal of the air flow during cloudy energy. the laboratory or to generate steam toweather allows heat to be taken from Even if the world's population weredrive engines. this heat reservoir. 18 billion (a pessimistic projection for By and large, however, solar energy In the past 25 years a number of the ycar 2030) and per capita energyhas been dismissed as being aless houses and laboratory build'ngs in the consumption were equal to that pres-feasible means of generating powerUnited States, Australia, and Japan ently experienced in the United States,than other methods.This judgmenthave been heated at least partially with the consumption of solar energy would was understandableinlightof thesolar energy. Most of these installa- still be very small, only about 0.2 per-technology available a decade of sotions have been technically successful, cent of the total solar energy available.ago, but circumstances now dictate thatand extensive performance data have The diversion of this small percentagewe reappraise this view. been obtained on various modifications of solar cncrgy to meet human needs The sun's radiation is readily con-of air- or water-heating systems. would appear to represent little envi-vertible to heat; one need only provide In most U.S. locations residential ronmental risk.The heat loads im-a surface on which the solar energy can heating with solar energy would be posed on the earth do not increasebe absorbed.If a fluid such as air orsomewhat more costly than present through the use of solar energy. Thewater is then brought in contact withconventional means because of the concentration of energy consumption,the heated surface, the energy can berelatively high cost of equipment still and consequent heat, productionin transferred into the fluid and subse-under development.If produced on a large urban centers with high con-quently utilized for practical purposes.large scale, however, solar house -heat- sumption per unitarea, may have This principle is successfully applieding systems could be competitive with deleterious local effects, but this prob-in several million domestic hot-water fossilfuel systems, particularly when lem existsno matter what energyheaters in use in a dozen countries,all of the hidden environmental costs source is employed. including Australia, Israel, and Japan.are accounted for. An economic study The factors that adversely affect theA solar hot-water heater usually con-of residential solar house-heating indi- practicality and cost of the use of solarsists of a blackened sheet of metal orcates that, in a least-cost system, about cncrgy are its high variability becauseplastic in a shallow glass or plastic-one-half of the total heat supply should of regular hourly, daily, and seasonalcovered box occupying 10 to 50 squarebe provided by solar energy. changesandirregularcloud-coverfeet of roof area.Water circulates Energy savings achievedthrough variations.Although these, problemsthrough tubing attached to the surfaceheating homes with solar energy can can be surmounted through the use ofof the blackened sheet and picks up the have a significant impact on our energy standby power, energy storage schemes,heat. The warmed water is then storedconsumption, because the energy re- and the like, the task will be difficult.in an insulated tank. The tank can bequirements of the residential housing The challenge is to find the means tosupplied, if desired, with auxiliary heat are nearly 30 percent of total energy utilize solar energy on a large scalefrom an electric heating element orconsumption. If the solar heating sys- so that a significant portion of energyother heat source. tem were designed to supply a larger demands can be met.This can be The principle employed in the solarpercentage of the total heat require- accomplished either by constructinghot-water heaters can be applied toment, average costs would be quite large solar power stations with a veryheating homesall that is required arehigh because the cost of solar heating high electrical power output or by de-more or larger solar-heating panels.is almost all in fixed capital investment. ploying a large number of individualEnough heat can be absorbed in theBecause 100 percent of solar heating units to significantly decrease our de-circulating water to provide most ofis not a rational objective, a combina- pendence on other energy sources. the heating requirements of houses intion of solar and conventional heat has reasonably sunny climates. Of course,to be employed. The optimum com- SINCE ancient times, man has triedthe storage tank must be large enoughbination of solar and electric heat, for to take advantage of the sun'sto provide carry-over capacity duringexample, will be that which. is equiva- energy. More recently he has tried toshort periods of cloudy weather. Con-lent in cost to the cost of electrical convert solar energy directly to usefulventional energy sources can be usedpower over a 20-year period. power, one example being the photo-to supplement the solar heater. Instead The least-cost, house-heating system voltaiccell.He has alsotriedtheof water, air can be used as the heat-will be applicable to the Southwest and indirectapproachusing thesun's transfer medium; it is delivered by anFar West. Higher cost systems will be heat to dry foods and chemicals andair distribution system either directly usefulatmorenortherlylatitudes to heat houses and water. He has al-throughout the house or to a heat stor-(e.g., New York) and in more humid ways been fascinated with concentratingage tank where the heat from the airclimates. The Southeast (e.g., Florida)

121 O

is a poor site for solar house heating mains to be established. The important "We have not tapped more than because the heating requiremmts are fact is that most of them are based on,a minute fraction of this colossal too low to justify such equipment. existingtechnology and well-knownreservoir of energy. even though Residentialcoolingsystemsthat physical principles. solar energy is available rely on absorption-refrigeration cycles Solar energy conversion to electricity every %%here, is free of pollution, willrequire more technical develop- on the surface of the earth is intriguing. and costs nothing to supply or ment bcforc they can use solar - heated For example,a 10percentsolar- distribute." water or air from a roof-mounted col- nergyconversion efficiency would lector.However, the solar collector produce 180,000 kilowatts per square would bc thc same unit used to heat mile while the sun is shining. residences, and the cooling unit would One possible approach is based on be a sodiewhat more expensive version photos oltaicenergy conversion em- on this greenhouse effect has been proof the conventional heat-operated air- ploying solar cells. This method relicsposed for the Southwest. For example, conditioner.Thc inherent advantageon the direct conversion of photon a land area of about six square miles of solar cooling is that thc maximum energy to electricity in a semiconductor covered b) such solar collectors would requirement coincides roughly with the crystal such as silicon. Thc state of the provide the equivalent power output time when thc maximum amount ofartof solarcells, based on single-of aconventional 1,000-megawatt energy is available to operate the sys-crystal silicon, is well understood, and station. tem.In addition, the soh- collector, conversion efficiencies of about I 0 per- The location of a solar power sta- which is the most expensive portion of cent are reached routinely. The major tion would be crucial. Even in Arizona, the system, can be employed nearlydrawback is that present solar cells are January normally has 9 days in which year-round if cooling is combined withprol bitively expensive because theycloud cover is 0.8 or greater, 7 days solar heating. have been developed primarily to meet in which it is between 0.3 and 0.8, and The development of thc devices re-the stringent requirements imposed by only 15 days in which it is 0.3 or less. quired to cool and heat houses with their application in various spacecraft This amount of cloud cover would solar energy has reachedthcstage missions. greatly reduce the solar-energy con- where these devices could bc available New designs for solar .cells includeversion capability. Thus, energy stor- in less than 10 years if a mass marketmicrocrystalline cells based on single- age for night periods and overcast days is realized.In mass use, solar heating crystal solar cell principles or based would be required. Whether this would and cooling devices could easily reduce on organic compounds which exhibit bc pumped-water storage, storage in a consumption of conventionally gener-characteristicsemiconductor proper- heat transfer medium or in the form of ated electricity by 10 percent. Such a ties. Such designs will likely bc devel- hydrogen and oxygen produced by reduction in electrical usage normallyoped for mass production possibilitieselectrolysis would have to be carefully translates into a 30 percent reduction and the consequent cost savings. Orevaluated. Land costs, power substa- in the energy requirements at a powercosts may he reduced by partially con-tions, and transmission lines will sub- plant. In the year 2000, such a reduc- centrating solar radiation by means of stantially affect the economics of operation would mean about 120,000 fewermirrors to minimize the number oftion. An alternative would be a location megawatts that our power plants would solar cells. where solar energy would be available have to generate. Another approach would make use24 hours a day. This implies that the of the greenhouse effect. This approach solar power station should be located HE primary advantage of convert- involves the use of thin layers of filmsin orbit, outside the atmosphere as an ing g solar energy to power is thethat selectively absorb radiation. Such earth satellite. inherent absence of virtually all of the films absorb most of the incident solar undesirable environmental conditionsradiation but emit very little thermalTHE successfulmissionsofun- ascribedtopresent and anticipatedradiation.In principleitshould be mann,x1 spacecraft in earth orbit means of power generation with fossil possible to reach temperatures in ex- andtootherplanetshave demon- or nuclear fuels. The interest in pro-cess of 1,00017 if the solar collectorstrated the feasibility of direct con- ducing power with solar energy goesis kept under a vacuum. version of solar energy in space to back at least a century. A solar-pow- At present, those thin films that can produce power in the spacecraft and cred steam engine was a central attrac- withstand high temperatures for ex-telemeter signals back to earth. On tion at the Paris Exposition of 1878. tended periods have too low an ab-the basis of this experience and the More recently, several imaginative con- sorptance-to-emittance ratio, less than further advances in space technology cepts have been proposed for thc large- 20. Forefficientconversionthc which can be projected, the concept scaleutilization of solar energy on absorptance-to-emittance ratio should of a system of satellite solar-power earth. Which of these approaches will be about 40, indicating that an optical stations has been advanced.Sugges- bethe mostfeasiblealternativeto concentration of 2 to 4 will be required. tions to use satellite collectors to con- present power-generation methods re- A solar power-generating system basedcentrate solar energy for use on earth

122 5+S S

Nioup.a. tivu.

IMAYAO lowoure 2 Moo

Left, Artist's rendering of a satellite solar-power station.The diagram at right shows a similar station designed to produce 10,000 megawatts of electricity, enough to meet the demands of a city such as New York in the year 2000. arc not new, but the technology nowantenna to an amount ncarly cqual tofeasiblecncrgy production methods availablemakessuch suggestionsthe solar radiation density in thc mid- capable of meeting future needs, should practical. dle of the array. Beyond the confinesbe evaluated. This evaluation should A satellite, when placedin syn-of the rccciving arrays the beam den-involvethe definitionof standards, chronous orbit around the earth's equa-sity would drop to very low values.criteria, and proccOures for analysis on tor, will be exposed to solar energy forSinec the position of the microwavetechnical, economic, social and political 24 hours a day except for short periods beam withrespecttothe rcccivinggrounds. With such an evaluation, the near the equinoxes. Lightweight solararray can br carefully controlled, thesteps we take over the coming decades cells forming a solar collector of sub-beam should not represent a healthcan be made consistent with our na- stantial.area to produce electricity canhazard base(' on presently known bio-tionalgoalsandbroadernational be used to power microwave genera- logical effects. purposes. tors. Microwaves in a selected wavc- A satellite solar-power stationof We can also envisage the possibility Icngth band can be beamed by anthe size envisaged would be capableof forming a global partnership to dc- antenna to a receiving station on earth of producing 10,000 megawatts,vclop solar-energy applications to bene- with no significant ionospheric or at- enough to meet the demands of a cityfitallpeoples.Such a partnership mospheric absorption. The receivingsuch as Ncw York in the year 2000. might very well mean the realization of station on earth, consisting of a micro-To place such a large satellite it orbitthe goal so aptly stated by U Thant: wavc rectifying antenna, converts thcwould require an earth-to-orbit trans-"to curb thc arms race, to improve the microwave to DC electricity which isportation system with reusable boostershuman environment,todefusethe supplied to the electricity users. A net-and space tugs to convey the satcllitc population explosion, and to supply the work of such satellite solar-power sta-components to synchronous orbit forrequired momentum to development tions could generate enough power toassembly. efforts before the problems facing the meet all foreseeable U.S. energy pro- To develop a system of satellitcsworld today will have reached such duction requirements. whichcould meet future U.S. andstaggering proportions that they will be The primary advantage of this ap-event ally world needs will requirFihe beyond our capacity to control." ' 0 proach is that the inefficiencies of theapplication of systems engineering and conversion process can be tolerated in I (Mom! by 1.Itcston.The NessYork Tones. management techniques which have October 23 1970,P. 39M. outer space because the energy sourcealready been proven in the undertak- is inexhaustible. On earth, microwaves ings associated with the space program. could be converted to electrical powerAlthough the task app&ars to be im- References with efficiencies of about 90 percent, mense, so are the opportunities if we I.Daniels,F.Direct Use of the Sun's thereby reducing thermal pollution bycan succeed. Energy. YaleUniversityPress, Ncw a factor of five compared to any Other Haven, Connecticut.1964. power plants based on any known WE APPEAR to he at the threshold 2.Glaser, P. E. "Power from the Sun: Its Future.".S'cience162:857-861; Novem- thermodynamic process. of a new era of cncrgy produc- ber 22, 1968. The power density of the microwave tion.Before we commit ourselves to 3. . "PowerWithoutPollution." beam would range from one-tenth ofpursue any one direction, solar cncrgy, Joni nal ofMierowyre Power.Special Issue on Satellite Sblar Power Station the density of solar radiation receivedalong with its potential large-scale ap- and 111icrowave Transmission to Earth. on earth at the fringes of the receiving plication relative to other technically Volume 5, No. 4, December 1970.

123 PROGRESS IN CONTROLLED FUSION RESEARCH

P.L. Auer and R. N. Sudan

POPULAR concernwith whatcsscs have bccn employed successfully ma_ ny claim is an "energy crisis"in nuclear cxplosivcs; to date, however, in our society has focused attentiononly the fission process has bccn tamed on several proposed exotic schemessuccessfullyinthe form of nuclear for solving the cncrgy problem. Ofreactors. these the controllcd fusion process is Fission reactions are induced by the among the more attractive choices. Incollision of a neutron with a target this article we shall describe brieflynucleus; if the neutron provides suffi- the fusion concept, progress in con-cient activation cncrgy, the target nu- trollcd fusion research, and prospectscleus will fragment into two parts of for fusion-produced power. somewhat unequal mass and rcicasc Both fusion and fission are examplesadditional neutrons plus an excess of of nuclear reactions which are accom-energy. In principle, most of the nuclei panied by a net release of cncrgy. Thetoward the heavy mass side of the resultant heat can be captured, in prin-periodictable undergo fission.The ciple, and converted to electricity or nuclei 112"3, U235, and Pu239, for cx- directlyto mechanical cncrgy.Foramplc, are relatively unstable and can many applications it is necessary thatundergofission upon colliding with the cncrgy rcicasc be at a controllcdlow-energy, or thermal, neutrons. The rate.On the other hand,if one isrole of the neutron in fission reactions simply interested in an uncontrollcdresembles that of a catalyst, particularly cxplosiverelcascofenergy,itiswhen the fissioning nuclei rcquirc little necessary only to initiate the nuclearor no activation cncrgy, as above. reactions and confine the reacting mass By contrast, fusion reactions rcquirc for very short intervals of time.Incollisions between two nuclei, which practice it turns out to be relatively subFt, ntly undergo rearrangement to simpler to thakc nuclear cxplosivcs than prod o new nuclei and rcicasc an it is to develop contwiled nuclear re-excess of cncrgy. Most of the nuclei actors. Both fission and fusion proc-on the light mass side of the periodic table undergo fusion, or nuclear rear- The authors are associated with the Labora- rangement reactions.Fusion may be tory of Plasma Studies at Cornell University, viewed as the universal energy source Ithaca, New York.Dr. Auer is director of in that it ds responsible for the cncrgy the laboratory and professor of aerospace engineering, and Dr. Sudan is professor of produced instars.In fact, the sun electrical engineering and applied physics. derivesits cncrgy from a chai,.of

124 fusionreactions by which ordinary D, T denote, respectively, ordinary Npresented by the second and third h)drogcn is converted to helium. hydrogen and its isotopes, hcavy hy- reactions of Table Iis the most attrac- A number of fusion rcactions pro- drogen or deuterium and super heavytive since its fuel is naturally available duce neutrons; however, it is importanthydrogen or tritium; while n denotes and essentially inexhaustible. Its "ash" to distinguishthatinthis cascthe thc neutron. is ordinary hydrogen and helium; the ncutrons do not act as a catalyst but Thc reactions given in Tablc Iarc tritium produccd is burned up in the appear simply as a reaction product. listed in ordcr of increasing difficulty reactor and docs not accumulate. How- More will be said about the role ofexcept that thc second and third, both ever, it should be noted that both D-D neutrons in potential fusion rcactorsof which involvc deuterium reactingand thc currently favored D-T fuel later. A source of difficulty in fusion,with itself, go with cqual probability.:cycles produce ncutrons which in turn by comparison with fission, is thc re- Significant differences become cvidcnt induceradioactivityinthereactor quircment that collisionstake placc when we examine these rcactions. structure. The radioactive waste dis- between nuclei. All atomic nucici carry Most attention is focused currcntlyposal problem which resultsis prac- positiveelectricalcharge;therefore, on the D-T reaction sinceitisthe ticallyinsignificantwhen compared they tend, to repel cach othcr. Only casicst on the list.Deutcrium is stable withtheradioactivc waste disposal relativcly energetic nuclei can surmount and present on carth in approximately problems of fission rcactors; ncverthe- the coulomb repulsion barrier and col-one part per 6,500 of ordinary hy- lcss, thesefusion rcactors will have lide with each Other.Consequently, drogcn. The water on thc surface ofhigh levels of radioactivity associated the specific cncrgy or temperature ofthe earth represents a ready supply ofwith thc structural parts of the reactor the working mixture producing fusion thisquantity.Howcvcr,tritiumis whichhave comeundcrneutron must be hot.In practicc, this mcansslightly radioactive and dccays with a bonitar2ment. An interesting potcn- that temperatures on the ordcr of1 Os half-life of 12.3 ycars. Because of its tial side benefit of these ncutron-rich or 100s of million degrees Celsius, relatively rapid decay, it is not available fusion reactors is that some of the cx- possibly even greater, arc required. naturally.It can bc produccd fromccss ncutrons may be uscd to "burn At these extremely high temperatureslithium by neutron bombardment ac- up" the radioactive waste accumulated matter is in the gaseous state, prcttycording to thc reactions fromfissionrcactors,thelong-life well reduced to its atomic componcnts n -1- Li" --> T + -I- 4.8 MeV fission. products. with thc atoms stripped of thcir more n -I- Li7--> T -I- Hc' 2.5 McV. In both the D-T and D-D fucl cycics readily removable electrons.That is,Thus, a D-T fusion reactor is in fact thc largest fraction of the nct cncrgy the gas is ionizcd, consisting of posi- a "breeder" in which some of the ncu-produccd resides in the neutrons and tivcly charged ions and free electrons. trons produccd by fusion are uscd tomust bc recovered in a coolant via a This highly ionizcd statc of matter is regenerate tritium in a lithium blanket. heat cycle. Thc D-He3 and H-Li" fuel often referred to as plasma, and theDeuterium and lithium, both of which cycles have chug(' particles only as discipline concerned with studying itsare in abundant_ supply and rclativcly their rcaction products. This opcns up fundamental properties is called plasma cheap, are consumcd. Thc "ash" from the possibility of direct convcrsion of physics. the reactor is hclium, stablc and prc-fusion cncrgy to electricity, avoiding sumably harmless. Onc disadvantagethc Rankine cycic and its thcrmody- Fusion- Reactions of thc D-T schcmc is the requirementnamic limitationsoik convcrsion Of the several fusion reaction possi- of containing effcctivcly within thc re- Unfortunatclf,--the light iso- bilities the ones that arc of principal actorlarge amounts ofradioactive topc of helium (Hc") is not naturally interest for controllcd fusion applica- tritium. available in any significant quantitics tion are listed in Tab lc 1. Thc symbols Conceptually, the D-D fucl cycleand must bc supplied from the D-D reaction; it is also not possiblc to sup-. press completcly the D-D rcaction in Table 1. Fusion reaction possibilities. a D-He3 mixture.Accordingly, thc D-Hc" cycic is rcally a variant of the ENERGYRhi.r.Astin D-D cycic,adjustcdtoconditions FUSION REAC I AN IS FUSION PRODUCT in MeV where thc D-Hea reactions dominate. + He' + n 17.6 Thc production of neutrons is not com- D + D He' n 3.25 plctely eliminated. Thc last rcaction 1)+ T + H 4.0 I) + He He' H 18.3 listcd using H-Li° has thc virtue of H + Li" He' + He' 4.0 completcly eliminating ncutrons and

125 sections with energy in Figure 1; alsosingle fusion event, then //=QT is the see Figure 2) and the crossover pointheat released per unit volumefor ex- defines an ignition temperature. Above'ample, in a D-D system, where itis this point the fusion process may bethe deuterium ion concentration and7 considered self-sustaining in the sameis the duration of time (that is,the sense as a flame is, once it has beenconfinement time) during which fusion ignited. takes place.In addition, the thermal Actually, any practical fusion reac-content of the plasma is approximately tor will be required to operatc well -3-nkT, where kT measures the stored above the ignition temperature.If Q 2 representsthe energy produced ina thermal-energy.If .1 denotes the frac-

mmim mu; 100 Immimmummoss11=== marzrommit milmomm as 11==1111 141 11MISIIMI 1=MEZPONI IAN I 11111 __.._I_._ EMINIMINIR" =M1111111111AMIMIBIIIIIMM=IMP2111111

to 100 1000 1111 AI1111 1111 KINETIC TEMPERATURE ( KEV) 10 III 17,1111 11111111, 104 Figure 1.Fusion reaction rate parameter <0 r> as a function of temperature, induced radioactivity from the system; itis also the most difficult fuel cycle to contend with, of those listed, in a fusion reactor.

Fusion Feasibility Thehigh temperatures required in a fusion reactor may be inferred from the behavior of the fusion cross sections as a function of energy. Several 10 illustrative examples arc givcn in Fig- ure 1.Nuclear cross sections are a direct measure of the probability for a given reaction; the rate of a reaction will be proportional to the product of thecrosssectionandtherelative velocity of the collision partners multi- 162 10 plied by their concentrations. Allfusionreactorswillhave to operate above some threshold temperature, usually termed the ignition temperature. Thisisdefinedasthe temperature where the power produced by fusion reactions just equals the 10-3 power lost from the reactor by various 10 100 1000 mechanisms. 'The most serious loss for a well-behaved reactor comes from radiation.As thetemperaturein- KINETIC TEMPERATURE (KEV) creases, the fusion power increases more rapidly than the radiated power Figure 2.Characteristics of thermonuclear reactions and the ideal ignition temperature (note the rapid initialrisc of cross at ion density of 1015 particles per milliliter, tion of thermal energy converted toof similar feasibility criteria can belost or cooled in the time that it would useful work, we have a break-even derived. take a particle to reach the walls, mag- point when From the above itis evident that netic fields have been proposed to con- bothtemperatureandproductoffine it. A magnetic field of strength 13 rn2Q, + -2 iikT1 plasma density and confinement timeexerts a restraining pressure on the are essential for feasibility.In what plasma of magnitude /32/87,-, and in 3 ilicT + losses. (I)follows we shall deal with each ofactual devices this magnetic pressure 2 these factorsin greater detail.The must be in considerable excess of the The above equation simply states thatessential point to bear in mind is that plasma pressure. A useful figure of the useful energy produced by the re- theplasma,whichconstitutesthe merit is the quantity 13 a plasma pres- actor equals the energy required toworking fluid of the fusionreactor, sure/magnetic pressure. reinvest in the reactor.In order to must be extremely hot and must be The magneticfieldsqueezesthe make any excess power, the reactorcontained within the reactor for suffi- plasma in the transverse dimensions, wouldhavetooperateabovethe ciently long times so that the HT cri- but itis still free to stream along the break-even point. Achieving the break- terion is more than s tisficd. lines of force. In order to confine it in even point does, however, constitute a the third direction we have two options. demonstration of feasibility. Plasma Confinement Inone scheme themagneticfield At high enough temperatures, we The requirements set by equation 3strength increases along the lines of can neglect the losses in equation 1to are very stringent.if we choose to force. (Figure 3) Since the plasma be- get an estimate of feasibility, and weoperate at a density of 10'5 particleshaves likea diamagnetic body, the find per milliliter, then we need to confine charged particles arereflected from the plasma for at least a tenth of a regions of high field strength, and we ( 1-y k7' C2) second. At thermonuclear tempera-have the magnetic mirror confinement 71 ' \ turesthepressureexerted bythis concept.Thisisan example of an where we note that for fixed conversion plasmaisapproximately 30 atmos-open-ended system since the lines of efficiency the right-hand side of equa- pheres.At higher densities the re- force enter the region filled with plasma tion 2 is simply a function of tempera- quiredconfinementtime ismuch and subsequentlyleavethisregion. ture and the fuel cycle under considera- shorter, but the plasma pressureis Because the magnetic mirror is never tion.For example, assuming a D-D proportionally larger; and, indeed, atperfect, a leakage of particles always fuel cycle we find equation 2 has a very high densities the nuclear reac- takes place in open-ended systems. In minimum around 200,000,000 degrees tions would be almost explosive incontrast we have "closed" systems in Celsius, where we would require nature. Although the plasma is at ex-which the lines of force are either tremely high temperatures, relativelyclosed or they are confined to a finite' nr > 10" (3) little heat is contained in the working volume in the topology of atorus. providing n is measured in number of fluid.Were it allowed to come into (Figure 4) particles per milliliters and r in sec-contact with substantial structural na- Neitherthemirror(open)nor onds.Thisisa statementofthe terial, the plasma would rapidly cool toroidal (closed) schemes as described familiar Lawson criterion for feasibility. down rather than vaporize the struc-above are adequate for stable plasma Under suitable assumptions a variety ture.In order that the plasma not beconfinement, which demands that any displacement about theequilibrium PLASMA position damp away in the course of time. Plasma stability is insured in a COIL CURRENT region where the magnitude of the

Figure 3. A simple magnetic mirror in which the charged particles are reflected from regions of high field strength. This is an example of an open-ended system. Figure 4. In a simple torus, a closed system shown below, lines of force are confined to a finite volume. COIL

FIELD LINES FIELD LINES

127 REVERSED MAGNETIC defined by D. It is not altogether clear FIELD CONFIGURATION what the exact mechanism for this large diffusion is, and different processes may be operative in different experiments. One explanation of this phenomenon rests on the unusually high level of fluctuations in density and electric field observedto existina hot plasma. Figure 5. The Astron configu-These large fluctuationsresult from ration for obtaining controlled "micro instabilities," which are present fusion, which aims to generate even in a macroscopically stable plasma. a strongly diamagnetic region The confined plasma, which is al- DIAMAGNETICE LAYER inside a conventional mirror. AND FUSION PLASMA It is a kind of hybrid scheme. most never in thermodynamic equilibrium, has a large amount of free energy that is continually released in the form of short-wavelength high-frequency. fluctuations. The cross section of particles scattered off these charge fluctuations islarge, and this results in large increases in the transport co- efficients.In one theory the collision frequency is assumed to be propor- tionaltothegyro-frequency which gives the Bohm diffusion coefficient Dr: cc T/B. This scales as B-1 as op- Figure 6.The Octopole is an posed to B-2 for the classical situation RING CURRENTS 'internal ring device. and appears to increase with temperatures.If Bohm diffusion were to be a magnetic field increases in all directions Princeton University arc examples ofuniversal feature, then the plasma size away from a point of minimum non-internalring machines which havebecomes unreasonably large, and one zero value.Itisrelatively easy toproved very useful for the study, ofwould have to give up all hopes of suc- achieve a minimum 1131 configuration plasma containment but cannot be ex-cessful controlled fusion along the lines for open-ended systems. On the othertrapolated to fusion devices because ofunder discussion.Fortunately -several hand itis topologically impossible to particlelossestothefloating con-experiments have shown diffusion much have such a minimum IBI region in ductors. less than the Bohm rate although still toroidal system unless externally driven in excess of the classicalrate.This currents flow in the plasma.When Plasma Diffusion gives reason to hope that the true co- such a toroidal current is induced by Even a stably confined plasma suf-efficient lies somewhere between D, making the plasma the "secondary" offers from particle losses by diffusion.and D,,. Recent theoretical studies on a transformer, we have the TokamakIf the situation were strictly classical,axi-symmetric systems like the Toka- configuration.(Figure4)Anotherthe gyrating particles would at eachmak and the Astron indicate that the variation of this scheme is the Astroncollision move across the lines of force diffusionmight be entirelyclassical (Figure 5) where the internal currenton the average of a distance equal toexceptforanenhancementfactor is carried by relativistic electrons form- their gyro-radiusr,.Thisleadsto (R/r,)812, where R is the major radius ing a cylindrical" E-layer," which are in adiffusioncoefficient De = vr2i cc of the torus, introduced by the curva- turn confined by a mirror field.Thisv17/32, where visthe frequebey ofture of the lines of force which causes scheme is in sonic sense a hybrid: The collisions of the ions and according to theparticlesto jump distancesfar closed lines of force of the magneticclassical theory decreases as T 312. Tolarger than the gyro-radius at each field produced in combination with theconfine a cylindrical column of plasma collision. "E-layer" encloses the minimum IBI for a time r given by (3), it must at toroidal region while the open linesleast have----- a radiusr, = VDT = riPlasma Heating form a magnetic mirror. V VT CC V T/B; for n= 1015, T = 0.1 Successful heating of the confined In some experimental devices (Fig-sec, T=2X l0°C, and 13 = 50 kg,plasma to ignition temperatures is the ure 6), currents are induced toflowwe obtain r, 5 cm, which is an ac-second important problem on the road in levitated conductors embedded in the ceptable figure. However, itis foundto controlledfusion.The simplest plasma. TheD. C.Octopole at Gulfexperimentally that the plasma diffusesmethod is to pass a current through General Atomic and the Spherator at very much faster than the classical ratethe plasma inductively or otherwise and

128 let it heat by Joule losses. This method 100,000/ becomes less efficient as the plasma CLASSICAL gets hotter, because classical plasma 10,000 resistivity decreases at high tempera- MAXIMUM VALUE tures as T-312. On the other hand if a 1,000 NEEDED FOR FUSION REACTOR / /////////// TOKAMAK large current is pulsed for a short time, (USSR) anomalously large resistivities can be 100 achieved, and the transfer of energy to (USA, UK) STELLARATOR--___,6 the plasma is improved so thatstill (uSA,uK) higher temperatures can be attained. MHO *UNIVERSAL INSTABILITIES The anomalous resistivity arises be- ANOMALOUS METHODS TO SUPPRESSING INSTABILITIES cause of large fluctuations driven un- (BOHM)pi (I) HIGH SHEAR- stable by the current under optimum II/ (2) NET MAGNETIC WELL conditions. This would of course in- I ( le, MINIMUM AVERAGE 8 ) 001 (3) SHORT CONNECTION LENGTH crease particle diffusion as discussed (4) TI Te earlier, but the hope isthat plasma (5) AXIAL SYMMETRY(?) 0001 heats much faster than it diffuses or 1952 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 cools by anomalous conduction losses. A plasma can also be heated by Figure 7. Containment time in toroidal devices (relative scale). radio frequency or microwave radiation aim(' to any one of its several resonant Lawrence Radiation Laboratory rely A kind of progress chart is given by frequencies. For heating electrons, the on this technique. Steady H beams of Figure 7.This has to do with the frequency generally chosen is the elec- the order of 2 amps at 30 KeV arerather notable achievements in con- tron cyclotron frequency oritshar- currently possible. finement times by various experimental monics and similarly for the ions. This Recent developments in technologyapproaches. As mentioned previously, method is not very suitable at highhave led to the generation of electron progressive improvements have been densities because of the reduced pene- beams withenergiesintherange made in understanding theoretically the tration of the rJ power into the plasma. 500 KeV to 10 MeV and currents inorigin of various plasma instabilities At laser frequencies one can afford to the range of 50 KA to 1 MA of pulse and learning how to control them ex- have high densities (for a 1 1, wave- durations of the order of 50 nsec. The perimentally.At thistimetoroidal lengthlaser,ir 102' can be toler-energy content inthese beams is as confinement in the Tokamak configura- ated)andcollisionalabsorptionoflarge as 107. J, and the peak power is tion appears to be the most promising. photon energy tan heat the plasma. of order 1012 watts. These beams can For example, confinement up to 0.01 High-power (10'1 watts) pulsed lasers be used for _rapidly heating a plasma sec has been achieved with densities of have been proposed for heating smallto ignition temperatures. Experiments5 X 10" at ion temperatures of 5 mil- pellets of D:Tmixture to thermonu-at the Naval Research Laboratory and lion degrees Celsius. Scientific feasibil- clear ignitior, temperatures, but the lowat Cornell University are presently be- ity would be achieved with an increased efficiency ( 1% )and small pulse ing set up to investigate the amount of factor of two in density, thirty-five in energy (50-500 joules) of present- this heating. Injection of these beamsconfinement time, and five in tempera- day lasers precludes them from beinginto a magnetic mirror readily pro- ture. A modest increase by a factor of front runners. There arc some indica-vides the "minimum ;BI" geometry re-two in confinement time beyond this tions, however, that a breakthrough inquired for plasma confinement, as in could lead to a practical demonstration laser application technology could rap-the Astron. Preliminary experiments atreactor, providing an additionalin- idly change the picture. Cornell University show promise in this crease by a factor of six in density and Another useful method is to injectdirection. The idea of creating internalfour in temperature were obtained. a beam of energetic particles into a ring machines with relativistic electrons However, it is far too early to decide magnetic bottle. The subsequent equi- rather than material conductors alsowhether thisisthe ultimate winner. libration with the confined plasma re- seems quite attractive. Certain scaling laws must be tested sults in heating.In one scheme the over a greater range of variation than energetic particles are neutral atomsFusion Prospects has been done to date before we can in excited states.As they enter the Progressincontrolledfusionre- be trulysatisfied. Ir.the caseof magnetic fieldthe Lorentz V X 13search during the past 10 years hasTokamak this means building experi- force ionizes them, and the resulting been steady and encouriging. There is mental machines of one or more gen- electron and ion pair are trapped in thea general feeling of optimism withinerations beyond those already existing field.The Ormak toroidal device ofthe community concerned withthis or under construction.It takes three the Oak Ridge National Laboratoryeffort.Whatisthe nature of this to five years to complete st,ch major and the Alice mirror machine of theoptimism? experiments from the time of concep-

129 mistic premises, prior experience with POIRS;146, conventional reactors and other ad- GENERATOR f GENERATO URSINE vanced technology products leads us to

POTASSIUM- expect that 15 to 20 years will be re- ' TO -STEAM quired to develop commercially ac- LITHIUM BOILER AND AND ", TRITIUM TRITIUM ceptable reactors after scientific feasi- RECOVERY TSYS TEM bility is achieved. On this basis, one

VACUUM would predict that fusion reactors will POTASSIUM STEAM not make a serious impact on the

LITHIUM I WATER energy supply situation of the world until toward the end of the century. TRITIUM There is a finite possibility that the fusion concept may become practical D-T FUEL. FOR DEUTERIUM WJECTION FROM INTO REACTOR SEA - WATER on an even shorter time scale, in a MAGNET COIL modified form. Some have speculated that a hybrid fusion-breeder reactor could be developed on a relatively FUSION CONVENTIONAL REACTOR shorter time scale. In this, the copious POTASSIUM TOPPING CYCLE THERMAL CYCLE including neutron source of a fusion plasma TRITIUM RECOVERY SYSTEM would replace the core of an orthodox fast fission breeder.Should there be Figure 8. D-T (deuterium-tritium) fusion power plant, a conceptual design. unforeseendifficultiesinthefast breederdevelopmentprogram,the tion, and thatisthe time scale onfusion reactor might look like.But, fusion breeder hybrid may be worth which progress has to be measured. even after feasibility has been demon- considering. The end goal of these scientific ex---strated _alot of hard work will be The next ten years promise to be a periments is to demonstrate feasibility; required before such reactors can be veryexcitingperiodfor controlled that is, to meet the break-even pointdeveloped. A whole host of techno-fusion research on both the scientific where as much power is produced bylogical problems face the prospective and engineering fronts. Many concepts fusion asis required to initiate thereactor developer and these are juststill in the laboratory today should be reactions. 2rom what we know today,now being identified and studied. Toemerging as viable reactor prototypes, it seems thattoroidal configurationsmention but a few, there is the problemduring this period. As realistic tech- will have an easier time achieving thisof finding structural material which cannological piiiblems receive more and than will open-ended ones, simply be-withstand the hostile environment ofmore attention, we anticipate that many cause the latter tend to be more leaky. 14 MeV neutrons (in the case of D-Tinnovative ideas for solving them will However, there are a number of goodreactors) plus copious radiation fromappear.The vision of tapping the reasons to continue looking at open-the hot plasma. Much remains to belimitless energy source of the oceans is ended approaches.They should bedone regarding magnetic field genera-spurring on workers in this field. easier to scale to less than giant size tion on the scale required by reactors, (it is conceivable that toroidal reactorsalthough rapid advances in supercon- Further Reading will be limited to the I0'" watts thermalductor technology have been of con- I.Gough, W. C., and H. J. Eastlund. ''Thc or even larger unit size), and they aresiderable help here.Handling liquid Prospects of Fusion Power."Scientific particularly attractive in schemes which A Ines icon 224:50; February 1971. lithium -in the presence of strong mag- 2. Hearings on Controlled Thermonuclear directly convert fusion energy to elec-netic fields and injecting fuel into a Research, November 10 and 11, 1971; tricity.Finally, no one is prepared toplasma at lOs of atmospheres of pres- before Subcommittee on Research, De- say that there are no more plasma velopment and Radiation of the Joint sure are still further examples of prob- Committeeof Congresson Atomic physics surprises instore;thus,it lems to be solved. Energy. U.S. Government Printing seems only wise to continue research Needless to say, the field is still wide 011ice, Washington. D.C. on any of several candidates which look open and a number of ingenious ap- 3.l'ost. R. F. "Controlled Fusion Research and High Temperature Plasmas." lst promising. proaches, some already in early lab- Annual Review of Nuclear Science 20. Many of the experts fed that if theoratory stages, may arrive which could Emilio Segre, Editor,(Annual Reviews present rate of progress can be main-abbreviate the development time of Inc.. Palo Alto, California).1970. tained, feasibility of controlled fusion 4. Thogress in Controlled Thermonuclear practicalreactors.An example, the Research, Division of Research, U.S. will be achieved within this decade, per-concept of igniting fusion in solid pel- Atomic Energy Commission. U.S. Gov- haps in as short a time as five to sevenlets by irradiation with powerful lasers, ernment Printing Office. December 1970. years.What then? 5,Rose, D. J. "Controlled Nuclear Fusion: In Figure 8 wehas caught the imagination of several Status and Outlook." Science 172:797; depict very schematically what the firstworkers. Even under the most opti- May 21, 1971. I

PART III ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Course descriptions and curricula

131 POPULATION EDUCATION - A RESPONSE TO A SOCIAL PROBLEM

Irwin L. Slesnick

phenomenon is excessive hu-or fewer children_are becoming symbolsis a case in point. For the last 50 years THEman population growth. It origi-of social responsibility. The school andor so schoolchildren have been ex- nates at the interface of modern tech-its external arm, the mass media, havepected to develop wholesome attitudes nology, traditional culture, and bioticassumed thetasksof disseminatingand acquire knowledge abouttheir potential.It contributes to war, pov-knowledge about the population phe-physical and biological environments. erty, hunger, disease,pollution,thenomenon and establishing attitudes that,In classrooms they read and talked erosion of freedom, and the loss ofwhen translated into behaviors, willabout environmental dynamics, saw individual identity.The phenomenonprevent the recurrence of populationfilms and demonstrations, and some is a current social problem, and theimbalance. even planted trees and lived inthe action is toward stabilizing world pop- Population education, therefore,is woods. Today the American adult, a ulation, %,,,th the ultimate aim to achieve one effort to change the reproductiveproduct of conservation education, is a and maintain levels of optithum popu-behaviors of modern man through a de- world champion polluter. Our environ- lation size. liberate program of persbasion. Failurement is being consumed and defouled In recognition of the consequences ofto recognize this as the real goal ofto such an extent that the citizen must overpopulation, each institution of so-population education may lead curricu-now be controlled by threat of im- c.ty has begun to move in the directionlum pacesetters to statements of vagueprisonment and fine,lest he further of population control.Governmentsgoals and the staking out of topicaldesecrate his environment. The popu- are establishing new population poli-territories that only appear to be related lation education parallelisobvious: cies: liberalizing abortion laws; remov-to the educational need. A snowfall ofUnless irdividuals learn to control their ing pronatalist tax incentives; funding.instructional materials that results fromfertiliti voluntarily, their reproductivity research in family planning. Similarly,a perfunctory response to the popula-will be directed by legislated sanctions, the churches are re-examining theirtion problem would do little to supportnot unlike the laws that now attempt pronatalist policies, and families of two the cause of population control. Ato control littering. random and administratively convenient Two categories of causes have con- placement of informational packagestributed to the failure of population about population will not change repro-control efforts thus far, One category is Dr. Slesnick is a professor in the department of biology at Western Washington ductive behaviors. motivation toward family size limita- State College, Bellingham. The failure of conservation education tion. Most of the people of the world

133 arc driven by a long-established cul- tunate reflex againstthisobjective chal- though a considerable amount of the tural tradition to achieve high fertility.lenges the propriety of teaching con-content of the programs will overlap. Suchfort'sasreligiousdoctrines,traception to child en, and it becomesWhcrc population education seeks to moral codes, public laws, communitynecessary to point out that attitudeschange the reproductivity of modern customs. marriage habits, family or-which produce high fertility behaviorman, sex education seekstoinflu- ganization, and children's literature ex-are established during childhood in the ence the establishment of interpersonal plicitly and inexplicitly demand highabsence of any instruction of the tech- ethics.Where population education child productivity.Parenthood is ful-niques of producing babies.Societiesseeks to control the number of human fillment; and children, especially sons,that are notoriously prudish or Vic-consumers of natural resources, envi- are wealth, security, and demonstra-torian are efficient in perpetuating theronmental education seeks to optimize tions of virility. Although motivational attitude that large families have eco-the relationships between each human problems are more pronounced in de-nomic and social advantages, and theyand his environment. veloping countries, studies of familydo this without doing violence to the A reasonable approach to population size expectations in the United States highlyclassifiedinformationabouteducation, considering the present sub- reveal only slight effects on reducingsexual repro.ction.Patterns of adultject-centered structure of the educa- the present growth rate. The second sexual behavicare established in child-tional system, is an infusion of instruc- category is the availability of the means hood, and we must realize that anytional activities appropriately placed in to control conception and birth. Noposition the school takes within thethe subject areas of the K-12 span. The matter how motivated couples may bespectrum of sexual morality has analternative is to peg core topics at ap- not to conceive, they must still knowimpact upon ultimate behaviors. Ab-propriate grade levels in schools where how to prevent a conception, where tojection of responsibilityisa strongcurriculum is organized to enable an obtain contraceptives, and how to use negative position that ensures the per-interdisciplinary problems approach to them.And allthis learning shouldsistence of the status quo.Even so, learning.In either case the thrust of occur before the first act of sexual in-there are those who would proceed in populationeducationwilloccurin tercom se. Population education focusesthe development of a population edu-areas of the social studies and science. on the task of motivating individuals tocation while denying or ignoring theBut since the consequences of abnormal avail themselves of the means to limitultimate objective.The conditionis population growth permeate all aspects their reproduction. symptomatic of akindof culturalof life, it is logical to expect that every Approximately 50 percent of worldschizophrenia, and does not contributeschool subject area involve itself in the populatiM: is under the age of 16.Itto the development of a curriculiim forpopulationcurriculum,whether the is not realistic to exrect to reach thesewhich the goal is clearly achievable. curriculum is an integrated core or tra- people at the instant of marriage and Population education, in my view, is ditionally subject centered. then change their behavior with infor- distinct from sex education (family life The resources on population as they mation about population and familyeducation) and environmental educa-relate to the objectives of population planning. The mass media messages oftion(conservation education), eveneducation are widel3 scattered. In the the crisis of overpopulation and the benefits of family size limitation occur too late, since the behavior of adults Major Organizations and Their Involvement in Population Education isdirected in large measure by the I. The University of Delaware, School of Education, Newark, Delaware 19711. attitudes which develop in childhood. The Population Curriculum Study under the direction of Robert W. Stegner (science) and Val E. Arnsdorf (social studies) will develop K-12 instructional The societythatwishestocontrol materials for teachers, a strategy for the integration of content in the traditional the size of its population must influence school curriculum, and a program of preservice and inservice teacher education. its youth by creating an awareness of 2.Planned Parenthood World Population, 515 Madison Avenue, New York the consequences of overpopulation, 10022. (Dorothy L. Millstone) the virtues of a small family norm, and The national office and local affiliates, notably Planned Parenthood of Maryland, have provided resource assistance to schools. PPWP proposes to establish a formal an understanding of what they must do program of assistance to establish model programs in selected colleges of education individually as adults to achieve the and junior and senior high schools. goal of a population of optimum size. 3. The Population Reference Bureau Inc., 1755 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. THE FIRST task of curriculum de- This organization publishes a newsletter, People, for teachers, researchers, and others interested in the population/environment field. The Bureau also issues bi- velopment is to state objectives in monthly Population Bulletins, an annual World Population Data Sheet, and mono- ultimate behavioral terms.The pri- graphs, including People for junior high school students and This Crowded World mary objective for population educa- for intermediate grade students. tionisthat each couple voluntarily 4. The American Sociological Association,1001 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., contraccpts, or takes equally effective Washington, D x.20036. Through its program, Sociological Resources for the Secondary Schools, it has measures, to limit the size of its family published three units on population for use in secondary schools. and to space its children. The unfor-

134 GRADE HOME, LEVEL SOCIAL STUDDS SCIENCE 1,AN6ux64 ARTS HEALTH ECONOMICS rim:AR rs MA 111EMA1 ICS

3 ModernfamilyAn inquiry intoSupportive liter-AssurancethatAn examinationStudies of fam-Story problem no longerde- family structure,ature portrayingint mon izat ionof the modernily art. possiblysupport to theme pends on manysite, and role inhappysmalland other mod-home providingnoting the cur-of greater indi- children as a la-animalpopula-families,child-ern health prac-comfoi t. pracy.rent art of India%idual wealth to borforceand tion lessmarriedtices provideand clue for thedepicting themembers of the old age security couples, andchildsurvivalsmall family smallhappysmall family even secure andand longevity family contentedun- married adults

Horizontal delopm,nt of a population education theme in grade 3.

GRADE; For illustrative purposes let's trace, SCIENCE through a curricular grid, the development of two possible themes, one hori- The formal introduction of reproduction and sexuality using the lloweling plants. as vehicles in establishing a noncontroversial enticeto the sexual zontally at the third-grade level and 4 reproductive cycles of organisms. theotherverticallythroughseveral years of science. In the first illustration Plant population studies emphasising biotic potentials and limiting environ- 5 mental factors. assume that it was determined appropriate to concentrate during the third Reproduction in animals including studies of reproduction as a life process, grade on the evolution of the small sexuality as an adaptation, anatomy, physiology, behavior, mating, fertilization, 6 development, biotic potentials, and parental care. family norm. The study focuses in the social studies with other subjects pro- Human reproductive anatomy, physiology, and behavioran upward extension viding support. In the second illustra- 7 of previous studies, coinciding as closely as possible with the onset of puberty. tion, assume that the sequence of sci- 8 Human population dynamics and the mechanisms of population control. ence studies, spanning the intermediate elementary schoolandjuniorhigh Vertical development of a population development theme.This sequence of science studies would be supported in other subject areas. school, would be supported in other subject areas, More important than the content of past several years a dozen or so organi-also be a fountainhead for the develop-population education orits sequence zations have addressed themselves to ment of such instructional materials as willbe the method by whichitis various tasks of instructional materials monographs, films, and games. learned. The phenomenon of excessive development.These projects include The sourcebook ma resemble in for-human population growth lends itself the preparation_of bibliographies, themat the initial productions of the recentwell to teaching and learning by in- establishment of clearinghouses, and curriculum developments in biology and quiry. A teachers mastery ofthis the production of instructional mate-earth science, where content and cur- methodwilldeterminetheultimate rials. Most of the action is being car- riculumspecialistscollaborated in effectiveness of his program in influ- ried by international organizations forbrainstorming on the ingredient topicsencing his studentsinrealizing ob- non-American audiences. A sampleof the subject.In population educa- jectives. listing of organizations, and their ac-tion, for example, an anthropologist tivities,inpopulation educationfor and a curriculum specialist in the social DESPITE intensive inputs into pop- U.S. schools is on the opposite page. sciences could prepare jointly a section ulation control programs, world on the evolution of the human family, population continues to grow atthe thegreatestneedin and suggest ways to communicate toalarming rate of about 2 percent. The pOSS113LYpopulation education isthe de-children through educational media thefailure of these programs has been velopment of a comprehensive source-modern trend toward the small familyattributed to powerful cultural demands book. The sourcebook would identifynorm. for high fertility,Efforts -to influence and explicate a solid core of content An overall curricular design for pop-acceptance of family planning means and be not only a book of knowledgeulation education would have to bewill fail until the attitudes of couples but also an anthology of ideas for the reflectedin thesourcebook,even toward the small family norm overcome effective presentation of the content.though the ultimate working structurethe traditional pressures for large num- The sourcebook would be usefulto of a program would emerge only afterbers of children. New attitudes which teachers who wish to incorporate popu-extensive classroom trials. As a begin-will change reproductive behaviors can lation education into their programs.ning, we might envisage a curriculum occur through the formal schooling of Coverage would include all grade levelsgrid that includes school subjects and children in a program of population and all subjects. The sourcebook wouldgrade levels. education. 0

135 A PLAN FOR POPULATION-ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION

Robert W. Stegner

WE have been, and still are, wit-dealing with air pollution, we requiretably result in the growth of industry nessing an explosion of interestthe use of low-sulfur fuels; to preventand population, and they realize that in population and environment educa-war, we build weapons; to dispose ofthere must be a limit. They say, "Let's tion. Teachers searching for materialssolid wastes, we fill up holes in thetake inventory and formulate a plan in these fields have discovered a floodpound; to control crime, we hire morefor maximum human fulfillment." of books, articles, and teaching aids;policemen; and to maintain our econ- Whatever faction prevails at the mo- and curriculum developers are workingomy, we build the SST.All thesement,itseems clearthat we must to meet the need for planned programsactions can be justifiedall can beeventually reorient "rugged individual- of study.Nev' courses of study arecriticized. ism" to include the welfare of the com- giving increased attention to "ecology"; When a small creek flows throughmunity and, indeed, of the species. The and concern for pollution is general,a partly rural, partly suburban, partlyindividual needs to understand how he extending even to the advertising ofurban community, it sooner or latercan benefit from the reduction of pov- some of the greatest polluters, whobecomes a source of contention be-erty, hunger, pollution, and crime. The know a public trend when they see one.tween those who demand the preserva-individual must see his stake and his This long overdue movement is be-tion of the creek for the sake of recre-role in solving social problems. If this ginning to have some effect. Depart-ation, wildlife, and natural beauty, andunderstanding can be achieved at all, ments of Environment Control nowthose who see the creek as a source ofshort of Malthusian limitations, it will exist in many states and Congress haswater for continued "growth and de-be achieved through education of one passed an Environmental Educationvelopment." These two factions usuallykind or another, and surely the schools Act.All over the country, we areare well defined. A third faction is can contribute. energetically attacking thesymptomsbeginning to emerge.These people, But our concern must go much of our problems. In dealing with pov-although perhaps not particularly con-deeper than the symptoms of our prob- erty, we give money and housing; incerned about the creek itself, are say-lems. In dealing with poverty, we must dealing with water pollution, we cleaning, "Don't build the dam!" They wantmake it possible for people to attain up oil spills with shovel; and straw; in to slow down and perhaps halt OK. end-self-respectthroughusefulemploy- less spiral of growth and developmentment; in dealing with water pollution, The author is associate professor of biology which would be continued by the dam-we must have some understanding of and education,university of Delaware,ming of the creek. They see that thebiology, chemistry, industry, econom- Newark, Delaware. additional water supply would inevi-ics, and politics; in disposing of solid

136 as erect posture, the large cerebrum, the opposable thumb, and binocular vision. And in these studies we must arrive at the evolution of a capability for culture.Itisculture that gives mankind the power to alter the natural system, oftentohis advantage, but sometimes to the disadvantage of all species, including his own. As human cultures have been ap- pliedtothe environment, we have sometimes restricted the quality of life by our numbers and our activities. We must realize that sometimes human activities can lead to poverty, hunger, and pollution,and may depletenatural resources, degrade the beauty of the natural system, and distort human behavior. Without creating a concept of mankind as a destroying p'ague, we must bring ourselves face to face with our problems. We must dispel the notion that technology alone can continue, endlessly, to adjust a growing 41-_ populationtoitsenvironment. We must recognize thatthe control of population size can be a fundamental AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS factorinsolving human problems. Figure 1. In order for our children to be able to understand and adjust to the com- _Changes in life styles and technological plex systems in which they live, we must develop a K-12, multidisciplinary program management can sometimes alleviate of population-environment studies with a problem-solving approach. pollution and upgrade human life quality, but eventually the control of the wastes, we must eventuallyrecycle The development of this basic con- usable materials; in maintaining ourcept leads to studies of the propertiessize and distribution of human popu- economy we must consider the naturaland interactions of water, air, and thelations will be essential in achieving a lasting adaptation of the human species system. physical earth, which are already quite common in school science and geogra-to the earth. We must, sooner or later, within the natural HE achievement of the individual'sphy courses. The developMent of therealize that planning systemcan achieve a life of acceptable 1 understanding of and adjustment toconcept thatthe earth is a finite natural quality for all people and that herein the complex system in which he lives systemmay require only small changes requires a K-12, multidisciplinary pro-of emphasis and orientation in mostlies our hope of freedomfreedom of The voluntary gram of population-environment studies school programs, but these changes,choice oflifesty'^. with a problem-solving approach. Thesealthough small, are vital. achievement of this goal depends on education. studies should be infused into the exist- While we are establishing concepts ing school program and should becomeof the natural system and its limits, we ACONCEPTUAL scheme for pop- a school-wide responsibility. Since anmust show that man originated in the ulation-environmenteducation understanding of natural and culturalnatural system and that, although heshould include these basic concepts: systems will involve every school dis often modifies and extends the system, 1.The earthis a finitenatural system. ciplinc, we must have a comprehensivehe irultimately subject to itslimits. (To show tnat their are limits.) concep.ail scheme to organize and 11. The evolution of the primates resulted The uniqueness and superiority of man in a capacity for culture.(To relate articulate all the diverse components.is so impressively obvious thatitis man to the natural system.) Perhaps the theme of the Populationdifficult to establish his relationship to 111. The natural iystem influenced the evo- Curriculum Study at the University of lution of human culture. (To indicate the natural system. Here we must have man's dependence on the natural sys- Delaware can serve as a base: studies of human evolution, and we tem.) Man is part of a natural system, themust clearly develop the relationships 1V. Cultural evolution ledto dominance Earth, and is ultimately subject to thebetween physicalstructure andthe of the environment. (To indicate man's uniqueness and power.) limits of the system. uniquely human characteristics, such V. The activities of human populations

137 may lead to conditions restricting the materials for their attainment must bestudying sulfur dioxide as an air pol- quality of life. (For awareness of popu- lationenvironment problems.) found in existing sources or must belutant by adjusting the amount of time VI.By planning within the natural system,developed for the use of teachers andspent on the manufacture of sulfuric a life of acceptable quality can be pro-students, and the responsibility for theacid.The fundamental principles of vided for all people. (To suggest some chokes.) [ I I attainment of the subconcepts must bechemistry need not be neglected and Each of the basic concepts of-tw.distributed in a school district to fac-the objectives of population-environ- scheme must be expanded to facilitate ulty in appropriate subject-matter areas ment education would be served. [2] and grade levels. The teachers of a theassignment of responsibilityfor To implement these studies in concept attainment among the teach-school district could read through theschools, teachers will need a source ers of a K-12 school system.Forscheme,identifyingsubconceptsforbook as suggested by Slesnick. [3] A example, Concept V might be partlywhich they are normally responsiblesubconcept inthe conceptual scheme developed as shown in Figure 2. or for which they would be willing toshould have a code relating it to vari- In developing these concepts, thereassume responsibility.Gaps inpro-ous sources of material in the source gram responsibility could be identified isatendencyforthesubconcepts book.For example, the subconcept to accumulate excessively in grades 5by a coordinator and assigned to the"Malnutrition results when food is de- appropriate teachers. to8.Placement of responsibilityis ficient in quality" would refer to page not always clearly dictated because of Since teachers already have plenty(x) in the source book which would variation in school curricula and orga-of work, ways must be found to in- containadefinitionof malnutrition nization. But the plan can be flexibleclude new materials without simplyand undernutrition, descriptions of the depending on the local situation. Theadding them to the work load.Thatsymptoms of kwashiorkor, marasmus, concepts listed for the middle schoolcould often be done by changing ex-etc., and a discussion of the qualities can go either way. amples, applications, or emphases. Inof various foods. The subconcept "Mal- When the subconcepts are identified,chemistry, time could be found fornutrition affects one-half to two-thirds of the world's population (y),'.' refers to (y) in the sourcebook, which would contain a map depicting the levels of V. The activities of human populations may lead to conditions restricting the quality of life. A. Human activities may lead to poverty and hunger. nutrition in the world's peoples. The 1. Human fulfillment depends on adequate nutrition. source book must also contain bibliographies and lists of films and other Subconcepts for Subconcepts for Subconcepts for Grades K-4 Grades 5-8 Grades 9-12 teaching aids such as maps, models, People need food forPeople require a certain num- games, and equipment. energy. ber of calories daily depending The expanded conceptual scheme, upon their activities. with the source book, will be the essen- Peopleneedcertain Malnutrition results when food Malnutrition affects one-half to tial components of it K-11, multidisci- kinds of foodfor is deficient in quality. (x) two-thirds of the world's popu- plinary program of population-environ- health and growth. lation. (y) ment studies which can be infused into Foods should contain proteins, carbohydrates,fats,minerals, existing school programs without dis- and vitamins. ruption. [2] The expanded conceptual Protein deficiency is an impor-Amino acids are essential toscheme could also be a syllabus for a tant cause of malnutrition. man's health. separate course. Such a program will Protein deficiency diseases are have a potential not only for the at- serious and often fatal for in- tainment of the goals of population- fants and pregnant and nursing mothers. environment education but also for an unprecedented articulation of the entire Cereal proteins are nutritionally less effective than meat proteins. curriculum. 0 Most oftheworld's protein foods come from cereal grains. References Malnutrition may cause perma- Malnourishment may cause irre- I. The Population Curriculum Study. "A nent physical damage to grow-versible damage to brain cells Conceptual Scheme for Population- ing children. and other tissues. Environment Education." University of Malnutrition may cans( mentalMental retardation affects hu- Delaware, Newark, Delaware. October retardation. man fulfillment by limiting op- 1970. (Mimeo). tionsforeducation,employ- 2. "Population Education: A Challenge of ment, and recreation. the Seventies."Population Bulletin26, Adequate food is nec- No.3. Population Reference Bureau, Malnutrition causes reduced dis- Inc., Washington, D.C.1970. essary for work and ease-. resistanceandlowered 3.Slesnick, IrwinI,."Population Educa- play. work capacity. ,tionA Response to a Social Problem." The .Science Teacher38: 21-231 February Figure 2. Each of the six basic concepts must be broken down into subconcepts. 1971. (Sec pp. 133-135.)

138 Z\

R. Thomas Tanner

THE editor suggested that in thispasture-cropland complex some twocepts we seek, if his parents are wise 1 articleImight "show teachersmiles square, and the period of timeenough to intensify his experiencing of how they can help to develop insightswas some ten years of childhood andeach place visited and if some of his into the interrelationships of:animals,Adolescence. The intensity of study was teachers do the same. vegetation, and man, and perhaps de-enhanced, not incidentally, by the fact "The right kinds" of activities in- scribe how these insights arise fromthat there was no automobile in ourclude also,I suspect, a good mad)/ increasingly deepened and sophisticatedfamily during my adolescent years! which the learner experiences alone concepts that students gain as they "The right kinds" of activities,I and a good many others which he ex- mature and go along through school."would further conjecture, include anperiences with one or two friends.If She has also given me leave to developoccasional sudden plunge into a dra-his only field work is in groups of 30, an alternative idea if I so please. Fol-matically new environment. Many ofthe experiences arc bound to be super- lowing her lead, I should like to devoteour readers will have experienced theficial. The implication for field work the first portion of this essay to thesatisfactions and surprises of providingis direct: Give field assignments which "hows" which she has suggested, andthe first experience of ghetto childrenare "homework" in nature and which then turn my attention to the "whats"with a farm, inland childcn with thecover a rather extended period of time. the insightsand conceptsto beseacoast, or lowland children with theAs a high school teacher, I found that developed. mountains. There is a very real andthe single activityto which students First, regarding the "hows," I canunanswered question, I think, regard-were most "turned on" was an orni- offer only a most general statement,ing the optimal frequency and age atthology assignment handled on a con- based primarily on my personal experi-which such encounters should occur.tra::t basis. ("I verify that I have spent ence as a learner and a teacher: FieldI became "hooked" on the OregonX hours in the field and have identified activities, of the right kinds arc marvel-desert upon first encounter. But this Y species of birds along with Z species ous vehicles for the attaining of thoseencounter did not occuruntilageofmammals,reptiles,amphibians, concepts and insights we deem de-twenty, and prior to this time I hadand/or fishes. Therefore, according to sirable. "The right kinds" include ac-never been more than 200 miles fromthe terms of the contract, I request a tivitiesbywhichlearnersbecome the area mentioned above and hadgrade of -- for the field work.") rather intimately familiar with the b;;;:a ranged that far only rarely and briefly. I suspect also that "the right kinds" of a limited area over a considerableSocialcritics have noted the super-of activities are interdisciplinary, either period of time.I have no idea what ficiality of the contemporary Americaninternally or in their association with the range of size and the characteristicsexperiencewe seeallthe nationalother activities:the fieldtrip which of such an area might be, especially inparks, but see none well; we visit all 50encompasses geology, natural and hu- the urban-suburban complex. In mystates, but feel close to the earth ofz-.man history, agriculture, and industry; own most fortunate youth, the areanone. At the risk of generalizing from the science field trip followed 13) class- was a varied riverine-swamp-orchard-the self, I would hypothesize that theroom reading and creation of human- intimate knowledge of a circumscribedistic expressions in the form of paint- Dr. Tanner is an assistant professor at area might best precede or at least co-ing, poems, sculpture; the team-taught Oregon :date University and is the director incide with experiences that are more"regional studies" course. of The Rachel Carson Project of the Cor- vallis Public Schools. He is also a member geographically far-flung. This does not Finally, forallour contemporary of the NSTA committee on environmental mean that the very well-traveled childand well-placed concern for holistic, education. will fail to attain the insights and con-conceptual learning, tidbits of specific

139 information which arc simply interest-to the process of research. The re-students perform deprivation experi- ing arc motivational vehicles in any cipientof the communication mustments or watch tlteacher perform a study, including field inventories. understand that the first priority is to vivisection.As atravelingscience curtail certain or all incursions uponteacher a decade ago, I vivisected some SO MUCH for the "hows," and on the species, lest there 'be nothing left70 or 80 each of rats and salamanders, to the "whats." What should be to study. and some 30 turtles, in one school year. the insights and concepts which learn- Tomorrow's technology may not beAlthough this provided rather impres- ers acquire regarding the "interrela-able to undo the legacy of today's mis-sive demonstrations of working cardio- tionships" of animals, vegetation, andtakes, regardless of whether the mis-vascular systems, I am not at all sure man?Ishall not try to distinguish takes resulted from avarice, ignorance, I would do that again, as I consider the between insights and concepts,nor or reasonable risk-taking. Extinct spe-lessons that may have been inadvert- imply that those given here are eithercies cannot be restored by presentlyently taught. inclusiveor exhaustive.They are,imaginable technology. The world of nature provides one of rather, suggestive of a general set of Biocides (insecticides, herbicides, an- the great .sources of interest in a world insights,concepts,beliefs,attitudes, tibiotics) will over the long haul tendbecoming overly developed, homoge- emotions, and commitments that I feel to select in favor of species having high nized, and artificial.There is much are mandatory of our citizenry. Wefecundity and numbers (cockroaches,truth in the old saw that variety is the shall begin with several which fall inmicrobes) and against species havingspice of life. Man's activities may in- the cognitive domain, followed by sev- low fecundity and numbers (mountaincrease variety up to a point, by offering eral which are more obviously of thelions, eagles). Enclaves relatively freeurban-suburban experiences to the al- affective domain. of biocides are necessary. ready rich array of experiences offered Man is a poor dominant. Rappaport And, I have wondered, for I haveby the natural world. But beyond that [7] develops the idea that anthropocen-not found time to check with a popu- point, man begins to decrease variety by tric ecosystems, those of man's devising, lation geneticist, whether the following"rolling up the rug behind himself," demand extreme inputs of energy andmight not be true: Species recoveringthat is, by exterminating species, elim- materials in order to be highly produc-from a very small number (e.g., fewerinating wild areas, wiping out older tive. A monoculture, be it a lawn or athan thirty whooping cranes) are oper-cultures and rural communities. Man wheat field,isdifficult to maintain,ating with an extremely restricted genewould be well advised to maintain di- especially if it is of an exotic species.pool, offering limited genetic variability versity; the implications for economic Indigenous polycultures require no in-for future adaptability.If this is cor-growth and population growth are ob- puts from man. They arc dominated --tct,the implicationisthat speciesvious. This esthetic, or affective, argu- by one or a few species of plants whichmust be thoroughly protected long be-ment for diversity has been made by dominate by their mere existence. Manfore their numbers become so small.Dasmann [3], Mishan [5], and the dominates not by existence, but by present writer. [8] We might also note action. Some action is mistaken, and"THE remainingideasaremorethe strictly functional, or if you will, some mistakes threaten the long-range I clearly placed in the affective than cognitive, rationale for diversity. Many existence of the anthropocentric mono- inthe cognitive domain, though in ecologists tell us of the stabilizing influ- culture.Somebigmistakesevensome cases the domains are insep-ence of complex ecosystems, rich in threaten the subsequent succession ofarable.Also, some have as much tospecies, full of checks and balances, the indigenous polyculturc.I am notdo with methodology (the "how") asand with great potential for survival suggesting that we abandon agriculture;with the attitude or belief (the "what") under changing conditions. my point is that man must dominate to be gained by the learner. Interestingly, Tofiler [9] proposes less of the earth and retain more sanc- Undesirable attitudes toward naturethat America maintain varied patterns tuaries of indigenous polyculture andand our fellow creatures may be trans-of humanlifefor similarreasons. thus more margin for error. The sec-mitted quite innocently. For instance,Tofiler would have enclaves of the past, ondary implication regarding humana recent television program described rather like Williamsburg, Sturbridge, or numbers is obvious. the capture of a jaguar with no hint Mystic, but involving many more peo- Research on endangered species isas to why it was captured. This omis-ple who retainskillsof yesteryear. not sufficient to save them. There is asion implies that it is permissible toThere would be highly experimental peculiar bias in technical articles andmanipulate members of other speciesenclaves of the future, also. Residents in the rrlass, media alike. A presenta-at our whim, without good cause. Inof both would be reimbursed by gov- tion, be it on whales or eagles or what-an article a few years ago, Richard ernment. Then, should the mainstream not, often concludes with a statementHaney [4] questioned the use of dis-of culture fail, other ways would be implying, tc the unwary, that all willsection and animal experimentation inavailable. How utilitarian, and how be well because research on the or-the classroom. Just what are we really esthetically pleasing as well! ganism is being done. Thus are powersteaching our students about our rela- Love of the natural world.This beyond its capacity seemingly ascribedtionship to nature, Haney asked, when "objective" lies clearly in the affective

140 domain; itis definitely a higher order (Kaila, the God of the Sky. say ing): "Your Joseph of the Nez Pace said some- objective. In fact, it is the highest order work is no good, for the caribou grow sneak thing like this: The earth is my mother. and sick, and if we cat them %se must grow objective.I can express itless pro- weak and sick also." You tell me to remove the stones from saically but no more clearly than that: Kaila heard and he said. "My work is the earth. I would not remove my "love of the natural world." This is good.1 shall tell Amorak. the Spirit of the mother's bones. You tell me to plow Wolf. and he shall tell his children. and they the love, blended in the maturing indi- %sill eat the sick and the weak and the small the earth. I would not cut my mother's vidual with rational intelligence, which caribou, so that the land %%ill be left for the breast.You tell me to sow strange viewseveryencroachment by man fat and the good ones." grasses, and then cut them off.I would And thisis what happened; and thisis not cut off my mother's hair. against nature as an act to be entered %%hy the caribou and the wolf are one; for into with only the greatest reluctance the caribou feeds the %%olf, but it is the %%olf Joseph had deep roots. Western man and only when every conceivable alter- %%ho keeps the caribou strong. 161 has rushed ahead, re-creating new en- native has been fairly and honestly I consider this story with awe andvironments, forgetting old ones, cutting weighed and found wanting.This, itadmiration.Today, game biologistshis roots. To his servant, Science, he seems to me, must be the core spiritcontinually reconfirm the Eskimo's in-has assigned the task of studying what of a people aspiring to live at peacesight and try to get the rest of us to he now calls "nature." with the planet. From a people thor-understand, whether thesubject be And now, as the heavens whirl in- oughly imbued with such love shoulddeer on the Kaibab Plateau or gazelleexorably about the pole star, Joseph flow,withrelativesmoothness,the on the Serengeti Plain. But the Eskimospeaks to us as from distant galaxies: solutions to many specific environmen-already knew and understood. He al-His earth may have died before light tal ills that would otherwise be viewedready understood much when the Vik- reaches us. The hardy, thrifty zero- piecemealandtreatedsuperficially. ings sighted Cape Cod. He alreadyphyte calls to the epiphyte, "Beware, And this brings us to the final one ofunderstood whenman-made wings lest your host tree die of your demands these examples: took to the air at Kitty Hawk. He mayupon it." Appreciation of our predecessors'have still known and understood when Perhaps we are beginning to listen wisdom and love.I said earlier thatNeil Armstrong's boot touched lunar ... enough .. that oneday our pos- interdisciplinary field studies, includingdust,though by thistime we hadterity, who will have long forgotten the both human and natural history, might taught him to forget much. But whenrecords of our individual and national best be expected to accomplish theEskimos related this creation tale to vanities, will remember of us only that kinds of objectives described inthis Farley Mowat, several decades ago,it was we who said to the God of Sci- article.The human history can andthey still understood. Millennia of in-ence, "Your work is not good." And should include the relationship whichtimate contact with a relatively simplethe God of Science replied, "My work the former, preliterate residents hadenvironmenthadisolatedforthe is good. I shall help Man to rediscover with the land, a relationship whose pro- Eskimo a limited set of phenomena asthe earth and live with it." And that is fundity,both cognitively and affec-surely as Mendel isolated the traits ofwhy Man and the earth are one. 0 tively,is currently enjoying a minorhis garden peas, allowing, the Eskimo wave of recognition in our culture. Wenot only to observe, but to reach a References may note that the ancient fireside tales higher order generalization anticipating 1.Baldwin, Evart M. Geology of Oregon. that of Darwin himself! University of Oregon Book Store, Eu- of the Klamath Indians accounted for gene. 1959. theformationoftheCrater Lake In those same millennia, Western 2.Clark, Ella E.Indian Legends of the caldera in precisely the same way thatman bolted headlong into successive Pacific Northwest.University of Cali- environmentswhichhediscovered, fornia Press, Berkeley. 1953. contemporary geologists do. [1, 2] This 3. Dasmann, Raymond. A Dificrent Kind wisdom of the Klamaths can, of course,created, and re-created faster than he of Country.Macmillan, New York. beascribedtosimpleobservation.could comprehend them. His evolution 1968. More profound is a traditional Eskimo upon the earth made of him an epi- 4. Haney, Richard E. "The Development ofScientificAttitudes."The Science creationtale,asrelated by Farleyphyte: He left behind the roots that Teacher 31:33-35; December 1964. Mowat: once had bound him to the earth. "The 5.Mishan, Ezra. The Costs of Economic It is said that Kai la, the God of the Roots of Heaven," Romain Gary called Growth. Staples Press, London.1967. them.GarrettHardincalledthe 6.Mowat, Farley. Nerer Cry Wolf. Little, Sky, created the Eskimo and gave him Brown and Company, Boston. 1963. the caribou for his sustenance.Theprocess "extrasomatic evolution," re- Pp. 124-125. a Poor Eskinio- ferring to the physical extensions of 7.Rappaport, Roy A. "Man is ourselves which we call the auto, the Dominant" In Vital Views of the Envi- hunted only the big, fat caribou, for they ronment.MaryE.Hawkins,Editor. had no wish to kill the weak and the small aircraft,the computer.Hardin was National Science Teachers Association, and the sick, since these were no good to saying that extinction can follow over- Washington, D.C. 1970. eat, nor were their skins much good. And, extension,overspecialization.Don't 8. Tanner, R. Thomas. "Freedom and a after a time, it happened that the sick and cut off your roots completely. That is Varied Environment." The Science the weak came to outnumber the fat and the Teacher 36:32-34; April 1969. strong, and when the Eskimos saw this they what Toiler is proposing, with his en- 9.Toiler, Alvin. Future Shock. Random weredismayedandthey complainedto claves of the past, A century ago, Chief House, New York. 1970.

141 Conservation Education: Problems and Strategies

HAROLD R. HUNGERFORD and CLIFFORD E. KNAPP

Instructor in Science Education and Instructor in Outdoor Education, Respectively College of Education Southern Illinois University, Carbondale

CONSERVATION education is theMan has failed in his obligations to .. .we are face to face with a serious process of helping human beingshimself and future generations in his depletion of "resource capital." More than one countryisalreadybankrupt.Such clarify their personal values concerninghandling of specific resources. Because bankruptcy has wiped out civilization in the their environment andsubsequentlyconservation should be everyone's con-past; there is no reason for thinking we can cern, the schools of the nation have aescape the same fate,unless we change make decisions about its use. our ways. [4] The goal of conservation educationtremendous responsibility. Society's in- ultimately lies in producing an activestitutions (mainly the school, family, These words of Bernard M. Baruch conservation-oriented citizen.Activeand the church) are not meeting thisare much more than platitudes. They describes an individul I who is person-educational challenge fast enough. Ten-represent, in light of today's pressing ally involved in decisions and practices sions do exist between intelligent actionresource and population problems, per- regarding resource us :and manage-in resource problems and expediency,haps the most accurate appraisal of ment; conservation - oriented, one whose selfishprofitmotives, and politicalman's ecological position. values are sympathetic 11 responsiblepressures. Also, man is often motivated In light of the severe conservation resource use and management. by his emotions rather than by reasonproblems facing the world, it is impor- The belief that the learner shouldand logic; and most citizens are ex-tant to give children an opportunity to demonstrate conservation-oriented be-tremely apathetic about the environ-form and clarify values and make de- haviors is supported by an examinationmental decisions which affect their fu-cisions which will have a direct bearing of society's major environmental prob- ture lives and the lives of their children.on their ability to function as rational lems and issues. In our democratic society, individualsadult citizens.It is our belief that this can be done,butit is going to take a ...We seem to have crossed a threshold must realize that they can and should in terms of population and industrial devel- influence conservation decisions. Fur-strategy far different from that which opment and entered a period in which the is currently in operation in most class- fouling of air,water. and landscape has thermore, they must realize that de- reached criticaldimensionscriticalfor cisions must be made using the mostrooms around the country. health, both physical and psychological, as current and accurate knowledge of The assignment of responsibility for well as for decent and pleasant living.[I] ecology and sociology. conservation education.Historically, conservation education has been the responsibility of every elementary teacher Thisarticleis based on a paper pre- Problems: sented at a contributed papers ses- The magnitude of the problem. and the science and/or social studies sion of the 1969 Convention of the teachers at the secondary school level. National Science Teachers Associa Because of thegreat abundance of the tion in Dallas, Texas, on March 22. earth's resources we have taken them for This unwieldy circumstance may be granted. Hu' now, over most of the globe, part of the reason why conservation

142 educationis usually ineffective.Ele- dents have about the resources in ques- in the classroom. Even where role- mentary teachers either ignore the task tion. Decisionsarebasedonthe playing devices are used, the values ob- completely or are unable to define their alternatives available.How can stu- tained and the decisions reached are role in terms of content and methods.dents possibly make decisions withoutoften simply vicarious and artificial. To At the secondary school level, the sci-appropriate knowledge? A tremendous be successful in clarifying values and ence staff is usually unaware of what abundance of literature on resources to aid in decision making, conservation the social studies teachers are doing exists.It must be carefully screened education must somehow enter more and vice versa. Both groups of teach-for accuracy and modern application. fully into the real world of resource use ers are probably not too successful be- The careless choice of available con-and management. Any value held by cause conservation is actually a servation information is another reason any individual must carry with it three scientific - technological venture with why conservation education is ineffec- characteristics. [3]It must be freely gigantic social ramifications, and teach- tive today. chosen from alternatives available after ers are usually not able to deal effec- Many of the important conservationcarefulconsiderationoftheconse- tively with these interrelated concepts. issues today are those that reflect inade- quences of each alternative. It must be The apparent unconcern for educa-quate information.Concepts dealingprized by the person holding it so that tion for values.Conservation definitely with ecology and reseLace management he is willing to publicly defend it; and involves value-oriented decisions about will often change over time. Currently, perhaps most important, a value must how resources are to be used. Do wefor example, we must make tentative be acted uponrepeatedlyover a period set aside a hardwood forest as a pre- decisions about the use of pesticides of time.Little opportunity exists for serve because of its ecological signifi-without complete information abouthuman beings to do this in the tradi- cance, or do we harvest the marketabletheir effect on the biotic community. tional plan for conservation education. timber and manaee it for commercialWe do not know the total effect of city A person forming attitudes in the class- purposes? Or, going one step further, noise levels on mental health. We can room is not committed to them unless do we subdivide the land for real estateonly hypothesize about the effect ofhe has an opportunity to translate them purposes? carbon dioxide from internal combus-into action.The student,therefore, These are the kinds of questions be-tion engines on the climate of themust subject his values through deci- ing answered all over the United Statesfuture. Man just does not have all thesion making to the pressures of peers, today,sometimessatisfactorilyand answers. When survival and continued the community, and society. sometimes with disastrous results. Theseprosperity are in question, and there kinds of issues must be appraised by are still so many unknowns, the task of Strategies: students in the classrooms in order toconservation decision making becomes It appears to the authors that there establish a set of values in accord withdifficult. arefour basicstrategies which are human welfare and a quality environ- Deciding whether to place telephone necessary ingredients in a conservation ment. Little practice in doing this can lines underground in order to improve education program. be observed in schools today. the view is a far from deciding on Determining theteaching respon- Incorrect,incomplete, andover-the question of Lie ultimate need forsibility.A developmental program of .simplified resource concepts. legislating human reproduction.Still, conservation education is mandatory Of utmost importance toall facets of theit may be quite important for students for ultimate success.In certain states world in which we live is for man to know to judge the value of underground wire this strategy has already been legislated that the physical-biological world in which even though legislation may be an in- he lives is governed by scientific laws which installations. At this point in time we arc as strict in their discipline as any ever have no accurate concept of the role ofeffective means of accomplishing the formulated for any purpose anywhere. The visual stimuli on the total welfare of desired end. natural world is an orderly world, provid- Conservation education is often said ing its own checks and balances to keepthe human organism.Tomorrow we the very necessary elements of the environ- may findthis of critical importance. to be the responsibility of all educators, ment under control. Thus done, the whole Similarly, our values regarding legisla- and certainly this may be true in theory. pictureis relativelystable,naturebeing tion,eoncerned with controlling human However, responsibility must be as- able to replenish itself indefinitely.Man's tole in the world of nature is of tremendous reproduction could be a far cry from signed so that a program can be planned importance because man is the one organism those values generated in a population and progress can be measured. The land the only one) capable of doing irrepar- double what it is now, possibly in an-teacher of the self-contained classroom able damage to nature. The human organism. because of his ability to "control" the other four decades.Knowledge and is the key person at the elementary environment, holds the future of the natural values do change and we must learn level.Regardless of how many re- world in his hand. 12.1 to cope with this situation. sources the teacher uses, he must still If conservation is the application of Little opportunity for students tobe ultimately responsible.The sec- knowledge and values to resource-usepracticeconservation. Conservation ondary school classroomisanother problems, then the successful solutions education, where employed, is usuallyproblem.If the task of conservation to these problems rest with the extentquite abstract and detached from theeducation is to remain a function of and accuracy of the knowledge that stu- day-to-day existence of the individuals both science and the social studies, then

143 both must communicate and work to-personal nature. The "pay-off" must gethertowardmutuallyacceptable be as immediate as possible so that the goals.In fact, this may be the beststudent can see the consequences of means of establishing a conservation his decisions.If he wants to increase education program that appropriatelythe bluebird population then he must reflects both the scientific and socialbuild bluebird boxes, install them cor- dimensions of the resource problemsrectly, and analyze the. results.If his facing society. seventh-grade class wants to study cer- Developingcorrect and completetain elements of forestry management. concepts. In order to apply the knowl-then they might plant an acre of pulp edge necessary to solve problems, thetrees,care for them throughout the students must understand a great dealnext six years, study the ecological fac- about the world in which they live.tors invo,cd, and harvest those trees Scientific data must begin to take onwhen they are seniors.If Mr. John- meaning in a rocial context. The stu-son's pond isfull of stunted fish and dent himself must conceptualize thethe students want to do something to problems of air pollution. for example. bring about a more balanced fish pop- to a point where he can predict withulation in that pond, then they should sonic degree of accuracy the eventualsecure permission to poison that pond. effect on himself, his offspring, andrestock it, and conclude with an ecolo- other living organisms.And, thisis gical study of the project.If they are really only the first step .. . a con- legitimatelyconcernedaboutopen servation- oriented action is eventuallysewers dumping raw sewage into the needed. local stream, then they should launch a The goal for conservation educatorscampaign to get the situation corrected. must be to provide the student with a These things are real. They are part set of experiences in and out of theof the lives we lead as citizens. They classroom that will guarantee that hehave a "pay-off" value for students in really does have the concepts he needsschool, and they may solidify values to make effective decisions. which will last a lifetime. The student Providing student practice in decisionmust move from the status of a by- making.Conservation decisionsare stander without personal involvement to made on the basisof convenience,'the level of a participant with total beauty, economics, physical comfort,orinvolvement. He is now a defender of other needs and desires of man. At best, values and a decision maker, and he the conservation educator can only raise must face the results of his decision questions in the student's mind. Themaking. No longer isitjust talk;it student himself must ultimately makedeals with the real world and he is per- conservation decisions based upon hissonally involved. He will be involved own values.The teacher can makefor the rest of his life as an active, con- known his own stand- on specific issues,servation-oriented citizen. This is what but the process of clarifying values inwe must attain despite the educational terms of alternatives ultimately belongsproblems involved! to the student. The important thing is to give the student an opportunity to analyze alternatives in light of known References I.Fisher, Joseph I.. "The Public Concern information and his own value system. for Conservation." The Science Teacher Testing values through action.If a 34:84; April 1967. youngster is to become an active, con- 2.Hungerford, Harold R. Adventures In Seietfre. J. Weston Walch,Portland, servation-oriented citizen he must have Maine. 1962. p. 134. experiences throughout his school life 3.Raths, Louis;Hamlin,Merrill; and Si- which produce concepts and values mon, Sidney B.Values and Teaching: Working With Values in the Classroom. about the world in which he lives so Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., Colum- that he can make decisions regarding bus, Ohio. 1966. p. 259. the use of natural resources. 4.Vogt. William. Road To Survival. (From the introduction by Bernard M, Baruch ) It follows that these decisions must William Sloane Associates,Inc., New be, at least in the beginning, of a very York. 1948. p. ix.

144 A new NSF-funded project focuses on self-awareness and the environment

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Robert E. Samples

Mr. Samples is a director of the Environ- decision making he can experience ac- mental Studies Project of the American complishment.These arethe concepts GeologicalInstitute,located inBoulder, Colorado. upon which the Environmental Studies project is based. The focus of ES en- compasseseverythinginastudent's AN ARTISTis a person who worksenvironment, whether itfalls into the within the constraints of the me- category of physics, !:!ranunar, or art. dium in which he has chosen to expressAnd the methods through which the himself. In addition, the artist becomes students can study are as varied as the a creator when he makes his medium students themselves.Instead of being extend itself beyond the uses found byrewarded for their acquired abilities to Studies others.The Environmental conform, studentsarcrewardedfor (ES) project, recently funded by the their diversity. National Science Foundation,isan The vehicle for bringing about the effort to allow students the opportunitystudents involvement with his environ- to work in the most exciting medium mentisan intentionally ambiguous availablethe environmentandto assignment. For example, armed with become creators by using the environ-Polaroid cameras, students in test cen- ment in ways that most never dream of. ters in New York, Washington, D.C., Working with the environment doesChicago-Gary, Los Angeles, San Fran- not require the student to study itin cisco, and Denver swarmed out of their any particular way; insteadit invitesclassrooms to photograph the motion intellectual and emotional involvement. of the sun, rusting cars, chipped paint, As the student becomes involved, heblooming plants, and despondent peo- must make decisionshis own de-ple: all this in answer to the assignment, cisions. Throughinvolvementand "Go out and photograph evidence for change." The :assignment allowed the creative The job of Environmental Studies isto create instructional tactics and strategies use of the medium, the environment. that will enable students to use their im- The students were given an assignment mediate environment as a resource. Three in which they had to make decisions. environments are considered. The first is They were not told which examples of the inner environment of the child.The second isthe immediate environment in change to photograph.As a result. which he finds himself, and the third is they found dozens of changes instead the global environment.Left, third-grade of just a few. They chose the content students from Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brook- lyn, New York, leave school to investigate they wished to portray and then medi- their neighborhood. ated the portrayal of it.The content

145 they chose was change in the sky, in On the front is a visual metaphor of the along withexisting curriculum pro- bricks, in the plants surrounding the characteristics of the assignment. On grains.Others are basing their entire school, and even in the teachers. The thebackisa sectioncalled. "The year's activities around the exploration '.tudents weir working with reality and Action," which gives the primaryas- tesulting from the assignments. The it is that involvement which keeps ES signment. Sometimes examples of thematerials arc nondiseiplinary and, since alivein answering the needs of the kinds of things which the studentscan they are written for the teacher, they students. In the sciences and arts, men do to fulfill the assignmentare included. can be used at any grade level. focustheirskills on the unknown; Al- In another section called "More,'ex- though their use in grades K thiough 3 similarly, in ES, the students focus their tension or secondary assignments for has been limited, the teachers using talents and skills on the unknown in the teacher to use at his discretionare (heal at these levels have reported their own environment. They confront suc- found.Pedagogical comments to the cess.The program is inexpensive in reality and realize the potential of their teacher are printed at right angles tothat the only special materials so far talents.In this way, the students study required are Polaroid Swinger or Color- in a fashion similartothat of the pack cameras. The cameras and film experts in the field. for a class cost far less than themate- The Polaroid cameras in the assign- rials for many other programs. The ment were utilized specifically to create support equipment and supplies are an environment for success. Most of generallyavailableinschools. The the students with whom the ES mate- -materials were designed toserve exist- rials were developed were in the inner ing teachers Ind existing facilities and cities.Alerted to the findings of hun- need little else toe" successful use. dreds of studies concerning inner-city When the writers gathered in Boul- students which indicated that these chil- der, Colorado, in late summer of 1970 dren lacked a sense of accomplishment, to develop the first 50 cards, they tenta- the developers of ES used the instant tively wrote them within the four cate- photography potential of the Polaroid gories: change, mapping, counting, and camera to provide success or failure in judging. However, near the end of their just ten seconds. Althoughmost of the duties, they criticizedthe four cate- assignments in the materials do not re- gories as being just as artificial and quire the use of photography, all can restrictive as the specific content cate- be enhanced by it. gories in the earlier curriculum project efforts.Thus,thecategorieswere ENVIRONMENTAL Studies has eliminated.An "anti-guide" -labeled thus far produced PacketsI and "ESSENCEES sense" wiis written to 2, each consisting of 25 assignment assisttheteacher in developing an cards.Packets 3 through 6, also con- awareness of the attitude shift that is sisting of 25 cards each,are being necessaryfortheuseofthe developed. ES materials. As students examine their environ- In nearly 20 meetings at which the ment closely,theyfirst develop an materialshave been introduced, the awareness of its components., Next, Ninth-grade students in Aruada, Colorado, teachers have reacted similarly. They repatterning takes place as they com-induce erosion in order to determine the see a challenge.Neither the assign- pare old or latent awarenesses with new most effective ways to prevent it. ment cards nor the teacher's booklet ones. The final step in the intellectual provides a recipe for their use: The involvement of the students with their the rest of the text. These are hints and teachers arc given as much freedomto environment, or the extension phase of warnings that help the teacher keep the make decisions as it is hoped they will their involvement, is the invention of assignment open to ensure that thestu-give to their students.In the face of more abstract ways of explaining what dents are doing the majority of thethe suggestion that they trust students, they see and feel.The first' two ES decision making, The final feature ofthe teachers themselves aretrusted. packets concentrate on heightening the the card is the space left for note taking,The teachers are accepting with excite- student's awareness,the second 50 which invites the teacher w jot down ment the challenge and the trust. The cards are planned to provide_ guidance an abbreviated diary of what took-preliminary results of the materialsare in the repatterning phase, and the final place. heartening. 50 will focus on extension activities. Since they are designed to be used For further information and Newslet- The format of each assignment card by teachers at their own discretion, the ters detailing the progress of ES, please is designed to encourage inventiveness ES materials are nota curriculum.writeto Environmental Studies, 13ox in the teaching-learning environment. Many teachers are using the materials 1559, Boulder, Colorado 80302. 0 ECOLOGY AND and learning, therefore, needs to be set in that environment if the learning is to THE URBAN be relevant to the pupil and to the society in which he lives. STUDENT Ecology in the urban school must be oriented toward the urban student DONALD F. SHEBESTA who will be functioning in an environment that is to some degree artificial and increasingly man-made. The stu- MODERN TECHNOLOGY hasdent must gain an understanding of his enabled man to control and im-environment before he can fully par- prove his environment with some de-ticipate init.The better his under- gree of success. To the degree that hestanding of his environment, the less can alter the environment for his bene- likely he is to destroy itand the more fit, man can escape natural controls.able he is to improve it. By technological structuring of the en- The urban studentisvisually ori- vironment, urban man has become lessented, but he needs to develop his pow- aware of his ecological relationshipsers of observation, manipulation, and and, therefore, less likely to considercontemplation. He needs to be shown the consequences of his environmentalor to explore through concrete exam- manipulation. ples, actual or artificial, how princi- If changes in the ecosystem are madeples operate and from this base move for man's benefit with little concern forinto the realm of abstraction. The ur- the ecosystem, disaster can result. Soban student is familiar with the city, far, we as a species have been able tobut he may or may not be aware of the surviveman-induceddetrimentaleffect of this man-made environment changes in our ecosystembut whaton its inhabitants. Ecology is a valu- are our tolerance limits? Man circlesable central theme for the student's the planet in a matter of hours; he isstudy of man's relationship to the en- dependent upon materials from aroundvironment. the world; he exploits natural resources The curl 'culum should be relevant and wildlife, pollutes waterways andto the society in addition to being rele- air; increases his population in a geo-vant to the student.The society in metric proportion; and allows his citieswhich the student lives also demands a to ooze out in one sprawling megapolissystem of ethics that he must know and after another.His activities, technol-abide by. If value conflictsaseas is ogy, and demands affect his ecosystemoften the case in ecological situations throughout the entire globe.Man'swe must show the student how to re- ecosystem is in this sense the ecosphere.solve such conflicts. Awareness of this scope of ecology For yeas, many of us have assumed is not inborn; it is learned; and it mustthat putting the child in school at an be learned. Such an awareness is neces-early age takes him out of his natural sary so that man can understand whatenvironment and puts him in a con- goes onlin an ecosystem and can bringtrived setting.Only recently has our about beneficial changes without en-understanding of the ecology of human dangering tne system. living and the nature of man's relation- Urban high school students needship to his technology clearly forced opportunities to discover the applica-us to realize that the choice for edu- tion of ecological principles in real lifecation of young children is not between as well as in the abstract. These stu-a contrived and natural environment dents lack an orientation toward ruralbut between a planned and a haphazard situationsto which most ecologicalman-made environment. studies refer. They are familiar almost The student must be given situations entirely with a man-made environment,in which he can participate, but this need not be entirely field or laboratory Mr. Shebesta teaches biology at West Divi-oriented.Nor isit necessary for an sion High School in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.urban ecology course to replace the PALEY PARK, NEW YORK CITY

147 present general biological studies. Ecol-These comparisons lead to a discus-elm. Upon development of the ideas, ogy should become an integral part ofsion and demonstration of the need forthey began to realize that they were the science curriculum at the urbanthe various minerals and why fertilizers not the only ones affected by this prob- school. It should be a relevant subject,are used. We generally conclude this lem.The same problem faced the dealing with topics such as pollution;section by including a soil profile of a whole city.The students investigated birth control; urban development; en-typical area around the school and re- the cost of trees, the availability of ergy and nutritional systems in an ur-questing students to bring samples ofvarious kinds, problems in planning, ban situation; population density, reg-soil from near their homes. The stu- and in satisfying the people in front of ulation, and diversity; control of en-dents test these samples to determinewhose homes new treesmight be vironmental stimuli; and the ecosystemwhat nutritional requirements need re- planted. They gathered most of their concept.Students can participate plenishing in each sample and select aninformation by using nurseries and the through a variety of planned activities, apprOpriate fertilizer. city forestry department as resources. such as discussions, research, and re- The topic of fertilizers is also usedNext, they discussed educating the citi- ports, in addition to laboratory andto develop the idea of the recycling ofzens to care for the new trees so that field work. The type of work shouldnutrients. The sewage in our city un-they might supply the cover and es- reflect each student's individual abili-dergoes primary and secondary treat-thetic qualities once possessed by the ties,the number of students in thement and is processed into a commer-area. group, and the general ability of thecial fertilizer. We cite this process to group as a whole. All work should behelp demonstrate decomposition of or- OTHER CITY SCIENCE AREAS directed to develop responsibility within ganic material and conclude on the that I hope to develop are: wild- the student and to bring the studentbiological and economic value of thislife in an urban situationwhere and into contact with ecological principlesproduct.In this study, most studentswhy does it exist; population and be- and their application to his environ-find out for the first time what happenshavioral studies utilizing human and ment. We must see ourselves and theto their personal waste products. animal populations; wild domesticated student as self-directed, self-actualiz- animals; alley ecology; energy transfer ing, creative, other-sensitive, problem- PROBLEM on monocultures was systems needed to operate a city; air, solving, positive-value-possessing indi-AAtriggered by an actual situation water, and thermal pollution; waste dis- viduals. that developed in the treesof ourposal problems; the planning, creation, The following two examples of thiscity, where the streets were lined pri-and study of recreation areas;ap- approach have been quite successfulmarily with elms.In the past years, proaches to dealing with water run-off with my students in a large city. Dutch elm disease has devastated the problems;andurbandevelopment. elm population in this country. ThisThis list could probably be extended THE NUTRITIONAL SYSTEMSyear the disease took itstoll of the indefinitelyto include examples for concept is approached from themature, arching elms surrounding ourmany aspects and principles of ecology. standpoint of establishing a lawn. Theschool, and the trees had to be re-The local newspaper carries many arti- students are given a choiceasto moved. The students felt ill at ease be-cle.; which point out problems of eco- whether they wish to begin with seedcause of the starkness of the treelesslogical value currently concerning or sod. They are requested to developenvironment. cities. We need much more material a procedure to establish a healthy lawn. Using this situation as a startingthat is relevant to the urban student. I do suggest to them that they consultpoint, we began talking about the es- with a garden center and write to or thetics of the lost trees. This developed Bibliography obtain information from fertilizer andinto a discussion of the reasons for lawn-seed companies. (Such informa-their removal and a study of Dutch 1.Lambert, J. M. Editor.The Teaching of Ecology.A symposium of the British tion will usually be supplied to teach- elm disease. This study showed us that Ecological Society, April, 1966.Black- ers in sufficient quantities for a class ifthe density of the trees aided the spread well Scientific Publication, Oxford, Eng- requested.) This inevitably leads to aof the parasite. We then attempted to land. 1967. 2.MacDonald, James B. "A Proper Cur- discussion of the necessity of fertilizer.present proposals that would prevent riculum for Young Children."Phi Delta The students are then assigned tothis from occurring again. The sug- Kappa,'50: 406-408; March 1969. acquire information concerning various gestions that were most frequent were: 3.Muller, Herman J. "The Role of Biology in General Education."BioScience.13: fertilizers. They are to record the brand (1) use a variety of kinds of trees, (2) 22-30; August 1963. name, quantitative and qualitative con-developdisease-resistanttrees,and 4.Shebesta, Donald F.''What Tests Say tents, trace elements, particle size, rate(3) space the trees farther apart. About The Disadvantaged."Wisconsin Journal of Education101: 13-15; Decem- of availability, and price. This informa- Two tangents naturally developed ber 1968. tion is given on the bag containing thefrom this.First, what kinds of trees 5.Smith, Fredrick E. "Today The Environ- fertilizer. A chart is then made, listingshould be used? The students began ment, Tomorrow The World."BioScience 19: 317-320; April 1969. this information by brand, and theby stating their preferences or guessing, 6.Storer, John H.The Web of Life.Devin- students compare contents and prices. but they generally avoided naming the Adair Co., New York. 1954.

148 WITHIN therolling,unglaciated portion of South Central Wis- consin lie 278 acres of oak-hickory: the Madison School Forest.' The So- ciety of American Foresters' book on Forestry Terminologydefines a forest as a plant as. xiation predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation. Madi- son's Forest easily meets these criteria More Than a Forest and many more.It has, among other things, a director, a naturalist, a unique staff of part-time naturalists, and the often familiar trails, signs, and build- CHARLES a MORTENSEN ings.Yet, itis not only these things, PhD Candidate important as they arc, that separate a Environmental Education school forest from just any forest. The University of Wisconsin uniqueness of a school forest lies.not so Madison much in how we define it, but rather in how we use it and to what ends. Our forest offers special opportunities: Observation and Learning. Perhaps *z.:91-EDIMLAit14* above all else the Madison School For- est offers an opportunity to observe and learn or rather, in the vernacular of today's youth, a chance to see "what the action is." Those who have seen the brightening eyes of young children as they experienced for the first time such things as the plaintive song of the black-capped chickadee,theput-put drumming of ruffed grouse, the unique curved hooks on the seeds of burdock, or the long bole of a tall black cherry will attest to the stimulation provided by observing forest life.But, do children really need to hear the trill of a toad or see pin-sized eggs on a stalk, ;.4 or even think about their part in the whole? The answer is yesand not just for the children, but for all of us. Perhaps we will then see and think about more than meets the casual eye, beautiful as it is. Aldo Leopold stated it clearly and succinctly:

rim .sit quietly and listen and think hard of everything you have seen and tried to un- r - derstand. Then you may heal, ita vast p' !s-

41. ing harmony its score inscribed on a thousand hills,its notes the lives and deaths of plants and animals, its rhythms spanning the seconds and the centhries.3

Officially renamed the Col. Joseph W. Jackson School Forest, Madison, Wisconsin. =Meyer. Arthur13.. and 1. H. Eyre. Editors. Foreirry Terminology.Third Edition.Society of Students building a nature center under the supervision of the industrial arts instructor. American Foresters. Washington, D.C. 1958. P. 34. All buildings, including dormitories, have been constructed with lumber sawn from Ions Leopold. Aldo..4 Sand ( ounry Alumnae. Ox- cut in the managed portion of the school forest. ford University Press. New York. 1949. P. 149.

149 That children of all ages be exposed purposeful and ecologically sound har- not only to small parts of the whole vesting of trees be transferred to the but also to a philosophy which empha- urban scene with the concomitant de- sizes the place of these parts in the sire for housing which provides more total scheme are equally important. than just physical living space? Careful observation must be followed Clearly, if the previous questions and by thought if we are to learn from or the hypotheses they imply are to be attempt an understanding of the forest more than idle dreaming, we must think or any other community in our envi- creatively and design research which ronment. Certainly the foundation upon tests their credibility.Until then, we which to build is through the use of find ourselves in a comfortable, but concepts, and children can be exposed untenable, position of believing that the to them in the forest as well as in the hypotheses may be valid because we classroom.The basic idea of food would like them to be. chains takes on a new and fuller mean- Withoutdoubt, a "landethic," ing when one examines the holes in a "ecological conscience," "environmen- leaf only to look upward and sec the tal awareness," "a sense of husbandry," fat eater or another of the same species or any other words that connote under- firmly in the beak of a downy wood- I standing, reason and responsibility to- pecker. ward our environment denote an atti- Similarly, the idea of interrelation- tude needed not only in those who have ships is basic to observation in the for- the power to make decisions affecting est. The small hooks on the burs of 611111-- the environment, but in our youth as agrimony seem rather ignoble at first. well. Yet upon close examination, one dis- Work. The opportunity for nonpro- covers that these hooks arc remarkably fessionals to work in resource manage- adept at clinging, especially to nappy ment is a valuable asset, yet we often surfaces. Theseseeminglydelicate overlook its significance. Just as there hooks, together with the unconscious #'111111.11.11.41114 is no easy road for acquiring a sense of help of forest mammals, become a very Participants in the work-study academichusbandry towardtheenvironment, credit program at work on the edger. tenacious method of seed dispersal. The neitheristhere one best way. For relative abundance of squirrels and many, the acquisition of a "land ethic," othcr fur bearers in the oak-hickory for-cavities is fun as well as intellectually tragically,may neverdevelop;for est may be a partial answer as to why stimulating. There are countless aspects others, observation and intellectual ac- there aro more numerous plants with of the forest we fail to under3tand. May tivity fail to produce it.For example, sticking seeds in the oak-hickory forest not the intzliectual humility thus gained when in the course of Madison's unique than in its maple counterpart. Herewe be transferable to attitudes toward ourhigh school academic credit program have looked at more than the wrapping. total environment? water-current deflectors are constructed Haven't we started to untie the package? If one learns to care about a portionto help develop a clear bottom and deep The school forest has "action" to ob-of his total environment, thereisa pools in a silt-laden trout stream, a tree serve and more than enough phenomena strong possibility thatthis sense of hus- is seen as something more than beauty to try and comprehend; this resource of bandry may envelop the total. For ex- or habitat. It can, according to a sound the forest we cannot ignore.Shake- ample, few youngsters, or adults for plan, be marked, felled, sawed, and speare statediteloquently when hethat matter, will fail to be awed by the used to build a necessary facility. Work wrote: radiant plumage of the scarlet tanageris requiredand hard work at that. Channian: as it leaves its high, secluded perch for Butso_much the better, for lasting atti- Is this the Man? Is't you, sir, that knows a moment's rest on a sun-splashedtudes are often the result of attaining things? Soothsayer: shrub. Why can't the feeling that here difficult goals. In Nature's infinite book of secrecy, a little is a thing of beauty, with its summer Above all else, a resource manage- I can read. habitat ,preservedfor future genera-ment work program gives students and Antony am! Cleopatra, Act I, Sc. 2 tions, be extended to the desire for a adults alike the opportunity not only to Attitude Formation. If learning is tosimilar type of circumstance within the get involved but also to test their depth become a joy (albeit there is drudgery, city. Why can't we rekindle the desire of commitment in developing or nurtur- too) as tshould be, the sch661 forest for a river whose rocky shores areing a "land ethic." Whether the work can play a vital part.Unlocking the washed by clear water rather than by a means a homemaker becoming a part- mysteries of a fallen tree, of jutting out-frothy film or the unnatural excessestime naturalist, a logger overseeing fell- crops, animal remains, or newly formed of algal bloom? Can the feeling for aing operations, a teacher supervising

150 the marking of a natural area, a garden Club funding and taking part in paro- chial school tows. Or support of an- - 1,01.- fl it *.1 other nature: is immaterial.What is important is the common recognition that experience of this type can be basic to awareness and a sound philosophy of land use. Living Together.Last, but by no means least, the Madison School Forest provides a place for all to live, play, and learn together. Perhaps today, with our often super-fast life, the crowded cities with their inherent tensions, and the widening gap between material affluence and poverty, we need this experience more than ever. A setting which 7, places all in similar living surroundings with a successful experience resting on near total participation is, of itself, useful and rewarding. Further, to let children experience this at an early age is even more beneficial. The author, along with others, re- Students from the University of Wisconsin Summer Laboratory School discuss collections cently witnessedimportant behavior with Mrs. B. Kline. coordinator of naturalists and education for the forest. changes within an assemblage of elementary school students, which may be attributedtolivingtogetherinthe if not all, of the above-mentioned aimswhose practical knowledge and keen school forest environment. For six of be accomplished in other areas as well?insight concerning ecology need guid- the eight weeks included in the class-Yes and no. Ycs, itis possible to ob-ance as he explores scientific observa- room program a group of Indian, Negro,serve and learn; think critically abouttion? A school forest can help all three. and white fifth- and sixth-grade children natural phenomena; develop a sound A forest belonging to any type of representing culturally diverse back-"land ethic"; work; study and live to-school systemelementary, secondary, grounds exhibited more than the usual gether in almost any forest or otheror higherif properly viewed and used anxieties, conflicts, and lack of studentnaturalcommunity.Indeed,manyis more than a forest. Above all, it may rapportperhaps reflecting the socialschool forests have differing communi- enlightenthestudentthrough new disorder and problems facing older gen-ties in conjunction with or within theirknowledge, which may be transferred erations today. However, after a three-boundaries. However, it is not only the into creative thinking, generating a new day living, playing, and learning experi- natural or physical qualities of the for-interest in the world about him. This is ence in the Madison Forest, a notice-est that matter; more importantly, it is aparticularly likely if (and they must be) able change occurred. The program"school" forest.If itis true that ex-political, economic, and,vial consid- jelled, rapport was better, and produc-posure must precede intcrcst, then tellerations are combined with natural his- tive activity was measurably increased.me who will take Johnny, the smalltory and ecological concepts. Further, Obviously, without a carefully designedraggedly dressed lad with bright eyes itprescri.s unlimited opportunities for experiment, a causal relationship canand quick mind and introduce him toteacher and student alike to participate not he inferred. Yet, there is a strongthe hitherto (to him) unknown forest inthat all-important aspect of educa- possibility that the forest camping pro-drama? Johnny is in the fifth grade,tion "learning to learn." Finally, the gram was instrumental,particularlyand it's his first serious encounter withschool forest is a positive force in de- since these children had been living to-any community ()the' than the city andveloping or nurturing a much-needed gether in a dormitory prior to the school its ghetto. Who will help Mary, who"land ethic" among our youth. To do forest experience.Further, a similarhas returned from a camp experiencethis requires participation by all who situation had followed the same experi-brimming with enthusiasm and the need share a concern for our environment, cnce during the 1967 summer program. to explore further her interest in naturalwhoever they are or whatever their science and the environment? Hcr par-calling. Doing this and more may let WHAT about opportunities in otherents pursuc professional and social ca-us live and think, not apart, but one forests, aprairie,or anotherreers which offer little time for helpfulwith our surroundings. To do lcss will biological community? Cannot many, assistance.Or Larry, a country boybe unfortunate.

151 Ecology- A Practical Program in a Suburban School

N. FRANKLIN BURNETT Science Teacher Creston Junior High School Indianapolis, Indiana

AUTUMN visitors to southern In- people, like concerned citizens every-CGY! would try to stop pollution be- diana's Brown County State Park where. are anxious about pollution and fore it started, would inform the public ere startled last year when 35 boys view the phenomenon of modern prog- about the importance of ecology, and and girls, wearing green-and-white arm- ress with iniftions. What sortwould work withother community bands. descended on Jimmy Strahlof _injp_iict_jsi flay environment-jarringgroups on ecological problems. Parent- Lake. Carrying plastic littcr bags, they growth having on the quality of theirteacher organizations, church groups. had conic not to view the fall colora-air and water? No one really seems to and civicofficials areall concerned tion, famous throughout the state, but know. with this vital subject. rather to clean up the summer accumu- As a result of the community con- A topographical map showing stream lation of debris.Within three hourscern, sonic seventy students at War- beds, elevations, railroad rights-of-way, several barrels of trash had been col- ren's Creston Junior High School de- and other natural and man-made fea- lected. and the group was gone. Whocided to learn what they could about tures was displayed in the hallway of were they and from where had theythe real situation. Organizing a move- the school. The map indicates the ef- conic? To answer this question, wement which they call Mission: ECOL- fects of the great ice sheet that in recent must go to a junior high school in theOGY!, they are carrying on a systematic geological history swept down from the central part of the state. study of their environment. north to flatten the central portion of Approaching the city of Indianapolis One of the first steps of any organi-Indiana. In Warren Township only the from the east. one crosses the Marion- zationisto (:-Lrmine its objectives. paths of such flowing streams as Buck Hancock county line and travels pastSince ecology may be broadly definedCreek, Grassy Creek, andPleasant thewell-keptfarms and homes ofas the study of the relationship of all Runtheir meanders marked by lines suburban Warren Township. Warren, living things to their environment,it of trees and scattered patches of woods along with most metropolitan areas, was decided to investigate not only the relieve the monotony of the terrain. has changed in recent years: New in-effects of man upon his surroundings The map was dividedintogrid dustries are .building on sitesinits but also the interactions between the squares, and the home of each student western portion. Agriculture, still pre-environment and the life forms within marked with a colored pin. This made dominates along the eastern boundary, it.On the basis ofitsfindings the it possible to select committees to in- but vieswith housing developments group would then attempt to improve vestigateecologicalproblems within that take up more and more space The tharea. In .addition, Mission: ECOL-a specific location,The firstoverall

152 solved oxygen. and the mineral content.Rack at the laboratory. whet samples v,ere used to inoculate bacterial culture plates for conform bacteria. Mission ECOLOGY! uses the mem- branefiltration method fortesting watertodetectcoliformbacteria. When a sample passes through the filter. microorganisms larger than filter 1 pore size remain behind on the' filter surface. They are then cultured apt!, in the procedure. develop a green metallic sheen which makes it possible to obtain a direct colony count in 24 hours. The coliform group of bacteria, while not pathogenic in themselves, usually originate in the intestinal tracts of warm- blooded animals including man. They serve as a reliable index of contamination since they indicate the possible presence of other enteric organisms. such as those causing cholera, dysentery:, and typhoid fever. The Marion County Indiana Health and Hospital Corporation has agreed to check dupli- cate water samples if any high bacterial counts are noticed. Evidence collected so far indicates that the quality of the standing bodies of Warren Township surface water WILLIAM OATES, INDIANAPOLIS STAR satisfies the standards established by the State of Indiana. The mineral con- The members of Mission: ECOLOGY! try not only to study and improve their local area, but also to inform the public about the importance of ecology and to work tent is high, especially in the gravel pits, with other community groups on local environmental problems. and in some cases the pH shows the water to be somewhat alkaline. Altogether,livedifferentlocations view of their school district was excit- rowed to each position to begin collect- were tested during the last school year, ing to many of the boys and girls, espe- ing data. but the students hope ultimately all cially when they found their own homes The students mad.. their own Secchi bodies of water 90 centimeters or more marked on the map. disk, depth recorder, and water sam-in depth and all major streams in the pler.The Secchi disk, a black-and-township will be continuously moni- MOST young people are fascinated white circular metaldisk 20 centi-tored for pollution factors. They also by a pond, lake, stream, or any meters in diameter, is used to measure plan to run nitrate and phosphate tests type of aquatic environment because, water turbidity, or the depth to which because of the agriculturalactivities like a new frontier, its secrets are not so light penetrates) Collected samples ofcarried out in the area. easilydiscovered.One ,part of thewater were returned to shore where group quickly becameinterestedin otherstudents,usinga commercial ANOTHER group, wishing to deter: preserving the quality of the surface testing kit,2 determined the degree of mine the degree of air pollution. water and began its study by establish- free acidity,the pH factor. the dis-prepared 45 air-sampling kits.Each ing water-quality measurement stations of these kits was a one-pound coffee within the township. Selecting a body can paintedwith arustpreventive For directions for making such a disk. see of water, such as a pond or gravel pit, Secchi Disk: An Instrument for Measuring Water they plotted three points of reference Transparency." by Thomas P.livaits. in the April 1971 issue of The Science Tea( her.(See p. 190.) 'The Millipore Corporation of Bedford. 11:1V.:1. onitssurface by using surrounding vlbe Ilach Chemical Company of Anus. Iowa. C1111111%. will forward reference nutertals. See also landscape features.In teams of two, 111.11111f.Illurc% a number orself-coot:tinednab:r- "Membrane Misrohltration for the Sum.: Lab." by iesling kits for field cork. one or %%11101 V .11% used BernardI. Sohn. in the November 1969 issue of and under adult supervision, they then by these students. The ScienceI earlier.

153 undercoat and a green outer coat to MISSION: ECOLOGY! alsotiles which an explanatory label was at- to maintain contact with others tached.Inside the can, a numbered who are concerned about our environ- V,Iseline-coated slide rested on clean ment. Itscorrespondenceincludes gravel. Each slide was exposed in one brief -thank-you" notes to authors of of th: topographical grid locations for STOP la CUTINC letters to city newspapers and length) 14 days. A few kits were also placed analysis of pending ecology legislation, in downtown Indianapolis so that the this latter being mailed to state senators pollution levels of the two areas could and representatives. Of major concern be compared.Thirty-eight of these last winter was the Indiana Environ- cans were recovered in good condition, mental Act being discussed by the legis- and the particulate sedimentation on no lature. A delegation of students at- 'Oh? the slides was studied.Observations vou tended hearings on this Act at the state indicated that slides exposedinthe eTHIS OR TNISe tA, capital. inner city were infact more heavily /4114;117-ill Another matter in which the stu- contaminated, thok at busy intersec- dents have taken an active interest is tions being especially so. the "Big Walnut- controversy. Big Afterbeing examined underthe Walnut Valley, located 35 miles west microscope, each slide was bioscopi- of Indianapolis, is the site of a pro- cally enlarged and exposed On photo- posed water storage reservoir.Itis graphic print paper so that a permanent also the location of an entire ecological record could be kept. We plan to set life system qualifying as a National out kits in the same locations next year. Nature Landmark. Among the natural The group is especially interested in features which would be affected by hydrocarbon particles.These appear such a reservoir are the largest hem- under the microscope as black flakes lock trees in the state, a stand of Cana- with fairly smooth-textured bumps on diatryew trees which arc quite rare this RODGER BIRCHFIELD. INDIANAPOLIS NEWS the sides and have a crystalline appear- far south, and one of the largest blue ance. The major source of this kind A student sign asks polluters to make a heron rookeries in the nation. Thirty of pollution is the burning of gasoline choice. The sign shows two scenes, one members of the group visited the loca- of a green field with healthy trees and a in automobiles. The particles are dis-blue sky and the other of a barren field, tion, and then each mailed at least one chargedintotheair by incomplete leafless trees, and a polluted atmosphere. letter to one member of the five-man combustion. Included in the more than committee established by Congress to one thousand known hydrocarbon com- restudy the proposedreservoirsite. pounds are several known to be cancer A committee of eight students pre-Such activitiesas these contribute a prod acing. sented a special program to variousgreat deal to the growth of responsible classes during the school's daily activity citizenship. THE students have begun the cleanup period. The program consisted of an And this, of course, is what it is all of several illegal dumping areas in ecology play designed to illustrate the about. Warren Township, by itself, is the township and will keep continuous importance of our natural environment just a dot on the map of the United watch on these. Locations where rail- and the possible effects of the destruc-Slates, a microcosm on the spaceship roads and stream beds are crossed by tion of our natural resources. A sec- Earth.If the environmental conscience public roads are especially vulnerableond group invited interested nonmem- of these boys and girls can be awak- to misuse. Raw garbage and otherbers to ecology film presentations. ened, if others can view such a happen- material constitutes a definite health Any student is encouraged to submit ing, and if the idea catches on. young hazard, anditis estimated thatthe reports of existing ecological problems people like these can turn the flavor' group has been responsible, directly orto Mission: ECOLOGY! The prob-aroundcan move toward a cleaner, indirectly, for the removal of four tons lem is lead and discussed during the better world. of trash from these areas in a three- meeting. and appropriate action is sug- I3ut, nevertheless, if someone, some- month period.Plans are also being gested. The group then decides whether where, does not react, does not fan the made to survey all creek beds; sections or not to accept itfor action.Prob- spark into a flame, then, as the chapter of Buck Creek have already been lems submitted to date have included of Genesis rewritten by the students at cleaned,In addition to picking up lit- traffic guardrailsin need of repairthe University of .Wisconsin tells us, ter,the students hope to obtain theand painting, polluted streams, illegal "on the seventh day man will rest from consent of property owners to remove dumping areas, streets with large chuck- his labors and the cal th be still.For fallen trees and other debris blockingholes, ponds with chemical imbalance, man will no longer dwell upon the stream flow. and sewage backups. earth. And this is good!" 0

154 Interdisciplinary Involvement in Environmental Field Trips

3.4

RON OSBORN and ROGER SPOFFORD Science Department Chairman and Science Teacher, respectively Jaesville-DeWitt Middle School Janesville, New York

ENVIRONMENTAL studies in-in a natural setting, and, we hope, toG Measuring depth of pond along creasingly have as their objectiveawaken a sincere interest in the outdoor several different transacts the creation of a concern for all en-world. Though the full-day field tripsH Estimatingheightsofvarious vironments. This leads to a commit-are aimed primarily toward science, plants and trees surrounding the ment topreserve optimum environ-certain activities are arranged to include pond mentsandimprovelessdesirablemathematics, reading,socialstudies, IEstimating populations of various environments. Further, environmentaland English. pond plants and animals studies develop situations and condi- Below are field-trip instructions for tions where learning can flourish.By Science Activities several of the study activities under- utilizing a nature center or other out- The science activities include col- taken by the youngsters in the Howland door study area wherein an intenselection of some specimens that can beIsland area of the Fellows Hill Center: learning experience can be enjoyed bytaken back to the classroom for study GROUP A: Collection of microscopic the students, opportunities for relation- organisms and on-site study of larger plants and Materials: ship to other parts of the curriculumanimals that cannot be removed from Coffee cans and covers (labeled as follows): can be developed. For this purpose wethe observation area. The students are "Surface-water Zone" use the Fellows Hill Center. "Deep-water Zone" divided into nine groups with the fol- Plankton net Fellows Hill is a New York Statelowing assignments: Test and plugs reforestation area near Fabius.It hasA Study of microscopic organisms Twine At the pond, fill the cans about one-third been set aside and managed by the New B Study of bottom-dwelling orga- full of pond water. Using the plankton net, York State Conservation Department, nisms collect samples of pond water, first at the in part, as a "wildlife refuge," for gameC Study of larger plants surface, then in the deeper water. To use the plankton net, attach a test tube to the birds, deer, and other animals. Seventh-D Study of larger animals net by pushing it through the hole in the grade classes of the Jamesville-DeWittE Collection of pond-water temper- bottom (from the inside). Cast the net into Middle School use the area as an out- ature data at various depths the water and pull back and forth.If the net is pulled rapidly, it will stay near the top door laboratory to study the ecology of F Mapping the surface area and of the water. Then untie the test tube from a pond environment, to observe animals features of the pond the net and empty into the can labeled "Sur- ...,,.

155

la face-water Zone."Collectthree or four This should include all animals that seem The!raselwas mainly byhorse and samples from near the surface. Then collect to be .1 part of the pond Lommumt>, whether wagon, and the entire trip took three long samples from the deep-water lone b> allow- the) Ike in the pond or not. weeks. Upon reaching their destination each ing the net to sink to the bottom first. then Use the dip net to collect sonic of themember of the Blake family had avet-) pulling along slowly and esen1). Place three larger animalsfor example, fish. era) fish, different outlook or "mower regarding their or four samples from the deep-water 7011C in larger insect larsae. turtles. etc.First catch new home site. the can labeled "Deep-water Zone." Lease the animals in the shore /one near the edge Write a composition choosing one of the the cans in the shade until you are ready to of the pond.Insect larvae may be placed four possibilities. Ieavc. together in the same jar, with sonic sticks 1. You are Sarah Blake. the mother of the and leaves for shelter. Only a few fish should family.How would you see Fellows GROUP 13; Collectionofbottom-dwelling he placed in one jar. 1k careful in handling HIV What space patterns would you organisms animals: some may inflict painful bites. On miss and w hat space patterns would >on Nlaterials: return to the school, place the animals in a hope to create? Three coffee cans (labeled as follows):. cool place, not in the open sun. 2.You are Noah Blake, the father. How "Emergent-plant Zone" Choose one animal you find in or around would your "(unwell" affect your opinion "Submerged-plant Zone" the pond to observe and w rite a short essay of trees. What steps would you take to "Open-water Zone" describing,in 'detail.the behasior of the make this an acceptable homestead for Three gallon jars (labeled as above) animal for the period of time you observed your family? Sieves (with wooden frame) it.It would he easiest to choose sonic water 3. You are Eli/a Blake. an eleven-year-old Unlabeled coffee can (for scooping up mud) insect you find. Draw or sketch one of the daughter.You did not wish to lease inc plants or animals you have seen on the At the pond. fill each of the jars and cans Sturbridge. Massachusetts. You had Howland Island Game Preserve.If you (lo many possessions you wished to bring about one-thirdfull of clear pond water. not have time. this can be done back in class. sou and could not. Your mother told Withthe cans, scoop 'up mud from the Nlake a map of one of the two pondsshow you thaton could hale one-eighth of bottom from among the emergent plants (the outline of shoreline of pond, putinthe the trunk. (Remember the trunk at Erie ones coming up out of the pond above water location of theinletand outlet streams, Canal Museum.) What did you bring level, near the shore). Dump this mud into locate on the map shallow areas of pond the sieve; then shake the sieve in the water with you and why? and the probable location of lees :st point. 4. You are Johnny Blake.You are the (at water level)until the mud is washed Mark your positions (locations), during both out Remove dead sticks and leaves by hand. thirteen-year-oldson. You were very the morning and the afternoon session, on anxious to leave Sturbridge, Massachu- l'ick out whatever organisms you find and put the map found in this field guide. these into the larger jar labeled "Emergent- setts,since youfeltithad been too plant Zone," Repeat this procedure for the crowded in the last few years. You were other two 'ones (progressively farther away Mathematics afraid thatthere would be no "open from shore), placing the animals you find in land" for you to start your own home- the correctly labeled jar. Finally, scoop up a The youngsters gather data for later stead. How would you see Fellows Hill sample of mud from each zone and empty use in class of the estimated numbers and w hy? What area would you hope to into the labeled coffee cans. make as your own homesteadinthe of certain plants and animals. They next few >cars? Do you think you would Gutiet, C: Collection of plants also measure the pond depths at vari- prefer to "stay on" with Pa? Why? Materials: ous points as shown in the diagram Three large plastic bags (labeled as follows with 3- x 5-inch cards dropped into and map the bottom of the pond. Reading each): One reading exercise is based on a "Emergent Plants" English "Submerged Plants" magazine article on migrating birds, "Floating Plants" TheEnglishassignmentincludeswith questions covering both compre- "Twist -ems" (wire tics for bags) making notes for use later in composing Hand trowels hension and vocabulary. Another in- Plant-grappling hooks a short poem of the Japanese haiku cludeF a set of "Did You Know" queries Twine type. These poems are usually aboutabout some of the unusual character- In each of the three plant zones, collect a the world of nature and include the sample of each kind of plant found. The istics or name origins of plants and ani- "emergent plants" will be found closest to word for one of the seasons. Each haikumals found near a pond in temperate shore, the "submerged plants" out beyond has three lines with five syllables in thzzones.Following are a few of the the shore zone below water level, and the first, seven in the second, and five in the queries.Students 'Themselves might "floating plants" out in the open water. The plant-grapplers can he used to collect the third. make up such a list for any environ- plants in the last two zones. Whenever pos- Another assignment for the English ment to be studied. sible,try to get the whole plant.If theclassis an imaginative composition, plant is too large. :ake the leaves and flowers that the liverwort, a water plant, is simply only.Put the plants of each zone into the telling how one of the living things a liver-shaped plant? "Wort" was the old correctly labeled bag. around the pond might perceive the English word forroot orplant, andin ancient times people believed the liverwort GROUP D: Study or collection of certain world in which he lives. would cure diseases of the liver. animals that the plumatella is also known as a _Materials: Social Studies "moss animal"? Can you guess why? Four large pails (iabelcd as follows): that the life story of most water insects "Emergent-plant Zone" In the social studies assignment, the and the change which transforms them into "Submerged-plant Zone" students are asked to imagine them- winged creaturesis called metamorphosis, Ten small jars (labeled as follows): selves as a member of a pioneer family, an ancient Greek word that means "change "Emergent-and-floating-plant Zone" of form"? "Submerged-plant Zone" as follows that birdsin open nests generallylay Dip nets The Blake family has just moved from Stur- spotted eggs while dwellers in tree trunks Two members of the group should record bridge. Massachusetts, to Fellows Hill, New burrows, or buildings tend to produce whit( on paper the animals seen but not collected. York. The >ear is 1803. ones? Why? 0

156 Unearthing an Indian Culture A. Total Involvement Program

DUANE GETTINGS Coordinator of Science Activities Raymer Junior High School Toledo, Ohio

FOR many years the study of Amer- icanIndiancultureshasbeen traditionally pocketed in the social sciences curriculum. There is little question that this placement is proper and justified, but this study should not be exclusive to social studies. Indian culture can also be afertilefieldfor science education. During the last two years, the more than two hundred science students at Raymer Junior High School in Toledo have been doing field work en an extinct Indian culture.In the heart of

Toledo's industrial cast side, bordering ,,,z1Vhalaa, the heavily traveled Detroit- Toledo expressway, young science students are cautiously unearthing the remains of a once-active Indian settlement. On this scrub - covered piece of land, slated to become an expressway exit ramp, the ;?".... . science of the classroom is receiving the .7714-4 test of the field. Several hundred junior high school students are now conducting an archaeological The investigation is part of a new investigation of an Indian dwelling first mentioned by the French explorer, Peter Navarre. "Total Involvement Program" (TIP) The site, located along the Maumee River in Ohio, was leased from the City of Toledo. instituted at Raymer to stem a growing In the future it will become an artery of the Detroit-Toledo Expressway. tide of disinterest by urban students in theconventionaltextbook - oriented engages all school departments.Stu-niqucs, and field mapping are the re- courses.Scholastic apathy was ap- dentsreceiveinstructioninpotterysponsibility of the mathematics dcpart- parent and growing, with burgeoningmaking in their art course and then mcnt Tripods,sifting screens, and lethargy and downright resentment. Tomanufacture their own vessels, employ- stakes were manufactured in industrial alleviate present and anticipated prob-ing the ancient coil method. Language arts classes. This department has the lems, TIP was scheduled during after-arts teachers present techniques of care-added duty of keeping shovels sharp- noon classes, two days each week. ful record keeping, which are then em- ened. The social studies department TIP is a program of curriculum inte-ployed in the compilation of vital field thoroughly covers the culture of the gration and outdoor experiences;it log reports.Surveying, outlay tcch-early Indians.

157 An archaeological investigation was unanimously favored by the teaching staff. They assumed initially, however, that sites were available only in Amer- ica'sSouthwest. Thisassumption proved to be erroneous. A member of the teaching staff at Raymer, Kenneth 410t I Brown, also happened to be a local his- 4"'f tory buff.While reading the diary of

Peter Navarre, an early explorer and e. .s. -c trapperinnorthwestern Ohio, Mr. 11,0 Brown first found mention of the location of the site. A few elderly residents in the arca recalled their parents' com- 745 ments on the existence of an Indian -y settlement at this location.Beforeany investigationcouldproceed, owner-a ship of the property had to be determined. The tract proved to be city property, and the site was leased to the school for a five-year period. The next step was a concerted effort on the part of all teachers at Raymer todevelopacurriculumcentered around an archaeological investigation. In this effort, the science and social sciences departments joined forces to produce a 30-page booklet on the tech- Students work on a sumac covered knoll, which has remained unmolested since the niques of scientific archaeological in-Indians left. At each of ten pits, teams of eight students scrape the soil from the floor of the pit, one inch at a time.Other job assignments include testing soils, identifying vestigation. Students were then given and preserving plant specimens, and photographing and cataloging their discoveries. an intensive three-week course, employing the booklet as their text. Writ- ten on the junior high level, the guidesituation before being permitted to en- consists of eight field crews; each crew, outlines the duties and procedures forgage in field work. A simple statement in turn, is made up of eight student various project assignments. After sev- of project choice does not "lock" a members. eral general orientation periods, stu-student into that assignment.Many Of paramount concern to the science dents make their choices of work as-have dual duties. Some students have department arc: chemical analysis of signments from the following: specified a desire to catalog humansoil samples and pH testing, the study bones, but, as yet, human bone has not of seed and other plant materials found A Study of Rocks as Indications of Human Habitation been unearthed. These students havein the subsoil, identification and cata- Chemical Analysis of Soil Samples and pH been assigned to their second choices. loguing of both animal and human Testing No student is without a responsibility, bone, and photography of the archae- Study of Seeds and Other Plant Materials ological investigation. Found in Subsoil and many of the less academically-N Weed and Plant Samples and Identification mindedhave become conscientious Deep community commitment is ex- Site Mapping (Local Maps) equipment men, survey and test-pitemplified in the photography project. Art Work crew members, and field sorters. The Photographic Club of the East Survey Crews Excavation Crews (Full Timc) Many of the facilities and servicesToledo Boy's Club, a neighborhood Test Pit Crews available within the community havegroup, equips project photographers Field Sorters been employed, and interest on a com- with 35 mm cameras and trains stu- Identification and Cataloguing of Animal Remains munity-wide scale is much in evidence.dents in darkroom procedure, com- Identification and Cataloguing of Human Equipment is stored in a nearby hot-position, and the mechanics of pho- Bones house complex, shovels were purchasedtography. It then permits the students Log Recorders Photography of an Archaeological Investi- below wholesale prices from a localthe use of club facilities to develop, gation garden center, and each crew of young- print, and carry on their photographic Equipment Men stersissupervised by an interested assignments. Each student is given specific in-adult, leaving teachers free to move Students in this project have pro- I structions and is tested in a laboratorybetween the various pits. Each groupduced work of such high quality that

158 several project photographs wereen- teredin a national contest sponsored by the Boy's Clubs of America and one was selected a winner!

NOT all assignments can be completed in the field. Sonic require laboratory facilities and can be concluded only after exhaustive work in the classroom. When weather conditions preclude field work, students remain in school and are found diligently testing their soil samples, cleaning the potsherds and animal bones, number- ing and cataloguing specimens, and reconstructing flint fragments into aged, but formidable, weapons. In the field, each potsherd, flint chip, bone fragment, or fire-cracked rock is entered on a field log sheet. Specimens are placed in numbered containers and Each team includes a log recorder who draws each discovery in on his pit map. carefully stored for future cleaning, identification, and reconstruction where possible. At the end of the day, the field log sheets for each pit are entered in the mastercatalog,whichcontainsa detailedphotographic,written,and sketched record for each inch lowering of the pit floor. Thus a complete record of progress of the project is maintained and available at any time. Financing the projectan ever-present problemwas solved by a con- Each flint tool or weapon is certed school campaign. Contributions photographed. Included are a measuring stick and an were received from the school news- arrow pointing north. paper and from the science club. Stu- dents in the industrial arts department mass-producedletterholders, which were sold throughout the community. The silting crew s'iakes each inch of soil removed from the pits through fine screens. The shovels were purchased with funds made available by the Toledo Board of Education. It has been estimated that, to date, the entire project has been financed at a cost of just under $100. Fromitsinception,the Raymer SchoolArchaeologicalInvestigation was intended, primarily, to provide a meaningful and unifying activity for all students,regardless of theirability. This investigation is intended to continue for the next four years, and if the first year's response was any indication of its success, the total involvement approach in science education on the juniorhighlevelhasbeenfirmly established. 159 Science, Nature- and the Survival of Man 6

IRVIN T. EDGAR Science Education Adviser Bureau of General and Academic Education Pennsylvania Department of Education Harrisburg, Pemzsylania

SCIENCE educators, as well as educators generally, appear to search for new ideas or "fads- after which to model programs of instructionor so it would seem to the casual onlooker examining science programs. In reality this practice of identifying existing issues and altering instruction to address those issues is not simply faddish behavior.In most cases itis an honest attempt to remain viable in a changing world of student and citizen needs.There is, in fact, little blame to he associated with the process of maintaining a current focus in science education.The real trazedy isthat usually we are guilty of identifying issues, altering our instruction, and creating materials for a restricted segment of our student populationthe science major and college bound.With few notable exceptions, the lower ability and nonsciencc major student groups have been viewed as problem areas of the science curriculum, insensitive to change. Such groups have been staffed with the inexperienced or ineffective teacher who owes his d-ssienment to noneducational considerations, such as approaching retirement, ability to discipline students, an opening in the teaching schedule, and so on.And yet teacher assignnrnt is not the sum of the problem; another is the curriculum provided for these students. Statistics indicate that working scientists comprise a small proportion of

160 society. Members of this specific group their conclusions on currently avail- GENERALLY, the issues students and students preparing for this career able evidence. (Dialogue with the identified fell into two categories do have definite needs which are often teacher was recognized as impera-population and pollution.One of vastly different from the needs of the tive here.) the most dramatic' activities regarding nonscience major student.Neverthe- 5.Students need to view science Stithpollution involved a student collection less, the familiar practices of simplifying greater objectivity and without theof discarded materials in onc commu- science curricula and lowering the sci- biases and unfavorable attitudes to-nit). When the litter from a few blocks ence dosage still persist and are thought ward science charactet istic of much is placed in a pile, the results are im- sufficient for nonscience majors. of the past science study. [3] pressive, and the message concerning We seem to expect that these stu- Theseconsiderations,outlinedin an individual's contributiontolitter &tits will be able to assimilate the1968, resulted in the present SNSMcontrol in his own community isin- specific scientific information we pro-program.It appears to be satisfying aescapable. vide to them and reorganize it into anmajority of its goals for student be- One student constructed a question- integrated whole which they can use in ha% Rind and attitudinal changes. naire for use in a neighboring commu- rewling to the larger questions faced Initially, the committee did not in-nity where the polluting effects of a by citizens.Naturally, this does nottend to produce an environmental cur-localindustry were all too evident. occur.Insteadthesestudents formriculum.In fact, the SNSM commit-When questioned,thecommunity's societies with other adults from simi-tee's efforts predated this general con-residents indicated their awareness of lar student groups and share both theircern. The emphasis on student studythe problem and their recognition of lack of information and dislike of sci-of immediate social issues eventuallythe deleterious effects of this pollution ence.In general, student instructiondirected the development of the pro-on their community, but not a single for nonscience majors is often charac-gram; and because student study ofcitizen considered that he might be able terized as lacking appropria'ness andscience-related problems in their ownto do something to correct the problem. as being concerned with ideas docommunity was encouraged, the respec- In another instance the effects of pesticides on seed germination were not relate to subsequent adult needs,tive school programs in SNSM assumed prepared without benefit of a rationalea varied appearance. Since student at-investigated, and the student concluded that seed exposure to pesticidesre- concerning student abilities and wants,titudes toward major issues represented tarded germination. and administered without benefitofa focal point, an SNSM Scale was de- enthusiasm.Clearly, change inthisveloped and used with both teachers Population studyisnot a unique area of the science curriculum requires activity in science. However, the need and students.It emphasized student to learn how a population is defined a broad frontal attack on the problems.attitudes toward family size, costs Of and its members determined by tech- pollution, discarding of wastes, noise UR program, "Science, Nature and niques of classifying is generally pre- control, radioactive substances, product 0the Survival of Man," [SNSM] sented in an abstract way.In SNSM, was created by a committee of indi-design, citizen responsibility, and otherthe students learned about populations vidual; to address the needs of non- problems. and classifying by examining cars in science majors through the design of To mobilize the efforts of school per-the school parking lot. The variations sonnel to develop and test the SNSM anappropriate curriculumandthe and characteristics the students recog- establishment of a mechanism to over-program, an experimental program wasnized in the cars were surprising. The come the constraints described.The mounted. This provided the necessaryeffect of time on studies of this sort currriculum grew out of the followingofficial sanction and created the condi-was olxviousr_and students recognized considerations: tions where a concept and materialsthattheirtaults would have been could be tested rather than the skills of 1.The study of science shouldre- vastlydifferentonaSaturdayor volve around the immediate issues participating teachers. The results werenonschool day.Naturally, population and problems of society. sufficiently encouraging, and the secondstudies and thelimitingfactorsof Students should he helped to rec-year or pilot program is now in effect.population need to he generalized to ognize their future roles as citizens The experimental program, begunhumans.The experimental program who willinfluencescienceand ineight schools with approximatelydid not succeed entirely in drawing this society. 400 students, started slowly with mostrelationship, and student responses in- 3.Students should be active inthe individualsunsure oftheirteachingdicated a need for further emphasis on study of science, and the startingresponsibilities.Eventually,students this point in the present pilot program. pointforstudentstudyshouldbegan to respond to the instruction, and Air pollution study stimulated one be identification of science-relatedcommunication between students andstudent to construct an electrostatic problems that are part of the stu-teachers started.The activities con-precipitator for the removal of particu- dent's environment or community.ceived by the students turned out to belate matter from smoke. In addition, 4.Students should learn to be flexi-more far-reaching than those suggestedEarth Day posters showed considerable ble hi their thinking and to baseby the committee. preoccupation with the visible inzredi

161 r ;

ents of air pollution. The invisible and gaseous components of air pollution arc receiving greater attention in the pilot program. One unit of study provided a source of controversy,and questions were legitimately raised about experimental study of "hard" drugs in the secondary ,, --!..xl) YARDS school.Nevertheless, a unit on drugs ALONG ''''' enabled many students to inv.stigate This ; il______mtesroGAcm< the effects of smoke inhalation and --. Iwo( kREAD_ .7-4 sNE, MILE alcohol consumption on mice.The r Of IIIE1:1 visible effects were considered sufficient l':- tkIC VillEC10 M to establish cause and effect. fitMERICKSWI The controversialnatureof drug study grew out of the students' producing a variety of "hard" drugs which zt-t:;32's* Wv00,1-73.3711,4.-40 they wanted tostudy.Without the Nonscience major students show strong interest in issues related to population and pollu- necessary legal sanction and careful pro- tion. One project involved collecting discarded objects in a community. cedures to obtain such drugs through acceptable sources, such study is haz-face society,. though not all or even aby Edward Ames as he explains the ardous and ill-advised at best.Never- majority of such problems. There isneed for educators to understand and s, one lesson was painfully clearwork to be done in this area, but therechange the basic aspects of the school to the SNSM experimental teachersis also need to convince students th.,tenvironment for environmental educa- drugs arc commonly available to manyindividuals can alter society through tion: high school students even in the mostcollective _action and in this way cope Furthermore, educationwillhavetobe attractive and wealthy communities; with many existing problems. organized around the goal of teaching chil- and drugs can be a center of focus for dren how to be effective agents for change As a result of research conductedso that they in turn may participate in the students. during the experimental phase [41, the socialprocesses which shapetheircoin- Additional activitiesin SNSM in-following points were identified as re- Munities and their lives . A high priority cluded devising innovative transporta-quiring mote attention in the pilot pro- would be placed on the processes of inquiry and problem solving but the focus would be tion systems, including projected costs; gram: outward into the community and on actual making population studies of forests 1 Radioactive substances can and arc problems affectingthelivesof thestu- and other natural areas; visiting com- being used for peaceful purposes. dents. [II munity agencies faced with many of the Radioactivity is not always an in- The SNSM program offers this kind problems under discussion; examining strument of harm. of an opportunity for the major, yet radibactive '--mait.rials;andstudying A certain amount of pollution is angenerallyneglected, segment of the lifees requiremenwin space travel, with inevitable outgrowth of a techno-secondary student population. Instruc- constant comparison to the earth and logical society, so that the questiontional change to this type of an ap- its finite resources.These and many islargely one of the amount ofproach is not easy.Nevertheless the other activities have been compiled and pollution man will be willing toalternatives to this change are less and placed in a printed SNSM Guide tolerate. less acceptable for the education of 3.An individual can take part in andnonscience major students. WHAT did the experimental pro- influence the outcome of problems gram reveal? Nonscience majors relat^d to pollution. Refermices can learn to discuss current issues in- SNSM certainly cannot claim unique- I.Ames, Edward A. "Schools and the En- telligently with teachers and can evenness because of the involvement c f stu- vironment." ReprintedbytheFord provide guidance to the teacher aboutdents.Interesting parallels for student Foundation from a paper prepared for the issues. While there were weak spots The American Nature StudySociety, consideration of community problems December 27, 1969. in the overall program, there was con-existintheProjectCurriculaof 2.Collings, Ellsworth.An Expel iment with siderable student change in the direc-1924.121Itishard to dispute the a Project Canienhan.The Macmilidn tion of the teacher's opinion regardingpoint that students relate toreal prob- Company, Ncw York.1924. 3.Edgar, Irvin T.Silence, Nauru' and The issues and ideasso long as the teacherlems best when they arc allowed to sec Survival of Man (Goidc).The Pennsyl- demonstrated a commitment to the idea theproblemsfirsthandratherthan vania Department of Education, Harris- and a respect for students' opinions. Inthrough oral or printed descriptions of burg, Pennsylvania, 1970. addition, it was revealed that studentssuch problems. 4.Edgar, Irvin T.The SNSM Scale, Form Thc SNSMprogram 11.The Pennsylvania Department of Edu- recognize some of the problems thatsubscribes to the philosophy expressed cation, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 1970.

162

a. RI,'' 'III d« f,1I1(1 (1(11;1, .,t )1 eal: I OW

I PI 'f4 etc a p ,. 111«114 11(,1 th I: (),W4)/ Strp'1, if it 11,quit, frpt II!the'ateI /61111 ,rolo?! 11,e .(1are U'11111 e1e o 1:(P

1 '1,1111,4 (If meill'\ 11:a 1111e,. Pt It/I( IfNetel la,Ie 1'1,;11 efrdie oirtI 1,1:11 1 1 e W;1ittt, ;I (le )41111 04111 1,101. and rent n1, n ith e WI; I7. 1;( ( FromChilde Ilarold's Pilgrimage,Canto IV By George Gordon. Lord Byron pRESSING issues of water pollution and theincreasing use of EDUCATIONAL STRATEGIES marine resources as actual and potential solutions to man's terrestrial prob- FOR AN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHIC lems indicatethat :7 the study of the marine habitats warrants a permanent Ronald B. Linsky place in tlie curricular offerings throughout our nation's educational enterprise. Thisisespeciallytrueinmaritime states and, more precisely, in maritime counties. '-,-.11111ML _1111 Today we live in an age of "explo- sions"atomic, population, and knowledge.The environmental, ecological explosion has now been added. Unfor- tunately, the hue and cry has now uncriticallyplacedtheenvironment alongside motherhood, apple pie, and the American flag. Americans today are the greatest scapegoat artists in the world, You and I never do anything wrong,It'sthe guy next door or down the street who's the polluter. Until man can accept the basic, gut-level responsibility that pollution starts with himself, we will never . develop an environmental ethic, which is basic to solving the many problems we are faced with today.The non- thinking numan is doubtless the world's most prolificpolluter:As he walks downthestreet,he harangues the belching, atmosphere-polluting automo- bilebut he never winces about the candy wrapper he's just let drop from his hand (turned incidentally with palm backward to make him feel less conspicuous to his peers) or the fact that any given summer Sunday he, along with 50 million American swimmers,

* Mentor Book of Major British Poets, New American Library, New York.

The author is coordinator, Marine Sciences, .0111101r...- and director, The Floating Laboratory Pro- 4%1.'11, 7 elk gram, Orange County Department of Edu- cation, Santa Ana, California.

163 urinates freely into the ocean. Yet, hetime borders with the wildflowers beingarticulatednotionthatscienceisa complains about not having adequatetransformed to the anemones withinthreattoindividualwelfare.Most sewage treatment plants. He continu-our greatly endangered intertidal areas.possess strikim; amounts of scientific allycomplainsregardingincreased Programs seeking to foster positivefacts, but are not able to venture be- taxes, but thinks nothing about litteringattitudes should begin in kindergartenyond the informational doors of their his local beaches with cans and otherandcontinuethroughthegraduatescience textbooks, periodicals, 'adios. rubble, causing an estimated 14 million level.Currently there are negligibletelevision, and typical classroom in- dollars a month expenditure through-efforts in developing programs that in-struction to an understanding of the out the maritime states during the sum-culcate the concept of an environmentalfundamental concepts which he behind mer months to clean up after him and ethic, all science information, others like him. HoratioAlgerisms stillpersist: Some of the present and uneasy con- An environmental ethic car not be"Some day someone will find the per- cei ns about science may come from the classifiedas good or bad, black orfect solution to all our pollution." Wedeep-seated feelings of youth that they white, nor should it be confused withcan't afford the luxury of the "ostrichhave little control over the events of our culturally disjointed moral issues. syndrome." We know the problems arctheir own personal lives. Modern sci- Our very survival depends on the in-there. The mass media belabor them;ence technology does indeed permit the culcation of an attitudinal ethic thatour eyes, noses, and ears constantlydestruction of huge cities within min- will provide a positive pivot point for remindus of them.It's unfortunate utes. Impersonal paper-and-pencil tests survival. that the Twainian observation remainsadministered by strangers and scored With today's rhetorical hub-bub andtrue: "Everyone talks of the problemby giantmachinesoftendetermine thesquawking"eco-hot-jaw"poig-but no one does anything about it." whether or not one is admitted to a nantly pounding on young people about college or finds suitable employment. the impending demise of our worldly FOR several years, Donald A. Mac-Science technology has provided many environments, there seems scarcely any Lean of the San Diego Depart-things which have made man's life evidence of what man can, in his in-ment of Education and I have exam-longer and more enjoyable than in ages finiteabilityto compromise and toined many ofthecurriculabeingpast.Unfortunately, short-term gains solve problems, do to alleviate manyemployed nationally in the marine sci-have too often been made by tech- basic situations. The word "compro-ences. We have found that nearly allnology atthe expense of long-term mise" should be emphasized here sinceof the materials that are currently beinglosses for mankind. Students need not in the continual battles between thewritten are highly structured and pat-be very sensitive to be aware that many developers, conservationists, and pres-terned somewhat after what classicallyof our nation's technological activities ervationists, there seems littleif anycould be expected of. the Scripps Insti-have destroyed lakes, rivers, air, and desire to invoke this solution pattern. tutionof Oceanography or Woodsrecreational space. Man must also recognize that priorHole. In many instances this type of The days of youth pass quickly into to offering solutions he must fi askcurriculum does not offer enough rele-young adulthood and all adults should basic questions: What is pollution?... vancy fcr theaverage student andbe guided to ask themselves daily what What are the parameters of the envi-eventually is offered to only the moreinfluences their many activities have ronment in question?... Are thereable college-bound student or as anupon other men and upon our planet's identifiablecause-and-effectrelation-after-school science activity. environments. ships? . . What were the environ- We believe that certain curricular We suggestthatmarinescience mental characteristics prior to our con- changes are necessary for marine sci-courses exploring the human animal in temporary problems? ence instruction for two reasons:, One,respect to (a) physiological structure, Man must also recognize that pollu-instruction in the marine sciences sim-(b) fundamental conditions necessary tion starts with man, and not with anply will not receive financial supportfor life on earth (food, water, tempera- oilcompany,hisstatecapitol,orin the school districts on the basis ofture needs, breathing gases, etc.), and Washington, D.C.Pollutioncontrolbeing just another course requiring(c) desirable conditions for man (suit- begins and ends with man, the indi-somewhat special facilities and an addi-able gravity, humidity, feelings of secu- vidual! tional budget for teachers and mate-rity, other personal comforts, etc.) be rials. Second, the marine sciences mustintroduced at all levels of the educa- AMERICAN education today pro-.be considered part of a larger study oftional spectrum. Follow this instruc- vides the optimum opportunity toman and environmentinorder fortion by guiding students through ex- develop programs aimed at inculcatingstudents to see relevancy. ploration of values which are basic to an environmental ethic. For years we Substantialnumbersoftoday'sall men.Consider the ossipbility of have been fostering within children theschool-age youth are not able to grasphelping youngsters evaluate human be- concept that you "don't pick the wild-the relevancy of their science instruc-havior in respect to eight basic values: flowers." This same principle can betion to their own lives, present andrespect, power, wealth, enlightenment, immediately established along our mari-future.Others have a vague half-skill, well-being, iictitude, and affec- . 164 of an organization to develop a floating marine laboratory program to explore the feasibility of using a sport fishing boat to supplement the existing science curriculum. The pilot efforts proved very successful and upon applicationtothe AAA* United States Office of Education a liri" three-year operational grant was ap- f" proved in June 1967.2 errAwor ernateorow 3 WIIMIER Id I WIIIM=I1 aattnrs The program has developed the concept of "A Hands-On Practice of Sci- "to ence" as its theme. That is, each and every student participating on board the Aboard the FURY II, students are given the FURY 11, The Floating Laboratory, par- chance to engage in scientific research. possess many innovative qualities by ticipates.They learn by doing.Stu- --Which they may stimulate a few stu-dents are exposed to the scientific world dentstoachieve beyond thelevels by placing theminan environment which were previously set for them.which allows them to practice science tion. Students can be guided to under-Seldom, however, do we find an inno-by "doing" science. standthatdeprivation of one or a vation which possesses almost universal Already, many positive gains have number of the eight values can be dam-appeal to both the academic and non-been derived -from the program. The aging to both man's physical and men-academic oriented student and whichfurther support of a multidisciplinary tal health.Individuals have status inenables the classroom teacher to takeapproach to science ranks high. Allow- society in each of the eight values ac-the child where he is and provide aing the students to apply the concepts cording to their degree of achievement: singtifar experience which can stimu-of biology, physics, and chemistry to a the degrees of status in our society late and motivate attitudinal changes. meaningful experience may well foretell range from severe deprivation to high Children today, because of exposurethe ways of science education in the indulgence. to mass media, are thought to havenear future. We would further suggest that, asbeen made aware of their world. How- Another positive feature of the pro- each student begins his study of hisever, when students touch their first gif.amis the inservicc training of the local environment, he first consider the live fish, they glow with excitement andclassroom teachers accompanying their ma.; different people who use the en-become totally involved in finding outstudents. The trips stimulate them to vironment. Then, he should select orwhat's inside its mouth or under itsbecome better informed about this en- be assigned a particular rolepoliti-gill cover. One realizes then that whatvironment and its potential as a teach- cian, land developer, biologist, recrea-past generations took for granted hasing tool.Also we h. found that tionalist, etc.that is typically foundbecome a phenomenal, new experience during the teacher orientation cruises, within the local area and be required toforthe youthful, urban population.held before the fall and spring semes- view etch aspect of the marine sciencesContrived experiences within the class- tersbegin, the teachers remark that fromthat posture for the semester.room can never replace the true dis-they have had to review many of the As each subject area is completed, atcovery methods so vital to motivatingbasic concepts of their major area of least one school period should be usedstudents. college work. for an in-depth discussion of how each Man's attitudinalalterations must person in a particular role views the RECOGNIZING that students mustcome from new educational opportuni- subject area under study. have increased opportunities toties, explorations, or inquiries into real A finalexamination, then,couldcome to' grips with their real world,experiences of the world in which he consist of each student's being assignedhowever distant, the Orange Countylives. American education today pro- an entirely different role or a series ofMarine SciencL Floating Laboratoryvides the optimum opportunity to de- roles from which to evaluate how he program began in 1967 with the majorvelop programs aimed at inculcating would carry on responsible uses of thegoal of allowing children to activelyan environmental ethic. An attempt is environmentincertainhypotheticalparticipate in real science. being made in the southern California situations. The program began as a pilot pro-area to break the classical patterns of gram under a grant from E.S.E.A.education and direct the attitudes of TODAY, in,education, we are facedTitle III.1The purpose of the pilot students toward a positive appreciation Iwith many innovations which ap-program grant was the establishmentof the marine environment. 0 pear quite attractive. They are appealing because they aredifferentand (P.I.. 89.10; Grant No. 66.2278) (0EG3-7-703799.4257; Project No. 67.3799)

165 Organizing Outdoor Classrooms in the Park System

K. T. KELLERS Chief Naturalist Monmouth County Park System Freehold, New Jersey

THE Monmouth County Park Sys-tion and visits to the local tax maps,vide basic landmark, topographic, and tem, located in central New Jersey,property boundaries can be determinedelevation information needed for a carries on a cooperative environmentaland then indicated on the pertinentgiven quadrangle.Soil series, slope. education program with school districts quadrangles of topographic, geologic,erosion, and land classes have been in the county. The Park System pro-and soil survey maps. Location of thecompiled by State and Federal Soil videsthe study areas and resourcetract inthe community and on the Conservation Services under The direc- people, and the school districts carryaforementioned maps insures that plan-tion of the United States Department through with the educational process. ning and interpretation may be kept inof Agriculture.The occurrence and This cooperative venture has spurred perspective to community conditions.nature of important geologic forma- a number of local schools into utilizing Information concerning the topo-tions and their age and condition have outdoor areas adjacent to the schoolgraphic features, geologic formations,been compiled by state geologists as grounds. The Park System has sup-drainage, soil series, and recommendedpart of the ongoing activities of the plied resource people to schoolsin agricultural land uses has already been USGS. planning their outdoor classrooms, butassembled by state and federal authori- It remains, therefore, to contact the it has not been able to meet with eachties.Utilization of the standard U.S.necessary agencies and compile the school district on a day-to-day basis inGeological Survey (USGS) topographicpertinent basic information for utiliza- order to complete a well-planned out- maps distributed by the Department of tion by classroom teachersintheir door classroom that takes best advan-the Interior, Washington, D. C., pro-environmental education activities. In- tage of existing natural areas. Unfortunately, there are few models Overnight camping as a culminating activityin environmental education. that can be used to organize data and help establish an overall environmental k 414 r education program. Environmental information must be gathered. Systems must be organized that allow proper management of outdoor areas.Infor- mation must be distributedtothe teaching and administrative staff, and Y. scheduling must be planned. The re- fi sulting program must provide a unique a. opportunity for school personnel, yet ..5711.111664-11..."'` not require the use of new funds or elaborate physical facilities.The following outline is suggested as an aid in -7.+6._ establishing outdoor study areas.

THE INITIAL step in such a development is to defiffe clearly the prop- -47 erty in question. From field observa-

166 color coded and filled in with contrast- relationships indigenous to the ecosys- ing colors; thus the habitats are easilytem. Some may supportbit of careful located for proper planning of trails trafficfor observation and measure- and gathering areas for class instruc-ments.The Park System has used tion. That work is easily done on anthese three levels of classification for acetate overlay using the many kindsscheduling purposes. The criteria we of water-soluble marking instrumentshave used to identify collection sites, on the market. measurementsites,andobservation The program planners must next de-sites include the following: scribe on the habitat map the many 1.The intrinsic ability of a habitat to kinds of habitats found in the natural support life, taking into account the area. Some will appear several times, current environmental factors such others only once. Some, because of the as rainfall, temperature, and past nature of the environment, will support use a great variety of life forms, others will 2.Presence of rare specimens not. IrLader to utilize the entire land3. Number of other habitats on the tract to its potential, it is important tract that effectively reproduce the that the habitats be classified according conditions found in the habitat un- to their ability to support life and to der question withstand the stressesthatwillbe4.Flowering dates and the develop- placed upon them as environmental ment of seed Working at a collection site. studies begin to take place. For exam- It necessarily follows that the habi- ple, a pond and stream provide goodtats that are exposed to stress should cluded in such a compilation of rawopportunities for collecting specimens;be duplicated on the land tract so that data should be an index describing thethe watery environment supports asome will be in service while others will habitats that make up a given prop-wide variety of plant and animal life be at rest.It may be necessary to allow erty. This information usually can bethat quickly repopulate the biologicalsome types of habitats to remain out of gathered by local residents or consult-community. Other habitats could not service several years before being again ants and public agency resource people withstand any collection without caus-exposed to stress.It may be feasible trained along these lines.Plant, bird,ing irreparable harm to the ecologicalto reclassify these areas as observation and animal lists will also be needed in order to sketch an overall picture of A group utilizes an observation and measurement site. the biomes that compose the ecosystems found within the natural area. Aerial .photographs and 200-foot- scale map's of the land mass should also be acquired.In many cases,aerial photographs can be obtained from local sewerage groups, planning boards, and zoning commissions.These photographs are ideal for locating existing roads, trails, streams, and clearings that may not appear on official maps. It is an easy matter to transfer the information to the 200-foot map. The 200 - I' foot map is essential for planning the V use of small parcels of land, up to 1,000 acres.Larger tracts require a smaller scale in order to provide an easily manipulated map. The 200-foot scale map is utilized 4 for locating the various habitats and places of high esthetic value fund on the property. Contours are necessary, as their location serves as an aid to defining the habitats that have been located and surveyed. These areas are

167 classroom along the route. A series ofcan service only a limited number oflay of extra funds as it calls for note restsites,or group collectionsites students, the limiting factor being its effective use of puNic lands and mate- should be located along the stem trail own autonomous staff. The Monmouth mak under park and school dishier so as to insure that brief discussionsCounty Park System is attempting a ow net ship.It takes advantage of exist- of observations and results can take somewhat different attack on the prob-ing data,provides foralogicalse- place. tem. For example, an interested teacherquence of acquiring raw data pertinent Once the "classrooms" have beenmay call into the offices requestingto any outdoor study sites in question, located and classified,it remains toassistance. The logical starting pointand provides plans that enable classes organize a filing system, coded to the here is the tried and true guided nature to take full advantage of the special fea- base map and classification system to walk using one of our staff naturalists. tures that any arca can afford. Finally. be established. Such a system providesThe difference with this nature walk is efficient use of existing personnel places a ready repository for (1) subjective that it is not "canned" nor does itfiteach natural area within the grasp of field notes concerning the physical con- into a rigid, program.Suppose, the every classroom teacher, providing an dition of a habitat, (2) notes concern-teacher points out that her classis opportunityfor everyyoungsterto ing data received from groups thatstudying animal homes.The nature"visit a nearby pond." 0

A 200-foot scale map with habitat areas color coded and existing trails located. Note how the stem trails allow initial access to certain habitat areas. Subsequent trail development will call for loops that will take advantage of special situations within a particular habitat area.

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transeet. A "quadrat" is such a sample, Repeat the studies as often as possible ends of the hose by watching the water. and practicality dictates the size.If and average results. For distances longer than the hose. the you want percent of ground cover for Seines arc variable in cost, but a process can be -,:peated up the face of each species or the number of stems of hardware store minnow seine. com- a slope and the results added together. large plants. a square meter is reasdn- plete with floats and leads (but not able for each quadrat.If you decide poles),islessthan two dollars.It 'THE second major question deals on a detailed analysis of small, diverse snaes easily and ..on't last many trips. Iwith the physical forces that create plant distributions or plan to clip andeven with carefuHiandling,. Shovels the observed patterns. Observation of weighthespecimens, aone-fourth and buckets willalso be useful for these forces usually makes the observer meter square is plenty. sampling. Sieves are very handy, par- wish for a recording instrument. These The quadrat itself can be made ofticularly if graded by mesh size. Stack can be expensive, but you can sub- bent wire, boards, or a string marked them together.largest mesh on top.substitute homemade gadgets. infour equallengths and stretchedThis might be 1/2" rabbit wire. to pick Of thefactorsobservableon a around four sticks. Tic one end of theout large shells and twigs.Next, 1/4" shoreline, only a few are simple. A string or tape to the first stick. push rabbitwire wouldgetintermediate thermometer isusually obtainable to into the ground. and put another stick stuff.Then screen wire would allow measure temperatures of air. soil. and at the next mark. Push it in. and bend only siltand sand to pass through.water. Currents out in the water can the string at a right angle. By the timeThese permitinstantsorting.when bemeasured by weighteufloats. you've done this twice v. ,ae, the other buckets of water are usedtoflush lengths of wood with a lead sinker to end of the string is hack at the starting through a sample shovelful.For tinyhold them upright. Keep most of the point, and you havt square (more or aquatic organisms, a plankton netis surface of the float below water level less). The students may not even think the gimmick, and one can be fabri- (to minimize wind effect). ofaquadrat frame, but may just cated from a woman's stocking and a TurbiJity of the water can be ap- scratch out a square (or circle)at ia lid ring.Itis often assumed that proximated by a Secc hi disc, which is each sampling station on the transect th,sampler must be towed behind a a weighted target that is watched as, it time-consuming but valid. b 'at,butitcan be tossed out from sinks into the water on the end of a The question that will arise later in,hore and drawn back to the student rope. The depth at which it disappears thepost mottem,ifnot during the(several times) or tied to a piling so gives an estimate of cloudiness of the sampling.. is randomness, anditis a that the tide moves the water through water relative to other sightings. but great question to debate.It touches the plankton net. not an absolute measuretnent. on the fallacy of much of our daily In all of these studies, elevations of The rest are tougher. Even the com- observation and leads to enlighteningsampling stations willbe of obviousmon weather report statistics (relative discussions of such sampling techniques importance. The students doing :I-pro-humidity,h. rometricpressure,and a-s-Ciallup polls and Nielsen ratings. In file of the area will have more signifi- wind velocity) are hmd to come by. the field. it means not warping quadratcant dataif they work alongside the However, they aren't essential to ordi- placement to fit preconceived notions. plant and animal samplers. The slick nary field trips, and students on special .. . . .11. 1., t HIS tut Dactl711il IIIN1illelIs JIM: 1001Ing for pigs in the dark; its easier to find the pig that squeals.'I his, he explains, JL.L.AL4A.LILAL.11 isthe reason sanitarians and other water-pollution analysts first look for the relatively harmless coliform bacteria in water rather than for the real trouble- makers:disease-producing organisms that pose a real threat to human health. The attribute that makes conform bacteria so easy to detect is their special ability to break down a complex "sugar" called lactose to form several simpler substances, one of which will combine with a fuehsin stain to form an iridescent green coating over the growing coliform colony.These colorful "sheen" colonies are easy to distinguish from their less colorful fellow travelers (the pigs that don't squeal). There 4p other reasons, though, for the choice of coliform as the official criterionof thesanitary quality of water.First of all, coliform bacteria V usually originate inthe intestines of warm-blooded animals, including man. ' A Therefore, their presence in water in unusual number is cause for concern, since human wastes are the most likely source of organisms pathogenic to man, such as those that cause typhoid fever, dysentery, or cholera. Coliform bacteria are also hardier than most pathogenic organisms, thus it's unlikely that the pathogenic species are still surviv-

Mr. Sohn is director of the Educational Division, and Mr. Bullock is technical information editor of the Millipore Corporation, Bedford, Massachusetts.

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zero parts per thousand .(04).In ditions often cause unpredicted changes Amazingly. many towns still dump raw pure ocean water. the hydrometer (orin water levels. sewag,e. and sonic cities still don't treat anything else) floats higher, and this Thus, localvagaries must be ac- it well enough. Septic tanks in sandy point is about 35/c. Most estuarine counted for.Discuss these with local areas can cause problems, andthe CEDAR SWAMP ECOLOGY water samples will fall somewhere be-"experts," such as commercial fisher- many trailerparks. fish camps, and tween and can be estimated by commen. Do not believe anything sport marinas of the coast add disease orga- Thonlas J. Givnish and David J. J. Kinsman parison to the two known points. fishermen tell you. They won't mean nisms and organic matter. Explore the Even with an accurate hydrometer,to deceive you, but often have diffi-effect called "eutrophication." in which twofables of corrections are needed.culty pinpointing reality in their quest overproduction of algae becomes more The first alloArs for temperature (cold for Great Fishing Spots. Seriously. you of a long-range problem than is direct LAST'April. five undergraduates from mountain ores of the Appalachians. A many feet below the surface. This :,itua- water is denser), and the second thencan expect to -hear some wierd "facts" poisoning of animal life. Princeton University bumped along short-lived glass industry followed. ex-tion greatly delays the biological break- converts density to parts per thousand. fromexperiencedoutdoorsmen, so Drainage ditches have been sliced miles cif rutted sand roads to arrive atploiting the white quartz samb. of the down of dead plant materials. Lack of Chemicalanalysisof seawateris double-check your information. through thousands of acresofsalt Bear Swamp Hill Fire Tower. As wearea, which form a surficial layer uphumus and the general paucity of clay tough, but would provide fascinating The effects of civilization disrupt thc marsh in the name of public health. climbed this sentinel deep in the Pine to I to 2 feet in thickness. Today. lum- minerals result in the almost comtilete exercises for a chemistry class.The normal cycles and rhythms of mostThe question of mosquito controlis Barrens of southern New Jersey, a sea bering and cranberry and blueberry lack of soil development. The surface most commonly desired quality, after. environments these days. There is no still, in doubt, but there is no doubt of pitch pine green streamed from us growing are the main economic activi- litter of dry leaves and branches makes salinity, is oxygen content, which turns point in ignoring them; it is far better'that. ditchesalter the ecology of a to the limits of the horizon. Save for ties of the Pine Barrens. ideal tinder and isperiodically con- out to be a hard factor to pin down.if teachers grab opportunities to use marsh. How and to what extent? No a cranberry bog visible far to the north- Annual rainfall over the Pine Bar-sumed by fire. %:hich is a fairly fre- Several companies now put out testdisturbed habitats as ecological studies. one is sure. east, the landscape was pristine. The rens averages 45 inches. of which closequent. natural. ecologically important kits which simplify water- _analysis, but Of cours,: the specific problems will be The contours of our coast are green spires of Atlantic White Cedar to halfislost by evapotranspiration. phePomenon in the Pines. they are not cheap. The oxygen con- different in each area, but some prob-constantly changed by land-moving. marched in columns along the water-The very porous and permeable sands In his 11.1:drologic Analysis of the tent kits arc based on thc Winkler test, lems are discouragingly widespread. Draglines dig canals and build land ways, snaking through theflatgray allow rapid infiltration of the precipita-Pine Barrens Region, Edward Rhode- amulti-stage procedure.The other Spoil from dredging operations is with the material.Material from the green of the pineland. All was quiet. tion down into the Cohanscy aquifer, hamel of the United States Geological tests Pare only a little easier. and keep- dumped on marshes or sometimes even sound is pumped to the beaches to This year, we: will not be climbing sothatdirect rfacerunoffintoSurvey zstimates the total volume of ing reagents and glassware dean in the in shallow water. In the former case, create artificial dunes and berms. Grass the tower.It is gone now, struck down streams and rivers tends to be very low. water now held by the Cohansey to be hands of students quickly leads to ques- marsh is destroyed, and rains later fan is planted to stabilize and create dunes. by an errant plane. But the wilderness In fact, the rivers are almost entirely 10.8 trillion gallons. because the sands tionable results. out siltto surrounding mudflats.In Groins are built to stop erosion and which stretched out beneath it still re- fed by lateral and vertical leakage from and gravels are relatively inert except Pollution is an environmental param- the latter case, currents quickly move enterintothepicture of longshore mains. Perhaps what we accomplished the ground-water aquifer.In spite of for being sources of iron and silica. the eter you would often like to measure.silt great distances. sometimes killing transport.Inlets, channels, and har- in the intervening months will help to the rather high annual rainfall, most of ground water has nmch the same chem- Notes on the obvious appearance and oysters and scallops miles away. bors are keptopen byconstant protect it. the Pine Barrens are arid much of the ical composition as the rain from which smell of soil and water smples may Pesticide pollution is obviously in- manipulation. The Pine Barrens cover almost two time. Ground surface and shallow sub- it originates. be the best you can do. The chemistrycreasing. New restrictions on .1.se of There is obviously ample opportu- thousand square miles of southern New surface levels tend to be rapidly drained 1.ainfall over the Pine barrens is ex- iscomplex. Pesticides perplex evenDDT don't eliminate it from the envi- nity for students to ind exCiting-prob- Jersey.(FigureI )They he almost of water; and the water table, except in tremely acid (pH about 4) owing to the professional, and the breakdown ronment, much less affect the broad lents of environmental tampering.In entirely above the Cohansey Forma-swamps and along river course's, lies atmospheric pollution of the metropoli- products of pesticides in animal tissues spectrum of other pesticides now in fact,itd:flicult these days to find a tion, a geological un:t of quartz sand tan ea: coast iegion. and river waters are subjects to boggle the mind. For use, place you can study without running 1 and gravel with local day lenses. The are also very acid(pl45). The ng after the coliform have all di:d off. Further tests are then performed to iso- 3.Place a sterile absorbent pad in a Coliform grow readily at room tem- late and culture the pathogens. 47 mm petri dish. Absorbent pad,, peratures (70 to 80 'F), so samples are disks made of material similar can be cultured easily without a labora- Alocal pond or river can furnish to bldtter paper and are supplied tory incubator.In many countries. abundant opportunities fot micro- in the same envelope %%WI the. where water has to be tested far frombiological investigations, including membrane filters. existing laboratories, the analyst may thosefor coliform organisms.With 4.Break open an ampoule of Mr- even incubate samples by taping theminimum supervision, even beginning Endo medium:1 and pour the en- petri dish to his body. biology students can perform these tests tire contents (2 ml) onto the ab- The simplest, most widely used test with the aid of a membrane filter and a sorbent pad. (Figure 2)As an for coliform bacteria consists of filter-simple vacuum filtering apparatus that alternative, you canpreparea ing a water sample through a bacterialcan he constructed at home or pur- stock solution from powdered Mr:- retentive membrane filter. The micro- chased inexpensively.' Endo medium and pipette 2 ml of ,copically smallfilterporesletthe Outlined in the paragraphs that fol- this solution onto the absorbent water through, leaving microscopic life low are the details of a procedure for pad. Close the petri dish and set -LT trapped on the filter surface. To countisolating and culturing coliform bacteria it aside until Step 8. coliform bacteria, the analyst puts thethat is very similar to that used by pro- 5. To the funnel, add about 20 ml filter on a pad soaked with a suitable fessionals in analyzing water pollution. of sterile water or tap water that nutrient medium, and the nutrients wick 1.Sterilize a plastic autoclavable fil- has been boiled for several min- up through the filter pores to keep the ter holder in an autoclave or by utes. The exact volume added is microbesfed and multiplying.The immersing itin boiling water for not critical.Its purpose is only to liquid nutrient also contains the lactose three minutes.If this is not prac- evenly disperse the bacteria in the and stain that advertise the presence of tical, as in a field experiment, dip measured sample. coliforms. Within 24 to 36 hours, each the filter in 70 percent isopropyl 6.Pipette an aliquot of sample water microbe becomes a colony of billions, alcohol (rubbing alcohol) for a few from a pond or stream into the visible even without a microscope. seconds, shake it off, and let it air funnel.Swirl itin the funnel to The mere presence of coliform colo- dry. The alcohol can he bought mix the sample with the sterile nies, however, does not prove that the at a drug store or supermarket. dispersion water. The size of the water is "polluted," because all open Load the filter holder (Figure 1) aliquot will vary with the contami- bodies of water are exposed to animal with a Type HA (0.451 tni pore nation level of the water being excretion and seepage from the soil. diameter)membranefilter.Be sampled. To determine the best What is important in assessing probable suretohandlethefilterwith sample size, start with 1 ml. After pollution of water is the number of smooth-tipped (nonserrated) foryou grow the first culture, you will coliform in the sample. When health ceps that have been sterilized by officialsfindthe number exceeding dipping in alcohol. MFEndo medium is a culture medium thatis selective for coliform.It contains lactose broth and standards set for certain areas and types a fushsiiulfide complex.Skin or clothing acsi of water, they assume thatdisease- (inc such system is the Sterifil (Trademark of dent illystained with Mr-iindo medium can be the Millipore Corporation) System available from cleaned with a dilute solution of sodium sulfite or producing bacteriaare alsopresent. the Millipore Corporation. Bedford. Massachusetts. household bleach, followed with soap and %ate,

Figure 1.Use smooth-tipped forceps that have been sterilizedFigure 2. Culturing dishes can be prepared quickly by emptying in alcohol to insert the membrane filter into the filter holder. a 2m1 glass ampoule of nutrient medium on an absorbent pad.

172 be able to tell whether a larger or ure 5) or some other suitable veloping colonies. After the colo- smaller sample would be better. vacuum source, such as a water nies have developed. turn the dish Adjust the sample size to get no aspirator, apply vacuum to the re- right side up. remove the test fil- more than 20 to 80 coliform colo- ceiver flask. This will force water ter, and allow it to dry on a clean nies on thefilter surface.The to flow through the filter, leaving blotter or some other clean ab- total number of colonies, includ- the bacteria trapped on the filter sorbent surface (paper towel) for ing coliform, shouldn't exceed 200. surface. one-half hour. Reclose the dish, (Sec Figure 3.)- Another method 8.After filtering the test sample, re- and putitaside carefullyfor is to try 0.1, 0.5, 1, and 2 ml in lease the vacuum by removing the sterilization or disposal. the first experiment to determine vacuum-pump tubing fromthe 10.Withzi hand magnifier or low- the optimum sample size. side-arm of thereceiverflask. power microscope (10X), scan To determine coliform levels in Unscrew the funnel, and use alco- the surface of the filter for colo- differentsources,thefollowing hol-dipped forceps to lift the filter nies having a shiny, greenish sur- sample sizes are recommended, as membrane. Place it grid side up face. Count the total number of a general rule: on the saturated absorbent pad in these "green sheen" colonies on For untreated water (fresh or the petri dish. (Membrane filters the filter.

salt), add 1 ml of sample to are imprinted with grid lines to Calculations. The official way of the dispersion water prepared in facilitate the counting of colonies.) expressing coliform levels in water Step 5 above. Carefully line up the filter with is in terms of the number of coli- For well water or natural spring one edge of the petri dish and form per 100 Bear in mind water, use 50 ml and omit Step 5. setit down with a slight rolling that each colony observed devel- For chlorinated tap water, use motion so itis evenly centered. oped from a single bacterial cell at least 500 ml and omit Step 5., Close the petri dish tightly. in the original sample. To figure You will have to filter in several 9.Invert the petri dish and incubate the number of conform bacteria stepsif the receiver flask holds the culture for 48 hours at normal present jr the water tested, use the only 250 ml. If the school labora- room temperature, or 24 hours at following formula. tory has an aspirator or vacuum 37°C in an incubator. No. of Coliform Counted X 100 pump, youan filter the entire The mediumwillsupplyall = No. of Co liform/100m1 sample at one time by attaching areasofthetestfilterwith Milliliters of Sample the top portion of the filter unit to needed nutrients, diffusing directly Example: A two milliliter (2 nil) a standard one-liter filtering flask. through the filter to the micro- sample was added to the filter funnel which contained approximately (See Figure 4.) Ideally, drinking organisms onitssurface. The 20 ml of sterile water. After filtra- water should be free of coliform petri dish must be inverted be- tion and incubation, 4S green sheen bacteria.If you do find more than causeincubationoftencauses colonies were counted on the filter. 4 per 100 ml, then it is likely that moisture condensation inside the this contamination is from faulty closed dish.If the dish were right Standards wary from one municipality to the technique rather than from pol- ;side up, droplets could form that next: Cheek with your local officials to determine luted water. vihni the standards are for your arc.t for different might fall onto the filter surface, types of water (raw water. wellwater. drinking 7.Using a hand vacuum pump (Fig- spoiling the appearance of the de- water. and public swimming areas).

Figure 3. Grown on a membrane filter with MF-Endo medium, the Figure 4. The top section of the Sterifil apparatus will also fit a coliform colonies acquire an easily distinguishable sheen. standard one-liter filtering flask.

173 , , , clean, dry blotter pad. are normally used with membrane fil- able Maiine Bactetia." Journal of Inic 4.The dry filter can now be preset ved ters may be resterilized as follows: iologs 90:1713-1718: December 1965. between glass slides (Figure 6) or I.Carefully remove thepetridish 3. C F.. and P. W. 1

Figure 5. Applying vacuum to the flask forces water through theFigure 6.The student can preserve his results by mounting the filter, leaving the microorqpnisms stranded on its surface. dried filter between glass slides or in plastic food wrap.

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pitch Cedar growth and metabolism are strongly affected by the amount of pines oxygen available to the mots. Because of the small flow rate for water in all but the. most superficial layers of peat. oxygen is depleted almost completely water table below the water table by the n.qabolic activities of bacteria. Diffusion through lateral water air spaces toward wetter surfaces is the influx---- principal re-oxygenating process, but the slow rates of diffusion transport are far exceeded by the rates of bacterial vertical oxygen use. Thus water levels control water influx the dissolved oxygen gradient partially saturated peat. Besides influencing cedar growth rate, this gradient is Figure 6, Schematic cross section and hydrology of a cedar swamp. related to and largely controls soil decomposition of organic materials and situation. S. «ipillaccum colonized the upward into the stream bed, and hence the distribution of othcribog and swamp highest zone on the hi...mocks, oc- reduces 'oase flow. The coefficient of plants.Generally, -plantswithroot curring as a very compact form with permeability for well-decomposed peat structures adapted for survival in satu- very few gaps between the heads and varies widely, but published values arc rated, oxygen-poor environments can- seemingly adapted to the least moist in the range 10 Ito 10ft/see; these not compete with plants without these

situations. -t+ values probably apply to the basal lay- structures when bothoccurinan A varietyofsites was sampled: ers of peat. The upper peat layers prob-unsaturated, well-oxygenated environ- (Figure 1)Penn Swamp (A) was a ably have rather higher values of per- ment.The metabolic load of these young swamp with sonic hardwood still meability.The coefficient of perme-structure, together with a differentsoil growing at its edges. Albertson Branch ability is dependent upon the age andecology, combine to sharply reduce (13) had a strong gradient from high tostate of decomposition of the peat, its their original advantage. low pH and from large to small fluc- origin, and recent saturation history. In Further, the level of the water table tuations in water-table levels.Webbs winter and spring, the fine-grained peat has immediate consequences thermally. Mill (C) was an open, highly acid sand which underlies many of the swamps Because it has a very high specific heat bog with isolated islands of invading isflotatedillthe miner which com-relative to that of the peat skeleton, cedar. West Creek (D) and Forked pletely saturates the layer at this time. water is of utmost importance to the River (E) were examples of salt-marsh This causes the mean pore size to be- annuai thermal balance. The biogeo- cedar swamp interfaces withstrong come itich larger than itis when thegraphic distribution of cedar indicates i/L/IllIt11/11, t1111.P.1 tatr.1.11 Lk) I lit t111,1 Wt EouutillIt,ltlll ,lilt :1%...11101.1 11t t:).it 111d1. ICI III sA it ICI 5) (CII IS. Al ILI UUlill viromnental understanding.The stu-has heavy and light industries on itscount is of value where the concern dentswere collegebiologymajors, banks. It is beset with varied domestic is with eutiophic,ition lather than with though high school students in several and industrial pollution problems. The disease transmission. science courses could also make such untreated wastesofapproximately Various media exist forthe rearing a study. The scope of the study might 200,000 people enter the watershedof the total microbial fauna.In thk change, some accuracy might have to daily. study the agar used was thePlate be sacrificed, but the principles and Count Agar (Tryptone Glucose Yeast relevancy of the material would re-Total Microbes Agar).Plastic disposable Petri dishes main.Since everyone contributes to Estimates onthetotalmicrobial make idealenvironments.The mi- the domestic waste problem, allstu- population were among the first testsmics are diluted, adjusted to a pH of dentsfindthemselvespolluters. In to be applied to water bodies in order 7, and incubatedat35' C for 24 this study we were concerned withto determine the nature and extent of hours.In the counting process, only parameters that indicate sewage pol-their pollution. Total microbial counts plates showing between 30 and 300 lution. have been essentially ignored as diag-colonies were considered, and all plates The distinguishing feature of this nostic methods for the past three dec- which fell within this range were aver- learningexperienceisthatitcon- ades in favor of coliforms. While the agedintothefinalcountfor each cerned contemporary problems.It in-preoccupation with human sewage as sample. volved hard work and indicated thata polluting agentislargely justified, hutulmicrobial accounts above I the way to discovery is challenging and the total microbial count still has meritmillion .ue indicative of polluted in- difficult and requires cooperation and shore waters.The data obtainedin self-sacrifice. The problem is still un- the study. in general. clearly indicated Table 1. Total microbe count and resolved, but itis now better under- dates collections were made. organic pollution.13ut more important, stood.Most important, avaluable they indicated that the major sources source of information was identified To! from which organic wastes were enter- and isavailable for the entire com- 1.oc A I los; 1)% ri ing the river inthe upstream section munity. StationI 3-20.70 1.8 were near stations 1 and 2. (See 1.1 4-19.70 Figure, 1 4-30-70 2.3 and Table 1.) Area Description 5- 7-70 2.1 Coliforms The Acushnet River istidal, ap- Station 2 3-20-70 2.4 proximately five miles in length, and 4-19.70 3.7 The isolation of pathogenic bacteria 4-30.70 4.1 flows between New Bedford to the 5- 7.70 1.6 or any microorganism fro. iwater is west and Fairhaven and Acushnet to not recommended as a rot.tine prac- Station 3 3-20.70 0.1 the east, eventually terminating in Buz- 4-19-70 1.8 tice inasmuch as the techniques avail- zards Bay, Massachusetts.It is home 4-30.70 1.2 able are tedious and complicated. The 5- 7-70 1.2 results are not of major significance Station 4 3-20-70 0.1 and may he confusing in a particular Dr. Hoff is an associate professor of biology 4-19-70 0.5 at Southeastern Massachusetts University, 4-30.70 0.7 study of pollution. North Dartmouth. 5- 7-70 0,8 For many years the eoliform group

175

thestreamrelatk elyconstantover composition and structural com- Clear! \our investigation.Then, we time. Incrsasiug-swamp age and asso- paction. analyzed what we con 'demi to be the ciated decrease in the peat permeability 6.Dissok ed oxygen would increase significant controlling., factors. Natural tendtoincreasethesedesirable sharplyinthe soil. causing long- situations are impinged on by a multi- factors. term succession from open watertude of variables. most of which we Finally,high water levelsprotect saturated sphagnum bogs. to cedar probably fail to perceive. e cannot against swamp fires.Cedaristhin swamps with their better drained listallpossible factors.Byinvesti- barked and killed by all but the least peats. gatingthe moreobviouslimiting intense of ground fines.It does not 7.Long-term succession would occur variables. such as the local hydrologic. stem sprout, as does the pitch pine. from cedar swamp to heath or pitch thermal. and chemical budgets. we h:- -I he Pine Barrens flora and fauna have pine lowland communities.with gait to unde.stand what was happening evolved within a fire-ecology;ifthe their %vell-drained and thoroughly, and the processes involved. watc; leis were permanently lowertl decomposed humus layer. We next constructed asimplified in the swamp, fires would burn through In the light-of these findings we have model of the complex nattnal m iron- them, killing the dominant cedar cge- recommended the following: ment. ci..nsidering only a few variables, union and .ifit.cting the overall ecology I.The pumping schedule should be such as water-table levels and chemical of the Pine Barrens. cyclic,notcontinuous,with a concentrations. When certain conclu-

The Plains are a natural example of period of 1 to 4 days. depending sions we drew from our initial model an arca lacking linear firebreaks of upon the local characristics ofdid not agree with our obsenations. swamp peat.They comprise 20,000 the swamp peat. we included other variables. such as acres,straddlingseveralcontiguous 2. A full-scale pumping experiment oxygen depletion or peat permeability.

watershed dk ides.'I hese areas are should be condueted on some small In thissN, ty %%t.: slowly approached a characterized by pigmy pitch pines. 2 watershed in the Pine I3arrens, pre- more complete understanding of the to 5 feet tall, with a low age distribu- ferrably over a 5 to 10 year period. workiags of the complex natural env tion, reflecting the high frequency of The setup period would consist of romnent. burnovers.lf, following ground-water monitoring tl.e swamps ecologically Finally, we made predictions con- withdrawal; the natural swamp peat by our methods, gathering data on cerning the probable course of events firebreaks became ineffective, the veg- evapotranspiration, and on naturalif the present water withdrawal plan etation of the Pine I3arrens as a whole groundwater flow rates.The re- Were cal Heti out. Since man is an ever- would probably come to resemble that mainder of the project would con- present and tangible part of the em of the Plains. sist of the actual carrying out of a ronment. we pointed out the social We cancategorizetheprobable pumping schedule, with a monitor- '_onsequences of our studies. Whether ellects of induced recharge pumping as ing of the swamps during the testor not these predictions are true is a follows: period, to assess the exact results matter for further research: as data A-.Water 'wouldbelostfromthe of the program. from situations similarto those we swamp peat thfoughitsbottom 3.Owing to the v ulnerability of the have studied become available, we can of bacteria has been used to indicateBenthic Invertebrates 3 'hows increasing species variation, the pollution of waters.Full dia.ns-and Sediments with a small number of more tolerant sions can be found in most texts on polyhaline speciesasthedominant bacteriology.Experience has estab- Each of thefour stationsvaried members ofthebenthic organisms, lishedthesignificanceofcoliformecologically as to the pi ogressive dif-and a correlated factor of species ab- group densities as criteria of the de-ferences normally established for ansence withproportionalintolerance. gree of pollution. estuarine river system from the fresh-Station 4 demonstrates the more in- Themembranefiltertechnique, water headregiontotheeu!.alinedirect effects of organic pollution, by which provides a directplating formouth. The invertebrate faunal-sam-accentuatingthe"indicatorbyab- the detection and estimation of coli- pling was done on a random qualitativesence" principle and relating the limit- form densities was employed inthisbasis in association with sediment and ingeffectsofmarinepollutional study. salinity sampling. changes to a larger community. The Divisionof Water Pollution The purpose was to look for biologi- Control of the Commonwealth of Mas-cal _indicators or organisms th,t would Biochemical Oxygen Demand sachusetts has established water quality reflectan index of water pollution. Biochemi:al Oxygen Demand is the standards for marine and coastal wa-I3iological indicators include the pres-measurement of the oxygel utilized in ters. The lowest acceptable class (SB) ence of certainplants and animalsthe stabilization of the organic matter for bathing and recreational purposeswhich experience. has shown to bein Sewage by microorganisms over a is definal as "the acceptable coliform significantly characteristic of kinds and five -day period at 20°C. The rate of counts not to exceed a median valuedegrees of pollution; they may also re-oxygendepletiondependsonthe of 700 and not more than 2300 infer to thy. absence of organisms known amount of oxidizable organic_ matter more than 10% of the samples in any tobehighly' into:crantof pollutedand the number of microorganisms. monthly sampling period."Stationsconditions. This rate will determine theBODvalue I, 2, and 3 are clearly grossly polluted_Station I was characterized by nu-of the water sample. There are numer- and do not meet the class re- merous fresh-water pollution indicatorous problems that arise in determining quirement (Table 2). The NewNew Bed-organisms. To name a few: Sphaer-theBOD.A few are: (a) photosyn- -ford beaches are near station 4. The°flirts, sewage fungus; Tubifex, sludge-thesis by algae, (b)acclimation of dal,- are not sufficient to accept orworm; Chironomus, blood worm; and bacteria.(c)sampledilution,and reject this area as class (SB). How-Asellus, sow bug.Sediment samples (d) toxic substances. The understand- ever, the data indicate that continuous from Station 2 are characteristicallying and the controlling of these param- monitoring isnecessaryifpublic layered with one to two inches of oileters give the student an opportunity health problems are to be avoiL over an inch of silt.The number ofto encounter problems that are funda- With such a massive source of con-individual organisms as well as spe-mental to population ecology. tamination near a me; ..ttionalarea, cies collected heris very small, and BODbottles were used for the col- coupled withhigher summer water he evidence of pollutional restrictionslection of samples', and the dissolved temperatures, the proper set of con- overwhelmingly evident.Over 98 oxygen w As determined by the sodium. ditions might give rise to drastic ele-percent of -the samples contained no azidemodificationoftheWinkler vations in coliform count. living macrobenthic organisms. Stationmethod.

Table 2. Coliform and Streptococcusconcentrations in Table 3. Biologicaloxygen demapd values in the Acush- the Acushnet River. net River.Station2 values aret,comparable to sewer influents. N 1117.10i-OF VIABLE CELLS PER100 MI.

LOCATION DA COLIFORM SIRUP LOCATION DnTt BOD-ITNI

Station 1 2-19-70 120,000 00 Statior 1 3-20.70 2.96 3- 4-70 t70,000 400- 4.16-70 2.Z5 3-20-70 22,000 400 4.21-70 2.14 5-16-70 120.000 200 5. 7.70 2.50 Station 2 2-19-70 13.0ou 4,900 Station 2 3-20-70 27.35 3- 4.70 550,000 90,000 4:16.70 70.50 3-20.70 380,000 14.000 4-21-70 95.50 5-16-70 120,000 800 5- 7-70 95.70 Station 3 2-19-70 4,600 200 Station 3 3-20.70 5.50 3- 4-70 600- 65 4-16-70 11.1_0` 3-20-70 2,000 400 4-21-70 10.90 5-16-70 1,600 200 5. 7-70 10.70

Station 4 2-19-70 700 65IStation 4' 3-20-70 8.66 3- 4-70 15. 5 4-16-70 11.75 3.20-70 1Y0 25 4-21-70 11.60 5-16-70 200 25 5- 7-70 10.90

176_ Table 4. Concentration of nitrates. Table 5. Concentration of phosphates. ug at /I" INORGANIC-P LOC MON DA rr 1.oc%rfM-- D.ttt NO_ - NNO, - N tie at'I*

Station I 2-16.70 .940 Station I 2-16.70 0.12 < 30 3. .1-70 0.20 < 30 3-18.70 .254 5- 4-70 .244 2-16.70 0.43 7.17 Station 2 1.52 3- 4-70 1.48 26.52 Station 2 2-16-70 3-18-70 9.40 Station 3 2-16.70 0.44 7.66 5- 4-70 5.08 3- 4-70 0.18 2.52 Station 3 2-16-70 2.67 The New Bedford sewer system was con- Station 4 2-16-70 0.10 3-18-70 2.30 3- 4-70 0.07 1.33 5- 4-70 1.07 structed in 1852. Since 1917 an intercon- necting sewer line has been in operation Station 4 2-16-70 .583 which is supposed to funnel all the raw Nlmogram Atonp. per btu. 3-18-70 .343 sewage beyond Nation 4. Hnwever, direct 5- 4.70 .418 cdtlalls-do occur along the river.

The BOD values in the Acushnct values in the more and more com- evolve. Foolishactivities,suchas River are extremely high (Table 3). monly occur ring cutrophicated North- burying the internal combustion en- In- fact, some of the upriver values east Coast estuaries. gine, and the confusion of beautifica- are comparable to raw sewage influent tion with environmental conservation concentrations. At Sta .on 2, dilutions In Retrospect not only indicate a failure of the edu- of 2 percent were useto obtain valid Traditionally we have never under- cational system but are themselves of- readings. This diluti,n alone classifiesstood or even been interested in the ten a waste of human energy. Studies this water as raw unsettled sewage. ecological effects until after they are such as the one reported here are far At Station 3, the sample dilutions were produced.Basicallythesituationis more meaningful and useful.Second, from 25 to 50percent,which is com- this simple: Our ability to pollute and a land ethicas proposedby Aldo parable to sewer plant effluents of pri-disrupt has far outdistanced our ability Leopold must be central to all educa- mary treatment (screening) only. Noto understanwhat we are doing. tional experiences.Evidence of the otherparameterin the study was more Man is experienzingenvironmentallack of a land ethic are omnipresent. significant to the class. Here, the terms deterioration daily because natuial en- The land-water relation is still strictly self-purification,eutrophication,and vironmental sysmis are not able to economic, entailing privileges blit no sewage overloads had meaning. absorb or recycle the increasing waste obligations.The employment ofa products produced almost indiscrimi- river as a sewage treatment facility by Inorgai Nutrients nately by human opulations.The an entire municipality clearly demon- Many techniques are available for sideeffectsof Western civilization's strates the need for a land ethic. 0 the determination of nitrates and phos- technology have been rather large-scale ACKNOWLEDGMmis: phates in water. One technique em- interruption and destruction of envi- Thanks are extended to Chuck Townsend ploys- a portable kit which is ideal for ronmental systems, the very systems forthe photograph, Ann Harringtonfor the high school where time and fundsupon which we, and all living things, thetables, and toallparticipantsin the are limited.In this study phosphate-depend. The realization that we must_seminar in water pollution. phosphorus was analyzed according toface is that to continue such conflict Bibliography theascorbicacid,singlesolution with environmental systems Will force I.Barnes, H. Oceanography and Marine method; and nitrate-nitrogen, by theus to compromise even more drasti- Thology. The Macmillan Company, New cadmium amalgam-method. :;aily between our standard of living York.1959. Limiting values as well as pollu- and our survival. We are at the begin- 2. Pennak. R. W. Fresh-Water Invertebrates of the United States.RonaldPress, New tion levelsfor inorganic phosphorusning of a new phase of man's history York. 1953.. and nitrate concentrations in aquatic when he must face ecological realities. 3.Standatl Methods for the Esau 'nation ecosystems are widely covered in the He must begin in his own backyard. of Water and Wastewater. Twelfth Edi- tion.American Public Health Associa- literature. The immediate salient fea- 'ssuming that man successfully station, New York.1965. ture of the inorganic nutrients is the bilizeshis population, what are the 4.Tarzwell, C. Editor. Biological Prob- extremely high values in the mid river keys to the success of solving env;ron- lems inWaverPollution.('Transactions ofWater Pollution Seminar, 1956.)Rob- section-(Tables 4 and 5). These vat-.Mehtal .problems?First,the educa- ert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center. ues are from five to ten times thoseIlonal system must recognize the essence Cincinnati, Ohio.1957. found in adjacent waters of Buzzardsof the problem. All aspects of pollu-5. Water Quality Standards.Division of Control-Common- tion must be defined and studied within Water Pollution Bay. The values compare to the highly wealthof Massachusetts, Boston.1967. polluted Hutchinson, Rivertirea inNcw the school curricula. Only in way 6.Welch,P.S. Limoological Methods. -, 1948. York and seem to be the expectedwilla nationalcenseof kawareness BlakistonCompany, Philadelphia.

177 water quality, A geologist from the state geological survey or nearby college can suggest reference books and reports on local geology and ground- water conditions. An engineer from the_ municipal eater department can ilfocieTe' quantitative data on per capita use of water, industrial use, capacity of the waterNytileill,effluent treatment, and quality of water. He can show a map of the wells or surface reservoirs. If the school is in an area where individual wells are used, a professioni:: I well-driller might be invited to discuss ground water from his point of view. Perhaps theinformation from these resource people can be presented to - : W. teachers in a workshop or mini-course. COURTESY H T U SMITH, UNiVERSITY"Or MASSA :HUSETTS THE students may now begin the Figure 1. Looking west from Ashby. The dune ridge ranges from 200 to 300 feet in height. Sand Hills Project. The problem here is to determine the rate at which precipitation infiltrates the Sand Hills GROUND waterisimportantin kinds of conditions,itis no wonder;of Nebraska.This involves a large area areas that have no lakes, surfacethat we have difficulty discussing this and must be treated as a class project, reservoirs, or aqueducts, anditwilltopic in the abstract. but adequate maps and data are avail- play an increasingly important role in For real understanding, it is helpful able as listedin the appendix to this water management of the future. (4] to have practical experience with a article. Clearly, we need tounderstandits grountt-water situation inSaint:particu- The Sand Hills mantle the upland behaviorinordertodesign laws lar geographic locality.0.pc obviousbetween the Niobrara River and the (6.8.9]' and practices (2,3] that foster place is the school's focal community. North Platte River in central Nebraska. wise use of surface and ground water. Another place is one that can be stud- Rain seeps down through sand dunes to Appropriately,groutdwater is a ied On maps, such as an area of glacial reach water table, recharging _,round standard topic of earth science.Still. deposits in Wisconsin l5] or the Sand water in an unconfined aquifer. The Met c is something sterile about merely Hills of Nebraska. The Sand Hills area aquifer is composite; it is primarily the having students learn to define artesian has anideallysimple ground-waterOgallala Formation, a Pliocene sheet conditions,permeability,andwater situation.Itis a giant sandbox;, rain about 400 feet Thick that maintains the table; these terms and concepts seem water infiltrates the dunes, seeps east, east-sloping High Plains, butitalso detached, and the textbook does not and conies out to form rivers. includes Pleistocene valley deposits and provide an adequate frame of reference. Two class meetings allotted to thethe veneer of dunes.Ground water The idea of ground water often does local water supply and four to the Sand seeps cast through the aquifer, dis- not seem real to students. Hills area can provide a good frame ofcharging by seeps and springsinto Why not? The reason is that each reference for understanding th6 role ofgaining (effluent) rivers that incise the area is unique. Ground-water condi- ground water.Three qutistions focus Ogallala in the eastern partof tions vary from place to place in re-any ground-water inquiry: "In which theregion. Thisisa simplehy- sponse to variationsin climate and direction does ground water move?"drologic situationground-water dis- geology. An hour spent paging through "How much water is available?" "What charge equals ground-water recharge. a summary of conditions across the is the quality of the water'" These are Inyearlyaverages,Precipitation country 14] will make this abundantly questions that scientists and engineers(I') Evapotranspiration (E) t In- evident,Considering all the possible must answerif an area's water re-filtration(/) Runoff . 1? . The sources arc to be managed wisely, ,usable water (water yield) of an area I U S. Geological Son'. Washington, D.G. 20242; is / ; R; whether the water is under- frce. HOWdoes water get to the drink-ground or at the surface, itis all the ing fountaininthe hall?The same water,The Sand Hulls project The author leaches geology Middlebury school College, Middlebury, Vermont. The geology librarian should obtainthree program is built around current problems, rt. fet...:nces, numbers I, 4, and 7,2 The Suttetantentlentof1)1)(01110ns,U.S.Gos ernment Piloting office.11';Ishingtifil, D.C.20402, $2, in place of traditional courses. first of these includes a discussion of $4 50 $1.50, resp,citvely,

178 allows students to quantify the cqua- tionto determine the water yield for this region. Annual precipitation aver- ...... ages about 19 inches.flow much of thisisusable?.Isitas much asI() inches? After all, rahLsoaks into sand T -"..,_ and should quickly seep below the . \. Figure 2. Map area for Sand 422,--"-' reach of evaporation and plant roots. Hills project.Hydrologic data On the other Nand. the climate is semi- absent in unshaaed areas.In- arid:perhapsverylittlewater is filtration areas lie in the quad- recharged. At least we know P. rangles inside dotted line. I I During the project. study of maps %%ill show that there is no surface run- sonable to conclude that the lakes are for the entire Sand Hills. encompassing off except in the east. and the students hydrologically connected beneath the more than ten stream-gauging stations will prove that no ground water flows surface, and so they are water-table and infiltration areas.Howeyer. itis into the region from the west. There- lakes*: The 3.800-foot water-table con- sufficient to sttatv only a part of the fore. I' E I. Can they measuretour starts in the northwest corner: it Sand Hills. encompassing two adjacent /' Yes, because / seeps to the surface must continue between School Section stations andoyerlappinginfiltration to constitute the water flowing in the Lake (3.811) and Alkali Lake (3,797). areas. These are centered in a set of rivers in the eastern part.The U.S. It extends on the northeast side of an twenty -one 13-minute waadrangles Geological Survey makes daily meas- unnamed lake (3.810), but turns south (Figure ' and appendix). urements atstream-gauging stations just west of Melvin Lake (3,798). A Map Projects usually start with con- on these rivers, and it publishes values piece of string can be placed on the fusion, and the first class meeting need of riser discharge (I? )past the sto- mar to record the 3.800-foot contour, accomplish no more than convince stu- tions. In order to calculate I. students and other pieces can be added for the dents that they can trace water-table need merely establish the infiltration :1.750 and 3.8:0 contours. The stringscontours on maps thathave many area that feeds water to a particular represent a surface that is mostly be- lakes. In the second meeting. each stu- station; / times the area 51ld equal heath the lattc: surface; knowing the dentbecomes acquaintedwithhy- the R at the station. elevation of a point on the land surfac. droloaie features on the map assigned-- How willthe students :limit theone could estimate how deep itisto to him. He may start laying pieces of infiltration area?They need merelywater table.Also. one could pick a string along contours, using a 50-foot draw the path of ground water that point near the west edge and trace the interval. The string can be displaced a seeps into the river at the station: the probable path of ground water across mile or so laterally without seriously area inside this line is the infiltration the quadrangle. affecting the results. Maps with .scant area.Flow do they know where to Lake elevations are not the onlydata (Figure 2) challenge the`inter- draw the line?If they have a map pointsforcontouringwatertable. ested student.Maps with abundant showing water-table contours, this is a Swamps. creeks, and flowing wells are lakesare easy to contour, and the simpletask,hecause ground water also data. The flowing wells represent_success can motiy ate the student who moves at right angles to each contour. water table thatispotentially above has not shown interest.Ithelps to Thus, the line is drawn (on each side land surface but is hindered by a con-post an index map, with quadrangle of the river) upgradient from the sta- fininghardpan ofsiltandcaliche. names and student assignments, so tion, curving in order to cross eachWhere theflatdepressions have nothat students can compare their work contour at right angles. hydrologic features, the water table is with contours on adjacent quadrangles. Where do students get a water -table probably only 10 feet below the sur- By the third or fourth meeting. stu- map? They make it.Their data are face.The elevation of a windmill is dents should be ready to compile con- the hydrologic features that show in not the elevation of water table, nortours. Four maps at 1:250,000 (four blue tin topographic maps of the region. is a tiny pond near a windmill: itis miles to the inch) serve as base maps These features arc "outcrops" of water probably fed by the well. On the other for the project.(See the appendix.) table, and their elevations are the basis hand. the elevation of a windmill is a Although no marks should be made for drawing water-table contours. quick guide to the elevation of the land on the 15-minute quadrangles, the base The teacher who has not worked surface: this saves hunting for topo- maps are expendable; itis well worth with water-table contours could study graphic contours. providing two sets of base maps for the Ashby quadrangle. Nebraska, which_ each class section. On both sets, have is likely to be in the set of topographic ISapparentthata I 5-minute a student carefully rule boundaries of maps at the school. The lake levels ITquadrangle is too small an area to the twenty-onc 15-minute quadrangles, arcnotrandom but becomepro- yield much information. Given enough as guides, he will find black crosses giessively lower to the east.It is rca-time. students 'could map water table on the base maps, where f5-minute

179

1 1 -.-3,4" {-5.01.-04.0s f-

lines intersect. On one set, quadranglethe area and weigh it. To detet mine A ppendix. Maim for NebrasAa names are neatly written, and then the the unit weight of the paper. plot an Sand Hills Project 21 quadrangles are cut out and dis- area 20 miles square and weigh it. A Older from Distribution Section. U S. tributed. Each student uses his portion balance with a precision of 0.1 grams Geolo,:ical Stu vevI acid! Centel. Den- of the base map for sketching contours, will give results within 10 percent; a ver. Coloi ado 80225. Allow one month lot delivers. in pencil. He dashes lines where data chemical balance will give more precise ludo, to topographic maps of Nebraska. are absent. He matches contours with results. No charge. those on adjacent quadi-aitgles, and Given the weights of the infiltration 15.minute topographic maps. 1 w ent -one then compiles contours on the baseareas and the 400 square-mile area. maps at 50 cents: $10 50. map. After all the portions arc com-each student calculates each area of Ashby Iiiie Spade Ranch Big ballsI akeside Spring Valley piled, the base maps are trimmed and infiltration.Given thedischargeat Bingham I ongfellow Steverson taped together. each station, he calculates how many Bull Lake I ake As the work progresses, the teacher inches of recharge each year will equal Carr I ake Mullen Turpin Lake Dismal NIumper Twin Lakes monitors 'the work. Contours make a yearly runoff past the station.This River Seneca Whitman V-pointing upstream at each stream is just a matter of converting area in RanchShimmins Wolf Lake crossing. The V may be faint except square miles to area in square feet, de- George Lake Lake in the eastern part, where rivers cut as termining the number of seconds per 1:250,000-scale maps, Nebraska. Foul .maps much as 100 feet below the upland;year, solving for recharge in feet per at 75 cents: S3 poiset.Order two sets here, the V may extend ten miles oryear, and converting to inches. The per class section. more westward. and contours may be numbers get large, and this is an op- Alliance NK 13-6 bunched along the valley walls. ,The North Platte NK 14-7 portunity ;I show students how to work Scottsbluff NK 13-9 point of the V crosses the creek at the with powers of ten. Valentine NK 14.4 same topographic elevation as the con- 20 percent discount for 01 der, of S20 or tour; the 3,000-foot contour crosses ISthisprojectfeasibleinjunior 1110I e. at 3.000 feet. Conceptually, these con- 1 high school? What are the hurdles? For ground -water atlas. geologic bechorfe map. andNebraska'swatersupply(no tours demonstrate that ground waterThe $15 for maps, which might not charge),write:Conservation and Survey. moves toward the creeks. In the west- get used, and the thought of devoting Division. Director and State Geologist. Uni- ern part, two or more contours close an entire week to a ground-water unit, versityofNebraska.I ineoln.Nebraska 68508. around the ground-water mound; thisshould not be major obstacles.The is obvious from elevations of the lakes biggest hurdle might be fear that the References there, but itis critical to the project. project will not work as neatly as de- I. Dm fol. C. N.. and E. Becker."Public Water Supplies of the 100 I artiest Cities Individualstudentsareassigned scribed.Well, it may not.But the in the United States, 1962." U.S. Geo- special tasks. One is to plot the loca- week should be consi lercd an experi- logical Survey Watei -Supply Paper '1812. tion of two stream-gauging stations: 3 ment in which there is nothing to lose. 1964. 364pp. Station 310 is in Sec. 8, 1'.24 N., R. The piimary goal is to gain experience Hamilton. D. IL. alai R.I..Meehan. "Ground Ruptine 'in the Baldwin Hills." 32 W., and its discharge averages 134 in scientific inquiry, not to determine Sc is m r 172:333.344; April 23, 1971. cfs (cubic feet per second).Station the exact infiltration rate. The teach- 3.Healy. J. IL. ei al. he Denver Earth- 7750 is in the SW 1/4 Sec. 17, T. 24er's roleis to provide guidance, not quakes."Science161:1301-1310; -Sep- tember 27. 1968, N., R. 31 W., and its discharge aver- answers. . . 4.McGuinness, C. I.. "I he Role of Ground ages 199 cfs. Given. this attitude, the teacher starts Water in the National Water Situittion.- After contours have been compiled the ground-water unit with the map U.S.GeologicalSurveyWater-Supply Paper 1( 'RI.1963.112Ipp. and stations located, .another task is to work.If students loseinterest,the 5.Mo/ola. A. J. "I he Water-1 able Surface sketch the limits of thoinfiltration area teacher stops the map work in mid- from II y diologic and Topogiaphic Fea- that feeds each station: Lines-start atclass and starts on the textbook treat- times.Au Esea elseinEnvircamental the station and are drawn upgradiem, ment of ground :'rater; next meeting, Geology." Journal of Geologh al 14:187-190: December 1966. at right angles to each contour in turn; the map work resumes. But so long as 6,Piper. A. NI. "Interpretation and Current they join on the axis of the ground- students show interest, map work con- Status of Ground -Water Rights."U.S. water mound. The infiltration area lies tinues; students will read the book out- Geological Survey Circular 432.1960. I Opp. somewhere inside the dotted line of side of class in order to help their work 7.Schneider, W. J. "Water Data for Metro- Figure 2. on the maps.13.!en if time runs out politan Ai eas: A Summary of Data from A Third task is to measure the sizebefore the project is completed, stu- 222 Areas in the United States."U.S, of each infiltration area. This is -clone dents will have learned much about the Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1871,1968. 397e by tracing itslimits through carbonbehavior of growls! water. Incidentally, 8. Thon: s, B. E. "Ground Witter and the paper onto a sheet of paper. Cut but the teacher may find at the end of the Law."U.S. Geological Survey Circular week thatclassmorale was never 44(,,1961. 6pp. 9. homas, IL E. "Wale: Laws-and Con- .-higher, and that he has discovered a tr:N.Geologic.:Sore,*Water-Supply rapers cepts,"U.S. Geological Survey Circular I dO and 17:10. new dimension to teaching. 629.1970. -18pp.

JP() ROWBOAT OCEANOGRAPHY

Will Hon

IT was bound to happen. We keptstudents out on the research vessels ofof their attitudes. Teach them a fres!i, I gettingthose questionnaires fromour several local laboratories, and thequestioning approach to marshes, and educators asking aboutthe kind ofcareer implications are considerable.you have penetrated a daily routine. vessel we use for ocean study ...and Those experiences have the exhilara-Give them a vision of life beneath the I kept writing in "JUNK." The othertion of novelty and magnitude. scintillating surface of the sound, and day a fellow with a Richard Halli- However, I would not swap oceanyou have disquieted a casual accept- burton glimmer came to check on ourvoyages for the homely field trips weance. YOu prc)ably stimulate a con- quaint oriental monstrosity."Jehosa-take among the fiddler crabs and killi-tinuing dialogue between youngsters phat!" he chortled. "Junk itis!Just fishes.In that statement there is logicand the voices of the environment. a pile of blooming junk.Does thatof crunching significance.Itrelates "Addiction to habitat" means that piece of skiff really float?" "Usually,"to follow-upwhat might be termedonce you slir lip more questions than I said. "But ifit sinks, we just wade"addiction to a habitat." answers, sludents can't pass a new ashor 1 t You see, the people of a coastaldrainage ditch or even an old spoil pile e don't apologize for the Carteretarea wallow, atleastvisually,in awithout rehashing the debate in search County Navy. Marine science is whatpanorama of salt marshes, sounds, andof better explanations. The mundane you make it, and to us it is the studydredging-st,oil islandsThese becomebecomes mystical.Routine observa- of the coastal environment in which the half-seenrealities of a student'stions become clues for the environ- we work and play. We are a peopledaily diet of views from school bus,mental detective, who is happily hooked of, by, and for the sea; but, for mostcar, and back porch.The resultis on the habit of applying ecology to-life. students th. outer limit of contact vithgrowth of a strong subconscious rap- One nice thing about basing your the oceanisoutthere where theyport with the patterns and beauty ofprogram on a rowboat is that if the paddletheir,.irfboardsto catchacoastalvistas, along with conscious,school board cuts your budot. you wave. We h ve sent some advancedbored acceptance of the too-common.can do wit' Au. the boat. You have This isa perfect situation for an the m.o. as already: the environ- intellectualrevolution.Tho edge of ment the students.Mix in -,:ny Mr Hon is director of the Marine Sciencethe sea, being the students' habitat,pro .1, stir vigorously in the wind Project of the Carteret Cot!nly Board of Education, Ptvers Island, Beaufort, North their parents' livelihood, and every-anc. sun for whatevertrue is available, Carolina body's recreational outlet: is the cru: and you have a unique concoction. Let

181

Ca My

J. v.. ' CLOTH'E'SI+ A 11 G- Sc..12 Mt ay.6 MI f 1 2 - b f k 011-1 (I E S-t-' z t niCi- O f4 ST A w.. E-,-s A quadrat or sample plot can be estabgshed by any of the methods indicated above or just scratched out in-the sand.

the students find or fabricate the equip- 3.What happens to the patterns inas teacher, can give the students the ment they need. time, as the forces vary because of"benefit" of your experi,:nce and train- cycles or disruption? ing infield ecology, resulting in tine HOW do you help students tackle aThese threebasic questions can bedata and only moderate student gains. complex environment with ques-tackled in about that form, but willOr you can let them evolve their own tions of transcendent impact? How domore often have to be -Molded to theapproaches and techniques, resulting you help them arrive at the sensitive specific environment. in rather poor data but great student =1 -thourelationsh:p:, withaslushy, achievement.If you have the raw stinking morass of black Mud? Surely N a salt marsh, the first question maymaterials to work with, students will not by quoting to them a string ofIbecome these specific problems: evolve a suitable method of data col- statistics in the professorial tradition.A. What are the relationships betweenlection, almost always a sampling tech- But a fair percentage of students will plant distribution,tide, and ele-nique.Here arc some typical solu- respond to the challenge of figuring -vation? tions, suggesting the types of materials -out for themselves what makes a marsh B. What causesthegradationsin you should have on hand. tick.._ height and density of salt marsh- Sampling vegetationusuallycalls "Tick"._ is not far-fetcht.d, for eco- cordgrass within the intertidal zone. for a transect. This is a line, marked- system analysis is much like studying a and why do bare areas occur? off or imagined, which cuts across the watch. A lot can be learned b-flitch-C. What arc the habitats of the major area.This cross-sectionis described Mg the movement closely.Still, sonic animal species within the commu-to represent the whole area.Several parts are hidden; you will want to nity,and what niches do theyother transects will improve the accu- remove pai.s one at a time to sec how probably occupy? (This may leadracy of the description. However, even they relate to each other%When you to construction of a food web.) a transect is usually too much to de- remove one, though, it alteNthe whole These problems all call for system scribe in detail. More often time per- functioning of the system. And a pieceatic observation and recording. mitsc..lysample plots- along_the--- removed is no longer observable as part of a dynamic systemit is only an object.However, the looker can eventually picture the chain of events which make up the action' of the system, and by analyzing several watches one may even be able to generalize some of the principles by which all timepieces function. Likewise, you study an environment by observing the functioning, by examining individual pieces, and by ques- tioning the role of parts individually and together.Basically you Mill ask: 1.What are the patterns? 2: What are the physical forces that create the patterns?

182 advocated was the construction of a source de % clopment upon local Atlan- co-author of this article and a gco- networkofwellsalongthelower tic Witt.: Cedar ecosystems. chemist now conducting his own study reaches of the largerstreams,well The SOS program is a competitive of processes controlling the chemistry abow tidal influence. Through pump- program sponsored b) the Foundation of rain waters. ri%cr %%deers. and ground ing near the streams, recharze could be in order to encourage college students watersinthe Pine Barrensregion. induced fromthestreamsintothe to express in productive ways Their conserved as the faculty advisor. aquifer.Water would be caused tocern for the environment and to help The I4 -man project was organized flow from the stream through its sand support groups of students who can from the start into four groups: biology. and gravel bed and toward, the well demonstrate their readiness to assume chemistry,. geology:, and land-Ise teams. bore below. This method promises to increased responsibility for their own A four, -man steering committee, *con- bethe' leastdisturbingto general educationaldevelopment. Proposed sisting three, team leaders and the ground-water levels, producing waterprojectsmust be student-originated, project director, ensured that ample by reducing the normal net loss from student-planned. and student-directed. communication existedbetweenthe the aquifer. The project must deal with a problem separate phases of the project and that One aspect of this plan that Rhode- related to the physical, biological, and/ the overall research program was modi- hamel, aprofessional hydrologist, failed or social environment.Furthermore, fied as the project evolved. to address, was the ecological effect the approachtounderstanding the Last spring, a preliminary survey this pumping would ha% c on the Atlan-problem and the search for solutions team set out into the Pine Barrens to tic White Cedar swamps. These swamps must be interdisciplinary in nature. determine likely sites for investigation. line almost every Pine Barrens stream Projects occupy 10 to 12 weeks dur- The summer roles of the biology. chem- and arc the habitat for many rare oring the summer, with all participants istry, and geology teams would be to endangered forms of animal and plantworking full time on the project. Whileassess the impact, on cedar swamp life.(Figures 2, 3, 4) The-cedar trees graduate students may participate, the plant distributions, of water removal typically grow in a peat deposit from emphasis has to be clearly on under- by pumping from the sands underlying 0.2 to 20 feet thick, which fills a por-graduates. The students arc directedthe swamp peaty.Sits. were examined tion of th shallowly incised stream val- by a student project director who or-to find a variety of water-table depths, ley.Soil moistureis abundant corii-ganizes, manages, and writes up the salt gradients (in areas where salt in- parea to that of the upland pine forests, study. A faculty member is designated trusion had occurred), and light inten- and, consequently, late spring fires arc as an-advisor. While he should have sities.Swamps withdifferentrelief generally di:it:I-tut-aged from burning the expertise in the fields in question. hiswere searched out so that we could otherwise flammab!: peat. role is strictly passive. The studentsdetermine the importance of different createt' _:r own educational experi-horizontal flow rates within the peat IN October 1970, a group of under- ence. layer itself. When we found ourselves graduates at Princeton University Tom Givnish, then a sophomore ma- at Bear Swamp Hill Tower, we had 20 submitted a proposal to the Nationaljoring in mathematics, and co-author potential sites, but we lacked three pco,-- Science Foundation through the NSF of the project proposal and this article, plc for a 14-man team. NSF requcs,s Student-Originated Studies in linvir:m was the project director. David K is- each project director to allow room in mental Problems Program (SOS) to man, associate professor of geological his group fore students whose projects study the effects o. proposed w4terc- and geophysical sciences at Princeton, have failed to win financial support, so

Figure 2. A typical pine barrens landscapeFigure S.Rafe double form of Rose Po- Figure 4.Curly grass fern occurs only in is domin,..ed by pitch pine. gonia, an orchid COMMoa to the swamps. the Barrens and coastal Newfoundland.

186 that they also can benefit from this unique research opportunity.There- fore, fill to the three places on the S. capillaceum research team, students were chosen summit exposed, moist from the University of California at San Jose, Stanford University, and the 'water level University of Peires5ylvania. / / v.,,,--, S. quinquetarium / v..- OUR first field problem-was that of / technique. We had originally in- % . tended to map plant distributions and slope drained, damp measure light,water, chemical, and foot S.erythrocalyx capillary zone geophysical gradients over 200 X 30C water toe flooded ft swamp -:'!ctors at each of 14 sites. S.cuspidatum Thegeologyteamestablishedthe height and position of a rather random Figure 5.. Schematic cross section of ceo.a swamp hummock. The sphagnum species grid of points by plane table, probed zonation correlates with micro-environmental variations in moisture supply. for peat depth, sampled the peat with corers, and placed water-sampling wells veyed, the geology team pulled a manilaa stratified zonation on hummocks and in the peat layer. We measured the pHline taut through the line of stakes andtree trunks that was traced as a func- and temperature of water samples in tied a red marker every five feet en thistion of water-table depth over 100 ft the field and constructed maps for laterline. Water-sampling wells were placedof transect. Along this transect, condi- use by the biology team. Under ourat a few of the stakes, arid water-tabletions of light intensity and ion concen- original scheme the biology team wasdepth was measured at all stakes on atrations were relatively constant.At to identify and map all plant species at line throughout thesummer. anothersite, Atsion Lake(site H; or above the taxonomic level of mosses, Thisinitialgroundworkbythe figure 1), we found that four competing over what proved to be an unmanage-geology tdam greatly_ speeded up and species of sphagnum moss had adapted able area. simplified the procedures of the biology themselves to living in environmental The chemistry team remainedat team. Armed with 1 X 2 ft wooden or niches defined by water-table levels and Princeton and analyzed the water sam-wire frames, team mei-fibers counted Other factors related to the geometry of ples collected by the geology team.plant individuals occurring within 2the !limnock.In the pools between Because-A:A' water coloration caused bysq ft sample areas spiced 5 ft apart hummocks, S. cuspidanun crowded out tannic acid and iron complexes. or-adjacent to the red markers. Samplesall competitors except algae. At the dinary colorimetric methods could notof moss and of most other unknown foot of the -hummock. well within the be used; an atomic absorptionspecies were collected for later iden-capillary fringe, the large sphagnum, spectrophotometer was employedin tification. S. erythrocalyx, lined the pool edges. the analysis for sodium, potassium. cal- Plant banding on hummocks was an-The sphagnum heads were growing cium, magnesium. and iron. Chlorideother subject of study for the biologywith large spaces between them: Since analyses were completed using a spe-team. Hummocks are small convexevaporation lossis no threattoit, cific ion electrode. The chemistry teammounds of sphagnum moss and peat-.51-erythrocalyx was here maximizing its also blew the whistle promptly on thewhich rise above the common floor ofgrowth potential by inereasing-its-effec-. inordinate amount of sampling we had the swamp. generally surrounding a tree tivelight-gatheringand gaseous -ex= originally envisioned. bole. Rising as much as 3 feet in achange surface.Atop these grew S. After initial difficulties. we adoptedhemispherical dome above the swampquinquefarium which showed a pheno- a simplified. more reasonable approach floor, hummocks have a greater evap- typic response (locally adaptive growth to our problem. The geology team sur-orative surface-to-volumeratiothan response induced by the micro-environ- veyed two to four transect lines judi-have flat or concave sections of thement) to increased evaporation loss. ciously placed along light. water. chem-swamp.(Figure 5)Since chemicalNear its lower border, with S. erythro- ical, or geophysical gradients at eachions arc concentrated in the interporeca!ys, it also grew with a-great deal of site.The survey wasconducted bywater as it evaporat4 from the capil-space separating each head, or capitu- transit, as opposed to the less accuratelaryfringe, hummocks embody thelum. But with increasing elevation on and more cumbersome method of ali-sharpest, most sudden transitions inthe hummock, evaporation becomes a dade and plane table. Contfol stations.water level and chemical concentra-limiting factor, and the gaps between were spaced approximately -30feet tions within the generally low relief ofthe heads grow mailer. until the moss apart, and the peat depth at each stake the swamp. is quite compact. Apparently S. quill- was measured. At Albertson Branch (site B: Figurequefar:tun was sacrificing growth poten- Whep- each irtmsect had been sur-1), mosses, algae, and lichens formedtial to better compete in a less moist

187 EARTH SCIENCE calibratedliTie eyebolt The -Secchi Disk: An Instru- ment for Measuring_ Water Trarsparency THOMAS P. EVANS, Assistant Professor, Department of Science, Education, Oregon State University, Corvallis circular plate Water transparency, expressed as the weight depth or limit of visibility, is of interest in the study of lakes, ponds, rivers, or estuaries because of its relationship to the transmissionoflight- inwater: Water transparency is determined pri- Top and sideviewsof the Secchi disk, used for determining water transparency. The disk marily by dissolved substances, sus- is made of -a metal plate, which may be 20 to 30 cm in diameter. pended materials, organismS, and the angle and intensity of entering light. [21 The weight is constructed by sup-of visibility is the arithmetical mean of these same factors determine lightporting a three-inch metal funnel up-the depth at which the disk disappears transmissioninwaterand,conse-right with a ring and -ring stand. Plugand the depth at which it reappears. quently, regulate biological- processesthe tube of the funnel with asbestos or Variables, such as time of day, dif- Within hodies of water. Therefore, aglass fibers.Screw one or two _nutsferent,observers,distance of observer's tehensive study of a lake, pond, -- onto the lower end of the eyebolt. Useeye froth surface,sciegreerof roughness riVer, or estuary would be incompletea burette,clamp to suspend -the- eyeboltof water,- diameter of disk=, condition withoutonsideration being given tointo the center of the_ funnel so that theof disk's upper surface, and_ clearness feAransparency of water. "eye" -and -= approximately one-fourthof the atmosphere, cause the Secchi nt of the most widely used instru-inch of threads are above the top edgereadings_to vary for the_samewater on me-MSfoe measuring water transpar-,of the funnel. Be sure that the funnelthe sanre date. [1 _In order to obtain -encyiSrthe Secchi disk, devised by Pro-and ring Stand have good support be-data that are_ consistent, accurate, and essorSecchi, an Italian. The Secchicause the next step is to fill the funnel useful for making comparisons,_observe iSlcdOes not provide an actual meals-With molten lead, Whenthe lead cools, the following practi?.al suggestions; urniflight transmission, but once theremove it from- the funnel_and_paint it 1.- Do not allow the upper surface of ithiCof visibility isi determined, esti=black. Screw the eyebolt out of, the disk to become dull or scored. t-eS-of light transmission can be The nuts remain in the lead 2.In- rough water, use a water tele- crime The 'limit of visibility is ap-and facilitate assembling and disassem- scope or the protected side of a roximately the region of transmission bling the Secchi disk. boat or dock. A water teleSeope is el-Cent sunlight. [21BiolOgists Assemble the Secchi disk by screwing simply a four-sided wooden box interested in primary production oftena nut up near the "eye" of the eyebolt, with a glass bottom._ Place_ the glass times the limit of visibility toinsertingthe shank of theeyebolt bottom just below the surface and = tirmatethe lower limit of the cuphoticthrough= the metal plate and screwing view from above. c., the vertical range of trans-the eyebolt into Olt: weight until the3.Be certain that the line or chain is mission of light effective in photosyn-plate is held firmly in place. Attach a accurately calibrated and_ that si esis, II calibrated line or chain to the eyebOlt. diameter of the disk is known andand JStechi disk (see theTigure) con-An advantage of this method- of con- constant. siStf a circular metal plate, 20 cm instruction is that the same circular plate4. View the disk vertically with ob- ilia-Meter, attached to a weight by meanscanbeusedwitliiMerchangeable server's eye at a fixed distance from ota=small eyebolt. After cutting out aweights. Larger weights are often nec- surface. One meter is a suitable circular plate, drill a hole in the centeressary to hold the Secchi disk =in- distance. slightly- larger than the shank of thetion in moving water. 5. Make the observation in the shade, eyebolt. Paint the lower surface of the To use the disk, lower it into a body during the middle of the day; avoid plate =black to eliminate reflection ofof water oria calibrated line until it early morning and late afternoon -woitfrom that surface. Use maskingdisappears from view.Take a -line observations.A largeumbrella stapelo divide the upper surface intoreading. The circular plate must re- makes an excellent sunshade. fOur quadrants.Paint two quadrantsmain horizontal to the surface at all6.In addition to the Secchi readings, dir&tly opposite each other white andtimes. Raise the disk until it reappears, keep complete records of the vari- t he=intervening ones black. and note the two readings. The limit ables, including date, time, place,

190 observer. and description of the BIOLOGY The liquid will develop a brownish atmosphere. --tint; an-intermediate purple may appear The Secchi disk, used as directed.Comparison Test for Oxygenmomentarily, but disregard this. The provides a useful tool for studying theContent of Water Samples intensity of the brownish tint will vary with the oxygen content; a deeper color environment.Following are some ofDAVID J. KUHN, Assistant Profes- the questions that can be investigated.sor, Biology Department, Mankatois an indication of a greater amount of I. To what extent does water trans-State College, Mankato, Minnesotaoxygen.. parency-differ for the same body of The test can be used as a simple water from day to day and season Biological education for the Seven-qualitative test for the oxygen content to season? ties will- surely see an increasing empha-of variousreadily obtainable water 2,What are the differences in watersis on education in the environmentalsamples, such as tap water. distilled transparency of local lakes, ponds,sciences. The desirability and necessityWater, rainwater, or aquarium water, _rivers,- or estuaries? for these programs is indisputable; theA simple experiment might compare 3.Does water transparency vary sig-lack is in appropriate teaching- mate-the oxygen content of "normal- tap nificantly with distance from indus-rials. The following simple qualitativewater with boiled tap water and water trial or sewage treatment plants? test for oxygen would be -broadly -ap-that has been aerated. 4. Do temperature, dissolved oxygen,plicable in environmental education at This oxygen-content comparison phosphates, pH, number and kindsthe precollege level. technique is useful in pollution studies of living organisms, and_ salinity The basic chemical substance usedof alMost any-type, In the classroom, differ significantly at various Secchiin these experiments is an alkaline solu--the oxygen content of _water in a pol- depths? (Suggestions-for collectingtion of sodiumpyrogallatc, an_- oxygenluted aquarium containing_ a consid- water samplesatvarious depthsabsorber which is used_ in -classic ex-erable amount of decaying organic ma- werepresentedrby_Evans in-the Mayperiments:requiring_ an oxygen-depletedterial can be compared With that_in a 1969jssueof The_ScienccTeacher.).atmosphere: For example; seeds coinwell-maintained. "b-alanced"Auarium. 5.What specific factors can-be-denti-_be suspended over=__ ariolkalinepyro, _These_studies _can- be carried- on for fied that-are reducing-water trans-gallate solution toillustratothefact_that _ several- weeks;-the- oxygen7conten_t_data parency- of -locallakes, ponds,seeds require oxygen- ler -germina- -can- be compared _with changes lo;the rivers, -and -estuaries?- -- living:systems= in-the _aquariunt. Charts Anotlier-investigatioorelates- to-the- A siMple qt0litatiWteSt---loroxygen _ and__ graphs__can sbc:_prepared." These disk itself: A review-of -the literaturecontent of _various bedies_OUWater=candata can -be- Trojected -from microcco- reveals that the Secchi de-bc performed -as fol ,Cortt pie telysystanis to en vi roti men taf_distu rbinces scribed as =being from 20 to 30-em- in-fill a 50 cc capacity test Abbe_ With-: iniargeraquatic ecosystems. Theeac-_ diameter. -:Thisiack of- agreement leadssample- of water: (A- slightly largertivitiesreinforte the principles -learned to the following question. What:varia-capacity_test =tubomay_ also be used:)- in the classroom -experimentation4-and tionsin- readings are introduced byUsingA-WeeterS; -drop-three-tablets of -make them more relevant to -students' using Secchi -disks of different diame- potaSSiturt hydroAde (KO:H)_ -into-thelife Situations-. -Excellent -filets, __sUch_as ters for a = -wide range of water trans-solutien---1Vartiing: Do not handle the"Who__Killed-Lake-Erie?" 1-clippings parencies?__Such an investigation-mightKOH with -the fitigers.It is-caustic to and scientifically accurate articleS-_-_frOm lead to the_ standardization of Secchithe skin and should be =handled withmagazines of popular 'interest can also -care._ _Also,close the--,KOH bottle disk diaMeters.- [1]---zn be effect-ft-in:increasing the awareness promptly, or =the residual- pelletS1=i-willandunderstandingsofstudents--_ of References freeze-together. Make a "cup" out of-the factors that affect environmental a glass tube 2.5 cm- (1- -inch) by .6 emquality. 1.Holmes, RoberCW. 'The Secchi Disc."(1/4 inch) diameter by heating one end Martek- Mariner2:1; February 1970, Thissimpleoxygencomparison 2.Reid, GeorgeK.Ecology of Inlandof the tube until -the ends fuse. Place Waters and Estuaries.Van Nostrandsolid sodium pyrogallate in the tube;technique can also be used effectively Reinhold Company, New York. 1964 press the pyrogallate with a glass rodin field situations. The minimal amount 3.Welch, Paul S.Linthological Methods. of apparatus and materials reqttired The Rlakiston Company, Philadelphia,to pack_ it firmly. Covet the_ exposed Pennsylvania. 1948. surface -with a small amount Of-WaterMake the procedure appropriate-_-for from the sample solution, use in field trips. A portable "field_Jcit" Drop the "cup" in the -test tube.With sufficient quantities for an-entire Place a rubber stopper into the end ofclass can be quickly and easily pre- the tube. Be certain that the tube ispared.The oxygen contentof the filled-to the_brim,to minimize air spaceswater at various "stations" along a that will affect the validity of the re-stream, or above and below a major sults. Repeatedly invert and reinvertsource of pollution, may be_tested._ The the tube. oxygen content of the water can- be

191 tested and related to thelife forms GENERAL is releasetf by pu ing the wire attached present at each location. to-the cork. Onct. opened. the can fills with water. and the spring forces the Tlie test can be made more quantita- Water Sampling Apparatus cork into place. Marks arc placed on tive by the use of colorimetric methods:and Determination of the aluminum rod to indicate the vari- i.e.. a color reaction of the water-py- Dissolved Oxygen in Water ous depths. The rubber hose is con- rogallate mixture may be compared THOMAS P.EVANS, Assistant venientfortransferringwaterinto with a color chart-of known concentra- Professor, Department of Sciencesampling bottles. anditreduces the tions of oxygen expressed in parts per Education, Oregon State University, water's contact with atmospheric million. The oxygen content of a waterCorvallis oxygen. sample may be determined using the Winkler Method {2. 3] or by using an A study of a pond or lake would be Determining DO in Water - electronic oxygen probe. The color ofincomplete-- withoutinvestigating. the A number of methods are available the resultant reaction in the tube couldquantity of dissolved oxygen (DO) in for determining the DO content of fresh be compared to the chart and the ap-the water. The presence and success and salt water.[1] The method de- proximate_ O. content of the sampleof various aquatic organisms are described here is the Winkler method. determined. If a spectrophotometer ispendent upon the quantity of available [1.2] The reagents and directions for available, it also may be used to com-oxygen. In some cases,_ oxygen is the their preparation follow: pare-samples of known oxygen contentlimiting factor as far as survival of 1.Manganous sulfate Whit (M80'4- with various unknown solutions. organisms is concerixd. This is true in urban areas Where large quantities of H20 ) ts 364 grams in. 1 liter of dis- This crude:technique for oxygen con- organic waste drain or are dumped tilled water, tent-comparison of various bodies of into ponds, lakes, and rivers.In fact, 2.Concentrated sulfuric acid (HtSO4). --- water, if used in the proper context the lack of available oxygen in water 3.Alkaline-iodide reagent: 700-grams and -at -an appropriate level of sophisti- is one_ ofthe- _problems of man-_ potassium- hydroxide (KOH) and cation; =can be an invaluable teaching_ kind. The quantity of-DO is so impor, -150---grams -potassium iodide (KI) aid. taut thatits_study seems highly appra7 in 1 liter of-distilled-Water: priate for science-students. 4. Starch solution: I percent_solution Who Killed Lake Erie? NBCEducational En- of soluble _starch in a =20- percent terprises, 30 Rockefeller Plaza,NewYork,N.Y. This article -describes an apparatus 10020. for collecting-water Samples and-fa- pro- -solution_asodinth chloride (NaCI). cedure for rdetermining-ithe quantity of Bring _the_ -salt_ solution__to a boil References DO inwater.Included in __this _pro- before adding starch. cedure are a list= of -reagents and- direc-5. -0 ;1 normalsodium --thiosulfate 1.Morholt. E., P. Branduein, and A. Jo- stock -soltition (Na S203 st ph.A Sourcebook for the Biologicaltions for-their-preparation. in addition, Sciences.Harcourt, Brace -8 World, Inc.,-various_ investigations ,utilizing-the-ap= -25 grams in 1 liter a -distilled -New York. 1966. paratuS and procedures are presented. water. The- solution May =be pre- 2. Theroux. P., E. A. Eldridge, and,A. Mall=These investigations are suitable for served by_adding 0.4 grams-sodium MumLaboratory Manual for Chemical hydroxide. and== Bacterial Analysis of Water andscience -teathd-Sandstudentsand Sewage.McGraw-Hill Book Company, should serve as focal points for indi- 6.0.01normal- sodiumtbioulfate New York. 1943. vidual and group research prOjects. -titrating solution: dilute -100milli- 3; Welch, P.Limnological Methods.Mc- liters of the stock solution -to I liter Graw-Hill Book Company, New York. 1948. Pp. 207-11. Water Sampling Apparatus with distilled water. This solution The collection of water samples from should be standardiiedusing 3 various depths requires sonic ingenuity. drops of starch solution and 10 ml However, the apparatus illustrated in of 0.01 norifialspotassium bi-iodate Figure 1= may prove to be useful. The (KI03 -41103)To prep-are 0.01 exact dimensions are not given because normal iodate solution, dry a small they are not critical. In fact, teachers quantity of :reagent grade potas- and students are -encouraged to im- sium bi-iOdate at 105'C- for one provise and to improve the apparatus. hour. Cool and weigh out 0.325 Little explanation is needed for con- grams of potassium bi-iodate. structing or operating the apparatus. Solve-the iodate ,,in 200 ml of dis- Primarily, it consists of a can which is tilled water and transfer to a 1 liter attached to an aluminum- rod. A large measuring flask.Dilute with-dis- cork is held in place by an expansion tilled water to the measuring mark. spring. The cork and spring are secured If potassium bi-iodate is not avail- by a long bolt.After the can is im- able, _a 0.01normal solution of mersed to the desired depth, the spring potaSsium dichromate (K2Cr207)

192

1 Mn" 2(01-ly --)fMn(OH), between animal and plant life and aluminum rod = 2Mn(OH)2 -4-02 2N1110(0W2 the amount of DO in the watern. 4.Does the DO let el in water vary When the precipitate settles. remove significantly with _distance from an the stopper and add 2 ml of sulfuric industrial plant? wire acid.Rest-Jpper and mix by gentle Hopefully. teachers and pupils will inversionuntilsolutioniscomplete. not confine themselves to theSUEEeSted carriage bolt Iodine. equivalent to the orieinal DO int estications. They are encouraced to content, is liberated. The following re- identify and investiente other problems .0° actions occur. expansion spring which ar$,,of real concern to mankind. Mn(OH )2 211" MN-- 21120 Such activities micAt help to bridge the MnO(OH )., 4- 41E71- 2I' schism that currently exists between the science classroom and the rest of life. cork Mn" 12 -+ 31+,0 Pipet a 50 ml aliquot from each sample and place in separate, wide- References plastic washer 1. AmericanPublicHealthAssociation. mouth Erlenmeyer flasks. Titrate with IneStandard Methodsfor-the Examina- wire attachment 0.01 normal thiosulfate to a pale straw tion of Water. Sewage. and hamtrial color. Add 2 ml of starch solution and Wastes.Waverly Press. Inc.. Baltimore. can Maryland.1955. continue the titration until the blue 2. Strickland. 1. D. IL: and Parsons,. T. R. rubber hose color disappears. The titration reaction A MatutalofSea Water Analysis.Fish- follows; eries Research Board. Ottawa. Canada. pinchcock 1965. 12 4- 2NaI -4- Na2SiOg. Calculation of the DO in parts per Figure 1. The water sampling apparatus. million_ is- accomplished by substituting into the following formula. maybe used to standardize the 1000 thiosulfate.Itisprepared in a XBXF:x--X A similar manner except 0.490 grams of potassium dichromate are used.A is the milliliters of aliquot used. B is Using the apparatus, collect a samplethe milliliters of thiosulfate used -in the of water at the desired depth. Transfertitration of iodine. F is the -milligrams the sample into 250 ml sample bottles,of -oxygen equivalent to1milliliter of extending the rubber hose to the bot-standard thiosulfate. _ tom of each bottle. Allow the bottles The oxygen equivalent (F) is com- to overflow two or three times_theirputed from the standardization of thio- volume-and replace the stoppers so t. sulfate (see reagent number 6). Divide air is not entrained. 10 by the number of milliliters of thio- Because oxygen may be lost due tosulfate required to make the standardi- an increaseintemperature and/orzation and multiply the results by 0.08. microbiologicalrespiration,Cie DOThis calculation is based on one gram should be determined within one houratom of iodine being equivalent to eight after the sample is collected. If this is grams of oxygen. not possible, add the manganous sulfate.and alkaline-iodide solutions to the Pofsihle Investigations water samples in the manner described -"Oncethe apparatus has been built inthefollowingparagraph.Once and procedures for the determination of treated, the samples may be set asideDO in water are well in mind, a num- and analyzed at a later date. ber'of questions might be investigated. To each sample, add 2 ml of manga-Included are the following: nous sulfate solution followed by 2 ml 1.Are there major differences in the alkaline-iodide well below the surface DO level of local lakes, ponds, of- the liquid. Replace the stopper and streams, and rivers? mix by inverting the bottle several Does the DO differ from depth to times.The following reactionsare depth, season to season? involved. 3. Are there noticeable relationships

193 ECOLOGY -rapidly being polluted. What the aver-to thousands of times that much phos- age person notices is that more water phate. Consequently, if you measure PhosphateSome Studies of is being covered by ugly, smelly algal the phosphate content of a river just How It Affects Our Water growths. that fish are dying. and that below a'sewage treatment _plant. you ANN L. ABELES, Assistant Profes-streams and lakes are filling with sedi- will often find 10 to 30 ppm (grams sor, Science Department, Frederick ment. The heavy growth of algae and per 1,000.000 ml water) phosphate. 141 Community College, Frederick, the accompanying changes in the bodyAn unnecessary amount of this is prob- Maryland of water are called eutrophication. This ably coming from the detergents we use. process occurs because we are filling A few years ago detergents were in our waters with waste materials which the- news because they were not de- This classroom project consists of three activities concerning the presence of phos- arc rich in nutrients that algae need for gradable by organisms in the water and phate in water. If you can obtain one of growth. The algae then grow and mul- were building up to such concentra- the commercially available kits for testing tiply_ tremendously, taking up the nu- tions that the rivers were covered with water for phosphate ion,( you may wish trients suchas nitrogen and phosphorus foam. Indeed, foaming water came out to use the following activities _in grades from sewage. -ofthe faucets in some communities. 5-12. You-will need to help the younger students with some of the background This bloom of algae blocks out sun- Now detergents are "biodegradable.- nutteiial anal vocabulary and with sonic light to the lower layers of water. When which means they can he broken down of the techniques, such as pipettingliquids the algae die, they are decomposed by by microorganisms. But this is where mid using a microscope. Further study of bacteria which use up the oxygen in the problem =occurs again. The de- the water microorganisms is intended for the water. The fish then die from lack graded detergent, specifically the phos- secondary school students. These activi- of oxygen; their decomposing bodies ties are designed to give students an idea phate in the detergent, is one of the of how phosphate ion in water is measured release more nutrients; more algae and nutrients blamed for the increased cu- and how much phosphate is present iu bacteria grow; and soon the whole body trophication,- Some citieshave banned detergents and fertilizers, to demonstrate of water is a boggy, smelly mess. The phosphate in -detergents. Unfortunately, that soil effectively binds phosphate. anal body of water fills up with the decaying no good substitute for phosphate has to have students observe the changes in the microscopic life in pond or stream mass 'of organiSms and the silt from been found. Although phosphate-free wafer when the water is polluted with runoff from the neighboring land. ,detergents would not stop the cutrophi- excess phosphate. Sonic of these processes occur nor- cation. they would he a good start. The third activity in this series can lead mally all the time. However, man has Another potential source of phos- into or follow a study of how to use a upset the normal rate of aging in bodies phate is the fertilizers used by farmers. microscope. what sorts of microscopic life of water with the huge amounts of are likely to be found in a pond or stream. The use of fertilizer has grown tre- and how to identify and "key" these nutrient:containing sewage he puts into mendously in the past 20 years. For microorganisms. Because it is likely thatthe water every day.This- increased instance, the amounts of nitrogen and you will find a large variety of organisms amount of material speeds the eutro- phosphorus contained in all fertilizers in the pond or stream water. you should phication and death of our lakes and sold in the United States-were, respec- have some references with pictures of streams. --- tively, algae and protozoans available for the 1.0 and 0.85 million tons in students. One of the nutrients thought to he 1949-50; 2.8 and 1.2 million tons in important in this increased eutrophica- 1959-60; and 6.8 and 1.9 million tons tion is the phosphate ion.In normal,in 1968-69. [3] The amount of phos- The people of the world are realizing clean water this nutrient is present in phorus used has more than doubled in that our precious supplies of fresha few parts per billion (ppb). 141 This the past 20 _years and is increasing water, our streams and lakes,are means that normally there would besteadily.Although large quantities of only a few grams -of phosphate in one fertilizers arc used every year, this I Sources for phosphate test kilts: LaNtotte Chem. billion parts, or 1,000,000,000 milli- phosphate is very quickly bound up by realProducts Company. Chestertmkn.Ntauland liters of water. However, the sewage 21620. or Ilach Chemical Company. P.O. llox 907. the soil in forms that arc difficult to Anise, Iowa 51)010. waters of our cities contain hundreds remove. Even phosphate whichis

194 washed off the fields into ponds- or2 stirring rods grams phosphate in 1.000.000 rivers is quickly bound up by soil par- 1 balance capable of weighing to tenths grams detergent. or 0.25 grams ticles that arc also being washed into ofgram phosphate in1 gram of deter- the water.Althoughsonic of the 1 marking pencil or labels gent or fertilizer. phosphate may later be released toOne 1-ml pipette 5.If you have time and enough test- organisms in the water, recent studiesTwo 100-nil volumetric flasks ing materials, determine the phos- by ARS scientists H. Kunishi and phate content of other detergents Method R. Tcrkcltoub indicate that the runoff and fertilizers. I.Dissolve r gram of dctcrgcnt or of fertilizer phosphate is probably not fertilizer in 100 ml distilled waterOptional calculations one of the major sources of the phos- or dissolve in a volumetric flask and 1. phate in our waters. 15,61 After you have calculated the grams Another important agricultural diluteto100 ml withdistilled phosphate per gram of fertilizer. water. source of phosphate is in the sewage Label this "first dilution.** calculate how much phosphate you and-runofffrom livestock feedlots and2.Pipette1 ml of the first dilution are adding to the soil when you poultry producers.Agricultural Re- into another volumetric flask and follow the directions for diluting the search Service (ARS) scientists arc diluteto100 ml withdistilled fertilizer for potting soil. Weigh out the amount of dctcrgcnt experimenting with plant-soil filters and water, or put the1 ml in one of which is recommended for washing betterdesigned sewage lagoonsas- the beakers and add 99 ml of dis- metheds of controlling this waste. 121 tilled water.Label this "second- a load of clothes, Calculate how much phosphate is present in that Municipal sewageisalsoa major dilution." source of phosphate in our waters. A3.Follow the directions for phosphate amount of dctcrgcnt (one or one plant-soil filter project is being tested analysis included with the kit.. (If and one -half cups or whatever is in a pilot plant near Phoenix, Arizona. the solution is too concentrated, recommended on the label). These plant-soil filters consist of large dilute the second dilution 1 to 10. grass-covered basins. The grass uses up If the solution is too weak, tryUsing Soil to Absorb Phosphate the nutrient materials in the water. Tlie---measuring the phosphate concen- water then percolates down dirough tration of the first dilution or a Materials 300 to 500 g dry subsoil the soil for further treatment. [11 -- 1 to 10 dilution of the first dilu- The activities which follow are de- tion. Adjust calculationS for theseOne 100-nil graduated cylinder Two 300-m1 beakers or 2_pint jars signed to teach a method for measuring other dilutions.) The analysis will the amount of phosphate in detergents give the ppm phosphate in the sec- One 1-ml pipette- 1 g detergent or fertilizer andfertilizers.Thcse experiments ond dilution. Two 150-m1 beakers measure the -ppm phosphate (P01-2)4.Calculate the concentration of phos- 1 balance for weighing soil and fertilizer in water. Often the phosphate is meas- phate in the first dilution and in the One 10-m1 pipette ured as ppm phosphorus (P); 1 ppm detergent or fertilizer as follows: Materials and method for measuring_ phosphate- is approxiMately equal to a.Since the second dilution was phosphate 0.33 ppm phosphorus.Usingthis made by diluting the first1 to CaC6 (calcium chloride) method- one can show that soil can 100, the concentration of phos- Distilled water (at least Iliter) bind phosphate and remove it from phate in the first dilution is 100 water. After adding a known amount times what you measured with Prorecliire of phosphate to some pond or stream the kit.For example. if you 1.Weigh ISO g of the dry subsoil water, one can observe the changes measured the second dilution to and put it into one of the 300-m1 which occur in the microscopic life in be 25 ppm phosphate, the first beakers or jars. the water. dilution would be 100 times 25. 2.Repeat with another150 grams or 2,500 ppm. from the same soil sample, and b. The first dilution was made by place in the other- 300-m1 beaker Measuring the Phosphate Content of dissolving 1 gram of detergent or jar. Fertilizer and Detergent Using a Wafer- or fertilizer in 100 ml of water, 3.Pour 100 ml of distilled water into Testing Kit so again the concentration of the first beaker or jar with soil. Materials phosphate in the fcrtilizcr or Shake and stir well. Label "clean 1 phosphate test kit (LaMotte or Hach) detergent is 100 times larger water." which will measure 10 to 50 ppm than the concentration of the 4.Prepare a dilute solution of deter- phosphate first dilution.In the example, gent or fcrtilizcr using the follow- 500 ml distilled water the concentration of phosphate ing procedure: One 100-m1 graduated cylinder in the material would be 100 a.Dissolve I g of the fertilizer or A few grams of fcrtilizcr or detergent times 2,500, or 250,000 ppm, detergent in100 ml distilled Two 150-m1 beakers This is the same as 250,000 water in a 150-ml beaker.

195 b.Pipette 1 ml of this solution intoChanging the Balance of Microscopic each of the large beakers. Make the other 150-ml- beaker and Life in a Water Sample with Added sure the water is well mixed before add 99 ml distilled water. MixPhosphate from Detetgent you 'divide it. well. 3.Pipette 5 ml of the solution con- Materials c.Pour 50 ml of this solution into taining I g detergent in 100 nil 1 liter pond, river, lake, or aquarium the other container of soil. Add water into one of the beakers -of water (will be called "pond water-) 50 ml of distilled water, mix pond water. Label the beaker. Two 600-m1 beakers well, and 1.thel "phosphate 4.Remove- enough water from each 1 aquarium pump (or continuous source water." of the beakers of pond water to of compressed air) 5.If you are using a test kit, analyze analyze them for phosphate. The 1 "Y" connector for the tubing some of the remaining 50 ml of concentration of thg phosphate in 1 screw-type tubing-elamp solution for phosphate. The con- the "polluted- water should be 6 to 8 feet of clear plastic tubing which centration of phosphate which you around 10 to 30 ppm. will fit the pump or compressed air added to the soil will be one-half 5.Cut a 1-ft length of the clear tub- and the Y connector of that which you measure with the ing, and use it to connect the air 1 g detergent kit since you diluted it with some pump to the Y. Put the scree One 100 -nil graduated cylinder distilled- water. For example:If _clamp on the tubing. Cut the re- One 150-ml beaker the concentration of phosphate in maining long piece of tubing in 1 microscope with 200 to 600 magni- the remaining solution is 25 ppm, half, and attach the pieces to the fication the concentration of phosphate in other arms of the Y. Microscope slides and coverglasses the solution you added to the soil 6.Bring the beakers of water, tubing. pressionislides are very good) will be 12.5 ppm. Since there was and pump over to a good source -1 medicine-dropper a total volume of 100 nil or 0.1 of light, such as a window or large One 1-ml pipette liter (after you added the water) ',fluorescent desk light. One 5 -ml pipette and since 12.5 ppm is the same as 7.Vosition the whole assembly so Materials and method of phosphate 12.5 mg/liter, it follows -that you thafkyou can run the free ends of analysis have added 1.25 mg phosphate-to the tubing into each beaker. Turn the soil.(You added 1/10 of a Procedure on the an pump and adjust the air liter.) I.Dissolve I g of the detergent in flow by means of the screw clamp 6.Set the containers of soil and water 100 ml distilled water and pro- (on the 1-ft piece of tubing) so or solution aside to settle.This ceed as in the first :Ictivity to make that a gOod supply of air bubbles should take one or two days. If the -dilutions and measure the colleen, through both beakers of water but soil-doesn't settle out, you may add tration of phosphate in the de- does not disturb the water too Caaz to help precipitate the par- tergent(unless you know the violently (see the Figure). ticks. Add no more than 0.11 concentration from the previous 8.Place one or two drops of water grams of solid CaCI,. activities). from each beaker onto separate 7. When the water or solution above Put 500 ml of the pond water into slides.Cover the drops with a the soil is relatively clear, carefully pipette out 10 ml of the solution and analyzefoLphosphate. There CLEAN WATER "POLLUTED" WATER lifflCphosphate in t,: sample which had no added phosphate. The amount remaining in the other solution will depend MR PUMP upon the type of soil which you used.

Questions 1.Did your soil sample release a measurable amount of phosphate into the clean water? 2.Did you find a measurable amount of phosphate in the solution of de- PLASTIC tergent or fertilizer which had been mixed with the soil and allowed to stand a few days? Can you explain TUBING "Y" CONNECTOR this? What are the effects on microscopic life when pond water is "polluted" with detergent?

196 . coverglass and examine the water phorus in Muer,U.S. Departmentof ECOLOGY__..;, Health. Education. and "Welfare. Wash. for microorganisms. If you wish. Ington. U.C. 1965. you may make some counts of 5. "Pliosphonts Oterrated as a Pollutant?"Environmental Activities and the number and kinds visible in AgriculturalRem-arch19:12; July 1971.Problem Solving the average viewing field. There USDA. Washington. 1).C. 6. Taylor, Alan W.. and Harry NI. Kunishi. should be very kw. THOMAS R. BREHMAN, Earth "Phosphate Equilibria on Stream Sedi-Science/Biology Teacher,Maine 9.Let the beakers sit with the air ment and Soil in a 1Vatersbcd 1)lainingTownship High School North, Des bubbling through for several days. an Agricultural Regio-n."Journalof Ari- cultural and Food Chemistry19:827-831; Plaines, Illinois; and MUSA QUTUB, Make a microscopic examination September- October 1971. President, The Illinois Association of the water in both beakers each of Colleges and Universitiesfor the Improvement of Earth Science day and record any changes. Usu- Bibliography Teaching, and Assistant Professor ally there will be a "bloom- of I."Chemistry of Nitrogen-and Phosphorusof Earth Science, Northeastern Illi- microorganisms, algae, after about in Water,"Journal of the Americannois State College, Chicago, Illinois three days. Muertrorl,s A fOrraThil 62:127-140; 10.Each day you should add a little Februalf 1970. "Dead Lakes, Another 1Vashtlay clean. not chlorinated, water in ---,- Cansumer Reports 35:528-531 order to maintain the same vol- September 1970. -Can we explain away the man- ume in each beaker. Do not add 3:Foeltrenback. J. -Etinophication."Jour- created tragediec of the environment in nal of the Water Polhaion Control Fed- more than about 20 ml each day. eration43:1191 -1202; 1971. terms of failure tun the part of educa- If there is too much evaporation. 4.Hall.R.P.Protozoology, Premice- tional processes to convey the requisite cover the beakers loosely ,with Hall. Inc.. Englewood Cliffs, New Jer- information about ''Nature-tostu- sey. 1953. plastic wrap. Daniel. "Algae and Waterdents? We don't think so, A reflection 5.Jackson._ on one own educational background Orwstions Quality."(1-"ards Bulletin10: No. 73; March 1971. should reveal a_ wealth of knowledge. 1. Was there a change in the number 6.Jahn. T. L. and F, F. Jahn, Hair it)both physically and biologically ori- and /or kinds of microorganisms in Know the Protozoa. C, Brost n. ented, to refute such an explanation. the "polluted- water? Publishers. Dubuque. lotta.1949. 7.Kormondy. E. J, Concepts ofEcology. This being the case. why does man- per- 2.How would you prove that it was Prentice-Hall.Inc.. Englewood Cliffs,sist in his headlong plunge into-envi- due Ri the_phosphate? New Jersey. 1969. ronmental oblivion? Perhaps ir=is not 3. What would happen if you used 8.Leinwand. a. Editor,Air and Inner Pollution. Washintton SquarePress, what information of environmental im- a solution of fertilizer instead of New York. !969. port is conveyed but rather how the detergent? 9.McCarty. P. L. "Sources of Nitrogen material is made available to students 4. Do you think theresults would and Phosphorus inWater Supplies."' Journal of the American Water froththat will make it effective. have been different if you had put-_, Association59: 1967. We all learn of wind patterns and some soil- in the bottom of the 10,NIttekenthun. K, NI; "The Practice of climatic regions, in geography; of- the beakers? Water Pollution Biology." Federal Wa- terPollution Control Agency.U.S. 5. Were there changes in the number importance of sunlight to plants and Government Printing Office. Washing-of plants to animals, in scittice; of _the and kinds of microorganisms in the ton. D.C. 1969: pond water without added phos- Mackinnon, I). l_., and R. S. J. Hawes.destruction of the eastern forests by the An ituradnetionto the Study of Pro, phate? Why? early settlers, inhistory, and of the tozaa.Clarendon Press. London, 1961.need for sufficient clean air and water, 12.Palmer. C: M.Algae in Water Supplies. Additional Activities Public Health Service Prblication- No.in health. This is the very crux of the 1.Measure the phosphate content of 657, U,S Department of Health. Edu-problem: All these vital concepts and streams or ponds nearby. cation, and Welfare. Washington, D.C. many more are conveyed to students 1959. 2. Try different kinds and concentra- 13.Kenn, C. IS.Inecmigathig Water Prab-_through educational "isolation- instead tions of fertilizers and detergents in lems. LaMotieChemicalProducts of through correlation of the material -these th ee activ!:ks. Company. Chestertown. Ma ryla ntl. 1970. inanintelligent and comprehensive 14.StandardMethuds for the Esamination of Water and Waste Water.Americanoverview, Public Health Association. Inc., New We live on a dynamig, planet; an References York. 1965, understanding of the processesthat I."Clear Water from Wastes."Agricul- shape and reshape our environment tural Research18:10-13; December 1969. ACKNOWTEDGNIENTS: can be attained only through a brozidly USDA. Washington, D.C. This project was developed with the co-based study of thenatural setting. If 2."Fertilizers and Feedlots."Agricultural operation of Harry Kunishi attheU.S. Research 18:14.15;December1969. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Re-we are tosurvive the ravages ofpollu- USDA, Washington, D.C. search Service, Beltsville. Maryland.Ideastion, students mustsee interrelation- 3.Fertilizer Use omPWater Quality.Agri- for other sciener projects may be obtainedships and be challenged toprovide cultural Research Service, ARS 41-168; from the Educational Services Branch. Room October 1970. USDA. Washington, U.C. 117, Ccntcr Building, Agricultural Researchsolutionsto problemsaffectingthe 4. Mackcnthun, K. M.Nitrogen and Phos- Center, Beltsville, Maryland 20705. quality of the natural environment.

197 4

(%ting Landfoiln Models can be given to other landform models,mental preservation is necessary. The Even within a particular subject areacorresponding maps. films, etc.Thefieldis+tideopen*for ifitifgin.itite one can introduce a multidisciplinary problems and difficulties of ecologicallysuggestions. approach. Such an approach was de- sane farming. mining, road construc-//auks and Materials vised and tested by the author, whh tion. and waste disposal. as well as theBates, Manton. The Fotest aaa 1 the Sea. tenth-grade students in a biology course distribution of population centers as Signet Science Libray. The Nest Ameri- where landform models proved therelated to local "relief" and water sup- ma library. Nett York. 1961. means to link geography. meteorology. Carson. Rachel. The Sea ,4r 1 Us. Signet ply should be continually reinforced Science Library. The American Library. biology. and earth science.It is obvi- throughout the investigations. Although New York. 1961. ous!) impassible for field trips to be landform models are designed to rep-Cowen. Robert. Frontiersof the Sea. Ban- conducted to tam Pathfinder Edition.Bantam Books. allsignificantphysio-resent different physiographic regions,_ New York. 1960. graphic areas of the world. Using land- the principles involved in the ecologi- Dellell. Garrett (Editor). The Emirontnctual form models, available from severalcally rational management and utiliza- Handbook. A BallantineFriends of the commercial scientific supply companies, tion of the resources in each region Earth 13t3ok, New York. 1970, Farb. Peter. Face of North /Interim, Harper brings these regions into the classroom are quite similar. Colophon Books. Harper and Row. Nev. at a fraction of the cost of actual visi- An extension of these investigations York. 1963. tation and no loss of time in transitin environmental science makes use ofMars. Wesley.The Frail Ocean.Sierra ClubBallantincilook, New York, 1967. The results were most gratifying. a world map, colored pins, and a cork- Osborn. Fairfield.Our 1'1 lered Mtn% Landform models also make usefulback bulletin board. Thus, while in- Pyramid Books, New York 1968. teaching aids for environmental studies volved in environmental problem solv-Schwartz. William (Editor), Voices for the Wilderness. Sierra Clubliallantine Book, because: (a) they are three-dimensional ing. the class can conduct an "Earth New York. 1969, representationsstudents have no diffi-Watch" by scanning newspapers forSailers. Allan. Ours is clue Earth. Holt I i- culty in-visualizing various landscapes; articles reporting ecological disasters brary of Science. New York. 1963. (b) they arc realistic in being distinctly Viorst, Judith. The Changing Earth.Ban- throughout the world: Color-coded pins tam Science and Mathematics, New York. coloredvisual appeal is stronger thanfor oil slicks, air pollution, radioactive 1967; istrue or aerialphotographs; and waste disposal, detergents, topsoil ero- The following films are of correlative (c) they can depict major physiographic sion, and the like can identify geo-value in environmental investigations. regions. graphic areas undergoing such abuses.Information concerning any of the films The teacher. or the students, canThis type of class activity graphicallycan be obtained by writing: Sierra Club devise "potential pollution" situations illustrates the concept of "Whole Earth"Films, cjo AssociatedFilms,Inc., for any of the landforms. The oppor- integration.If _there is adequate space25358 Cypress Avenue, Hayward. Cali- halides for developing such problems surrounding the map, students can postfornia 94544. are nearly endless, since -a model can the news articles and connect them withGrand Canyon, 26 minutes. sound and color. depict a variety of topographic, hydro- stringtotheirrespectivelocations. Two Yosemite& 10 minutes, sound and color. logic,and agrobiologic phenomena. Wasted Woods. 15 minutes, sound and color. This kind of approach does not.rtn /x/I In Time: The P t Reyes Penin- Possible solutions can then be proposed stress "correct" answers; students are sula, 28 minutes, sound and color. by correlating the models with refer- encouraged to offer a variety of possibleGlen Canyon, 29 minutes, sound and color. ence materials, --atid with geographic Nature Nest Door. 28 minutes, sound and solutions to the environmental prob- color, and topographic maps of similar re- lems with which they are faced. The The following topographic maps de- gions,For example, a topographic depth to which students analyze pict regions in the United States reprer quadrangle map of Bright Angel, Ari-situation will be commensurate with- sentative of the landform models. zona, presents the reality of topographic both grade level and -individual ability features depicted on a "canyon" model. Baraboo, Wisconsin and interest. The keynote to all investi- Bright Angel, Arizona An individual* class report describinggations and activities is critical thinkingGrand Teton, Wyoming the inherent difficulties encountered in nonetheless. Ironton. Missouri Mi. Raiher, Washington theproposed Colorado River dam Inasmuch as the method employed is Oroisonica, Pennsylvania project would here be an appropriate flexible, the teacher can devise a num-Point Reyes. California interdisciplinary investigation. A corol-ber of_alternative procedures to be car= Potrcor Corrado, Texas lary to this could entail an oral report ried out over whatever time is available.Topographic maps depicting areas cast on the ecological disruption precipi- Environmental investigations and ac-of the Mississippi River can be ordered tated by construction of the Aswan tivities are appropriate at any level offrom: Distribution Section, U.S. Geo- High Dam in Egypt. A comparison of education as long as the environmentallogical Survey, 1200 South Eads Street, the two projects should be most en- factors are centralized.Quite obvi-Arlington, Virginia 22202. Maps of lightening. Having the class view theously, much furtherexplorationofareas west of the Mississippi River can Sierra Club'sfilm "Grand Canyon" alternative methods of involving andbe ordered from Distribution Section, would also augment this aspect of en- encouraging students to develop an in-U.S. Geological Survey, Federal Cen- vironmental studies. Similar treatmenttelligent and active interest in environ-ter, Denver, Colorado 80225. 0

198 ECOSYSTEM

"..--, LIVING ORGANIC BIOMASS'..._../ DEBRIS

1 a .'- BIOSPHERE 1 1

__) !

1 SOIL AND AVAILABLE 1 ROCK NUTRIENTS 1 MINERALS 1 ( 1 --INTRASYSTEM CYCLE-- -)

Figure 1. Simplified nutrient relationships for a terrestrial ecosystem, showing sites of accumulation and major pathways. Inputs and outputs link individual ecosystems with the rest of the bioisphere. Eugene Mum has PROFESSORreferred to ecological systems as the "functional units of nature." Al- .though this definition is oversimplified and general, it has appeal in our attempts tp piece together the complex components of the biosphere, An eco- BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES system may be simply defined as any unit of nature in which there. is a functional and dependent interchange of GeneE. Likens and F. Herbert Bormann energy and nutrients between living and nonliving components. An ecosystem may be very small, such as a puddle; or it may be large, such as a forest or an ocean.It also may have precise or real boundaries, such as those of a lake or an island, but more frequently it doesn't. Ecosystem boundaries on land arc often rationalized and established by the investigator to facilitate conceptualization and study.

Dr. Likens is an associate professor in the Division of Biological Sciences at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, and Dr. Bor- mann is a professor of forest ecology, School of Forestry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.

199 Ecosystems are the building blocks orfare, and the Swedes are not particu-manipulations. Sound. quantitative in- functioning units that make up the larlyhappyaboutit,as you canformation is needed to assess environ- biosphere. ima"gine.What with fishing recentlymental problems froth a holistic view The survival of ecological systems banned in more than 50 of their south-and to de% elop honest balance sheets. depends upon a continuous input ofern lakes because of-mercury pollution energy and nutrients.An ecologicaland with DDT concentrations in Baltic LIET US look more closely at one of system is richly endowed with a budgetfish now--10 times nigher than in fish the basicfunctionsof an eco- of inputs and outputs, and one of thefrom the North Sea, the Swedes havesystem, the flow of nutrients and other reasons why it is difficult to assess therapidly become aware of the biosphcricmaterials.First we must distinguish impact of human activity on nature iscomplexity of environmonal problems.between flux and cycling. Flux refers the lack of precise information about It is frequently stated that throughto the directional input and output that these inputs and outputs and about thetechnology we may be able to dumpoccurs across ecosystem boundaries. delicate adjustments that maintain aour solid trash into the ocean with aFrom such information we can deter- balance. We should also rememberminimum of ecologicaldisturbance. mine budgets and observe balancing thatsinceallecosystemsinteract, One current plan calls for grinding all mechanisms. Cycling refers to the two- changes in one may cause changes intrash and garbage from the Baltimoreway exchange between living and non- others by a kind of chain reaction.and Washingtonmetropolitanarea,living components within the ecosys- I'rojects such as the logging of n forest making a slurry of it. and then trans-tem. but is tempered by external flux. or the building of an interstate highwayporting it by pipeline to the edge ofWithin the boundaries of an ecosystem, nm have consequences far beyond thethe Continental Shelf, some one hun-chemicals arc continually withdrawn individualproject. Similarly,tech-dred miles offshore.Here again, thefrom the abiotic reservoir of the eco- nological solutions frequently do notproblem is merely shifted from trashsystem (e.g., the air, the water, or the solve environmental problems; rather,on land to trash in the ocean. And it island),utilizedbyandcirculated the problems arc often merely shiftedclear that there are far too few data tothrough the bioticportion, and re- from one level to another.or from onesupport the claim that this is really aturned in one form or another to the ecosystem to another.There are asolution to the problem. abiotic reservoir. great many examples ofthis;two Recently we heard an interesting Because chemicals cycle betweenliv- should make -the point. suggestion for the trash problem.Iting and nonliving components,the Air pollution in Great Britain and inwas that we continue to collect solidterms"biogeochcmicalcycling"or the Ruhr Valley has beengreatlytrash and garbage from individuals and"nutrient cycling" are frequently used alleviated by a very simple technologi-organizations.Afteritiscollected,to describe this process or basic eco- cal change.Taller smokestacks and itcouldbe compressed,sterilized, system function. The term "mineral chimneys push thc-6smokc and gaseswrapped ina waterproof container,cycling" has been used widely, but higher into the atmosphere. However,and then given back to the individual.strictly speaking, minerals do not cycle this so-called "cure" has merely shiftedHe could do anything he wanted withwithin ecosystems. Also it should be the problem to somebody else. Wind it:putit in his attic, in his garage,apparent that the movement of water carries the smog from these industrialbasement, or warehousejust as longand air is vital to the transport of chem- areas primarily to Scandinavia. Hereas he didn"t remove it from his prop-icals such as N, C, H, 0, P, S, etc., the increased addition of sulfur com-erty. Obviously this solution has im-between and within- ecosystenis. pounds, mainly sulfur dioxide and hy-mediate appealinthatitputs the There arefewquantitativedata drogen sulfide, in the atmosphere hasproblem whereitbelong, with theavailable for the flow and cycling of led to a striking increase in the acidityindividual or the industry who gener-these materials in natural ecosystems. of rainfall. Since 1956 the acidity ofates the waste, but also obviously it isThere is a large amount of data on rainwater has increased more than 200unworkable.For one thing, like sovarious aspects, but itis exceedingly times.This in turn has led to themany proposals, it penalizes urbanites.difficult to assemble this information acidification of lakes and streams in These examples clearly point out ourin terms of an entire ecosystem and Scandinaviato the extent thatre- vital need to reuse and recycle materialall of its interacting parts. duced growth and even kills of salmonmuch in the same way that natural We began studies about eight years and trout have been observed. Thereecosystems do and to make our deci-ago to determine the magnitude of the have also been effects on the soil (losssions on the basis of an honest account-natural biogeochcmical flux and cycling offertility),onforestry(reduceding in which all costs are included.of nutrients for a forest ecosystem in growth), and corrosion of buildingsAfterall,thisisa basicecologicNcw Hampshire. Like a city, the forest and other structures.Itis estimatedprinciple in the functioning of natural ecosystem survives because of a specific that damage from acid corrosion in ecosystems.There is a distinct lackand continuous input and output of Sweden alone may amount to as muchof good ecological information uponnutrients, and we wanted to quantify as 1 percent of its gross national prod-which to prejudge the effects of pro-these fluxes as well as the rates of in- uct. This is analogous to chemical war-posed technological developments andternal recycling. Our ecosystem unit is

200 411111.-4IC...,1111111f

. Cf. Figure 2. Watershed experiments in the Hubtd Brook Experimental Forest. In the foreground is the commercially logged watershed No. 101. The horizontal clear cut strips ,re on W4, and the V-shaped clearing in the center background is W2. Peaks of the Presidential Range of the White Mountains are in the background. (This photo was taken in January 1971.) a watershed or drainage arca. There- tercdthroughout the forest provideecosystem in rain and snow. Exceed- fore, its boundaries are defined by thedata on the input of both rain and inglyclear,pure mountain streams drainage of water. snow throughout the year. By and largedrain these forested watershed-ecosys7 Our studies have been done in co-the monthly input of precipitationis tents. The major ions in stream water operation with the U.S. Forest Serviceconstant throughout the year. How-are calcium and sulfate, but in relatively within the-Hubbard Brook Experimenilever, loss of water by stream flowlow concentrations. (Table 1) talForest in West Thornton, Newvaries enormously. The largest runoff To determine the magnitude of nu- Hampshire. Several students and col-occurs in the spring when the heavytrient flux across the ecosystem boun- leagues from various universities andaccumulation of snow melts. Approxi- federal laboratories also are involvedmately 57 percent of the total yearlyTable 1. Weighted average concen- in the overall project. runoff occurs in the months of March, trations of various- dissolved sub- April, and May. In contrast very smallstances in bulk precipitation and TFIE FOREST is characterized byanmunts of wale; arc lost by stream stream water for undisturbed water- beech, 'yellowbirch, andStigar drainage during the summer monthssheds 1 through 6 of the Hubbard maple trees. The bedrock is graniticwhen most of the water evaporates di-Brook Experimental Forest during and is watertight. This latter point isrectly to the atmosphere from the forest 1963-1969. exceedingly important for these quan-vegetation.Yearly, about-123 cm of titative studies.If water were lostwater come into the ecosystem in pre- PRI:C11'1- SULAM CIII.NtICAl. TATION through deep rock strata rather thancipitation;58percentrunsoffin through the drainage stream, it would streams, and 42 percent is lost by evap- ntgll ntgll oration and transpiration. Calcium 0.21 1.58 be almost impossible to know how Magnesium 0.06 0.39 much water was lost in that way and Precipitationchemistryishighly Potassium 0.09 0.23 also what amount of nutrients thatvariable.First of all, we found that Sodium 0.12 0.92 Aluminum 0.24 water carried out of the system. Sinceprecipitation is surprisingly acid. The Ammonium 0.22 0.05 our ecosystem is watertight, all of theaverage pH of rain and snow is about hydrogen 0.07 -0.01 Sulfate 3.1 6.4 liquidwater leavingthe systemis 4, and hydrogen and sulfate ions are Nitrate 1.31 1.14 measuredat gauging wicrs.Waterthe dominant ions.Also, significant Chloride 0.42 0.64 Bicarbonate 1.9" vapor is lost by evaporation and tran-amounts of nitrate, ammonium, cal- Disso' ed silica 4.61 spiration. cium, magnesium, phosphate, chloride, Not thterminctl. but very low Precipitation collection stations scat-sodium, and potassium fall onto the , Watershedonly

201 daries, we measured the concentrationpercent the second year, and 26 per-creased discharge of water had a very of chemicals in both the precipitationcent the third. year. This means thatgreat effect on the nutrient budgets. and the stream water. These 'data mul-the increased runoff loss would amount (Table 3) Typically there is a rela- tiplied by accurate data for precipita-to a quantity of water about 35 cmtively small net loss of calcium from tion and stream runoff, provided bydeep over the entire watershed duringthe undisturbed forest (8 to it) kg/ha- the Forest Service, allow us to calculate the first year. Most of this water wouldyr in 1966-69). In contrast 75 kg/ha budgets of nutrient inputs and outputs. have been lost by transpiration had thewere lost from the deforested water- We have made measurements of thisvegetation not been cut or killed.Inshed the first year and 90 kg/ha the sort on six watershed-ecosystems of thesummer, when the runoff second. For potassium, the same rela- Hubbard Bropk Experimental Forestlow, the increase in strea, .trgt, tionship was observed although the since 1963. (Table 2) Normally"there was orders of magnitude greater perchange was even larger. are net losses of calcium, magnesium,unit area than on adjacent uncut- areas. The change in the nitrate-nitrogen aluminum, sodium, and-silica from the However, chemical concentrations inbudget was very large. Normally nitro- ecosystem via streams each year. How-stream water increased unexpectedly.gen- compounds arc conserved by these ever, losses of chloride and potassium (Figure3) Inparticular,nitratemature forest ecosystems.Inother in stream water about equal the inputsconcentrations increased spectacularly,words, more is added in precipitation in precipitation. The net loss of sulfate,reaching a maximum concentration ofwith rain and snow than is lost from although usually consistent,is smallalmost 90 mg per liter. Normallycon-the system in drainage water; there is in relation to the amount input inpre-centrations are less than 2 ppm in thean annual net gain for the system. In cipitation. Of particular interest is the undisturbedwatersheds.Thesein- contrast,the deforested systemlost finding that more nitrogen and phos-creased concentrationsplus thein-97 kg/ha the first year and 142 kg/ha phorus are brought into these undisturbed ecosystems, dissolvedinrainTable 2.Average chemical input and output for undisturbed, forested and snow, than are lost in drainagewatershed ecosystems 1 through 6 of the HubbardBrook Experimental waters. Thus, generally small amounts Forest during 1963-69. Output data for W2 aftertreatment are not included. of nutrients are lost from these undisturbed forested ecosystems in drainage MILAN VALUES (kg/ha-yr) waters relative to the amounts input, No. OF WATERSHED NET Nor stored, or cycled. CHEMICAL YEARS' INPUT - OU1PUT Loss GAIN Man's activities can completely re- 5102-Si I0 16.4 -16.4 verse these relationships.It was ap- Ca 30-32 2.6 11.7 - 9.1 SOTS 10-15 12.7 16.2 . - 3.5 parent from the beginning of our study Na 30-32 1.5 6.8 - 5.3 that the opportunity to study experi- Mg 30-32 0.7 2.8 - 2.1 Al mentally some of man's effects 10 1.8 - 1.8 on an K 30-32 1.1 1.7 - 0.6 entire ecosystem was exciting, scien- 10.15 3.7 2.0 +1.7 NH i-N 10-15 2.1 0.3 +1.8 tifically sound, and a most powerful CI .8-12 5.2 4.9 +0.3 approach to unraveling the complexity 2 0.02' 0.01 +0.01 of ecosystems. HCO:1-C 4 2.9 - 2.9 No. of watersheds time years of data b Not measured, but very small OURfirst experiment of this type Watershed No. 4 only was deforestation of an entire I liNtimateci concentration of 2µg /liter watershed(see Figure 2).IntheTable 3. Comparative net losses or gains of dissolved solids in runofffrom autumn of 1965 every tree and shrub undisturbed (W6) and deforested (W2) watersheds of the Hubbard Brook on the watershed was cut and reduced Experimental- Forest. Values in metric tons/km2-yr (metric tons/km=x 10 to ground level. No roads were built,= kg/ha). and none of the logs were taken out of the system since this wasn't a typical 1966.67 1967-68 1968.69 CHEMICAL W6 W2 W6 W2 logging operation.Later the system W6 W2 was treated with herbicides to inhibit Ca -0.8 -7.5 -0.9 -9.0 -1.0 -6.8 K -0.1 -2.3 -0.2 -3.6 -0.2 -3.3 all regrowth of vegetation. The eco- Al -0.1 -1.7 -0.3 -2.4 -0.3 -2.1 system was maintained in this condition Mg -0.3 -1.6 -0.3 -1.8 -0.3 -L3 Na -0.6 -1.7 -0.7 -1.7 -0.6 -1.2 until 1969 when -herbicide treatment NH4 +0.2 +0.1 +0.3 +0.2 +0.3 +0.2 was stopped, and the forest was allowed H +0.1 +0.07 +0.09 +0.05 +0.08 +0.04 NO3 +1.5 -43.0 +1.1 -62.8 +0.5 -45.5 to regrow. SO1 -0.8 -0.5 -1.0 -1.9 -2.0 As a result of this experimental de- HCO3 -.0.2 -0.1 -0.3 0 0 0 CI +0.2 -0.1 0 -0.4 -0.1 forestationtherunoff of waterin- SI02aq -3.6 -6.6 -3.6 -6.9 -2.9 -5.9 creased 40 percent the first year, 28 TOTAL -4.6 -65.0 -5.9 -88.4 -6.2 -68.0

202 which plaster over stream banks, or small rootlets which help to hold the stream bank in place and keep it from 110 breaking apart and washing away. I t. -HE) 2 Without living vegetation to continu- SHED 6 ously resupply these dead leaves and to renew the small rootlets, the biotic 6D- regulation of erosion andtransport 50 was greatly reduced so that the output Co' 40 of particulate matter from the system 30 was increased about 11 times after 28Jw*J three years...... ' . 10 Along with this, the acidity of stream 0 water greatly increased:Its pH decreased from about 5.1 to 4.3. Stream Te> 40 water might be characterized as a very 30 K' E 20 dilute solution of sulfuric acid in the 0Z undisturbed situation, but it changed ...... to a stronger solution of nitric acid as 0 a result of deforestation. 80 The stream water from the defor- S 60 estcd watershed appeared to be just 40 as clear and potable as that from adja- 20 cent, undisturbed watersheds.How- 40 ever between August 1966 and Janu- 30 No; ary1970 thenitrateconcentration 20 almost continuously exceeded, and at 10 times doubled, the maximum concen- 0 tration recommended as allowable for JJASONOJFMAM J JSO-NOJFMAMJ JASoN0J FmAa4 drinking water. Thus the deforestation 1965 1966 1967 1968 treatment resulted in significant pollu- Figure 3. Measured stream water concentrations for calcium, potassium, and nitrate ions tion of the drainage stream. in watersheds 2 (deforested) and 6. Note the change in scale for the nitrate concentration, The arrow indicates the completion of cutting in watershed 2. Increased sunlight striking the stream in the absence of a forest canopy, the high nutrient concentrations, and higher the second year, as is calculated from In the undisturbed forest, decay ofstream temperature, all resulted in sig- Table 3.' The average loss of nitrateorganic debris such as leaves, twigs, nificant eutrophication.Whereas the nitrogen over a three-year period was bark, etc. produces ammonium com-undisturbed streams contain few algae, about 110 kg/ha-yr. This is more thanpounds. This ammonium will either be a dense bloom of green algae occurred double the amount of nitrogen taken taken up directly by the vegetation or in the stream of the deforested water- up by the undisturbed system each it may be converted by microorganismsshed each summer. This is a good ex- year.If all of the nitrogen were toto nitrate and then taken up by theample of how a change in one com- come in only froia precipitation and ifvegetation and held within the system. ponentof an ecosystemaltersthe there were no losses whatsoever,itIn the absence of vegetation the am-structure and function, often unexpec- would take about 43 years for the sys- monium compounds are converted to tedly, in other parts of the same eco- tem to make up the amount of nitrogen nitrate and leached rapidly from the system or in an interrelated-ecosystem. lost in stream waters during these threesystem. By removing this one com- Unless -these interrelationships are un- years.If there were normal losses each ponent. the vegetation, a major change derstood, naive management practices year, as in the undisturbed situation, it in the basic nitrogen cycle occurred. can produce unexpected and possibly would take about 100 years to replen-Alteration of the basic nitrogen cycle widespread deleterious results. ish the nitrogen which was lost as awas the major change in ecosystem result of cutting down the trees andfunction, but there wer.! many others.THESE results pose some veryim- preventing their regrowth. What arc (Figure 4) Some were expected, but portant questions for forestry man- the reasons for this? many were completely unexpected. agement. Clear-cutting of forest vege- The system maintains integrity by tation is practiced widely in the United relatively simple biotic factors. TheseStates, but there arc few data on its Thisis done by using the formula NOs X (J.226 = N. include such things as dead leaves total effect on the ecosystem. To our

203 Impact of Deforestation logical balance. after serious external 1966 -1968 Hydrologic aiageothernical manipulations. In cooperation with the U.S. Forest Transpiration Forest Vegetation C. Turnover- of Organic Reduced New Growth no'.Accelerated, Service. we have undertaken a number 100 Percent Repressed with Herbicide Nitrification.:4=reosed, of,other experiments to elucidate the Perhaps by Reeosi: behavior of an ecosystem under stress, Sunlight Penetration from inhibition by Forest Vegetation in an attempt to develop sound man- rEnvironmental ...iiih agement praLtices for landscapes. One Micron mote Wormer, hydrogeriions watershed was commercially clear-cut in Soil Moister and another was commercially strip-cut v_Eopotronspitotion Sonmer, Stream Acidification14_ > during 1970. (Figure. 2) Alternate sets rReduced 70 percent Temperaturesincreased of Exchange Sts ;I to 6°C m Summer of horizontal strips cut on the latter 0 4. watershed will clear the watershed of Euoph.c.,..n harvcstable timber in four years. A Stream Velocityup, Algal Blooms in Viscosity Oro maw Stream Concentration of small buffer strip remain uncut along Down in Summer - Dissolved the Stream. This is an attempt to de- Inorganic Substances Erosion and Transport velopaforest management scheme up 4 Times IBiotic Regulation in Stream Water without the nutrient-dumping effects )IotWotetshedReduced associated with etc -.-cutting.These Net Output of Stream Flow experiments will evaluate effects on Output cf Particulate DissolvedInorganic up 1 4 limes, Mostly production of stream water, nutrient Matter up s.4 Times Substances up 14 6 in Summer Times, pH of Stream losses in stream waiter, and regenera- Water 00011 from 51 to 43 tion of the forest. The studies at Hubbard Brook illus-

To Downstream Ecosystems trateecologicalinteractionsofthe structure and function of a northern Figure 4. A summary of some of the ecological effects of deforestation in the Hubbarddeciduous forest ecosystem. They also Brook Experimental Forest. The forest was cut in the autumn of 1965. reinforce the suggestion of many ecologists that the ecosystem concept is a knowledge there arc no other quanti- Perhaps the greatest damage done to powerful analytical tool for producing tative data on chemical losses fromlands is that' done by road building. and testing management strategy. The cleared forests. Since thc deforestation Breaking of forest cover by road build- ecosystem concept provides thc best treatment was done as an experiment, ing is a double threat. Roads open land way of seeing nature whole and pro- logging roads were not constructed, to erosion, which is the primary enemy vides a realistic scheme for ecologic timber was not removed, and herbicides of theforest ecosystem, and space bookkeeping. 0 were used to prevent vegetation re-consumed by roads is taken out of growth. However preliminary results production, or subsequent production Bibliography from studies now in progress on a num- may be very low on abandoned road- I.Bormann, F.H., and G. E. '"-Likens. ber of commercially logged areas inbeds. As much as 20 percent of a "Nutrient Cycling." Science 155:424-429; northern New England clearly show the forest ecosystem may be consumed in January 27, 1967. 2. Hornbeck, J. W., R. S. Pierce, and C. A. same pattern of nutrient loss and eutro- road building. This could remove 20 Federer. "StreamflowChanges_After phication in drainage waters as thatpercent of the area from future pro- Forest Clearing in New England." Water which occurred in the experimentally duction. Resoutces Reseal ch 6:1124-1132; 1970. 3.Likens. G. E., et al."Effects of Forest deforested watershed. The application of herbicides to the Cutting andHerbicideTreatment on If recharge of nitrogen is solely de-deforested watershed now has been Nutrient Budgets in the Hubbard Brook pendent upon input in rain and snow, stopped, and the vegetation is becom- Watershed-Ecosystem." Ecological Mono- decades would be required to replenishing re-established. Studies of revegeta- graphs 40:23-47; 1970. 4. (Mum, 13. P.Fundamentals of Ecology. the nitrogen lost as a result of clear-tion in combination with the study of Second Edition.W. 13. Saunders Co., cutting. How does this affect long-term nutrient flux using the watershed-eco- Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 1959. productivity of the forest? Are theresystem concept arc providing some other mechanisms of nitrogen replen-very valuable ecological information. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: This is contribution No. 47 of the Hub- Ecosystem recovery, the ishment? We don't know. Neither do including bardBrook Ecosystem Study.Financial we have good information on regrowth maintenance or re-establishment of reg- stor.art for the field study at Hubbard Brook in old roadbeds or even good informa-ulating mechanisms, is of vital interest %% provided by the National Science Foun- tion on theroleof noncommercial to managers and conservationists. We dation and was done through the cooperation of the Northeastern Forest Experiment Sta- forest species in the function of many need to know how, and at what speed, tion,Forest Service, U.S. Department of forest ecosystems. ecosystems can recover, or regain eco- Agriculture, Upper Darby, Pennsylvania.

204 A HYPOTHETICAL CONTINENT TEACHING THE "WHERE" AND "WHY" OF CLIMATES

Don Goldman

FIRSglance, the wodd map ofof cater.In other words. it pros ides As show n in FigureI, these zones are. Al_climates seems a confusing jumble.us a simplified platform upon which Tropical zone: Nowinter The confusion can be dispelled. how- usecan trace the relative location of the Subtropical zone: Mild winter tocc.ts- ever,ifseveralbasicprinciplesare main climatic types as they are deter- sional f rost Temperate zone:, Pronounced winter understood. Climates are not tandontlymined by global controls.1111..t:;the Boreal zone: Severe, long winter or accidentally distributed: there is acomplexities caused by landform, alti- Polar zone: Affrays winter louical,predictable arrangement thataide, and other localfactors.After Except that the boundary lines of results from the actions and effects ofthese relationships are understood, the these zones are somewhat curved, re- a few global climatic controls, There-stucknits can then compare the hypo- flectingtheeffects of a continental fore, the world pattern of climates canthetical pattern with the climatic pat- landmass, we have here the simple be made quite manageable. pros kilns tern of the real world. worldwide pattern of roughly parallel the teacher does three things: The following is a three-step class- bands of heat distribution as superim- 1. Stress the few major elements that room presentation employing this con- ' posed on the continent.It shows us largely determine global and conti-cept.It moves from the g._rat and only where it is hotter and where it is nental climatic differences and notsimple to the detailed and complex. colder, as determined by latitude. burden the studentwith myriadfrom the hypothetical and conceptual The second major factor of climate facts that are relevant but unneces-to the real and familiar. In the first step is precipitation or, conversely,dryness. sary. the previously studied climatic controls In contrast to the almost complete lati- Lead the student through a series ofare superimposed one atop the other tudinal control over heat zones, clearly logical steps, each of which expandsso as to illustrate their individual and somethingelseaffectsthelocation on the preceding one and sets thecomposite influence." The resultis a of the world's dry zones. (Figure 2) stage for the next. distribution of climates on our hypo- It will be remembered that there is a 3.Generalize, that is, avoid the per-thetical surface.Second, the teacher general subsidence of air at about lati- plexity of details and exception moves to a real climate map of North tude 20) to 30' north and south that Try using a hypothetical continent toand South America and shows how the causes a series of high pressure- cells teach the distribution of climates onhypothetical pattern holds, with minor (subtropicalanticyclones)overthe the world's land surfaces :2This styl-adjustments.Finally, the class looks ized continent approximates the actua0to the rest of the world, observes theoceans. The phenomenon of subsidence is antithetical to precipitation (which world distribution of land in that therestill clear adherence to the pattern, and requiresrisingair), and the strongest ismore land areainthe Northernconsiders the logical reasons for the development of this subsiding air is in Hemisphere than in the Southern, andmajor departures. the eastern part of the anticyclones, it extends faither poleward. b:'t it is a adjacent to and overlapping the western gross generalization.It has no moun- FIRST principle in climates is coasts at that latitude.This explains tains, irregular coasts, or interior bodiesTHEthat, on an annual basis, the equa- the aridity of the low latitude west torial regions receive the most solar coasts of the hypothetical continent. heating, the poles receive the least, and itis assumed that the student will base been The eastward and poleward swine of prepared for a study of the location of climates with thereisamore-or-lesscontinuous prior class stork on such basks as the inclination of the and zone is a blend between that the earths axis and the resultant concept of seasons, gradient between them.Considering the uneven heating of the earth's surface and the condition and two interior conditions: only this one factor,heat,we can illus- resultant pressure zones and winds, the nature of the increasing distance from oceanic precipitation and its causes, and types of weather. trate the decrease from equator to pole 1 The accompanying diagrams of a hypothetical with a series of five east-west zones, continent are taken, 'Anil slight modification. from Iusethe climates as classified in Elements of Trewartha. Robinson, and Ilainmond. Memoirs of each of which can best be described Geography. op. ea.Each bounding line between Geography, Fifth Edition. McGraw-1AI BookCom- two climates is precisely defined according to that pany,New York. 1967. by the presence or severity of winter.t system (i,c.. the boundary between the subtropical and temperate climates is where eight months have an towage temperature of 50°F). Such precision The author, formerly a recreation resource is completely unnecessary in an introductory class. Planner with the Bureau Of Outdoor Rec- room presentation; verbal descriptions of thecli- Ciraphically, this technique can be handled sari mates null convey the pointAlso, any other classi- reation, Department of the Interior, Wash- ously. .(a) As a single visual aid shooing the com- fication system can be illustrated with a hypothetical ington,D.C.,isserving with the Peace pleted hypothetical continent, as in Figure 3; (b)as continent, so long as the boundary lines of the dia- three different aids, as per Figures 1, 2. and 3: and. gram conform to that system, Corps as a planner with the Costa Rican feu using Figure Ias a base on stout illustration National Park Service. board with Figures 2 and 3 as transparent overlays.

205 1

80 tcE CA p ...... 60 TuNOR

40 TEMP oceonIc rcp SUBTR 20 dr y Summer SJBTR num 0 ...... TROP erefand cry TROPICAL wet rPO.P- 20 .°'70'cf

40 SUBTROPICAL SUBTROPICAL dry-summer humid EMPECATE OcCOMC 60 POLAR

Figure1. The hypothetical continent can Figure 2. The second major factor of climateFigure 3. The hypothetical ,continent can be divided Tito five east-west zones by the isprecipitationor,conversely,dryness. be refined to provide a system consisting amount of solar radiation received. Thir can be superimposed on Figure 1. of 11 distinct climatic types, as indicated. sources of moi.ture and the winter anti- vvrgence (the converging NE and SE Subtropical zone: This zone has two cyclone of the northern interior. Notetrade winds, a zone of rising air), anddistinct climatic types, dependent on that the arid zones do not reach the east this zone of converging and rising airtheir eastern or western location on the coast. Whereas the east part of the sub- follows the overhead sun in its swingcontinent. tropical anticyclone is strongly devel-back and forth between the Tropics of 5.Subtropical humid climate.Lo- oped, the western end (adjacent toCancer and Capricorn. In this swing, cated on the cast under the weak continental east coasts) is quite weak, the broad band of resulting convection end of the subtropical anticyclone. andits onshore winds contain con-rains always covers the core of the No dry season. siderable moisture. tropical zone, but it leaves the northern 6.Subtropical dry-summer clihiate We now have a framework.But and southern margins dry during their (or Mediterranean). Mild, mod- climate is a multifaceted thingit is a respective low sun periods. erately humid winters, due to the description of the place where we live, I.Tropical wet climate (or Rain- equatorward migration of the mid- a major part of our environment.It forest). Located along the equa- latitude storm belt; and desert- includes the seasonal distribution of tor at the core of the tropical zone. dry in summers, when itis con- precipitation, as well as its amotints,;it Always hot and almost always trolled by the strong eastern end includes the extremes of tempei.ature, rainy, precipitation is from con- of the anticyclone. as well as the averages. In further re- vection showers that come with Temperate zone: Although this zone fining the five temperature zones and the heat of the afternoon. has a pronounced winter throughout, the one arid zone into a meaningful Tropical wet-and-dry climate (orthere is again a strong difference be- classification system, relative location Savanna). Also always hot. Buttween eastern and western locations. on the hypothetical continent must be located to the north and south of 7.Temperate oceanic climate.Lo- considered. We will see, for example, the core, it is rainy only during the cated with exposure to the western that the opposite ends of the subtropical high sun period, at which time it is ocean, off which blow a succession zone, while sharing similar temperature similar to the tropical wet. During of midlatitude storms, these areas characteristics, have sharply different the dry months, which numb& have moderate to heavy precipita- precipitation patterns, and that this be- from two to five or more, it is like tion and moderate winters. comes the distinguishing mark between a desert. 8.Temperatecontinentalclimate. the two subtropical climatic types. The Dry zone: At its core, where the ef- Being more distant from the ocean, resultant subdivisions provide a system fects of the subtropical anticyclone are this area isless modified by it; consisting of 1 1distinct climatic typesstrongest (west coasts) or where dis- therefore it has more severe win- which bear, as we shall see, a consist-tance from ocean sources is greatest ters and receives less precipitation. ent relationship to their continental lo- (interiors), are the deserts.On the 9.Boreal zone: Found only in the cations and to one another. (Figure 3) fringes are the steppe regions, transi- Northern Hemisphere,thiscli- Tropical zone: The tropical zone istions to the humid climates. mate has long, bitter winters and always hot.Its rainfall is controlled by 3.Desert climate (or arid) short, cool summers.(No sub- the broad band of the intertropical con- 4.Steppe climate (or semiarid) divisions)

206 Polar zone: the subtropical dry-summer climate oc- 10. Tundra climate.Although there is Bcrro;,- cupies slight'y unusual locations. but no true summer. this equatorward again this is explained by geography. in section has at least a brief thaw. Lotto:dor . these cases the configuration of the II. Ice-cup climate. Always frozen. Seat: e,. coasts.In the former. the southern tip Figure 3. then. is a composite picture .'Denver' /Co.-"9° of Africa just barelyextends into the - of the relative location of each climate Ange'es --yu/no, 1 latitude of dry summers. so this climate type on our hypothetical continent.It occupies thesouthern tipof the con- reflectsthe interactingroles of the ------tinent. rather than the es.pectedwest majorclimatic controls:the declining - Amazon R. coast location.In the latter, Australia heat fioni equator to pole. the varying has two southern tips, both of which effectsof the midlatitude anticyclone. reach intothe criticallatitude.Not surprisingly.eventheeasternone. the seasonal shift of both of those. and Sentiogo , Buenos the varying, effects of location on the Ares which is some 2.000 miles from the continent.Rut how does it compare west coast, has dry summers, but only to a real continent? on its west coast (around Adelaide). Figure 4. One can compare the hypotheti- Finally, there are no areas of boreal BEGINwith that whichismost cal continent to the real land by indicat- climate in the Southern Hemisphere being on the continent a series of landmarks, familiar, the Americas.Clearly, each bearing a popular climatic identity. cause none of its land masses extends to and notwithstandingsome evident dif- Students wdl enjoy trying to explain differ- a high enough latitude. ferences,the hypothetical pattern fits ences between the predicted and the actual the real land.Equallyimportant, the climates of some locations. As DESCRII3ED inthe foregoing, departures can be seen aslogical and the climate of a placeisto a predictable results of geographic fac-_isno area of temperate continental cli-_ marked degree determined by its spe- tors. mate in South America. Were the con- cific location on-a continent, and it is The similarity is apparent from atinent wider at that point we couldthat characteristic thatis bestillus- simple side-by-side comparison of alogically expect, as in tl.e North Amer- trated by the hypothetical continent as climatic map ofthe Americas andican pattern, that a fuller extent of shaped and described here.For the Figure 3.It can be further illustrateddesert and steppe lands would give same reason, and because of the close by superimposing on Fhture 3 a seriesway on the cast to aregionof tem- relationship of soils and vegetation to of landmarks, each of which bears a perate continental, which would extend climatic types, this technique can also popular climatic identity (i.e., Yumato the Atlantic coast. be utilized in teaching the geographic desert) and a recognizable .geo- Looking elsewhere we find further distribution of soils and natural vege- graphiclocation. (Figure 4) confirmation of the hypothetical pat- tation. What aboutthe differences between tern. Northwest Europe, unlike North The hypothetical continent is a styl- the Americas and the hypothetical con-and South America, has no mountain ized, gross generalization. One of its tinent? For example, the desert andbarriers near the coast to confine the valuable characteristics as an instruc- steppe climates on the hypotheticaltemperate oceanic climate, with the re- tionaltoolisthattheteacher can continent sweep fareast and far pole-sult that it extends entirely across Great "sketch" broad concepts or relation- ward, butin North America they hugBritain and the north European plain ships on it without being inhibited by close to the Pacific coast, lyingbetween to merge gradually (with no interven- the myriad details and exceptions of the the temperate oceanic and temperateingrain-shadowinduced dry region) real world. For one example, the place continental climates.Thisisplainly with the temperate continental climate. names of Figure 4 are only a rough the result of the high and continuousSimilarly,thevast extentof North approximation of their true geographic mountain chains that characterizethe African- Eurasian drylands closely ap- locations, yet their collective effect is a PaLific coast: the rain shadow ofthese proximates thehypotheticalpattern, clear representation of their relative mountains "polls" the drylands in close with distance from the source of mois- locations.For another,the teacher to their leeward (eastern) sides. Then ture assuming greatsignificance on might draw anorth-southtrending again,the arid region of Argentina,that huge land mass. mountain range in the western part of which is partly a rain shadow of the Exceptions also occur. For example, Figure 3, thereby graphically showing t Andes, extends all the way to the east whereas thesubtropical dry-summer how the barrier. effect of the mountains coast, whereason the model (and inclimate is narrowly confined to coastal and the resultant rain shadow change North America) it remains well inland.locationsbytheNorthand South the pattern of climates from that of the This is simply a function of the nar-American mountains, the great openhypothetical continent to that of the rownessof South America at that lati- extentoftheMediterraneanbasin North American map. Other innova- tude; its width is less than thatof thebrings this climate all the way to thetions or applications will undoubtedly dry region. For the same reason, thereMiddle East. InAfrica and Australia, occur to the teacher. 0

207 /

INVENTORYING

F. L. HimesSOIL RESOURCES

THERE may be almost as many different kinds of soils as there are plants that live upon them. Each soil has a distinctive set of properties which are derived from the starting (parent) material and environment. Soil is more than disintegrated rock; durine, its formation. materials have been added and others have been removed. Plants and animalshave addedorganic compounds and altered the physical properties of the parent material. Climate influences not only the rates of chemical weathering, leaching. and erosion, but also the type and rate of biological activities. Land relief and time of exposure are the other factors that account for variations among soils. Why has man divided soilsinto groups? He has found that one soil is better suited to a particular use than arc others. Light-colored soils are usually lower in fertility than are the associated dark-colored soils, but they do not require artificial drainage. Sandy soils have a lower water-holding capacity thah clay soils.Light (sandy) soils are easier to cultivate than heavy (clay) soils. Very acid soils are suit- USDA. SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE able for certain plant species, but near Figure 1.Lines may be drawn on a soil survey map to illustrate horizontal differences neutral soils are best for most. Well- among soils. Brookston (Br) is a silty clay loam with high water table part of each year drained soils are more desirable than and poor natural drainage. Crosby (CrA) is a silt loam with drainage intermediate between Brookston and Miamian; land 'slope is 0 to 2 percent. Miamian (MIC3) is a clay loam; poorly drained ones for home con- severely eroded; good natural drainage; land slope is 6 to 12 percent, struction, road construction, and play- grounds. ries between soil types and measuring are also influenced by the parent mate- Making an inventory of the soils of properties of samples from each soil. rial(originai mineral material) and an area includes locating the bounda- The boundariesbetivecnsoilsfre- vegetation or a combination of these. quently coincide with changes in colors. Climateandtime,too,contribute These color changes within afield greatly to horizontal differences among Dr.Nimesisprofessor,Department of Agronomy, TheOhioStateUniversity, occur when changes in slope (relief) soils.In the humid climatic regions, Columbus. affect soil moisture and erosion. Theysoils with poor natural drainage have

208 a darker surface color than that of the ylr;:117';::4;/...... ;.. .4., well-drained soils.This darker color /tv i results from the higher concentration- 7 'r 1. Si of humus.Soilsindepressions or "44%/ 4 grf-- with an impermeable layer are poorly 4 drained. Drainage systems must be in- C artjj4liC;:41stalled in these soils before they are satisfactory for growing many species of plants, or for building houses. constructing roads. and developing athletic fields. In arid regions salts. transported from the sloping areas by leaching and erosion. accumulate in the depressions. and the soils often have ;, white color.

The Soil Profile A vertical section of soil. or prbfile. usually shows three layers known as horizons. The horizons can be identi- fiedby colorchanges. bytexture, 4 and/or by structure. The topsoil or surf.ice mineral layer is the A-horizon, the subsoil is the /3- horizon, and the parent material is the C-horizon. = The A-horizon is the layer of soil that supports plant and animal life. The A-horizon tends to be sandy or silty if the clay has been transported into the B-horizon.Soluble mineral matter likewise leaches downward. Or- ganic material or humus from decayed plants and animals makes this layer darker than the 13- horizon below it. The internal movement of water and

USDA SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICC the oxidation conditions of soils in humid regions can be determined by Figure 2.Vertical soil differences are the result of unequal rates of addition and observiqg the color of the iron oxides removal of materials to horizons. Above, Bearden, very fine, sandy loam, showing a fairly deep dark surface soil, brownish upper Bearden horizon, and light gray zone in the stst soil or /3- horizon. Soils with of lime enrichment in the lower Bearden horizon. rapid into nal water movement have a uniform y lowish-brown to reddish- brown color in the /3- horizons: those with slow internalwater movement oriz:44 et;44-D4, c.."-navt have uniform gray colors.Soils be-

A ' tweenthese extremes have mottled (yellow and gray) /3-horizons.The poorly drained. soils also have higher concentrations of organic matter to

C 14. SCPC greater depths than have the better fr.,31en maten.114-, drained soils.

Pl 2rdZwc,A, ,C3SOnalty The /3- horizons of most soils are nigh, 4vat, r 131<, vetmSh arJnatyrObv- zones of accumulation.Soils formed 1 Von tinder acid conditions have an accumulation of clay and/or iron and alumi- vt4aIty aeta num oxides. The accumulation of clay can be detected by feel, as will be described. The increased concentration Figure 3. 3. Landscape in a humid, temperate region where forest was the natural cover. of iron oxides can be observed by the

209 A soil crust is a thin, close-packed structure on thesoilsurface which greatly restricts the infiltration of water and the diffusion of gases to lower 4 layers of the soil. Clay pans, fragipans. and caliche occur below the surface (usually in the /3-horizon ) and restrict water movement and root penetration. Another structure that retards water and root penetrationisplaty; platy structural units overlap like shingles. Common structuralforms inthe B-horizonT arc blocky, prismatic, and columnar. As the cross - sectional area USDA. SOD. CONSERVATION SERVICE of the aggregates decreases, the number figure 4. Sites for housing and other uses should be inspected duringa wet season. of vertical pores per unit area increases. The rate. of percolation and case of increased brightness of color.In aridthe relative proportions of these par- root penetration :I.crease with the num- and subhumid regions, calcium carbon- ticles. On the basis of texture, soils are ber of vertical pores. ate accumulates in the 13-horizon. This divided into large classes: sands, loams, The quantity of water in a sample occurs as a white layer and varies from silts, and clays. Soil scientists want tocan be determined by weighing it before a soft anI discontinuous layer to the know the textural class of a soil beforeand after drying. Soilsamples are very hard and continuous crust known making a management redommenda- usually dried at 105 °C. as caliche. The accumulation of mate- tion. rials in the /3-horizon can decrease the The textural class can be determined wt. of water Percent water X 100 rate of waiter movement, restrict root qualitatively by feel.The sample is wt. of dry soil growth, and increase the energy re-moistened to the consistency of putty quired to dig holes and foundations. and forced into a thin ribbon between This laboratory procedure can be used The decreaseinwater transmission the thumb and forefinger.If the soilto compare the moisture content of must be considered when designing has more than 40 percent clay, it will many soils (poorly drained vs.well drainage fields for septic tanks. form a long, thin ribbon and is classi- drained, A-horizon vs, B-horizon) and The C- horizon is the parent mate- fied as clay. Soils with 27 to 40 percent the change in moisture content with rial. The parent material may be bed-clay will form shorter ribbons and aretime after the addition of water. rock(residual)orunconsolidated called clay loams. Soils containing less The rates of water movement can be material. The latter has usually been than 27 percent clay will not form a determined as illustrated in Figure 1. transported to the site by water, ice, thin ribbon and are called foams. Each The rates of movement differ aniong wind, or gravity. At soil age zero, the of these classes can be subdivided; for soils, among horizons, and with past surface layer was similar to the C-example, into sandy loam and silt loam. treatment. On sloping sites, water run- horizon.During soilformation, theQuantitative methods are described in off occurs when the rate of rainfall ex- compositionsofthe upperlayers references1 and 3. ceeds the rate of infiltration. changed because of various removals The arrangement of the soil particles In urban areas, construction sites are and additions. The (7-horizon contains influences the rate of water infiltration a major source of sediment in streams. the material tha' has undergone littleandpercolation,themovement ofThere is increased erosion from such or no change during the development gases,androotdevelopment.Soil sites because the surface layer has been of the A- and B-horizons. structure refers to the arrangement ofcompacted, decreasing the rate of infil- A soil sample can also be inven-soil particles into aggregates. The size tration and increasing runoff. toried for physical, chemical, and bio- and arrangement of soil particles and The volume of the particlesin a logical properties. The procedures foraggregates are important in determin-sample can be determined by displace- determining these properties vary froming the size and shape of pore spaces. ment of water, Particle densities. (D,.) qualitative to quantitative. Some pro- Pores may contain air or water or both. do not vary much from mineral soil to cedures will be briefly described. Granular (spherical) structure is pre-to mineral soil. Bulk densities (D,;) do ferredforroot development, water vary greatly and are calculated by the Physical Properties movement, and water retention. The following formula: Soilparticles arc graded by size large pores between aggregates permit (from coarse to fine) as sand, silt, orrapid movement of water, and the small wt. of dry sample DB clay.Since most soils arc mixtures,pores within the granules retain water vol.. of sample (or vol. of the texture of a soil is determined byfor later use by the plants. pores -I- vol. of particles)

210 One common method for determining Add 50 ml of approximately I N Biological Properties the bulk density is to force a sharp- FICI. Shake for 10 minutes. The distribution of plant roots in the edged. metal cylinder or can with both 3.Let the soil settle. then decant most soilcan be determined 1) earefull ends removed into the soil.After the of The supernatant liquid through %%ashing thesoilparticles from the soilis trimmed to the volume of the a filter paper: discard the leachate: roots. Roots of representative(Alines cylinder, itis dried and weighed, and and repeat acid leaching. can be compared by taking cores at the volume of the cylinder is calculated. .Shake the soil with 50 nil of dis- %arious distances from the base of the Care must be taken to avoid compac- tilled water for one minute.Let plant. The roots are usually weighed tion during collection of the sample. the soil settle, and decant the super - after drying at 70 C.Small animal Bulk densities not only vary among natantliquidthroughthefilter. populations can be determined b) using soils but also among horizons and with Repeat this step two more times. the Berlese funnel tecLnique. The bac- use. For example, compare a sample Discard the leachate.Place filter teria and fungipopulations can he from a footpath with a sample taken paper and soR in flask. determined by suspending a sample of 10 feet away. Most plant roots will 5.Add 50 ml of IN barium acetate. soil in sterile water, diluting, and add- not penetrate a layer if the hulk density Shake occasionally for five minutes. ingto the proper agar mixture for is greater than 1.6 g, /cur`. Let the soil settle and decant theculturing. The number and types of 1 he percent pan: space can be cal- supernatant liquid through the organisms vary with such factors as culated with the following formula: ter, collecting the filtrate in a clean DEL aeration, temperature, and quan- 250 ml suction flask.Repeat this tity of food. Percent pore space 100% (D, : / Di. X 100) step, collecting the filtratein the same flask. Summary The surface layers of productive agri- 6.Add 20 ml of distilled water to the Soil varies horizontally and verti- cultural soils have approximately 50 soil, shake, let the soil settle, and cally.Thehorizontalchangesare percent port space, or a bulk density decant through a filter. collecting associatO with changes of slope, vege- of approximately 1.3 g/cm". the filtrate in the same container as totion.p:,rent material, climate, and used in step 5. time. The vertical differences on a soil Chemical Properties 7.Add a few drops of phenolphthalein profile are the results of unequal rates A useful and easy chemical determi- indicator solution and titrate withof addition and removal of material., to nation is soil acidity or alkalinity as NaOH. Record the volume and horizons.For efficient use of a unit measured by pH.The pH ofsoil concentration of NaOH used on the area of soil, a manager needs :o know samples can be determined by the use data sheet and calculate the milli- the surface and internal water move- of color indicators and pH meters. equivalents of exchangeable cations ment characteristics, the textural class, Variations in pH occur among soils, per 100 g of soil. the structure, the bulk density, the pH. among horizons, and with past treat- The concentration of organic /tamerthe cation exchange capacity, the per- ments. 'Soil pH is often changed by can he determined by loss of weight. cent organic matter, and the types of farmers and gardeners. The o;mimum The organic matter can be oxidized pathogenic organisms. The boundaries pH range for many species of plants is with hydrogen peroxide or by heatingand properties of soil types in many near neutral, that is, 6.2 to 7.0. Some to 550'C.Increasing the concentra- counties can be obtained from the de- of the favorite flowering shrubs (e.g.,don of organic matter increases the tailed Soil Survey Reports published by azaleas) grow best in the acidic range' CEC, the water-holding capacity, the the Soil Conservation Service of the of pH 4.5 to 5.0. biological activity, and the release of U.S._ Department of Agriculture. 0 Clay particles and organic colloids available nitrogen in soil. Organic mat- are negatively charged and attract theter will adsorb many pesticides.Itis cations. The larger the cation exchange recommended that some pesticides not References capacity (CEC), the greater bufferingbe added to soil with more than 5 per- I.Black. C. A.. Editor.Methods of Soil A nalysiv.PartI.Physical and Miner- capacity, or abilitytoprotect from cent organk matter because the pesti- alogicalProperties.Part2.Chemical major change in pH. Larger quantities cide will not efficiently control the pest. and Microbiological Properties.Ameri- of fertilizers and amendments can be Available phosphorus and potassium can Society of Agronomy. Inc., Madison. Wisconsin. more safely applied to soils with large can be determined by the procedures 1965. 2. Buckman.HurryOliver.andN.C. CEC than to those with low CEC. described in soil analyse~ books and in Brady.The Nature and Properties of The cation exchange capacity of aBoil test kits. Sails.Seventh Edition. The Macmillan soil must be known for efficient use of Many minerals of the sand fraction Company. Ncw York. 1969. 3.Nimes. F. L.A udio-turarial Notes.Bur- soil and fertilizers. One procedure forcan be identified by examining the sand gess Publishing Company. Minneapolis. determining the CEC of soilis de- grains with a microscope. Mineral soils Minnesota.1969. scribed below: that shrink upon drying, developing 4.Millar, Charles Ernest. L. M. Turk, and H. D. Foth. Pundamnfois of .SoilSri. I.Weigh 10.0 g of soil into a 125 ml large cracks, usually contain the clay race.Fourth Edition. John Wiley and Erlenmeyer flask. mineral montmorillonite. Sons. Inc., New York. 1966.

211 GENERAL researched. Waste disposalalterna- logical stress of never again smelling tives had to -be evaluated, and the a rose or newly cut grass. Survival City: amount of land needed to support such Multidisciplinary inquiries into such An Environmental a domed complex had to be computed. fields as nuclear power, construction Awareness Project Students in each class appointed sub- andsanitaryengineering.biological THOMAS R. BREHMAN, Sciencecommittees to supervise scale agree-relationships.psychology,population Teacher,Maine TownshipHigh ment for each building contained indynamics. political and economic sci- School North, Des Plaines, Illinois,Survival City. ences. and human physiological adapta- and MUSA OUTUB, President, Illi- Numerousproblem-solving.situations became essential.More impor- noisEarthScience Association, tionswereconfrontedbystudents tant.thestudentsreadily sawthe a.ld Assistant Professor of Earth Science, Northeastern Illinois Uni-choosintt to deal with the theoretical interdependencier of thesefieldsof, versity, Chicago and social ramifications of the project. study, and the project soon involved Committees investigated: oxygen po- other teachers. For example. in a hit:- tentials of algal "mass cultures"; nu- toryclass the students formulated a clear-power capacities of breeder re-constitution appjjcable to living within SURVIVAL CITY actors; optimum population size as a "Survival City." The English teacher The world'sfossilfuels had been function of individual space require- provided enrichment assignments by totally depleted backin1988.Long- term predictions regarding the collapse o/ ments; projected plans for food syn- having students write newspaper articles I:gat:dim al soils through oven': e of in- thesis from soya beans and other plantdescribing various aspects of lifein

otganic fertilize's came to pass f /11, yam materials; most desirable form of gov- their domed city. Basic designs for the later. In /997 began the term: 'al stagesernmental organizations; and psycho- dome and city planning were diseused of the entrophication of Lake Superior,logical impact of confinement withinin geometry class. The studyTkion- lastof the fresh-water basinsinthe United States. IIthe turn of the century. a closed system. strawshowbarriers between the millions of urban dwellers had succumbed Such considerations may seem natural and social sciences. can be re- to the toxic femmes in theit city straightforward; others, however, aremoved in order to provide alternative Now, in 2009. tutu: ma"( lire withinnot readily apparent.For example, answerstoenvironmentalproblems protective domed cities in order to sur- one class chose to have recreational that may soon confront us. vive. There is no safe air to breathe or water to drink outside the domes. we parks and forested sectionsbut which Students were given the opportunity are to suns ire e must be able to existplants and animals should be brought for creative problem Solving and re- within a closed-system complex. into the closed environmem?(It was sponsible decision making.But what You as a team are commissioned topresumed that all others would perish role did the teacher play? The answer design and construct such a habitat. Two outside the dome.) A desire for plants none. The science teacher served only other groups have also been designated for similar proposals.The awarding of that depend on certain insects for com- as a reference person, though aware of the contract will be based on a feasible pletion of their life-cycle necessitatedall outstanding problems and courses plan for A0/1 ing the problems inherent in inquiry into plant-insect relationships. of action by consulting the weekly such a project. Money is not a factor This led to further research concerning progress reports of each committee. all will be absorbed to aid man insect-insectandinsect-microbede- to survive as a species. Through Survival City, students dis- pendencies. On learning of these dif-covered for themselves some of the ficulties, another claSs decided to use physical and socialpossibilities and artificial vegetationto "beautify"its limitations of living, within the closed The above problem was presented metropolis. It then had to contend with system that constitutes the earth. Ulti- to three tenth-grade science classes as animal requirements for digesting plas- mately, is this not the prime objective part of a uniton ecology and the en-tic flora, to say nothing of the psycho- of an education? 0 vironment.Four weeks were alloted

for completion of the "Survival City" lI project. Each class had to design and con- structa three-dimensional,domed metropolis Highschoolstudentswere complex,completewith asked to design and construct mapsindicatinglinesoftransport, a three-dimensional,domed communications, and public utilities. metropolis in which man could Architectural drawings were developed survive it the outside environment were so polluted as to illustratingthephysicallayoutfor be uninhabitable. The project power and ventilation, and food, water, tore down barriers between the and oxygen-production facilities. Con- socialand naturalsciences and gave students some instruction materials for housing, fac- kling of the complexity of the tories, and the actual dome had to be biosphere.

212 ONE of the problems with intro-abrupt slipface which plunges down ducing an ecological study tofrom the crest to the land being cov- first-year biology students is the welterered. On a windy day grains can be of obscuring and conflictingdetail.seen being blown along the windward Identifying determining factors in mostrise until they reach the crest, where habitat studies requires a trained andturbulence causes them to roil a&ut, selective eye, long and concentratedthen drop down in the lee of the dune. effort, and too often, arbitrary restric-The slipface constitutes an angle of rya tions.Woodlots and meadows arerepose, 33 to 34 degrees. Any tend- I. complex; ponds are even more so. Theencytoincreasethisanglecauses marine shoreline is almost infinitelygrains toslip on one another, thus variable. But a relatively pristine habi-advancing the whole front. While wind tat exists in the sand dunes of lakeforces and inhibiting factors vary, some and coastal shores. Even sandy patchesdunes may flow over a 1- undred feet in old lots or along roads have manyin one direction a year, notably those of the characteristics of a dune. along the Bay of Biscay and near the A sand dune offers a number ofSalton Sea. Those near Provincetown, advantages for student investigation.Cape Henlopen, and Nags Head travel Its paucity of biotic factors presents amore slowly. challenge, yet for most visitors dune- walking has elements of pure pleasure. What makes dunes worthy of attention? Their structure is simple, for they are composed of particles of fairly uniform size. The highly reflective surface of sand may provide extreme, even lethal,temperatures, but subsurface and aerial temperature gradients are .4 easily measured and reveal their own S zonation of life. A dune holds little 4' ' moisture or organic nutrients;itis s;S '42 sr altered visibly by physical forces, such 4 I s is wind and rain; and it is sparsely in- f' '4- Cr i'Vc7G" habited by only a few species of organisms. A sand dune shows at any one time both zonation and a serial biotic succession extending from shift-

ss, ing, abiotic sand to stabilized, vege- s}. ' tated, sand-humus hillocks. - ., Inland sand dunes form when masses of sand are blown from a continuing e source of supply,usuallya beach. Above: slipface.Below: A dune such as Once large enough, they move slowly thatdiagra riledmay advance nearly 100 over field and forest, marsh and stream. feet a year; its crest can be 60 or 80 feet above the land over which it travels. The A profile of a dune usually reveals a dynamic nature of such a dune usually gentle windward slope, a crest, and an prevents stabilizing vegetation from rooting.

RAIN OF PARTICLES ON LEE OF CREST

*On. SLIP 34° 5-$0 FACE COARSE GRAINS PROGRESSION FINE ORAINS LARGE DUNE DYNAMICS

213 The activity of dunes eventually is lessened by pioneer plants which take root in their shifting sands. Marram grass, poverty grass, and other hardy plants become obstacles to the wind and hasten the growth of a dune as sand grains losevelocity and drop among their stems and blades. To survive, plants must keep pace with chang- DEEP ing contours, or grow above the rising WATER sand.Elongated stemsresult,and TABLE when the dune has finally passed by, the plants, if still erect, display awk- ward topknots of vegetation.

Beach heather (Hudsonia)one of the most successful pioneer dune plants grows close tothe sand and forms a ASAND dune is an environment miniature but effective windbreak, with the hostile to many forms of life, result that the sand level in the area rises (a) intolittlehillocks.Hudsonia blooms in yet it supports enough organisms, even the spring, covering the dunes in yellow. aquatic protists, to make population studies feasible. Those organisms that are present are understandably suited to a life in a world of searing heat, abrasive grains, aridity, and little shelter.The adaptations of foliage and 4 root systems of dune plants usually are quite clear. Animals, on the other hand, are less frequently seen.Pri- mary consumers are rare, for there is not enough vegetation to support the usual large population of plant-eaters that constitutes the base of a food pyramid. Most of the animals are-ac- (b) tivepredatory burrowers orfliers. Rabbits, mice, and maritime locusts are the primary herbivores, but predatory and scavenging insects, spiders, lbw . fee, ,r) amphibians,reptiles,and birdsare everywhere. Sonic food chains are almost completely closed, with only oc- is Marram grass usually bends with the wind, 6" casional contributions from the plant- but a weakened blade may break and eating population. For example, velvet scribe arcs in the sand as the wind blows. ants prey upon digger wasp larvae, but '1%*!-Are' 41; 1:A.,/' 1' (c)velvet ants are parasitized by bee flies. .;".:11 1 ..110. VI' Wcrei._, ,..4...1 -(r4 Bce flies may be captured by robber or" 7. t --'4.1 7 "(.4V"'"_.,m,,,,.-1144+1,544-,_ ,ac 0.1 flies, and both of these flies are picked ,. "' --- ''..,...-.:-., ::,;'e, . .: if up when weak or dead by digger wasps. . -'-.44,: :'::.'..r. '..,..'i%'. ',I iffie The root systems of dune plants often are Before student groups arc taken to '/ ,r1Z,", ;47 ''''.; modified to exist in shifting, abrasive soil ....:4," ; v .. . : :1,...... ,,,,,.' 1; j ,' ',- '''' 4,-''' "1 1 ;;:rIMIwhere the water table may be far below, a sandy area, it is well to determine as , -''''-r4.. 441 '' '. , , '' A i '''' '2,;,... '"%t. .:..., , or where water must -be absorbed as itmuch about itshistory and present '' 4i.O.' ;,-,;;y1 percolates rapidly downward after a rain. state of activityaspossible.Some )/ !' .. Marram grass withitslong sub-surface ... r e., , 1',.. t ,Ar.:,,,.. 4 1-,, 4.3 1*t il ei''' -44-;"o2' , I; runners is the most abundant, but lupine dunes, such as those of Indiana, Michi- , it ?",. A ii-je,,.,' fi,:,,,', ;"? . (a) reaches down nearly 10 feat; wiregrass gan, Maine, Massachusetts, Delaware, (b) proliferates its root system lust beneath and Virginia, are mostly homogeneous VI%t ...'''',, the surface; and the prickly pear cactus (c A; :.', xi, and d, side and top views) extends itself masses of sand, each arising from a '...-tt.. 1-... widely through sandy soil. single origin." 'This homogeneity can

214 be determined by a particle-size analy-tap roots to the water table, perhapsof a sand dune is almost devoid of sis using a graded series of sieves, sim-three meters beneath the surface, when animal life. Temperatures here can be ilar to those currently available for therootlets br. ich profusely. high enough to coagulate blood pro- ESCP course. If all grains show little Where ca1,2'ary water persists nearteins of unprotected, poikilothermous disparity, the dune may have had athe surface, an unsuspected flora andinsects, and many of them possess determinable origin, both in place andfauna are to be found. It is surprisingstructuralor .behavioral adaptations time. A migrating dune, blown along,to students how much can be seen withthat minimize this danger. is the result of selective action by thea microscope in water collected from On many dunes, the only insects wind. Large particles are left behind,moist sand by means of simple tubesfound on the surface on hot, sunny and exceptionally fine ones are carried and perforated cores.Protists, nema-days are velvet ants, which are really far away and dispersed.Later, as atodes, tardigrades, harpacticoid cope-wingless wasps heavily insulated with dune becomes stabilized by vegetation,pods, and other invertebrates are usu-a thick "fur."Dune spiders, many a wider range of particle sizes again allypresent.Itis not difficulttodigger wasps, bee flies, and robber becomes apparent. concentrate them from the water col-flies are also pilose, but the degree of Examination of grains themselveslected by simple centrifugation. Thesetheir insulation does not equal that of may reveal oth,r features of impor-organisms, especially nematodes andthe velvet ant. This formidable insect tance to sand-dwelling organisms. Anharpacticoids, provide fine opportuni-(it has a painful sting) runs rapidly old dune which has migrated some dis-ties for student evaluation of morpho-across the sand in search of the bur- tance will be composed of roundedlogicaladaptations.Thesemotile,rows of the digger wasp, whose larvae grains,, while dunes of more recentelongatedcreatureswriggleeasilyit parasitizes with its -own eggs and origin may have particles with sharper,through pore spaces in a subsurfacelarvae. It is active up to temperatures more irregular shapes. The shape ofworld of sand water that is far moreof 122°F (50°C), but beyond this, sand grains determines not only abra-extensivethanone would suspectit seeks shade. sive quality, but surface areabothstaining on a dry, shifting surface. If Subsurface temperatures drop rap- matters of some importance.(Thestudentsdeterminethe volume ofidly, so an examination of the burrows sand I am referring to is the largelycapillary water by comparing wet andof rabbits, mice, toads, digger wasps, quartz sand of most shorelines, anddry weights of sand samples, the extentwolf spiders, ants, and other creatures not the highly irregular, crumbling,of the sand-water environment be-enablesstudentstodeterminethe calcareous sand of semitropical re-comes apparent. As much as one-fifthfavorable conditions a tunnel or bur- gions, such as the Florida Keys.) of the water falling on a dune mayrow provides. A small evapometer or Abrasion can be a severe, but notbe held just beneath the surface inwet and dry bulb thernrimeter placed prohibitive, limiting factor.At timescapillarity. in an artificial burrow will show less- it can destroy roots, but is even more On a clear summer day the surfaceened rates of water loss, compared to dangerous to stems exposed to strong prevailingwinds.Theeffectsand This diagram of surface life and temperature (indicated in color) shows adaptations direction of a prevailing wind can be to the harsh dune environment for ex- found in the scars on one side of ample, the deep burrows of the tiger beetle woody stems. These scars, the result larvae and the ant colonies branched out of sand-blasting, can reach down into far beneath the surface. Other insects are pictured on the next page. the cortex of a dune shrub or tree. Somewhat similar effects are caused by the dessication of tissues on the windward side and accelerated growth on the other, which resultsin gnarling 4?; and twisting. Of course, the more suc- ,:v cessful grasses and nonwoody plants Aenu -V.M5,MAI simply bend with the wind and offer 4

little resistance to flying sand grains. ofiAssmariiit NW NOME VIIVIT Grains of irregular shape, or lessened ANT sphericity, offer large pore spaces and more surface for capillary water, although after a rain most water percolates down through the upper sand note cant IARVA rapidly until the water table is reached. I: Many plants, even those living high on p recoup :ft/ INDIA a dune, are obliged to send down long otocruum

215 conditions on the surface. A cool,flush with the surface while wedged in moist burrow is important to animalsvertical burrows excavated in the moist whichotherwise might become de-sand surrounding a dune pond, or hydrated through the moist membraneswhere the water table comes close to A of their lungs or tracheal systems. Tothe surface. At the bottom of the slip- measure the subsurface temperatureface, where the sand grains are finer gradient, one needs only to lower athan in any other region, students may thermometer down a narrow verticaldiscover the conical pits of ant lions. tube sunk in the sand and left in placeThese ferocious larvae of a weak, in- 74& overnight. A remote reading thermis-effectual flying adult, capture any in- tor-thermometer would be even better.sects that fall into their traps, paralyze The velvet ant is insulated against surface Temperatures- taken in the air to athem, and then remove their tissues, heat by its thick coat of hairs. height of a meter or two will show awhich have been liquified by histo- similar, but not so pronounced, gradi-lyticenzymesinjectedthroughthe ent.Dune grasses rising into theselarvae's long, sickle-like jaws. cooler strata usually support a variety Evcn with an absence of animals on of insects on their blades, but the in-the dunes in the daytime, students can sects are not necessarily plant eaters.discover extensive evidence of their ac- One primary consumer, the maritimetivity the preceding night. Each crea- locust, can be found clinging to bladesture leaves a diagnostic track in the of marram grass, but just as frequentlyloose sand, whether it is a beetle, toad, alights on the sand surface at middaysnake, tortoise, or mouse. Some tracks -for brief periods until it takes cooling. -e puzzling at first; with manyitis The digger wasp takes frequent verticalflights. When it is on the hot sand, aspossible to determine in which direc- flights until its burrow extends into cooler its own temperature rises, it begins totion the animal was traveling, what it strata of sand. raise its body by straightening its legsate, and what may have happened to it. until itis standing almost on tiptoe.Tracks are soon blown over, but early Predatory tiger beetles flick into thein the day the surface of a dune clearly scene, run rapidly across the sand, andreveals the activities of its population. then they too fly swiftly into the cooler Mice and rabbits might be flushed air above the dunes. from sh.illow burrows under heavy Some insects, such as th; diggercrest vegetation on a dune that is being wasps,utilizebothsubsurfaceandstabilized, but toads and snakesthe aerial gradients and spend only veryhognose for examplesubmerge be- brief intervals on the superheated sur-neath the sand during daylight hours, face.One of these bembecid waspsleaving no trace except for their tell- alternately hovers and digs untilits tale tracks of the night and early dawn. burrow descends below thecriticalIn the West, some snakes and lizards temperature.It then provisions thecan be followed as they move under The bee fly seldom alights on the surface burrow with dead and dying insectsthe sand by the surface ripples caused but prefers to cling to vegetation. and finally lays a few eggs. by their subsurface movements. Should students have difficulty in capturing dune insects, most of which are swift fliers or runners, they may FOR PERSONS with more passive wish to excavate sand wolf spiders interests, dune plants form fas- from their easily identificJ, round, ver-cinating objects of study. Some have tical burrows which are shored up byleaves covered by dense masses of hair- a tube of webbing. Wolf spiders canlike trichomes, an insulation analogous be found at the surface at night withoutto the pilosity of dune insects and difficulty because their eyes reflect aspiders. Other plants have thick, waxy flashlight's beam with a bright, coldcuticles, or leaves that are heavy and brilliance. scale-like and are held pressed tightly Some of the more passive insects.against the stem, lessening exposure. live only in certain places in the dunes. Certain dune plants can be found The tiger beetle takes short, cooling 'lights, The predatory larvae of tiger beetles,holding their leaves vertically, so the as indicated on the diagram on page 17. for example, hold their armored headsbroad portions of the blades are neither

216 struck directly by the sun nor exposedmet on dunes--heat and aridityarediscover much to arouse interest be- tointenseback-radiationfromtheknossn to produce paleness. which in yond the fess topics touched upon here. sand. Such leas es usually have equal-turn pros ides some measure of protec-Each dune has its characteristic popu- ized internal structures with palisadetion from predators, hoss es er slight. lations and dominant species, its pio- layers on each side. Some dune plants neers, interactions among species, and foldtheirleavesatmidday. while modifications of form and activity. others flower and grow most actively WITH only sample equipment and Has ine introduced many students early or late in the season or only fol- a little ingenuity, science stu-and teachers to the Atlantic dunes, I lowing rainstorms. The western whitedents can measure the progress of aam convinced that these lands hold primrose, for example, loses its leavesdune, estimateitsorigin,defineits meaning,fascination.andgenuine during times of droupt, only to grow physicalparameters, examine highlypleasure for the student investigator. new ones quickly following a rain. specialized organisms, 1nravel popula- A close study of leaves often revealstion interact.ons, and find evidence of References interesting.modifications. Stomatesbiotic 'succession. None of this is so Amos. Villiam H. "Sand Dunes." Estua- may be reduced in number, lesseningeasily done in other habitats. Those rine Bulletin 1:3-5: April 1956. 2. Dune Life.Doubleday and the rate of transpiration. Another mod-schools fortunate enough to be within Company, GardenCity,NewYork. ification can be found inthe cacti,reach of sand dunes may discover they 1956. have a useful and important adjunct to 3. . "Henlopen's Dunes."Natut whose leaves are modified as spines Afavazine 50:81-85: February 1957. their academic programs. Earth science and which carry on carbohydrate pro- 4. . The Life of a Sand Dune. duction in their green, flattened stems.classes. for example. are able to use Sc ie unfit A met ic an 201:91-98:July Without functional leaves, water lossa dune area almost at once, and re- 1959. 5. he living Sand."National is minimized, and the precious fluid canpeatedly through the year. A physics Geocuaphte 127:820-',33: June 1965. be stored. Cacti are remarkably hardyclass might be stimulated to study the 6. .The Life of the Seashore. Mc- along the perimeters of sandy areas,dynamics of dune movement and the Graw-Hill Hook Company, New York. 1966. and are able to continue active growth various physical phenomena of dune 7.Buxton.PatrickA.AmaralLifein intemperaturesashighasI36 °F formation: wind vdocity and particle Desetts.St. Martin's Press, New York. transport, wind shadows, turbulence, 1955. s.Wheeler, William M.Demons of the laminar flow,friction,the angle of DM!. W. W. Norton and Company, New repose, and so on. Biology classes will York.1930. THE whole subject of pigmentation offers much to investigate. Many WINDWARD dune creatures, both vertebrate and SLOPE SLIP FACE invertebrate, arc light colored, lacking a the brownish pigment, melanin, which darkenstheirwoodlandrelatives. L _ b Melanin is formed most abundantiy at A comparatively low temperatures and Although a hypson;eter, which gives a direct reading, is the most useful instrument for measuring the height of a dune, triangulation (above) can be used.First, a meas- is suppressed in hot environments, a ured string is attached to the crest and brought forward to ground level.Then, using fact that has been demonstrated in aa protractor with a level, a sextant, or a transit, angle A is determined. A right tri- number of insects and the well-known angle is assumed, line a being vertical and line b horizontal.The height of line a is determined by using a Table of Natural Functions and the formula a = c sin A, Himalayan rabbit.Other factors are The rate of progression of a dune (below) is measured by using graduated, numbered known to influence darkening or pale- stakes pounded into the soil at the bottom of the slipface.The angle of the slipface ness: Moisture causes soate locusts to can be measured with a clinometer (protractor with plumb line) or estimated at 34°. The horizontal migration can be calculated from the rise of the sand level around the darken, while dryness has the opposite stake over a period of time; it is about 75 percent of vertical rise. effect.Does this explain the sand- colored maritime locust? Some dune insects are pale regardless of conditions of the physical environment.Natural selection by predators who are quick PROGRESSION STAKE to spot color contrasts against the sand OF DUNE undoubtedly plays a role, but many dune animals are light colored despite the fact they are exclusively nocturnal. How are they favored by being light WOODEN in color? Perhaps the only conclusion STAKE possible is that the prevalent conditions

217 `A

4t.at .4.*..!4 A w.

a- t.. sallk

oww yr

74Y,4ih. NATIO 1 1FP,F3E ECOLDOICALYCLASSROONIS

Frank.R. Martin,,

THIS istremendous,"the youngducted-tourbasis by contacting therationforavisit,the manager in I biology teacher exclaimed as themanager of the nearest large refuge.charge of the area should be contacted last of her class looked out on the\'isitois are always welcome, and pub-by the teacher and certain information pondthroughthespottingscope. lic use is restricted only when in con-obtained. The trip can be more mean- Twenty-one students had been takingflict with the primary wildlife manage-ingful at some seasons than at others. turns watching a Canada goose on ament programs. Publicationsdealingwiththearea nest atop a muskrat house.Standing Although nationalwildlife refugesshould also be reviewed. Refuge leaf- nearby, the manager of the Nationalwere established originally for migra- lets,birdlists,and, in some cases, Wildlife Refuge was answering ques- torywaterfowl, many refuges nowmammal_and reptile lists are available. tions and occasionally adjustingthe benefit other kinds of wildlife.ForIt is also-advisable to tell the refuge scope to keep "on target." The teacherexample, the Desert Wildlife Rangemanager how many people willbe had reason to be elated. This was herin Nevada provides habitat and pro-making the trip and whether or not a first trip to one of the federal wildlifetection for the desert bighorn sheep.bus or automobiles will be used for refuges, and it was less than ten miles it attention is being given to transportation.Managersneedad- from the school where she taught. Sheenvironmental preservation, and stud-vance notice: one week is usually suffi- knew she'd be back with her classies of wilderness candidate areas are cient. Inwrittenrequests,teachers again since there were many points ofbeing conducted on Juan), refuges andshould give a telephone number indi- interest they had not seen on the one- wildliferanges underprovisionsofcating where the person in charge of hour tour.The refuge manager, too,the Wilderness Act of 1964. the students can be reached. knew they would be back. He realized A priority goal of the National Wild- National WildlifeRefuges and from past experience that the teacherlife Refuge Systemisto assure theWaterfowl Production Areas are eco- would inform other teachers, and thesurvival in a natural state of each oflogical gems and provide places where students would undoubtedly be backthe nation's plant and animal species. biology teachers can instill an environ- with friends or their parents. A number of the refuges provide habi-mental consciousness in young Amer- Over 300 refuges totaling 30 milliontats for rare and endangered species. icans.In some parts of the country acres are widely distributed in 46 ofThe Aransas refuge in Texas is famouswhere units of the national wildlife the 50 state,About 180 have trained foritswhoopingcranewintering refuges are close to huge population wildlife managers "on the ground."grounds, and theHawaiian Islandscenters, they are the only remaining Many of the unstafled areas, such asNational Wildlife Refuge supports thetruly natural areas.Teachers wanting waterfowl-productionareas in the entire population of four of the na- to take advantage of these areas should prairie states, can be visited on a con-tion's fifty endangered birds. write for a refuge managers list and A visit to a wildlife refuge is morea leaflet,The National Wildlife Refuge than just a bird watching trip.The System,availablefromBureauof The author is manager of the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Range, a 920,000 teacher can give students a variety ofSport Fisher:es and Wildlife, U.S. acre unit If the National Wildlife Refugelearning experiences through the greatDepartment of the Interior, Washing- System, Lewistown, Montana. diversity of flora and fauna.In prepa-ton, D.C. 20240. 0

218 AN EXERCISE IN WINTER ECOLOGY

Brother James Murphy, CFC

THE below-freezingtemperatures bit as a species has been able to survive this is to find and identify animal tiacks that characterize winter in manyby sheer numbers, protective colora- infresh snow.In stud} int; the tracks, areas cause the flora-and fauna of these tion, and the ability to maneuver at take care not to destroy them. Tracks should he left so that other students may environments to alter their life styles high speeds. The animal's Achilles heel see them. Other evidence of animal life quitedrastically. Winterexercises is its lack of endurance. Once a rabbit can be fund in tree hollows, tinder logs, which we use with °Li students are de- has been scared out of hiding, all that and in debris. Return all objects to their signed to show how living things sur- is necessary to catchitis to keep it original position. so thet may continue to vive during one of nature's most trying moving for about two to four minutes. serve as a possible source of shelter for animals. periods A prairie or open field is the Even a short rest, and the chase time Also note which birds are in the area. best location for the exercises, but any must start all over again.If the rabbit Make a list of the animals that are active outdoor area, even a city pack, is satis- is not given a chance to rest,itwill at this time of tear. Compare this list to factoryprovided some animal life is collapse of exhaustion.It can then be records of the animals that .Ire found in present.If possible. schedule the exer- picked up by the scruff of the neck with the area during the summer, and note the organisms that are missing. What simi- cise so that it can be conducted a day one hand and a good grip on the hind larityexists among the animals found or so after a snowfall when there will legs with the other hand. The rabbits during the winter?List any similarities be clear,fresh animal tracks.The can be placed in a burlap bag for easy among the animals found only during the equipment required is a pocket knifehandling. After they have been meas- summer. Tn to explain the wheralouts and a large plastic bag for collecting ured, weighed, sexed, and tagged forof several animals that are not present during the winter.if you scare up a liv- materials in the field. Students should future identification, they should be re- ing rabbit, give chase. How close were be told to come dressed for work out- leased in the area where they were you to the animal before it moved? Can doors. Beyond that, we give the stu- caught.If the animals are detained, you explainits reaction?If you chase dents several sheets of questions as a especially indoors, for more than a few the animal, it w ill consider you to be a guide to the activities, and they go hours they will rapidly lose the vigor predator.What does the rabbit do to avoid being caught?If you are able to ahead on their own. thatisso necessary for survivalin keep the rabbit moving, it will tire within Most of the following exercises are cold weather. two to four minutes and can easily be self-explanatory, but the suggested rab- Following are t)pical handout sheets caught without harming it. An interest- bit chase does merit some explanation. for the students: ing study can be done with rabbits that Catching a rabbit may seem improb- are caught.if they are tagged and re- During the winter months the overall leased. More complete details on this can able, but it is possible to catch a cotton- life activity of plants and animals in the he found in several of the books in the tail if you know a little about the ani- northern part of this country goes into reference list. mal and have some faith in the physical low gear. Only a few organisms maintain capabilities of your students. The rab- an active (hill) schedule for survival; most rind the tracks of an animal and follow organisms reduce their metabolism to a them for about ten minutes.Did the bare minimum. animal follow a path or just cut across Brother Murphyissciencedepartment The first activity in the field is to in-the terrain at random? Did the animal chairman, Brother Rice High School, Chi- vestigate the forms of animal life that are stop during its moement; ifso, why? cago, Illinois. active at this time. The easiest way to do After following the tracks for some time

219 L*IA , St'

.t This double header resulted from one rab- An exhausted rabbit is held by the scruff A rabbit remains quiet in the burlap bag bit running into another. Both w'imals are of the neck and the hind legs asitis and is easily weighted. Many rabbits sur- exhausted, but both are unhurt. deposited in a burlap bag for transporting. pass the average life span of one year.

0,71.0 0 0 $1 0

do you have any information on the ani- '4so 4, 116; 0 0 00, mal's source of food and where it finds o6. 040 °o shelter? So Hibernating insects and spiders of vari- oe to, ous types may he found under a loose 00 0 piece of bark or in debris.Insect larvae 0 may be uncovered if you slit down the frozen stalks of some herbs, such as sun- flower plants. Larvae may also be found 0 in cocoons attached to plants. What is the source of food for these' organisms. 6../\() and how do they keep from freezing during the winter? You may see abnormal HD= CAT swellings in various parts of plants. Prob- ably these are plant galls. They can be found on a large number of different plants. Make a list of the galls that you

WHITETAIL TEEFt find: Record the type of plant, plant part I° that is affected, and, if possible, determine the name oftheanimalcausingthe OXICrAIL growth. Use a sharp knife to make a cut RAW? in a gall, just off center.If you find a living organism inside, describe it.If the gall is empty, try to figure out what hap- i!f pened to the organism that was inside. Are the animals that cause a gall para- sites? An interesting long-range project 1.7 is to place galls or cocoons in a covered t7 jar and store it in a moderately warm and b go b '0 0' humid location. Under these conditions you will be able to see the insects emerge RED FOX 31C411; RAT FIELD MUSE from their hibernation. Observe the plants in the area. Identify any that are green, and try to explain The animal tracks pictured above are some of the most common found during the winter. how this is possible. Break several small The small sets of imprints shown above the larger drawings are meant to give some ideabranches on a tree. Are they frozen?If of the animal tracks.II the front and hind loot of an animal are very different, the front not, why? Examine the buds at the end loot is pictured above the hind one. of a branch.How are they protected Nontoxic spray paintis applied tothe Small numtered tags are placed in the The rabbit's length from nose totail is animal'stail,with a color code for sex animals ear.If care istakento avoidrecorded as part of that animals life his- and area distribution.It provides informa- blood vessels, not a drop of blood will be tory. Then the rabbit is released at the site tion on the animal's movements. shed. The tags aid in gathering data. at which it was captured originally.

from the cold? Scc if }on can find sonic small green plants close to the ground. These are usually biennials such as wild lettuce, thistle, and mullein. How does the structure of these plants protcct them from the cold and from animals in the area? Examine the lower bark of trees and shrubs; are they being eaten? Why would extensive damage to the bark cause death to these plants? Construct a food web for the area that you are studying. If you have made a food web for the same area during the summer, compare the two and note differences. 0

References

1.Benton. Allen H., and William E. Werner. Manual of Field Biology and Ecology. Burgess Publishing Company.Minne- apolis, Minnesota, 1956. (Secondary and college level laboratory guide in e -ology) 2.Mason, George F. Animal Tracks. Wil- liam Morrow & Co. New York.1943. (Primary- or secondary-level book concerned with the identification of animal tracks) 3. Morgan, Ann H. Field Book of Animals in Winter. Van Rees Press. Ncw York.. 1939.(Secondaty, or college-level natural history book) 4.Mosby, Harry S., Editor. Wildlife Investi- gationalTechniques. EdwardBrother Ann Arbor, Michigan. 19C3. (Col- lege- or secondary-level book that contains a great deal of information on research methods in ecology) 5.Youngpeter, John M. Winter Science Ac- tivities. Holiday H .e. Ncw York. 1966. Plants provide winter homes for some animals. Pictured above, left to right, are abutter- (Primary level book of information and fly cocoon and a moth cocoon. Bottom, left to right, are a round gall in agoldenrod activities for winter nature study) stem caused by a fly and an oval gall caused by a gall moth. Weather and Climate Research

JULIAN KANE Science Teacher Garden C;ty Senior High School Garden City, New York, and Senior Lecturer Hofstra University Hempstead, New York

and

MICHAEL ADAMS, JOANNE ARENA, CYNTHIA BAKER, JOSEPH BILLMEIER, GERALD CARUCCI, ARMAND CHAGOLL, SAL-LIE CHARLES, FRANK COUGHLIN, ROBERT DELAHUNT, ROBERT HAZEL, GE BARDLAURO, JOANNE McENTEE, DOUGLAS McEVOY, DOROTHEA SCHIPP, JEAN SEWELL. Students at Garden City Senior High School

RESEARCH courses conducted atfor that operation.If the teacher is N.Y., from 1955 to /969 by Julian Garden City Senior High Schoolactively participating in the project, he Kane, Jean Sewell, Michael Adams, over the past few years have enabledserves as overall coordinator, consult- Armand Chagoll, Frank Coughlin students to work individually or jointlyant, and coinvestigator. (May 1971). on projects in the earth, space, at- The students themselves decide Using weather data obtained from mospheric, and environmental sciences. which projects they wish to work ontheEnvironmentlScienceServices Approximately 40 youngsters each yearand when and how they do the work.Administration, we determined how (mostly twelfth-graders) sign up forAlthough we meet daily in the class-often 0.01 inch or more of precipitation one of the research courses after takingroom, much of the research is carriedoccurred for each of 16 hours at Cen- an elementary earth or space scienceout during free periods, after school,tral Park in New York City over a course. Although our research projectsweekends, and holidays.Periodic re- I 5-year period (1955 to 1969). The range from estuarine microorganisms to ports and seminars keep all membershours included those ending at 6 AM the planets, this paper deals solely withof'the research group aware of progress to those ending at 9 Pm. Major find- our activities in the atmospheric areas. and problems on the various projects.ings (based primarily on analyses of Occasionally, our projects are sup- Two of the students have receivedthe last five-year segment: 1965-69) ported by corporate and foundationNASA-NSTA awards for their work inwere: grants, and we have been fortunatethe atmospheric sciences: Janet Botte a.Precipitationoccurred more fre- enough to have had severalarticlesin 1969 for research on the effect of quently (butinlesser amounts) published in journals such as Nature,meteor particles on world precipitation during the 1960-64 drought period Science, and The Science Teacher.patterns, and Dorothea Schipp in 1970 than during the preceding and fol- Many of our projectsinvolve jointfor research on particulate pollution lowing five-year periods when fairly student-teacher research; while othersin Garden City. normal precipitation amounts fell. include little or no participation on the A summary of eight of the weather b.The hours of greatest precipitation teacher's part. When a research teamand climate research projects is given frequency were those ending at 6 is organized to work on a particularbelow. Each project, except the eighth, AM, 2 Pm, and 3 Pm. The hours of project, each member is made responsi-was supported by a research grant. The least precipitation frequency were ble for a phase of the work. Each phase eighth appeared in TST (Feb. 1969). those ending at 9AM, 10 AM,and (planning, investigation, interpretation, I1 AM. and report writing) usually has a differ- I.Hourly Precip;tation Frequenciese.Hourlyprecipitationfrequencies ent student leader who is responsible for each Month at Central Park, were generally higher from Novcm- Figure1. November hourly precipitation NOVEMBER 5 frequency for each of three 5-year periods PIA1955.59 and fortotal15-year period (1955-69). FE!,1960.64 Central Park, New York City. 1.11965.69 A1955.69 4 ber to April. and generally lower from June to October. d.In_November. December, and Jan- 3 uary, most of the high precipitation frequency hours were in the afternoon.In February, March, and 2 April, most of the high precipitation frequency hours were in the morning. c. In May and October, most of the low precipitation frequency hours were inthe afternoon.In June, 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 AM--f--PMhour ending July, and September, most of the low precipitation frequency hours were in the morning. Table 1.Hourly precipitation frequency averages for 1965-69 (> 0.01"), Central Park, New York City. f. December had the highest precipi- tationfrequency(10percent), ( ) < 1.5 Tisitis/MoNT0 rATioN Occummo (< ) ( ) = 1.5-2.9 Tom.s/MoN tit PRECIPITATION OCCURRED (5% to ID% ) August had the lowest (43 per- (+) 5 2.9 TIMES/MON111 PRECIPITATION OCCURRED (5 IOC;7 cent), and May had the most nor- (Totals) mal precipitation frequency for the Jan.Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun.Jul.Aug..Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. + 16 -hour segment of the live-year AM 6 + + + 1 7 4 7 3 7 2 period (7 percent). 8 + 2 8 1 The 1960-1964 drought period had 9 + 5 5 1 10 5 6 1 2,023precipitationhours compared 5 70 with 1,975 precipitation hours for the 12 4 80 1955-59 period and 1,980 precipitation PM 1 + 4 62 + + 3 6 3 hours for the 1965-69 period. Appar- 3 + + + 3 6 3 ently. precipitation occurred more fre- 4 + 4 7 1 5 + + 3 7 .1 quently during the droughtperiod, but 6 3 -9-0 in significantly smaller amounts. 7 0 120 8 1 10 1 Tables 1 and 2 and Figure 1 present 9 0 11 1 some of the data from this study. 0 0 0 2 I 10 8 12 4 9 0 046

2. Particulate Air Pollution Survey of 12 14 14 10 15 6 8 4 12 7 11 5 122 1 Garden City, N.Y., October 1968 4 2 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 7 toApril 1969 by Julian Kane, Dorothea Schipp, Joseph Billmcier, Gerard Lauro (December 1969). Table 2.Monthly precipitation frequency totals for three 5-year periods, Central Park, New York City. (For 16-hour period. Hours ending 6 AM to 9 PM.) Using equipment installed on our high school roof and controlled from 1955-59 1960.64 1965-69 1965.69 our classroom, we operated a Hi-Vac MONTH TO CAI IOTA I 10CAI AVERAGE Air Sampler over a six-month period January 146 194 200 2.5 tothestandardsix-day according February 183 233 178 2.2 24-bou'r schedule set by the New York March 282 216 201 2.5 State Department of Health. The Nas- April 228 214 181 2.3 May 115 11 168 2.1 sau County Department of Air Pollu- June 117 11 108 1.5 tion Control showed us how to install, July 92 38 133 1.7 August 131 10 98 1.3 operate, and maintain the equipment September 94 62 140 1.8 and how to gather the data.Major October 207 06 112 1.4 November 172 89 223 2.8 findings of this project were: December 208 228 237 3.0 a.Garden City had less particulate Total 1,975 2.023 1,980 2.1 pollution than many other areas

223 The data were summarized in four 5- (40)A 2 readings year segments to show trends for each North (40.3)A 3 readings month and also in "seasonal.' seements NW (63). 10 readings as shown in Table 3 to determine gen-

SW MS )A I reading eral trends.

(55.013)1 16 readings 4.Temperature Variations in the New We+1, 1113.36); 13 readings York City Urban Area Compared

10 29 3040506070 6090 100 110 120 130 140 with two Rural Communities (Can- Particulates ton and Lake Placid, N.Y.) over a (micrograms per cubic meter) A,61Wes Ax ewe lot all ditectittits except Hat. 20-year Period,by Robert Hazel (February 1971). Figure 2. Particulate pollution levels in Garden City, New York, compared with prevailing wind directions. (October 1968 to April 1969) Temperature trends over a 20-year period in New York City and in two Adirondack villages were compared via in Nassau County.(Comparisons Variations: (1950 to 1969) for a computer study to determine possible were made with nine other areas CentralPark, N.Y.,byRobert urban effects on climate.All trends in the County.) Hazel and Jean Sewell (December noted except for the first one can be b.Pollutionlevels wcrc highestin 1970). explained by the urban region's large Garden City when the wind blew Workingprimarilyduringafter-winter fuel consumption per unit area from the west-where the New schoolhours, the students used anas compared with that of the rural re- York metropolis is located. Adelphi University computer to ana- gions. Sonic of the findings for the 20- c.Pollutionlevels were lowest on lyze monthly and seasonal temperatureyear period (1950 to 1969) based on Sundays and highest on Wednes-maximum changesover a 20-year half-decade analysis were: days. period in New York City. Their major a.The coldest months,_ January and d.Pollution levels were significantly findings were: February, experienced the greatest lower on days when precipitation a.The annual average temperature mean temperature decreases in both occurred than on days when no maximum declined from 63.0°F in urban and rural areas, precipitation fell. the 1950-54 segment to 61.9°F in b.All three areas experienced mean e.None of 10 Nassau County air- the 1965-69 segment. temperature decreases, but the ur- sampling stations surveyed showed b.Seven months (January, February, ban area showed a smaller decrease pollution levels which conformed to July, September, October, Novem- than did the rural ones. the standards set by the New York ber, December) showed tempera- c.The February rural minimum tem- State Department of Health. Gar- ture maximum declines during the peraturedecreasewasapproxi- den City, however. came closest to 20-yearperiod. The otherfive mately double that of the urban meeting the states minimal particu- months showed temperature maxi- one. late pollution standards. mum increases. d. The February rural maximum tem- Figure 2 shows the pollution aver- c.The "cold" season (November to perature decrease was about -equal ages for different wind directions. March; when the average maxi- to that of the urban one. mums were under 60'F) showed c.The February rural mean tempera- 3.Average Maximum Temperature the greatest decline. ture decrease was approximately 1.5 times that of the urban one. f.The Februaryruraltemperature Table 3. New York Central Park average maximum temperature in degrees range (difference between high and Fahrenheit ("seasonal" trends). low) increased about 3.0°F, while 1950.54 1955.59 1960.64 1965.69 the urban range decreased 0.5 °F. "Cold" months 46.4 43.8 44.0 41.3 November-March 5.S'yzgynot a Factor in Langmuir -Winter" ntpnths 44.8 41.4 42.0 41.3 Theory,by Julian Kane, Gerard Lauro, January-March Douglas McEvoy, Gerald Carucci (Sep- "Spring" months 70.3 70.5 71.4 71.1 April-June tember 1969). "Summer" months 81.8 81.7 31.0 81.8 July-September When Irving Langmuir and his asso- "Pall" months 55.0 53.4 53.8 53.1 ciates conducted the world's first cloud- October-December seeding experiments in New Mexico in January-June 57.6 56.0 56.7 56.2 July-December 68.4 67.6 . 67.4 67.6 1949-50, Langmuir noteda corre- sponding general increase in precipita- Twelve-month average 63.0 61.8 62.1 61.9 tion in the eastern United States (as

224 well as a specific increase in precipita-Table 4.Socorro-New York precipi-theory b) E. G. Bowen, meteor shower tion hi New Mexico). His subsequenttationcorrelation(monthly)1948- particlesdrift down from the iono- attempts to prove a cause-and-effect 1968. sphere to the troposphere in approxi- relationship met with much disapproval PRLDIC IA111111 mately four weeks, and then actas among meteorologists. RATIO condensation nuclei for water vapor to Before commencing a 21-year study January 14:57 24.5 enhance precipitationpatterns on a of precipitation in New Mexico and February,:,.., 21:49 42.8 worldwide basis. The December 1966 March 21:53 39.6 New York to determine the validity ofApril 20:45 44.4 precipitation would have, according to Langmuir's general theory that New May 18:45 40.0 the theory, been much greater than June 11:57 19.8 Mexico weather patterns show up in the July 47:181 25.9 usual and also greater than the Novem- East four to five days later, we ana- August 61:171 35.5 ber 1966 or the January 1967 precipi- September 38:100 38.0 lyzed Langmuir's 1949-50 data to find October 25:65 38.4 tation. Our analysis of "World Meteor- whether syzygy had any influence in the November 14:32 43.7 ological Organization Monthly Climatic patterns.In the time since Langmuir's December 23:41 56.0 Data" showed that the November and work, it was discovered that the third, January world precipitation amounts fourth, and fifth days after a syzygy were about 3 percent higher than their (new or full moon) were generally the Michael Adams, Armand Chagoll,respective 30-year averages, and that highest precipitation-potential days of WilliamMeisinger,JeanSewell the December amount was 11 percent a semilunar period (14 days).Our (March 1971). higher.This indicates a positive cor- syzygy survey of the 1949-50 period This third and final project concern- relation between the Leonid Meteor. showed that the lunar alignment playeding the Langmuir Theory compared the Shower of November 1966 and the no roleinLangmuir's precipitationprecipitationpatterns of New York increasedprecipitationof December patterns. City over a 10-year period (1959 to 1966.Our research, therefore, con- 1968) with those of Presidio, Texas;firmed the Bowen Theory. 6.Precipitation Forecasting via Lang-Fort -Benton, Montana; and Socorro, mnir'sCyclogenesisTheory,byNew Mexico. The Texas and Mon- ONCE students have mastered the Julian Kane, Gerard Lauro, Joannetana regions were selected because they rudiments of weather and climate McEntee, JoanneArena,Sallie are the same radial distance from Newin an elementary high school course, Charles, Robert Delahunt, CynthiaYork as is Socorro and have generallythey are ready and able to undertake Baker (May 1970). similararidprecipitationconditions. research work of a meaningful and In order to check Langmuir's theory The Langmuir theory that New Mex- useful nature.If the teacher keeps up that New Mexico's weather patternsico precipitation could he used to pre-with the latest theories and problems could be used to predict weather fourdict weather patternsinthe easterndescribed in current journals, ideas for to five days later in the eastern UnitedUnited States did not hold up accord- interesting high school research projects States, we analyzed precipitation rec-ing to our analysis. Although Presidio, are not difficult to come by. In doing ords for Socorro, New Mexico, and forTexas, showed only a 14.1 perc it cor-work of this nature, the students learn New York City over a 21-year period relation with New York City in precipi- a great deal about the subject of their (1948 to 1968). We found that 34.9tation, Fort Benton, Montana, showedproject as well as about the problems of percent of the times that precipitationa 33.3 percent correlation with Newhandling research in general. The idea occurred at Socorro, precipitation oc-York.Thislatterpercentagewas of being engaged in an original piece curred in New York four or five daysslightly higher than the Socorro-Newof research which might conceivably later. York correlation of 33 percent andcontribute something of value to the The predictability percentage was indicatesthat New Mexicoisnotgeneral body of scientific knowledge not constant. however varying fromuniqueas aforecastingregionfor stimulates a degree of learning and a low of 21.4 percent in 1950 to aNew York. working far beyond-ordinary classroom high of 53.6 percent in 1953 and 1959. activities. This last, of course, applies This meant that additional iesearch was 8.Do Meteors Influence Precipita-to the teacher equally as well as to the necessary to determine whether the tion?by Julian Kane, Janet I3otte,students. Langmuirtheorywascorrector Victoria Bressan, Michele Barrett, whether the correlation was merely Ann Sewell (February 1969). ACKNOWIJ.DGNI IS: authors thank due to the normal westerly weather A study of world precipitation pat- Good Weather, Inc., for grants supporting research studies1,3-7; William Meisinger trend in the United States.Table 4terns associated with the Great Leonid for his help in working on the data for study shows the monthly correlation. Meteor Shower of November 1966 7, the William and Sophia Casey Foundation showed a sharp increase during Decem- for support of portions of the research for study 2; and Judith Garelick, William Viet, 7. ber 1966 as compared with 30-year Langmuir Precipitation Forecasting and Joseph Lappano of the Nassau County Theory: No ValidationFound, byaverages for the more than 950 weather AirPollutionDivisionforconsultation JulianKane,FrankCoughlin,stationssurveyed.Accordingtoa throughout study 2.

225 -1\

L.A.

4-4),

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY IN THE CITY J. Rosson Overcash

TODAYTODAY,, over 70 percent of ourfor me is not the out-of-doors environ-vironment at first glance; but there is lives crowded togetherment that is natural for my children, oran out-of-doors, and there is an envi- on less than 4 percent of our land area.-natural for most children today. ronment. Simply put, we live in cities, and the If today's urban youngster is to de- urbanization offringeareas aroundvelop an ecological consciousnessit lHE building itself provides a start- and between our major population cen-must be developed in the setting where ing point. A dated cornerstone re- tersis rapidly increasing.For largehe is. To take him, once or twice, toveals how long the building has been numbers of urban children the firsta nature center will not sufficevalu-exposed to the atmosphere. robin has never been a sure sign ofable though the experience may be.What changes have taken place during spring."Rolling meadows and bab-What most of us understand as "the the past 40 or more years? bling brooks," "the murmuring pinesworld of nature"is too remote, tooIs mortar beginnin3 to crumble? andthehemlocks"thesephrasesseldom experienced, to be relevant toDoes stonework show stains? neither identify a pleasant scene northe inner-city student. There is, how-Have once .sharp angles on stone or evoke thoughtful memory in childrenever, a "world of nature" in the city; carvings become rounded? whose outdoor experience has beenand withonly moderate effortthe limited to traffic and flashing signs. teacher can begin the development ofChanges due to weathering may be Whether we may wish for it or not,an environmental ethic in the urbanmore readily detected here than on a the pastoral community of early -20th-student. boulder exposed in a more natural set- Century United States is a thing of the To illustrate what might be done Iting. Here, too, one can see the effects past.Skipping rocks on a pond, col-have chosen an elementary school lo-ofdifferentclimates,because. the lecting wild fruit and nuts, sliding downcated in the North End section of Bos-weathering may be more pronounced strawstacksthese common events ofton, Massachusetts. This is one of thein a shaded, damp corner than in other my childhood are not readily availableoldest sections of the city. Old Northareas. That same shaded corner may to my own children.I make no valueChurch is just zdound the corner, andreveal other things as well. Here, in an judgments here between my experi-Paul Revere's house iswithin. a 10-area seldom reached by the sun, a bit of ences and theirs; but it is important tominute walk. Narrow streets, crowdedmoss is growing. note that there is a difference. The out-buildings, and apartments located overWhy is it here? of-doors environment that was naturalfirst-floor business establishments char-Now did it get here? acterize the area. The school, a brickWhere did the soil come from? and stone structure with an asphalt play The author is chairman of the Department This is an ideal situation in which to of Earth Sciences. Northeastern University, yard,istypicalof many inner-citydiscuss the tenacity of living things. Boston, Massachusetts. schools. Not an exciting outdoor en-Not only must certain conditions be

226 met for each kind of living thing, but the spring, flowers vary from the stately went w ill become a natural topic, and where these conditions are met, thecandles of the horse chestnut to the another bit of ecological understanding living thing is Kkely to be found. small, rarely noticed bloom of the elm. will have developed. The asphalt play yard provides stillFew of our broad-leaved trees of the The wild mammal most often avail- further opportunities for discussing the city are more fragrant than the lindenable for class observation in the city out-of7doors. A temporary lake follow-when itis in bloom. Here, amidst all isthe gray squirrel.In the nearby ing a rain opens all the possibilities ofof the other odors of the city, a young- cemetery one or two squirrels can he slope, drainage, and erosion. Of equal ster can have the chance to appreciate seen almost every day. significance,it opens a possible dis- stillanother aspectof the outdoor Why do the squirrels live here? cussion on what man does to remove environment. Why don't they come to the school yard rainwater Lnd snow melt from the city. There is no necessity to go to a (as the pigeons do) for food? With the ground surface of most citiesmeadow to find honey bees at work. Why don't we have more and more 90 percent sealed by buildings, con- When these trees are in bloom, bees squirrels each rear? crete, and asphalt, man has devised hisare always present. They may also be Why are there so many rats around own waterways to carry away running found around the play yard, attracted, some buildings but so few squirrels? water. The gutter in front of the schoolalong with yellowlackets,to some can be incorporated into a lesson onspilled juice or other sweet.Just as alittleeffort, any urban running water.Sand and gravel col-much discussion on colonial insectsWintteacher who wishes to can in- lecting upstream from obstructions il-can be initiated here as could be intro- troduce students tothe out-of-doors lustrate deposition.Debris being car-duced on a scheduledfieldtrip.Awithoutrestrictionsofbudgetor ried along shows the ability of watersmall apiary actually exists within a weather. While the major thrust of this to transport. mile of this school, and a field trip to article is directed toward the elemen- that location could be a culminating tary school program, many similar but WHAT living things are present activity. more sophisticated activities might be here?13oth plants and animals Let's go on an ant hunt! It may notdone in secondary school to accomplish are available.Not inthe profusionseem as exciting as a bear hunt, but a similar increased awareness of the that might be found in a more suburban mostyoungstersarefascinatedby environment. Simple analysis of rain- or n ural setting, but there will also not watching ants follow one another, carrywater in the chemistry laboratory may be the distractions.Just across the food, touch antennae, etc. reveal a number of impurities that can street is a mini-park occupying a for- Where and how do the ants live? be tracedtoatmosphericpollution. mer building site.It contains only a Why are they here? Run-off volumes can be computed and few locust trees and some benches, butThe basic interrelations of living things ideas developed for salvage of this it provides an oasis of shade and some and environment are present here in the water. Developing a check list of plants quict_for the residents. Here is a per-city just as they are outside. There are and animals found in the school area fect opportunity for a class to "adopt"several excellent sites atthis schoolcould he a year-long project in a biol- a tree. where ants can be found. There are ogy class. Note the pattern of the bark. numerous colonies in the old cemetery, Just outside the building, there is an Observe how the branches form. and others can be found in the infiltra-outdoor environment waitingtobe What is the appearance of the leaves?tion areas for the trees. used. Of course, it has been modified Are they all alike? Would you prefer to study largerby mantoday, most of our environ- In the spring this tree will bloom. animals? If you have taken a field tripments show man's modification to a ;Hull do the blossoms look like? to a truly natural area (not a zoo orgreater or lesser extent. This is really What insects visit the blossoms? park) you know that larger mammalsthe crux of the whole problem. Man As the blossoms die and seeds appear, and birds are usually seen only in briefhas, up to now, used and abused the still more avenues for exploration are glimpses. Why notstudypigeons? environment with little thought for the opened. Every inner-city saool has its shareconsequences. Now these abuses are How many seeds are formed? of pigeons, and they are constantly beginning to catch up to us.In 10 or What chance do they have to grow? available for observation. Many of the 15 years the young people who today Fortunately, pupils at this school are pupils can watch the nesting processare in our public schools will be voters, not limited to just one or one kind offrom their apartment windows. Withbusiness men, legislators, and educa- tree. Only a block away is the Coppscareful observation they may learn to tors.If the develorment of ecological fill 13urying Groundsw hich dates from identify particular birdsin the flock consciousness is desirable (and many the Revolutionary period. Here we find that frequent the school yard. Soon,people think itis essential), then the linden, horse chestnut, and American one or more of the birds will receive beginnings must be made at an early elm.Different bark, different seeds.names Uised on some peculiarity ofage and with everyone, not just with different leaves, all provide an oppor-appearance or behavior. How and why those who live on the urban fringe or tunity to discuss the variety of life.In the pigeon fits into the city environ-in more rural areas. 0

227 GENERAL ment of the collector is important be- Particulates Provide Proof of cause the particles constantly settle out, the Pollution Problem and a maximum number of particles shouldbecollectedforsignificant BARRY WARNER, Science Teacher, Seth Low intermediate School, results. 99 Avenue P, Brooklyn, New York After a period of two weeks, the slide was taken in, carefully paced in There is a great deal of evidence a:,hoebox,and broughttoschool around us today suggesting that resi- where it was weighed. The calculations dents who live in areas that have an involved are shown in Figure 2, The air pollution problem don't give much utilization of this scheme can show thought to it. that the dustfall in large cities, such as We inhaic about 30 pounds of air New York, Chicago, and Detroit, can each day and, with theair, varying be as much as 50 tons per square mile amount of pollutants. The particulates, per, month. finely divided solids such as smoke and It is unreasonable to expect that we dust, enter the atmosphere from the can put a stop to all combustion, a combustion of coal and fuel oil as well chief source of particulates.' It is logi- as incineration.The largest of these cal, however, to expect that the clear- particles have a tendency to settle out ing of the.air is desirable in the interest of the air.When inhaled, they can of safeguarding human health.Stu- hamper the performance of lung func- dent awareness can influence commu- tion. nity and local action for environmental Particles, both liquid and solid, are quality. 0 enormously complex and can be considered the most widespread of the pollutants. Processes of erosion, grind- Bibliography I.Battan, Louis J. The Unclean Sky, An- ing, and spraying produce particles as chor Books, Doubleday & Co., Garden small as 10 microns, such as industrialFigure 1. A device for collecting particu- City.,N.Y.1966, dusts and ash. lates in the air. A hanger (a) pas cut, Cleaning Our EnvironmentThe Chem- elongated, and bent in a circular manner ical Basic For Action. American Chemi- Gravitationalsettlingisthe main around a can (b). A piece of tape was cal Society, Washington, D.C. 1969. mechanism by which particles are re-placed around the can sticky side up. The 3. Freedom to BreatheReport Of The moved from the air.Particles gener-tape was used to hold a glass slide (c) Mayor's Task Force On Air Pollution ated in the urban atmosphere normally coated with Vaseline. The hanger was then In The City Of New York. New York. positioned outside the window sill. 1966. remain airborne for only a few days. 4. HaagenSmit, A. J. "Air Conservation." If very small, they may remain air- The technique we employed was to Iffunan Ecology, Jack B. Bresler, Editor. borne for several weeks. Addison-WesleyPublishingCo.,Inc. collect particulates on a sampling slide Reading, Massachusetts.1966. As the smoke and dust pollute theand then determine the amount of par- 5.Heimann, Harry."Effects of Air Pol- air, there is a rising incidence of res- ticulatematter collected, by simple lution On Human Health," Air Pollu- piratorydisease. Emphysemaand tion.World Health Organization, Ge- weighing. (See Figure 1.) The place- neva. Switzerland. 1961. chronic bronchitis constitute a health menace of major magnitude. The air we breathe has not only life-supporting properties, but potential life-damaging properties. The well-being of man de- Period of Time Net Gain in Grains pends on inhaling air that has a qual- Size, of Slide (sq. in.) itative and quantitative balance. Nor- 2 weeks .021 3 mally, body contact with particulates Mathematical conversion factors: in the ambient air occurs at the exposed membranes where they are par- 1 gram 1.102 x 101;tons ticularly sensitive to injury. 1 sq. in. z.-7 2.490 x 10-1" sq. miles Air is not an unlimited and inex- .021 gm. = .0220 X 101;tons = 22X t0 "tett% haustable resource, and young people 3 sq. in. = 7.47 x 10-0 sq. miles = 7.5 X 10-1" sq. miles must be made aware of that fact. A simple technique can be used by any Total equals 29 tonsIsq. mile in two-week period. student inorderto point up the prob lent of particulate pollution. Figure 2. Method for calculating the amount of dustfall.

228 SOLID-WASTE RECYCLING- EARTH SCIENCE IN A REAL SITUATION

When a laicize, seeks out a real situa- professional scientist would. gatheringturnrecommendedittothe Town tionfor a multidisciplinary conne,data. formulating and testing hypoth-Board. The Town Supervisor agreed litho: students explore a current prob- eses. drawing conclusions. on the basis of the findings to consider len: in relation to Mei, own town, the Recy clineisan arena embodying the establishment of a municipally man- whole community_ benefits.Ilere, amany disciplines:itisdirectly con- aged newspaper recycling effort and in- teacho describes his objectite in shift-cerned with psychological and philo-sited our group to aid in the planning ing the focus of an earth science course.sophical attitudes. economies, technol-of this activity. and the students describe their tentm-e ogy. and politics. Thus, the study of The 25 students wt() participated in into community research. earth systems could well focus on solid-this project have become aware of their waste recycling and give each partici- potential for effecting change in long- pant a sense of the complexity of aestablished institutions. The scientific TO PRACTICE THE contemporary social phenomenon and methodology they employed provided DISCIPLINE... the power of an analytical approach totheir conclusions with a credibility not its solution. The earth science class readily attainedinthe conventional MICHAEL C. FRANZBLAU, Earth Science Teacher, Mamaroneckformed a Recycling Study Group tohigh school project. They are eager to High School, Mamaroneck, West-work on this problem. continue their efforts in this area and chester, New York The following report by the students regard themselves as budding social in the Recycling Study Group describes scientists. VARIATIONS in course structure their activity over a period of several may accomplishlittleunless theweeks. The report was later presented course can be related to a real situation to the Westchester Rix) cline Confer-The following article is a summary of of some concern to students.Such aence, arranged. with the help of volun- the repo, t of the community.study con- situation for our earth science class was teers. by the staff of the I'inebrookducted by the student group. suggested by a glass - recycling activityCenter for Environmental Studies, a initiated by Herbert Golden-, an en-not-for-profit corporation createdto TO LEARN ABOUT OUR vironmentalist living in Larchmont. He permit us to engage in activities in the TOWN... shared my view of the potential valuearca of the relationship of man to his RECYCLING STUDY GROUP, Ma- of participation of high school studentsenvironment.The report met withmaroneck High School, Mamaro- ina multidisciplinary project withinwidespread interest and became a focal neck, New York their community which would encour- pointfor discussion throughoutthe age thejointactionof community workshop sessions. Recycling Study Group is an adults,students, andlocalofficials. The report was also presented to theTHEorganization of earth science stu- 4 Therefore, we decided to approach theConservation Advisory Committee of dentsat Mamaroneck High School. problem of solid-waste recycling as athe Town of Mamaroneck, which in their teachers, and various community

229 t adults. Is purpose is to investigate the 13ecause of the high cost of extraeach month was mails 440 pounds Or mechanicsand econoracs of solid-hand labor that would be iequited to100 pounds per person per month. waste recycling as a possible solution toseparate solid w aster aftercollection, Approximately 45 pet cent of the in- the waste-disposal problem. takina, intothe adoption of a solid-waste recyclingcoming matel ial became solid waste. account the interdependence of polit-progiam at present must inole olun-with paper constituting 34 pet cent of ical.sociological,psychological.and (al) home sep nation of wastes intothistotalincontrasttothe widely philosophical aspects of recycling and arious catel, .1 les.Theefue,illits quoted 50 pct cent le el nationally. A the importance of community educa-studs to determine the feasibility of re-possible source of this disci epancs was tion. placing the present waste-manaaementthe disposal of some paper products as Reese lina presents an alicrimtive tosystem in the community with a muni-"wet garbage.- the disposal of solid wastes by incinera-cipal!) managed solid-waste recycling Using the information collected. the tion or but ial in sanitary landfills, which ssstem. the group focused on threestudents computed. onatownwide not only &sit os and despoil the land-aspects of the waste Management prob-basis, the potential sat ings in the sani- scape, but permanently remove much- lem: tation budget if (a) 100 percent of the needed materials. 1.The mechanics of voluntary separa- recyclable solid wastes produced were The students began by looking into tion of solid wastes in the home.voluntarily separated in the home and some of the background of the sad- Ele1 en families in the community collectedI))the municipal sanitation waste problem. both as regardsthe participated in a foul-week experi-system without additional collection ex- initial cost in resources used and the mental separation process. whichpenses, and (b) the materials wee problem of disposal mechanisms and led to an analysis of the total annualtransported to the purchase's of re- costs.Thediscovered. for example, production of recyclable materialscyclable wastes and sold. Mamaroneck that: The pi oduction of aluminum from intheLarchmont Mamaronecknow pass 6.3 cents per ton per milt, for bauxite consumes nearly eighty times area. hauling wasteto CrotonPointfor the electric power thatis required to2. An analysis of the potential eco-dumping. reuse or recycle aluminum products. nomic impact oftotalvoluntary A summary of the calculationsis The iron and copper content of scrap solid-waste recycling On the sanita- piesented in Table 2. The total expense heaps is immensely greater than that tion budget of the Village of Mama- for removal of the 60 percent of solid found in the ores of these materials; roneck. wastes that could be recycled was found but the reuse of scrap metal by the 3.Surveys of the attitudes of residents to be $9,000, or $1.90 per ton. This secondary materials industryis ham- in this community toward recycling. may be compared with the present cost pered by the freight rates for rail trans- With the participation of 11 familiesof $19.6:i per ton. As a consequence port of metal scrap. Solid wastes fromin the community, the group investi-of the recycling of the portion of solid paper production and consumption ingated two questions: What fraction ofwaste collected annually in the Village, the New York region amounted to 17the materials brought into the homethe sanitation budget could theoretkalls million tons in 1965, or half of the total became solid waste? Of all wastes pro-be reduced mole than $80,000 or half amoun. of solid waste collected.Re-duced, what fractions fell into the cate-the cost. cyclirg of newspapers in New Yorkgories of paper, glass, metal, and wet This startling result must be imme- Cit) alone would remove more thanwastes? The first three are immediatelydiately qualified by the presence of sev- 1,000 tonsper day fromthetotalsalable; the last can be removed fromeral factors which have neeessai ily been amount of collected wastesThe re-the disposal process by composting. ignored. Among these are the difficulty galia of paper, be:ides freeing forest in achieving 100 percent participation land for esthetic and recreational uses, participating families, for fourand coopelation in voluntary home sep- would have major impact on solid-THEweeks, weighed all incoming goods waste management. including groceries, newspapers, and Present technology affords the pos- mail. They also separated and weighed Tat:0_1. Results of consumption/ sibility of reclaiming usable materialsin each category all solid wastes pro-wave production for sample group." amounting to near ly 100 percent of allduced during this period. Table 1pre- PIACI N I OF solid wastes.In practical terms,itis sents the results of the 11-family, 48- WAS I I CA I I (010' WI Rai TOI Al. WAS I I possible to reuse between one-third and person sample group.In general, the pounds one-half of allsolid wastes from theincome level of participating families Wet garbage 871 39.8 home. Required, however, is a genuinewas above the average income level in Paper 741 33.9 Metal 173 7.9 desire by the public to participate inthe town, and far above the national Glass 402 18.4 the conversion of present sanitation sys-average. Based on a fourwect. program. with 11 partici tems which are based On a philosophy As thetable shows,theaverage paling families I., total of 48 people 1.1otat incoming goods 4.822 pounds; toLd uncle pioduced of use/disposal. weight of goods brought into the home 2.187 pounds.

230 Table 2. Recycling-based sanitation expense for Village of Mamaroneck., Ni r TRANSPOR TRANSPOR- Coin c I ION- TorAL TAI ION Courri ION TATION DISPOS%I. NE I* PERCENTwcici TOTAL COST Cos AND PRICL COS I EXPLNSL/ MATEBIAI ToNs PLR TON PLR TON COLL I CI ION PER TON PLR TON four' 1

Paper 34 2640 $3.50 $13.44 $ 16.94 S 8.00 $ (8.94)` $(23,600) Glass 18 1440 3.28 13.44 16.72 20.00 3.28 4.700 Ferrous 7 545 4.84 13.44 18.28 10.00 (8.28) (4.500) Aluminum I 78 2.08 13.44 15.48 200.00 184.52 14.400 Total 60 4703 5 (9.000) = Based on annual tonnage of 7,800 tons collected by Village of Mainaronech. b Computed on basis of dosest operating markets. North Bergen (glass), Garfield (paper), Bronx (aluminum). Filiabeth (ferrous :arts). < Parentheses indicate !ICI Cost, lack of parentheses illtiiC.11C net profit.

nation of wastes. the problems inherent I.Some pcIle believe that xxaste disposal The major conclusion that can be incoordinating andintegrating two is one ofte most serious problems in the drawn from this study is the feasibility country. in that our air. %valet% and land simultaneous types of collection (un- ate beLonung increasingly polluted. They of solid-waste recycling inthe com- separated and separated wastes), the believe that xxe are approaching a time munity under these conditions: fluctuationinmarketsforrecycled when there %%ill be no more space to I.The desne of the citizenry to co- dump garbage and that the solution to products (particularly paper), and the this is the reuse of these materials. 1 his operate by. voluntarily separating overestimation of the fraction of paper is known as recycling.'I he idea is that solid waste in the home. which is recyclable.Nevertheless, the each family xxould put all its %%et garbage The stability of the dunand for re- into one container glass and metal into potential of solid--Wnte recycling for cycled materials. another. and ,paper into a third.The reducing the sanitation expenditures of toxxn %%mild then be able to sail the trash 3.The willingness of municipal gov- a municipality is of real significance. to industry. Do you believe that pollution ernment to make the necessary al- Its success depends, however, on the of this type k terations in the present sanitation percent attitudes of the citizenry toward volun- One of the most serious problems 39 system (mostly schedule changes). tary separation anditsconcernfor A major problem 54 environmental values. A minor problem 6 RESULTS of this study strongly No problem THEsuggest the appropriateness of a THE NEXT of the study invcsti- 2. Would you be %%Ming to put your garbage pilot-test recycling project in a selected I gated community attitudes toward into three separate cans every day: one section of this community. for %%et garbage, one for cans and bottles, Such an solid-waste recycling, taking into ac- and one for paper? experimentinmunicipally managed count the interrelationships among eco- percent recycling would be of immense value nomic, social, moral, and political as- Willing 92 to Cie community a whole, both from pects of the solid-waste problem. A Not willing 4 Not sure 4 an economic and environmental stand- questionnaire was sent to 1,000 ran- point. The design of this pilot program domly selected residents of Mamaro-3. Would you be in favor of your town starting a recycling program ifit meant would be a joint student-community- n "ck and Larchmont (total population that your taxes %%mild go up a few dollars government effort which could be in- 40,000). Returns were received from a year? corporatedintothecurriculumof 360 people, an unusually large response percent Mamaroneck High School.Participa- In favor 68 to a survey of this size.Nevertheless, Not in lava'. 18 tion of the students in the process of when only a portion of a sample is re- Not stile 14 educating the citizenry in the mechanics turned, there can be no certainty that 4. What if the ttmn could make money from of recycling is, in our opinion, of para- bias has been avoided.It can be as- the opt:rat:on so your taxes %%mild only mount importance. sumed that the cross section of re- go up for the first year and then down In the course of the present study, spondents again below their original level for waste is more politicallyactive, disposal? group members report that "our atti- more affluent, and better educated than percent tudes toward our environment have atrulyrepresentative crosssection In favor 88 matured. We have come to regard man Not in favor S would be. This seems to be true of the as a participant in, rather than master Not sure 7 respondents, for 80 percent voted in the of, his natural surroundings. We have last election, and the average respond- 5. Would you be more or less likely to vote for a local political candidate if he were learned much about our community; ent is a college graduate in his forties, for a compichensive waste-recycling pro- the dynamics of its operation, the atti- earning from $15,000 to $30,000 per gram? tudes of its citizens, and its potential for year. percent creating and maintaining an CO Vi rOn- More likely to vote for 75 Following are some of the questions Less likely to vote for 4 merit which can serve the needs of its and the percent of various responses: Not sure 21 inhabitants:" 0

231 ENVIRONMENT I would, therefore. like to describe threeof a cigarette as a source of carbon exercises that may be less familiar. The dioxide.Keep the open end of the Air PollutionDetection and first,Detection of Carbon Monoxidedetector tube directly in the stream of Abatement and Carbon Dioxide, illustrates the use smoke.Release the bulb, thus suct-- identifying pol-ing one bulb volume of gas through RICHARD KRAFCHIK, Helpingof detector tubes in Teacher, Prince George's County lutants.The following two exercises,the detector tube.The blue reagent Public Schools, Upper Marlboro,Afterburner and Wet-Serubber, illus-crystals in the tube will change to a light Maryland, andParticipant,Aca- trate current technological devices togray color in the presence of carbon demic Year Institute for Science curtail air pollution. dioxide.'Measure the length of the Supervisors, University of Maryland, gray stain; then use the calibration scale College Pc.,K Detection of Carbon Monoxide andsupplied by MSA to calculate the percent by volume of carbon dioxide in Prince George's County is a suburbCarbon Dioxide provide a cigarette smoke. The value you will of Washington, D.C., and has its share Glassdetectortubes obtain is only approximate. however, of air pollution as a result of heavy method for determining the presence since one cannot control the amount commuter traffic and industry. Thereof various gases in the atmosphere. The of time theas is in contact with the re- is great interest in air pollution, even detector tube is a cylindrical glass tube with closed ends, approximately 6 mmactor chemical when using a squeeze at the junior high school level, but there in diameter and 10 cm in length. Insidebulb. are few materials on the subject which the tube is a chemical reagent sensitive A similar procedure may be used to are appropriate forthisage group. Upon contacting the Division of Airto the gas you wish to detect. To usetest for carbon monoxide. Automobile exhaust may be used as a source of the Pollution Control of the county healththe tube, the closed ends are snapped off, and a given volume of the air to be gas.(Caution: Carbon monoxide is a department.itbecame apparent that deadly gas; do not run an automobile Division staff had been approached by tested is pumped through the tube. A motor in an enclosed place.) The yel- many other teachers looking for mate-color change occurs that is related to the quantity of the gas present in thelow detectorchemicalwillbecome: rials inertfield. TheDivision readily browninthepresenceofcat bon agreed to serve as a resource for ma- sample. monoxide.5 Measure the length of the terials, and set about developing dem- The most difficult problem with using brown stain, and consult the calibration onstrations and experiments that could these tubes is knowing the quantity of scale to find the carbon monoxide con- be used in the junior high school class-air that passes through them. A rubber Test first directly at the carbon room and adapted to other levels as aspirator bulb with a 100 cm" capacity tent. well.' My role was to be that of "help- is available from Mine Safety Appli-monoxide source; then vary the distance from the source. You may wish to test ing teacher," a liaison between the Di- ances (MSA) Company," but it is also a heavily traveled area such as a supervision and the schools. possible to buy an inexpensive rubber highway at different times of the day. Seven exercises were developed from bulb pump in I. ,:rugstore and calibrate The Department of Health, Educa- sampling techniques used by the De- it yourself. To calibrate, the bulb is partment of Health, Education, and squeezed once, and theairpassing tion,and Welfare hasestab.:hed Welfare and by the Prince George's through it is directed through a rubber threshold limits for each of these gases. the maximum County Department of Health. In addi-tube to a bottle arranged to collect gasThe threshold limit is safe allowable limit of a specific gas in tion,the Division drew freely from by the water-displacement method. The Anything over this available sources; two of the most use- volume displaced is measured. Then the atmosphere. ful of these are listed in the references the number of squeezes to achieve thelimit is a hazard to health. The thr0- at the end of this article.The end- required volume of air flow through thehold limit for carbon dioxide is 5,000/ product was a 16-page teachers manual detector tube is computed. 1,000,000 (5,000 ppm) by volume of titled "Air Pollution Experiments." Procedure: Obtain a detector tube,air. The thresholdlimitfor carbon Some of the experiments, such as that and carefully break open both ends.monoxide is 50,11,000,000 (50 ppm) illustrating the deterioration of nylon, Squeeze the bulb. Place the end of theby volume of air. are undoubtedly familiar to tette:lets.detector tube whichis more tightly packed with crystals into the rubber Wet-Scrubber tubing. Make an air-tight connection The wet-scrubber is one of the most

' the mateitals mere actually ssritten byI malt:rick by wrapping a rubber band around the commonanti-pollutiondevicescm- V. Wootton. Sanitarian II. 1)1ision of Air Pollution Control. and Jo Ellen naleer of the DePatlillent 01 tubing that holds the detector tube. Health 1.thisahon. pepartme ofIle,dth.Prince Use the smoke emitted from the end * Carbon 'hostile cletextor-tube reaction. An or- George's County, Maryland. They were tioldtested ganic amine and theindicator thymol blue are by Nlichcic Ilellante at the 'Thomas Johnson Junior impregnated on activated alumina. These chemicals Iligh School. Prince. George's County. Mine Safety Appliances Compaoy. Pattsburgh. change: from blue to nearly %%bite %slum in contact %Single copies arc available at no cost from the Pennsylvania 15208. MSA has detector robes for %sob carbon dioxide. Pitnee (surge's County Ikpmanent of Health. l)m- arbun monotade. carbon dioxide.sulfurdioxide. arbon mcnioxade (length of staua) that-char-tube ,s LIM of Air Pollution Control, Clicserly. Maryland and many tithe!gases. A package of 12 tubes of maetion. Carbon monoxide nCrd.% mnh I/01.0%MM- 20785. Send %elfadtlres%cd. X' i x 11-1110 en, elope .111)(111C type L11%11 approximately $7. Wine for a pa1latitt stilhtc mtpregnatcd on silica gel to give.t milli 32 cents return postage. fret: Catalog. brown stain,

232 ploycd by industry.It depends on the fact that when a polluted gas stream is brought into contact with water, the pollutants arc absorbed by the water, Procedure: Set up the apparatus as air intake-

shown inFigure I, Placea paper towel in a 500 ml flask, and place this above theBunsenburner.Using a tubing double -hole stopper that makes an airtight seal with the flask, insert a 5-inch :'''..,.. section of glass tubing through one of .. .1_ ...-. ^- , the holes, The glass tubing should reach , 1.'.'"(-;'' paper ) approximately, one-half inch from the bottom of the flask. !melt a 1-inch piece of glass tubing into the other hole of the stopper. Con- glass impinger ncct apprcximately I foot of rubber tubing to the I-inch piece of glass tubing. making sure that an airtight seal L exists. t

Fill a second 500 ml flask approxi- wet-scrubbers matelythree-fourthsfullofwater. Taking a second double-hole stopper, Figure 1. Apparatus for demonstrating thesmall piece of rubber, but do not use place two I -inch pieces of glass tubine wet-scrubber, a device used by industry to rubber bands or other rubber products remove pollutants from gases. into the top holes. Connect the rubber which will "pop" and cause burns.) tubin from the first flask (the combus- Itmite, the rubber strip,thus pro- tion chamber) to one of the pieces ofwater vapor and carbon dioxide. Most ducing a black stream of smoke, the glass tubing in the second stopper. In- air pollution results from material thatunburned portion of the rubber. Make sert the wide end of the glass impingeris not completely burned. A fire thatsure that the stream of smoke is di- into the bottom of the same hole in thissmokes is a familiar example of in-rected up through the funnel. The fun- second stopper which is connected tocomplete combustion.These smokeynel is employed to simulate a chamber the rubber tubing. The glass impinger gases can be reignited by an afterburnercomparable to a boiler or incinerator. is a straight piece of glass tubing drawnto cause the further combustion of theThe neck of the funnel is analogous to to a smaller diameter at one end_wh:,:h particles that cause air pollution. a smokestack or chimney.Position a causes the release of smaller bubbles. Procedure: Arrange a ring stand asBunsen burner by hand above the These smaller bubbles bring more gasshown in Figure 2. Clamp a rubberstream of smoke untilthe smoke is in contact with the water.Taking astrip, and mount it under the invertedcompletely burned and can no longer second piece of rubber tubing, connectfunr,:1as shown.(Caution:Use a be seen. it to the remaining unused glass tubing. Explore with your classes the kinds Hook this rubber tubing to a vacuum of industries that use wet-scrubbers and source. afterburners and the advantages and Heat the first flask (the combustion 0 0 12 5 disadvantages associated with each. 0 chamber) until smoke appears. Draw CL = oE E a vacuum on the system causing a 0 References stream of smoke to be drawn through 1.Air Pollution Primer.National Tuber- the second flask (the wet-scrubber)." culosis and Respiratory Disease Associa- Observe the change in the color of the tion. New York. 1969. water. If smoke collects in the second funnel 2.Hunter, Donald C., and Henry C. Woh- lers, Editors.Air Pollution Experiments flask above the water, asecond wet- for Junior and Senior High School Sci- scrubber can be added. ence Classes.Education Committee, Mid- 11,". rubber strip AtlanticStates Section, Air Pollution Control Association. 1968. (This publi- Afterburner cation is available for S1 per copy. In The complete combrAtion of fuels quantities of ten or more, priceis 50 containing carbon and hydrogen yields ring stand cents per copy, plus postage.Requests for copies should be addressed to: Stu- " Use a watersiphon 'ypc draft on a lowpressure dent Manual, Air Pollution Control As- mechanical pump,1*, o mica pressure willpull Figure 2. The function of an afterburner in sociation, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, water through, reducing pollution can be shown. Pennsylvania 15213.)

233 0.114 m" 60 sec GENERAL X X in"/min of air 1 average no. of sec 1 min Air Pollution Tests to till bag Using the "DEMA" Figure 3 shows an easily assembled arrangement for a L.M. WILT, Science Teacher, Dover Intermediatemore exact measurement of cubic meters per minute. By School, Dover, Pennsylvania, and Graduate Student,use of the manometer principle, the loss of pressure through Arizona State University, Tempe, and THEODORE W. the 0.0127 m orifice (0.5 inch) inside the union is measured MUNCH, Professor of Science Education, Arizona State University, Tempe by the difference in height of the mercury on each side of the union. The following formula can be used to determine The nationwide "Earth Day" last spring was one good the cubic meters per minute of air moved: indicator of a rising national interest and concern with theQ = KA V 2gh environment. The dire need for action in the area of airQ= (0.61)(1.27 X 10-1 m2) pollution control is apparent when school children in Los 60sec ( 129.8 ni3.54 X 10-'mof H 20) Angeles are allowed to run only on alternate days during sect k min playground activities.Legislation for atmospheric control in" is being discussed on national and state levels, and a few Q .0121 ,while laws have been passed.However, recent studies indicate nun that very few schools or textbooks include information orQ = Quantity of air CMS student activities on atmospheric pollution. K = Constant 0.61 Student studies of the atmosphere are desirable, if not A = Orifice opening m2 necessary, additions to all science programming. A neces,g = Gravity 9.8 m/sec2 sary tool for making a study of air pollution is a high- h = Pressure difference in of H2O volume air-moving device. Figures 1 and 2 show a simple, inexpensive, and effective tool for use in making atmos-A = 771.2 (r = .0127 m) pheric tests. Following is a description of selected items for = 3.14 X (.00635 m) making and calibrating the DEMA (DEvice for Measur- = 1.27 X 10-' m2 ing Air)) 13.6 H20 h = .026 m Hg X The DEMA motor was obtained from a vacuum cleaner 1 Hg repairman who, on learning the purpose, contributed the h 3.54 X 10-' m of H.20 -motor and the aluminum housing. The housing was screwed onto the air intake side of the motor, and a handle was Other methods, such as measuring the cubic meters per soldered onto the motor casing. A scrapped hose connectorminute against an anemometer, could also be used. Direct fitted into the air intake opening very snugly. A fiber flower the air against the cups of an anemometer and measure speed pot was pressed on the outlet end of the motor to enablein meters per second. Measure diameter of the tube at the use for pressure or vacuum conditions..If not for the gift, air outlet and compute as follows: m" total cost would have been $5. meters per second X"r-in (area) The filter holder was made from a can which comes 1 sec of air fitted with a plastic cover. The center of the plastic cover was cut out and used to seal a milk-filter over thetop of the rests Using the DEMA can. A one-inchpipe was soldered into the metal end for Each area of the country will have certain atmospheric attaching to the motor. problems which are of most concern. Maricopa County in Arizona is particularly concerned with particulates, carbon Computing the Volume of Air Flow monoxide, and sulfur dioxide. To obtain comparative test values, it is necessary to meas- Particulates can be measured by attaching the filter and ure the volume of air flow. This can be done in a numberrunning the motor under different atmo pheric conditions, of different ways, depending on the grade level involved. for different lengths of time, at different hours, etc. The filter A few sample calculations follow. papers can be used to set up a 0-100 standard based on Using a 30-gallon (.114 m3) trash can Vier, the volume reflected light as measured with a light meter. (Figure 4)If of air moved per minute is easily calculated by measuringquantitative determinations are desired, use the manometer the time it takes to fill a bag or to fill a bag in a known sizewith the filter (minimum 3-hour running period), and weigh container. Repeat four or five times to obtain average timethe filter paper before and after passing the air through it. to fill bag. The measurements obtained are weigl.ts of contaminants per volume of air sampled. A relatively simple test fox the stronger zeids in the The authors are indebted to filbert C. Weaver for ideas publishedin atmosphere (excluding CO_) can be performed as follows. .ScientificExperimentsinEm irontnentalPollution. Holt.Rinehartand Winston. Inc. New York.1968. Put two pieces of filter paper (for strength) in the filter

234 holder. Place one drop of glycerine on the' paper. add one drop of methyl orange indicator (.01M) solution and one drop of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO8) solutionfor a buffer.(This minimizes the effect of CO.., while SO2 and other stronger acids will show an effect.) The time required for an orange-to-red color change is a measure of atmospheric acidity.First, run a trial test using the fumes of a strong acid.Then any areas (kitchens, dressing rooms, laboratories, etc.) which contain a detectable amount of acid can be compared to the original test.More exacting quantitative methods of acid measurement by titration can be obtained by referral to Reference 2. Figure 1. The completely assembled DEMA. Testing the outside atmosphere for carbon monoxide is a very critical and difficult procedure. However, interesting comparative results can be obtained using enclosed areas. A special filter tube must be prepared as diagrammed below. Attach the DEMA, and measure the length of time necessary for the air passing through the tube to change the color of the silica gel. This is a measure of the CO content of the air.The color change is from yellow to green to blue. Lighted matches are good sources of carbon monoxide. (Warning:' Carbon monoxide is a dangerous gas and should F1,01;:a?CT MOIXT HOUSING 1MTER be used with care.)

Figure 2. View of the disassembled DEMA showing component parts, Preparation of Filter:

1.Clean a 7mm-bore filter eiss tube tubewithsulfuricacid, 904 cat, st,:rwf rinse with distilled water, c, and allow to dry. 4 C011on

2.Carefully pack as dia- 5cm gn.frd gel grammed, tapping lightly f before setting last stopper,4 -lompt 2 Crn - - .nd.calmg gel 3.Indicating gel and guard4

gel can be obtained from Scm guard eel Central Scientific Com-

pany. C ,Stvo #38530 Silica gel, 4an .11-1f" crgk StenPe, Indicating _1_ i glaSs tube #38532 Silica gel, 'u Refrigeration (guard gel) Figure 3. DEMA with manometer tube attached. Union contains a i 1.270 cm constriction in it.Mercury can be seen in glass tube. The above are just a few of many possible ways the atmospheric test kit (DEMA) can be utilized. It is possible to measure practically any of the pollutants of the atmosphere: radioactivity, pollen, atmospheric aldehydes, etc. By referral..to the listed references, specific experiments can be oblained.In many cases the level of difficulty can be adjusted for junior or senior high school. References 1. Lyon, Yolandc. Experiments for the Science Classroom. State of California, Dept. of Public Health. 1968. 2. Weaver, ElbertC. Scientific Experiments in Environmental Pollution. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New York.1968. 3.Air Pollution. The University of the State of New York. The State Education Dept., Bureau of Elementary Curriculum Devel- Figure 4. On right is projection lantern with narrowed apesture. opment. 1966. Light meter is on left.Angle of incidence must equal angle of 4.Air Pollution Experiments. High School Edition.Cooperative reflection. Clothespins allow easy change of filter paper. Extension Service, Rutgers Univ., Rutgers, New Jersey.1967.

235 - GENERAL Cardboard Simplified Airborne Solid Sampling Student Notation G. WILLIAM REYNOLDS and ROGER W. WARD, Science Division, State University of New York, Albany

The sophistication required for obtaining a quantitative measure of air pollution is often discouraging for the beginning science student.. The follow- Punched ing article describes an easy visual evaluation and sizing of matter settled Sample Holes from the atmosphere. The-criteria used in developing this exercise were published by the NSTA committee on con- Cellophane Tape servation and environmental studies (The Science Teacher, May 1970). In Figure 1.The basic device for collecting airborne particles is a strip of manila addition, it seemed practical to use ma- folder or cardboard with punched holes covered with transparent tape. terials that were readily available, plc,andeasytofabricatewitha the sample collectors on the tape sothey will be observing and analyzing minimum of special equipment. that a sticky surface shows in eachtheir own samples helps motivate them The basic collecting device is a strip punched hole. Separate the collectorsto make accurate observations and to of manila folder orlight cardboardwith scissors, and seal the top closedtake care in handling their collectors. twice the size of an ordinary micro-topreventinadvertentparticlead- (CAUTION: Do not place the collector scope slide and folded in half.Fivehesion.Placing the sample collectorswhere rain will fall on it.Excessive holes are punched through one sidein small envelopes further insures thatmoisture deteriorates the collector and of the sampler with a stattLiat d holeparticles will be kept from the stickythe gummed surface.) punch (.6 cm diameter). The holessurface until sampling is desired. When the samples are returned, each are then covered with a strip of clean Students are given one or morestudent should carefully .amine his transparent tape, with a small tab left samplers which they are to expose to theown collector with a microscope under to seal the cover half to the sample half.air at locations they select. When thelow power. The collectors may be ex- (Figure 1) Care should be taken tostudent collects his sample, he shouldamined qualitatively. The student can keep the sticky surface of the tape freerecord the time and location of sam-develop a general relationship between from any foreign particles, such aspling on the foldover cover along withthe quantity and kind of particles on fingerprints, paper fragments, or dust.notation of any special conditions, i.e.,the gummed surface and the collecting When preparing collectorsfora relative wind velocity or number oftime, wind conditions, and other noted class, cut, crease, and fold the stripsdays or hours sincelast area rain.parameters. A statistical approach to before applying the tape. Then, placeSamples can be taken in a variety ofparticle sampling can be added for a long strip of the transparent tape onplaces: indoors, on a window sill, athose students wishing a more detailed a table surface, gummed side up. Placeporch, etc.Telling the students thatand quantitative analysis.Using an

236 40 SYMBOL STUDENT 4 HR RATE X 1st 3.18 port 1rnm2 O 2nd 358 3rd 309 30 cV a)a x gr L20 a).2 A L a. 10 X A

14 26 42 56 70 64 9 Figure 2. A simple reticle for sizing particles can be made by Particle Size3 photographing a series of circles and then contact printing the (diam. in mm x10) negative on transparent base film,The circular positive can be easily slipped into the eyepiece of a microscope, Figure 3. Student data indicating particle distribution by size. ordinary student microscope, four sep- resulting positive set of circles may thenmine the diameter of the field of view arate fields of view, under low power,be removed from the film with a num-and the diameter of one of the circles can easily be made in each of the fiveber 14 cork borer. The circular posi-in the film reticle. sample holes.Danger of overlap istive can easily be slipped into the eye- If circle 7, for example, is found to reduced by orienting the field of viewpiece of a microscope. Should the filmbe one division of the reduced meter; at the 12, 3, 6, and 9 o'clock positionshave a slight curl, it may be held instick, then it has a diameter of 0.1 mm near the edge of each sample hole. Re-place by using a retaining ring cut fromor 100 microns. A simple ratio can peating thisprocedure for -differenta link of a spring, 2 cm in diameter.determine the sizes of the remaining sampling times in a particular locationThese circle sizes now provide a means circlesin the reticle; No. 1=14.3p, can produce data on sampling timeof determining the relative size distri-2=28.6p, 3=42.9p,4=51.2p, 5= versus the average number of particlesbution of the particles observed with71.4p, 6=85.7p, and 7=100p. Sim- per field. any particular eyepiece-objective com-ilarly, the area of the fieid of view can When viewing the collector qualita-bination. Sizing particles by compari-be estimated. Ina student microscope tively, the student will observe ,that theson to the circles as they are countedunder low power (100X), the diameter particles vary in size. To size the par-will provide data for a histogram orwas 141/2 units or I.45mm. This rep- ticles and to determine the relativegraph relating size and frequency for aresents an area of 1.58mm2. number of particlesinvarious sizeparticular sample time and location. Once data are obtained concerning ranges, a measuring device must be(Figure 3) the size and number of particles col- added- to the typical student micro- Calibration, either for or.by the stu-lected, it is possible to make some in- scope. Glass reticles for the eyepiecedent, can add yet another dimensionteresting extrapolations:the average of the microscope may be obtainedto the study.Stage micrometers arerate of particlesettling,the surface from a supply house, but these tend toavailable from supply houses for thisarea of the particles (assuming a nearly be expensive in class quantities. Aspecific purpose.However, a simplespherical shape), and thesize and simple reticle can be produced photo-stage micrometer can easily be pro-number of particles smaller than those graphically. A negative is made of aduced as follows. , collected. series of circles whose diameters pro- A standard meter stick was photo- Such an open-ended investigation gressively increase by integral multi-graphed at a 10 to 1 reduction incan easily be modified by the instructor ples of the smallest circle in the series.size (ground glass focusing was usedto emphasize (1) the statistical ap- Circle 2 should be twice the diameterto determine this) to produce a nega-proach in data collection and analysis, of circle 1, circle 4 twice the diametertive which was printed in quantity for(2) the role of instrument calibration of circle 2, etc. (Figure 2) theclasson ordinary single-weightand possible error analysis, (3) the The negative is then contact printedcontact paper.The reduced photo-nature of one form of normally over- on transparent base film (lithographicgraph was placed on the microscopelooked pollution, or (4) some work- film or similar high contrast film). Thestage as a micrometer scale to deter-able combination of these three. 0

237 '1

ECOLOGY is100 ppm; and nitrogendioxide, wish to eliminate this part with younger 0.1 ppm. Comparison of the air in students. The Effect of Smoke and Ex- rural areas (0.005 to 0.001 ppm ethyl- Some words of cautionmust be haust on Plant Growth ene) with air around highways (0.01 added. The collection of the automo- ANN L. ABELES, Assistant Profes- to 0.10 ppm ethylene) and in shoppingbile exhaust and cigarette smoke must sor, Science Department, Frederick centers(0.05 ppm ethylene) shows,be done under a teacher's supervision. Community College, Frederick, that ethylene air pollution in cities isAlso, at least two adults should be Maryland important: Burning plant material alsopresent with young students during the produces ethylene. For example, ciga- collection of exhaust, because of the Air pollutioncosts Americans at rette smoke contains 500 to 1,000 ppm danger near running automobiles. least $500 million a year in damaged ethylene. plants. Some of the important air pol- Ethylene is a gas with the chemical Materials lutantsaresulfur dioxide,nitrogen formula CH..=0-12. It is a plant hor- 36 to 40 bean seeds of any garden oxides, carbon monoxide, ozone, per- mone, and, therefore, ethylene air pol- variety, such as string beans, lima, oxyacctylnitrates (PAN), hydrogen lution has many effects on plant growth pinto fluoride, chlorine, pesticides, and hy-and development.Concentrations as 8 to 10 pots, about 4-inch diameter drocarbons such as ethylene. low as 0.07 to 0.20 ppm can affect Enough sterile soil to fill the pots, or The effects of air pollution on plants plant growth. use vermiculite or perlite and fer- werefirststudied duringthemid- Ethylene causes such effects as in- tilizer nineteenth century. The first pollutants hibition of growth, formation of roots8 large clear plastic bags, 25 to 26 to be investigated were sulfur dioxide,along stems and leaves (adventitious inches tall by 16 to 18 inches wide fluorine, and ethylene.At that time roots), formation of moisture droplets 24 sticks, 12 to 15 inches tall plant injury from ethylene was causedon the leaves and stems (guttation), 8 wire ties by leaking of illuminating gas. drooping or curling down of leaves 2 ripe eating apples Since then the development of auto- (epinasty), wilting and early death Of 2 cigarettes mobiles and the tremendous increase flowers, and leaf fall (abscission). The 200 ml of a 5 percent solution of po- in their number have resulted in auto- major economic loss caused by high tassium permanganate (10 g potas- mobile exhaust becoming an important ethylene levels in our cities is damage siumpermanganatedissolvedin source of air pollution,- In addition to to flowers. 200 ml water) carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, lead The purpose of the following activi- I glass container which will hold at oxides, and ozone, automobile exhaust ties, developed with the cooperation of least 300 ml and has a cover putsAlarge quantities of ethylene intothe U.S. Department of Agriculture, is Igraduated cylinder, 100 ml the air.Automobile exhaust contains to compre the effects of ethylene from 4 plastic dishes (empty cottage cheese

500 ,parts per million (500 ppm) ofan apple, from auto exhaust, and from or butter tubs)I oz size ethylene.In fact, an idling car pro- cigarette smoke on bean plants. 4 circles of filter paper or very heavy duces enough ethylene in one minute These activities are intended for sec- paper towel, at least 15 cm in diam- to defoliate a full-grown tree ifthe ondary school students; however, they eter exhaust could be contained. The con- can be used for primary students if I balance, suitable for measuring to the centration of ethylene in exhaust is far more timeisspent introducing the nearest gram greater than is that of the other plant- material. Since the use of a solution 1 rubber aspirator bulb damaging constituents of exhaust. Car- of potassium permanganate makes the I or 2 short pieces of tubing which will bon monoxide concentration in exhaust experiment more complicated, you may fit the bulb and cigarettes

238 Method 1 and 2 are similar to each other area to absorb and oxidize the I.About two weeks before you plan inheight and leafsize,plants ethylene. to do the experiment, plant the 3 and 4 are similar, ete. 10.Closethebags withplants I beans as follows: 6.Put each plant into one of the through 4 and tie tightly with the- a.Fillthepotsaboutthree- plastic bags, and arrange three wire tics. fourths fullof soil or ver- sticks in the pots to support the NOTE:The next two steps in- miculite. Waterthoroughly bags so they do not crush the volve the collection of the smoke with room temperature water. plants.All the bags should close and exhaust andmustbe done Evenly space four beans on at the top except those around under the teacher's supervision. topofthesoiland cover plants 7 and 8, which should close I I.Inorder tocollectautomobile lightly with about V2 inch of at the bottom. exhaust you willneedatleast dry soil.Pat down the soil 7.Fold the circles of paper in half two people. Usecaution around lightly. and pleat them like fans. Open the car and do not work in an b.Place the pots in good light each into a loose cone and place enclosed area.One person should and keep moist with. room tip down in the plastic dishes. support the plant and the dish of temperature water but do not 8.Put t1:2 following items in the bags permanganate solution in the bag. overwater. with the plants: These should be held about two c.Keep the plants above 65 F. PlantI nothing feet away from the end of the tail 2. When the plants are about tkvo Plant 2 plastic dish with paper- pipe. While the ear is idling, he weeks old, watcr thoroughly Thin cone should hold open the bag so that the plants so that thereis one Plant 3 Iapple the exhaust blows into it for about plant to a pot.Thin, by cutting Plant 4I apple and a plastic dish five .seconds.The opening of the off the extra plants near the soil. with the paper cone bag should be at least a foot away 3.Weigh 10 g of the potassium per- Plant 5 nothing from the end of the -.tail pipe so manganate and dissolve it in 200 Plant 6 plastic dish with paper as to avoid burning the student or ml distilled water in the covered cone the plant. glass container. Do not spill the Plant 7 nothing Non: You will have less trouble permanganate solution asitwill Plant 8plastic dish with paper with heat if the car is started while stain anything it contacts.Do not cone its motor is cold. You may need drink it. 9.Pour about 50 ml (about VI cup) to tip the plant and bag in order 4.Make a smoking machine by of the potassium permanganate to aim the opening at the pipe. hooking the cigarette to the tubing solution into each of the cones Be careful not to spill the per- and to the aspirator bulb. in the plastic dishes. The solu- manganate solution. 5. Number the pots I through 8. tion should creep up the sides of P.After collectingthe exhaustin Try topair the plants so that the paper to give a large surface bags 5 and 6, close the bags and tic with the wires. Figure 1.Typical plants ans.?. treatment. Plant 1 was the control; Plant 3 was exposed 13.Mark off 3 cm on each cigarette. to the apple; Plant 5 was exxsed to trapped exhaust; Plant 7 was exposed to cigarette smoke. All plants were kept :n the plastic bags for two days. Attachthetubing andrubber bulb to the end of the cigarette, 5 or 6 cm away from your mark. 14.Holdthecigarettebelowthe opening of bag 7 so thatthe smoke will rke into the bag. Light the cigarette and slowly squeeze and release the bulb in order to "smoke" the cigarette. Allow only 3 cm of the cigarette to burn, then close and tie the bag. Be careful not to burn your fingers or the bag. 15.Repeat step 14 with plant 8, being careful not to spill the potassium permanganate. 16.Placeallthe plants inindirect light, at room temperature, for two to three days. 17.Each day examine the plants and record any changes in a notebook.

239 I

Figure 2,Caution must be exercised in the collection of automobile exhaust. DURING the last two years, I have Look for such things as drooping Health, Education, and Welfare, Wash- developed with my high school leaves, and yellow or lost leaves. ington, D. C. 1970. science elsses a series of discussions 2. Benedict, H. M., R. E. Olsen, and R. J. 18.After three days remove the plants Miller. "A Method of Estimating Dollarwhichrelate science to other disci- from the bags and carefully de- Loss as a Result of Injury to Vegetation plines.The series'sinsinitiated and scribe the condition of each plant. by Air Pollution."Proceedings of the developedinresponse to a call by 64th Annual Afeetity3o1 the Air Pollu- (Figure 1) tion Control Assocituion. June 1971. prominentscientistsandhumanists Questions 3.Berry, Charles R., and Howard E. Hegge- who pointed to a need to define more stad."Air Pollution Dacca% es."1968 clearly for the layman the scientist's I.What effects did the apple, exhaust, Yearbook of Agriculture. U.S. Govern- and smoke have on the plants? ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. role in a democratic society.'If the 2.Did the presence of the potassium Pp. 142-146. educational process isto be effective 4.Clayton. G. D., and T. S. Platt. -Evalu-in a technological culture, the layman permanganate solution affectthe ation' of Ethylene as ar. Air Pollutant plants? Affecting Plant Life.",tmerican indus- must understand in some depth the 3. Does it appear that ethylene is an trial Hygiene Association Journal 28: 151- relationships existing among the social 160; March-April 1967. important component of exhaust or sciences,thehumanities,andthe 5.Cottrell, r G. "Flower Producers Lose naturalsciences."' Surelythesec- smoke? You should compare the Million- Dollars ci.om Polluted Mr." appearance of the plants treated Florist Nurser, Exchange 148:5.8; ondary schools must shoulder substan- January 1968. withethylenefromtheapples tial responsibility in assuring that the 6.Heggcstad, H. E, and W. W. Heck.majority of citizens will be so enlight- with those wated with smoke and "Nature, Extent, and Variation of Plant exhaust.You shouldalso note Response to Air Pollutants." Advances ened.Yet, how are secondary school whether sonic of these same effects in Agronomy, Vol. 23. 1971. science teachers to facilitate this kind 7.Hindawi, I.J.Air Pollution Injury to arc lessened or missing in the plants of perspective and understanding when Vegetation. National Air Pollution Con- faced with the many subject-oriented exposed to the potassium perman- trolAdministration Publication No. ganate solution. AP-71. U.S.DepartmentofHealth, demands placed upon them, as well as Education,andWelfare,Washington, the need to lay the foundations for fur- Additional Activities D. C.1970. ther specialization? a 8.Hunter, D. C., and H. C.Wohlcrs.Air 1.Try other kinds of smoke, or vary Pollution Experiments for Junior and Our modern high school science cur- the lengths of time for collecting Senior high School Science Classes. Air riculaaremoderatelysuccessfulin the smoke. Pollution Control Association, Pittsburgh, achieving-, the-last objective but are Pennsylvania. 2. Try other kinds of plants, espe- 1970. relatively unsuccessful in showing the cially flowers such as carnations or importantinterrelationshipsbetween snapdragonsifyoucanobtain ACKNOWLEDGIMENTS: the sciences and other disciplines, and them. 0 This project was developed with the co- operationof Fred B. Abeles attheAir I l'auling. !Antic."The Social Responsibilities of Pollution Laboratory, U.S. Department of Scientists and Science." The Science Teacher 31:14. Bibliography Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 18: May 1966. Beltsville,Maryland.Information on the 2 Sec.forexample, Snow. Charles Percy. two I.Barth, D.S.,Chairman.Air Quality science projects can be obtained by writing Cultures and the Scientific Resolution.Cambridge Criteria for Hydrocarbons. National Air to the Educational Services Branch, Room University Press. Cambridge. England. 1961. 3 Conant. James H. The American WO School Pollution Control Administration Publi- 117, Center Building, Agricultural Research Today.McGraw.11111 Hook Co.. Inc.. New York. cation No. AP-64. U.S. Department of Center, Beltsville, Maryland, 20705. 1959.p. 15.

240 To keep interest in the discussions alive and vitai, the teacher should %al y the method of presentation of different topics. A relevant selection of poetry. Science and Man a short quotation from an appropriate literary work, or a recording of a per- A Discussion Series for Secondary Schools tinent folk song are some of the motivational devices which may be employ ed. Discussion can beinitiatedina VINCENT N. LUNETTA varietyof ways.Qualifiedstudents might debate an issue in w hich they Science Department Heaa express divergent points of view. A Enfield High School student, teacher, or resource person. Thonipsoittille, Connecticut e.g.. a scientist, clergyman, historian. or philosopher. might be asked to ina'Ne a prepared presentation. When the students are reasonably well versed in the they lack, relevance to the lives of thetrol of Human Behavior," "Sciencesubject. the group leader might pose majorityofour students.Teachers and Religion." and "Science and War-leading questions fordiscussion. A generally do attempt torelatetheir fare." For the class presentations, stu-student presenting, a particularly w ell- science courses to the world about &tits responsible for the presentationdone repo! t night be invited to make them, but because of the vast content were expected to have studied the topichis presentation to other classes. within courses and the artificial bar- in depth and to make their presenta- Resource persons from outside the riers separating them, students seldom tions in an unbiased way. When a biasschool are particularly helpful in sonic gain adequate perspective concerning was evidentinthe presentation, thephases of topic stud).Such persons "the way of the scientist" or the rela- student was asked to point it out. caninitiate discussion by presenting, tionships between the sciences and the The discussion topics were first usedbackgroundinformation. They can humanities.Moreover,transitionto as a unit at Enfield High School inalso meet w ith the students after they college and laterlifemight well be June1966. My college preparatoryhave investiliated a particular subject more effective if students were exposedphysics classes worked full time in theand atthat time discuss unresolved toa -wider. spectrum of challengingunit following their final examinations. issues. ideas while still under the careful guid- Prim to that time individual students One outgrowth of our use of the dis- ance of high school teachers. A stu- studied certain topic areas in depth. cussion unit was the formation of an dent's views arc likelyto have little A list of major topics was distributedextracurricular seminar group called depth unless they arc challenged andto all students early in the year. Each"GreatIdeas." Thisgroup had a hence critically examined from time to interested student was asked to selectnucleus of about eight boysho were time. As William Cannon has said: one topic of interest to him and tostudents in the science classes where Even inreligion,%%c ought to he con- investigate itin detail.If lie desired,the discussion unit had been presented. fronted with ideas with which we violentlyhe could review the relevant literature disagree. One Icamc far more from reading the works of thinkers who disturb and chal- and submit a written report as a means MAJORtopics and subtopics for lenge hire than from thinkers who confirm of satisfying one of the two required discussionconcerning science his own opinions. For example, one of the outsidereadingassignmentswhichanditsrelationto other disciplines tragedies of pre-war Europe was that thewere part of the physics course. are listed prime minister of GreatBritain and the inthis section.The sub- heads of government of the other democra- The topics discussedvaried fromtopics have been selectedfortheir cies win had to deal with Adolph Hitler had class to class depending upon the in-appealtosecondary-schoolstudents never readMein Kinnpf.' terests expressed by the students. Nat-and also to limit initially the scope of Students will venture into suchhal- urally, only a few topics could be dis-discussion and study for a student. lenges if given the opportunity. In :arlycussed at length in each class. AlmostStudents may wish to attack a problem trials with the discussion unit program, all the topics did produce livelydis-which is even more precisely defined studentsresearchedand presented cussion. However,thosetopicsinthan the general subtopic areas listed topics of interest to them which occa-which members of the class were bestbelow.Such limitation of a problem sionallytoucheduponcontroversial prepared by prior study produced thearca by a student should, of course, issues. such as "Science and the Con- most meaningful discussion.Studentbe encouraged so that he may study ,Cannon. Witham R."(sodIs Not Dead at interest-was greatest in the discussionsand review his chosen problem in suffi- Emory."A statement released to the press No. vcmbcr 30. 1965. on AI slier and the God Is Dead concerning science and its relation tocient depth. movement. p. 3. religion and social problems. A student selecting the topic "Sci-

241 ence and the Federal Government in 13. Effects of Scientific Inquiryspeakers from a wide range of fields the USA- might. for example. devote on Philosophic Nought might well be invited to meet with the his attention to one question similar to VI. Science and Religion students from time to time. the following: Do scientists now have A. Can Science Prove (or Dis- Sonic schools may find time in their too little or too muchposerto deter- pros e) the Existence of Cod?schedules to program an inter-depart- mine the path of research which is to 13. TheImpactofScientificmental enrichment course utilizing the besponsoredbyfederalagencies? Thought on Theology discussion topics. Students would bene- Should the government control the use C.Free Will versus Determin- fit from the exchange of views and ap- of hallucinogenic drugs. etc.?Ifso. ism proaches among teachers specializing ho should be responsible for such D. Theories of Evolution andin the natural sciences, the social sci- control? A student selecting the topic Judeo-Christian Belief ences, and the humanities. -PopulationGrowthandGenetics" E. Are Scientific and Religious might devote his attention to one ques- Views Compatible? THE periodicals listed below have tion. such as:Is nopulation and 'or VII.Roleof the Scientist in Solving been of special reference value for genetic control desirable?If so, who is the World's Problems student research, and they should be toexerc;sethiscontrol? Students A. Views of Prominent Con-available in school libraries. should also be urged to suggest addi- temporary Scientists Bulletin of the Daedalus tional topics which are applopriate for 13. Effectsofthe"Scientific Atomic Nation study. since the listing of topics here Method- Outside of the Nat- Sc'ientis'ts Saturday Review is certainly not exhaustive. ural Sciences Christian Century Science I. Science and Social Problems Contemporary Scientific American A. Man's Relation to Man , AM IOUGH collegepreparatory Civilization UNESCO Courier B. Science and Political Systems sciencecoursesarefrequcmly The books listed below are of special C. Science andtheFederal overloaded withlargequantitiesof reference value for teachers: Government in the USA subject material, sonic teachers may I.Bronowski, J.Science and Human D. Population Growth and Ge- wish to weave topics such as those Values.Harper and Brothers, New netics given into the fabric of their courses York. 1959. F.EffectsofTechnological as supplementary material. One class Gilman, William.ScienceU.S.A. ProgressonHuman -Be- session scheduled for such discussions The Viking Press, New York. 1965. havior every month or so miaht atfirst ap- 3.Snow, C. P. TwoCultures and the F.Population and Poverty pear difficult for a science teacher to Scientific Brvolution.Cambridge G. "Control" of Life throughjustify. When one considers the long- University l'icss, Cambridge, Eng- Science term implications of the issues, howland.1961. II. Science and Technological De- ever. one class session per month may Folksongs have been helpful in ini- velopment not appear to be adequate. There istiating some discussion.Appropriate A. Science and Warfare little doubt about the value of suchones include: "Pollution," "MLF Lul- 13. The Nuclear Arms Race unifying discussions; the problemis laby," and "Who's Next," recorded on C. The Race into Space finding time to include them in an al- the recordThat Was The Year That D. Food and Fuel Supplies for ready crowded course. Was, Toni Lehrer, Reprise, 6179. Tomorrow In many secondary schools, final ex- Several films which will stimulate F. Automation aminations areadministered two or interest in certain topics are available F. Man and the Computer three weeks before the beginning of from variousdistributors.Many of G. Pollution and Waste ofNat- the summer recess.In these schools these are on free loan from telephone uralResources science teachers might well focus class companies, industry, and government III. Science and Literature attention on thesediscussiontopics agencies, such as the National Aero- A. Science and Fiction after the examination period. The dis- nautics and Space Administration and B. The Impact ofSciencein cussions could provide excellent per- Atomic Energy Commission. Films on Literature spective for the year's work.They pollution can be obtained from many C. Science and the Poet should also prove exciting and chal- sources, often with emphasis on local IV. Science and the Arts lenging enough to hold student atten- regions of the country. The most ap- A. The Impact of Science in Arttion during the final days of the school propriate film which we used was en- 13.Architecture: Science or Art? year. titled Frontiers of theMind;it is now C. Science and Music The topics are also well suited for distributed by Encyclopaedia Britan- D. Science and Creativity use in a series of afternoon or evening nica Films, Inc.This film describes V. Science and Philosophy seminars. Interestedstudents could current research on the mind, and it A. Expanding Conceptionsof meet at regular intervals and discuss touches upon control of human be- the Universe Vie issues that concern them. Guest havior in a very forceful way. 0

242 -PART V RESOURCES FOR CURRICULUM BUILDING Book reviews and notes about other available materials

243 But this desirable ens ironment is far ft om focus mime attention on informationte- being achiined. and the authors find that qunements for a sound environmental action "the two worlds of manthe biosphere of program. his inheiitance, the technospheie of his clea- I he authc,rs of this book report the re- General Background tionare out of balance, indeed potentially sults of a one-month into disciplinalyex- in deep conflict. And man is inthemiddle.-amination of the global, climatic, and eco- In their discussions of specific aspects of logical effects of Man's activities.1-iftyfull - man and the environment, the authors gke timeparticipants including meteorologists. Only One Earth.Barba la Ward send Rene special attentionto energyneeds, sources. oceanographeis, ecologists. chemists, physi- Dub( W \V Norton & Company. and technology: to population, its size and cists, biologists. geologists, engineer,. econo- 55 Fifth Ae , New Yolk 10003.1972. disc ibut ion, the plan s tenderly ing sy stems, mists, social scientists. and law yer, examined 225pp. $6. pollution and its economic and social costs:those environmental problems whose cumu- Phis book. subtitled The Cale and Main- use and abuse of the land: piessutes on lativeeffects on ecologicalsystems ha: tenance of a Small Planet. isan unofficial resources, the Gwen Resolution, and human worldwide significance.The main concern report commissioLed by the Sect etaiy-Gen- settlements Summaries ofpi esentsitua- of the group was the effects of pollution on et al of the United Nations Conference on tions. often in chart four, are gisen, alongclimate, ocean ecology, and large terrestrial the Human Envilonment, prepai-d with the ithindicationsfor furtherresearch and ecosystems. assistance of a 152 - member committee of study. This book should be particularly useful to t,orresponding consultants in 58 countnes." Finally, in a concluding chapter on Strate- teachers and students of the environment Bat barn Waid isas distinguished as a gies for Stusis al. the authors recognise that because of thetreatment of information political economist as Rene Dubos is as a "There ate duce clear fields in which we needs. the extensive bibliographies which ac- scientist, and both are among the best of can already begin to perceise the direction company each section of the book, and the our contemporary writers.They ale brl- in which our planetary policies has e to go. excellent description of the nature of man's liant collaborators in this Landmark exam- They match thethree separate. powerful environmental problems. ination of our environmental situation from and dkisive thi ustsof science, of markets. HANS 0. ANDERSON a global perspective. of nationswhich have broughtus.with If anyone is looking I'ma guide to a such tremendous force, to our present pre- As We Live and Breathe: The Challenge of whole curriculum in interdisciplinary science dicament. And they point in the opposite Environment. 240pp. $4.65 National or evenin human problems of social directionto adeeper and more widely GeographicSociety,Washington,D.C. organizationthis book couldbe it.In slimedknowledgeofour environmental 20036. 1971. broad stiokes, the authors sketch the past unity, to a new sense of partnership and The roots of Amin lea's ens ironmental prob- and paint the picture of our present situa- sharinginour sovereign economics and lems lie deep in our past. This book traces tionOver this background they add then politics, to a wider loyalty which transcends man's ntipact on the New World and stresses own insights as to causes and consequences the traditional limited allegiance of tribes the ads erse effects whichesuited front his of social, political, and economic decisions. and peoples. There are already pointers to labor for food, his demands fit energy, and Finally. they bring the leader to the fron- these necessities. We have now to make his industrial products,Italso underscores nets of each problem. indicating what must them the new drives and imperatives of our the compounding of env ironmental problems yet be learned on thescientific side and planetary existence.... by the world's rapidly increasing population. suggestingJIIIC aiternatkes ,n the probable "A strategy for planet Earth, undergirded This is more than just another doomsday or possible applications in technology. w here by a wise of collectkeresponsibili- book, it also shows the attempts of a grow- "the difficulties oil' originate not from un- discos er more about m in-environment rc ing number of Americans to regain a more certaintyaboutscientificfacts.butfrom lions, could well move, then, into operation livable ens ironmentIt discusses the search differences in attitudes toward soc'al %Ales." on these three fronts. atmosphere, oceans, for nonpolluting forms of transportation, lot On the economic, social, and poll cal side, andclimate.It is no small undertaking, but programs to relive cities, and for methods their discussions of the developing regions quite possibly the very nt;ninnun required to recycle garbage into usable resources. of the planet and the accommodations to be in defense of the future of human race." 1 his well - written book has many excellent made for "coexistence in the technosphere" Only One Earthis one r, the year's most pictures.Itis recommended for anyone in- are both lucid and compassionate. Many of importantbooks andshouldhavehigh terested in the environment, from advanced the disparities in these views were clearly priority whether one teads itas a science juntor high students to adults. evident in the Stockholm conference. educator, as a citizen of the twentieth cen- . DONALD R. FOWLER As the authors state in the introduction: tury, or simply as a member of the crew "The establishment of a desirable human of Spaceship Earth. Man andEnvironment. Robert Arvill. environment implies more than the mainte- MARY E. HAWKINS 332pp. Penguin Books, Inc., 39 nance of ecological equilibrium, the eco- West 55th Street, New York 10019. 1970. nomical management of natural resources, Man's Impact on the Global Envionment. A report of the Study of Critical Environ-A study of the impact of human beings or and the control of the forces that threaten land, air, water. and wildlife and the cr biologicalandmentalhealth,Ideallyit mental Problems.319pp.$2.95.Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology, M.I.T. vironment they create, as studied in England. requires also that social groups and indi- It also tells about the possibilities man nosy viduals be provided with the opportunity to Press, 50 Ames St., Cambridge, Massachu- setts 02142. 1970. has to reshape and create a new environment develop ways of life and surroundings of that fits his highest aspirations. their own choice. Man not only survives Inthepast two years, there has been a Spaceship Earth, A Space Look at Our and functionsin his environment, he proliferation of books concerned with man's shapes it and he is shaped by it. As a result environmentalproblems.Mostofthese Troubled Planet. Don Dwiggens.8Opp. of this constant feedback between man and books have been interesting or provocative $4.50. Golden Gate Junior Books, Box environment, both acquire distinctive char- orboth, and they have evoked alarge 398, San Carlos, Calif. 94070. 1970. acteristics which des clop within the laws of amount of action and reaction. Their focus,The author setsforth the major environ- nature, yet transcend the blind determinism in general, has been on the nature and extent mental problems besetting our planet and of natural phenomena. The exciting richness of the damage man has done to "space ship" investigates the technology now being devel- of the human environment results not only earth. Few of these books contain a detailed oped to meet the worldwide emergency. from the immense diversity of genetic con- examination of the kinds of information This small book is one of the best col- stitution and of natural phenomena but also needed to make long-term plans for thelections of material seen in one volume on and perhaps even mote from the endless in- future of our planet.Man's Impact on thethe subject. Well illustrated; a valuable high terplay between -natural forces and human GlobalEnvironmentis an exceptiontheschool and junior high school source book. will." authors go beyond stating the problem and CHARLES CARPENTER

245 Our Living Land dear his °an conclusions.I he section on '1)isposal ofII LIU Id V1 .1,IC k Infection 111 ,titpollution specifically outlines the effects dei gi fid. and \ attne. Sot Onh.\tan. The Department of the interiorhas of pollutants on the wspitanny system and published its 1971 yearbook, Our Liring 1)egiadesI nsiionnient, the threeappen- discusses in sonic detail the kinds of a astes dties [mimic a geological tune Limit. tom Land. The publication evaluates man'sdumped into the ail mei the United Statls. pages of marhernataal lamination. and a effect on the American landscape and A section prepaied by( Molgan dad glossa') of selected geo- oilers alternatives for creating an environ- titled "New: Do gises the benefits logical tei ins, ment suited to modern needs while still and risks limn medical NZ-lay. Loloiiclett- LORI "In IIsoIcl 1 preserving land resources. Full-color pic- sion. nucleal potter. microa as e men,, i a- tures and unusual graphics make this a iOlet tadiaUun, Insets. and 1 adioisolopes Ail Technology and Social Change. Wilhei 1 valuable addition for environmental ev. unusual .0 tic le. -'Metallic Menaces tells of NlOof e. I'df 101 236pp 52.4sQuadiangle pens as well as laymen. the effects of metals on health.I he .0 ogle BMA,. Inc.12 1. Delaa ale 1'1. ( Imago. Our bring Land is available from the suggsts that the fall of the Roman Empire ()061 I.1972 a as Loused byan Os ei absOi pliOn of lead Moore's/ rc hto,/, io and .Soc rut ( hank,, Superintendentof Documents, 5801 is from pots in %%Inch grape juice a as boiled in Tabor Avenue,Philadelphia,Pennsyl- a skillfully edited collection of al tic les diaan the prepaiation of ante.1 he book is lecom- esclusisely Ho :Sell furl, vania 19120, for S2. flout loth mended for use by especially interested high Dialed info 1111 ee Main puts CI he Conse- school students, teachers. and lot the college quencesof1 echnologicalChange. l'he level. Anthologies and Books Course of technological ( flange:Past and I oil N.'o I IsOsall 1 Futtne. and 'the Setting of Social Policy I. of Readings this book attempts to appraise the tecno- Eilsironntnt: Readings for Teachers.J W. logical aspects Of our fliOdel it society (icutge hal!. 287pp c;3.4) Addkon. the No Deposit-No Return. Huey I). Johnson. position of technology %%11h 101-1 to social %%este% Publishing Company.. Inc. Read- 351pp. S2.95. Addison Wesley Publishing change. in miler to elm ify %%hatis meant Co.. Inc.. Reading. Massachusetts 01867. 1w' NIA 411867.1972. by technology itself 1970. \ collection of ens konmental essays %%filch onn ibuto. s include Ai 'told loy :live. Bet - 1 his environmental anthology is a collection are applicable to today's eduLatoian es- nand Russell. J. Bionoaski. and mhos.I his of 65 position papers ft om the United States trenielyinlet esting %yolk.Itis not a stiuc- book is intended for the general public. espe- National Commission for UNESCO confer - tined test intending to solse the pi oblems ofcially those interested in the debate betaeen enc "Man and Ills Environment-A View pollutionbutaimslatheito do clop a technologists and those humanists loaald Survival," held in San Francisco in fundamental insight into the pioblems of out aho %lea technology as necessarily desti ta - November 1969. Contents include papers on ecologically mint -d culture / nt 114mmen). live of life on calif'. environmental concerns by leaders from the Readim.'S Jo? 7ito lieu a aould best be used as ()ion I Is A. \ \'si socialandphysical sciences, government, a supplemental test tow:t methods course or law. religion. art, education, media, industry, as a general reference. Technology and Society,Noel de Newts. youth, and activist movements Si s main areas of ins estigation :lie pie- Editor.307pp. $3.95.Addison-Wesley 'I his textis the new in-depth primer for seined.the ens ilonmental ci isis. pollution. Publishingo., Inc.. Reading. MA 01867. enviionmental :tameness for all concerned human ecology. man and radiation. envi:on- cizizens, repiesenting both radical and con - ment and sodal action. and the ielation be- .5 collection of leading% and discussion ques- servatisepositions Informative,easy-to- een cm iionment and educationCaLli of tions dealing a ith 11101,h:ills at using flow the read,thoughtprovoking,thispope' back these units attempts to else the necessary interaction of society and technology //II- points out the real need of all citizens for a tools lot des eloping a Luniculum that is in /14400 and .S4)(1(11 might set c as.1 basic working knowledge of the social and political tune a ith out nimble(' times resouice for intioLltatory engineeling Lotuses science,s., Pollution of out environmentis the key for technical and nontechnical studentsA 'I his book could be used in high school topic %%hid' all of the distinguished audio!, numberof Lawfullyselectedauriclesare seminars,nonmajorintroductorycollege mtdred into their essaysPollution does not ggesle LI as an inn oduction to the effects of science courses, in integrated or interdisci- mod) Mean contaminating out en%iionntent .hinge on society. such .fsI lie plinary liberal aits seminars, or in enviion- is ae usually undeistand the definition. but (01110.11111s About resimolog>... rislo1) 0! menial Louise,.It can help educate those of millerincludesanythingthatal titiciall technologic tl Change.-I10%% 55e Respond the general public who %skit to know what .11tels mu sin minding, I'm the %wise. toI echnologiLal Change.- the"Inteirela- is and will be going on in the global environ- Row HII'l tions of'I ethnology'." and "Science-Tech- ment. Nlatt and His Physical Environment. Garry nology and Government.'. Lott s V. 0CoNsoa Aiiueles by Rickoyer, Caldo, !lard'''. and McKenzie and Russell 0. Utgaid. Editors. Neacomb, along aid] discussion questions Stan, Health and Environment.Brea Q. 338pp.$4.95.Burgess Publishing Com- concerning the %slangs of !Insley. White. ilafen,Editor.269pp.$3 95. Burgess pany. -126 South Skill Street. Nlinneapolis, 1-hrlich. Nadel. and Snov.. pi 0- Publishing Company, 426 SouthSisal NIN 55415.1972. ide the student ssith an interesting collec- Nlinneapolis. MN 55415.1972 This is a collection of carefully chosen :elid- tion of philosophical readinp. on the topic. I his is an anthology consisting of 31 articles ing, in ens koninental geology, intended as ciror, is A. vv,/ 'elated to environmental health and gleaned ail innoduetion to the subject for students nom a aide al ct>of publications The taking Louise, in geology and ielated fields Man and the Ecosphere: Readings from collection, divided into sewn disisions.in- editoisselected :wicks dealing with Scientific American.307pp.$11; $5.75, cludes topics !dated to an pollution, %s ter health and disease, waste disposal, nundal paper, W. H. Freeman and Co., 660 Mar- and solid aaste, noise and radiation, tosiL iesouiLes, land ;et:1;1111.am'. land-use plan- ket Street, San Francisco, Calif. 94104. substanL",, population gi oath. and ensiion- ning and geological hazaidsleLognizing the This volume is another compilation of arti- mental education.I he editoi accumulated fact that ensiionment ploblems ate highly cles which previously appeared in Scientific rePleseoling a wide Lange of 10%-. Lomple and ale not confined by academic American. The type size and illustrations points, to help the student and general leado boundalylines.'I he classicbrief satirical are as they originally appeared. Wife' cntiate between allegations %%filch are essay by Gal iett Ilatdin titled "Nob )dy Esc: The theme which binds the various articles' sound and those %%Inch ale "pieta% alaim- Dies of Oso-Population" is one of a num- together is subdivided into four major sec- istand esaggcrated 11%; aineles, semi- ber of selections of unique laciest. such as tions:The Ecosphere andPre-Industrial technical and gendal in 'untie. include an "Benclidall'ffeLtsoftheAlaskaEat th- Man, Limits Rarely Perceived, The Dimen- abundance of fads and odic' informational quake.'"Medical(leology.-"1's:tolling Is sions of Intervention, and Management and

data flout sshick the leado is ',omitted to \\idiom Poison,'' ''5 Nuclear Giaseyard,- Buying Time. The substance of sections 1

246 and 4 is fairly ohs ious. The somewhat more emu onment SubjeLtsateslasstfiedinto I he 1)n -It -1 ourself 1.11% cryptic sections 2 and 3 deal respectively (sset sets. inlet mewls, and use's. hunk. prep.oed h,the Da\ ion iieunt with population resource problems and pol- 1 ticbook ishighly teommended as a 01 \ I llslot . IS a pras.tial hand- lution problems. -mustfor schools and teachers who are tty book for ACII011 On inans prob- Recommended for junior or high school ing to nurse into a program of ens itonmental lems ofens II (mint:maielcan-upand students and teachers as a supplementary education. 1 he cautions and the suggestions pI CSC!.1(1011 OrderI I 0111 D.11 \ source of information. for change are many. The philosophy is o' Antal1 listors 2629 Rube ROBERT refreshing.Certainlyif Terry'sss ords are .1\ c.. ion.011 45414 SI 95pet (mint Boo s 01: INTEREST read carefully,the many attemptsinthe area of curriculum des clopment in emit-on- Leaders in .1.1nericrin Comers affirmHenry mental education ss ill be More than a Ltir- Your1 Ens iron:nein: PcIltition and IN cattier. NI. (Tepper. 353pp. $10. Ronald Pies. Co. lent'passing-fad." ( Alin. 11coson 206pp 79 NI:1(11,ot) Asc.. Ness Yolk 1001().1971. R(MI P. YAW K I he hue: state. Pi inters and Pub- lishei s. 19-27 N. Jaskson St . (. otiose blogiaphies of 360 men and «omen thin Of 10K a 1)ansille. II « ho have -made notessoithy contobtitions 14/Wit City 61832. 1971. to the country's natinal lictitagc overthe All Around 1'ou-A11Environmental Wotten lot junto: high school s'ifents or past 100 Yeats.'. Study Guide.Stud) guides with work- for students m kw\ el-loci senior high. this book space lor students to use in answer- hook sontains am): milltalel) i9 student Einironmental Science Resource Lab. Ilhe in'heir ov,n [Mates. most of which h.t\c been in genetal I (0 -I Ali)I letbei 1.Nlegorden and ing Wiest ions or writing science lestbooks forscats.111(1 0111. How ard Piet. I ditois S97 it)I ilstaty obserations and ideas and ss ith accompany ing teacher\ pages.Alain sections of " (1"1 (Inectly with the problem of Set icesDi% is m. lion12S.Bat liessille. air pollution.Although a promotional .in. MN c(ii14,1972. ,treAwareness. the Urban Ecosystem. Nature's Ecosystem. Copies may be re- nouncement concerning the boos uses the \(ollesttonof1 cO aitisles, tenons. and terminology of "scientific inquity.- the stu- produced for class use.Prepared by the c.,:1\.on «ologyandtheens iionnient dent ins estigations ai c designed to 111(1.11.'1c disided intol'attI. Quality Of the Iits lion- 13m eau of Land Nlanagemcnt -United .1 principle 01 concept rather than to promote mem.l'attII.I Is (hology faitIII..1 he States Department of the Intel-1'6r. Order independent studentinquity.Nese' theless. Animistic' e. 1)esignedand(II ganizedto Iron) the Superintendent of Document.. this hook could seise as a lesouite fdr pi (Is ide -instant ascess to cultent thinking U.S. Go ernment Printing Office. \\rash- teaLltei ho n.ss tilingtote.tilictilicthe and des clopments in the ens honmental sci- ington. D.C. 20.402: S1.50. nutter ial mto a mole impin )-oi wilted foi mai. ft 0111Mall) authentic ences.-Reponts ate Pollution analysis by Optical Nlieroseop. I3ro..ii .OuncesFatil Pail is hoe(I sepalaie4 with A 24-page guide to Iecomnicnded wa s Comers:Ilion. 1 tildes.1 of high school EP -the Ness ( hat les and ineans ofusing optical mit:lost:op) Oritlith.I dss aldI andin. and Isaten Jos- (il C).111 Ut(ai lor the detection and measurement of tadI S4pp. $1 25 nape; the Izaak \\ al- pollutants in air. ss ater, and loud products. tonI cague of Amei 1(...t.Suite $O6. SOO Environmental Educati3n Outlines use of techniques sues as polar, N. Kent Si.. .Nilington, 22209. 1971 iiation.phase-dispersionstaining.fluu- I Is I11 11 PlaChie.indLI is Teaching for Survival. Mark Terry. 240pp. teseence mieroseopand photomicrog- I in 11011'111211W Itiiik..1110I1. and umberis $1.25.Ballantine Books. Inc..101Fifth iaph..Free copies of this guide (no. 11.11111e study not outdoot education. earn- Menne. New York 10003. 1971. 31 -2400) may be obtained by writing. ing to make en% nonnuluall) intelligent decisions is the heart and soul of ensitonmen- Tem hing lot Sot 1 hal is not a typical book. 13auseh Lomb. Scientific Instrument I)i- tal education ". ens honmental piaLtice itis neithera methods test nor a content s ision.Dept.6606. 635St.PaulSt.. (EP )isessentially .tmethod of causing book. Itdoes contain both content and Rochester. NY 14602. ideas for approaches. in one sense, but it ens itonmental education of action to (recut by use of models or csamples I he :Imhof. does much more. Terry criticizes the con- Athentures on the Beach. Teachers' Guide proceed tofin ntsh dozens of -models of tent, the approaches. and the curricula of for Grades K-12. Produced by The En- schools past and suggests some specific new esamples.- teal and imaginal y.to aid the directions and conetete ways to follow these s ironment al Resource C'ouncil and pub- otizen tofintheithe cause of -the new new approaches. lished by the Boald of Education oI the comet Schools and school teacheis Pait One of the book provide' an attack Cityof New York, thispublication k aleins ols et!inthediscussion. of coiw,c. upon the past and points to the future with designed to help teachers utilize the At- but so is the patt that dubs. the individual. respect to ens ironmental education.It ends lantn_seaboat d asan outdooi sciem the Lonimunsty. .and the government niay with api ecisc and complete statement of laboratory . play. 1Zealistieall).itispointed ma that objectives of ens ironmental education. Part New ork City pnbhc ss.11001s sh011id onlya minority care enough to get things Iwo considers the classroom. school, and older copses Itom the 13ineau ol Supplies (lone.Infact. pet hips the most significant district and how each can consider environ- I no. 00-5002-70). Outside agencies may .t newt:lit to apply to this tract is that itis mental problems.l'eity does not mention purchase the 104-page publication from. tealistic. inong the models :Ind csamples subjects or curriculum'. are many which will strike a given 'cadet Instead he empha- 13oaid ()IEducation ()Ithe City of New sizesphilosophic..policies.and as It isial. but anodic' ss illbe aided activities York. Publications Sales Office. 110 1.k - suitable to a variety of situations and at by those same suggestions. About cue- fourth mgstonSt.. NYI 1' PI:S2.50. Make valYtn1.2 age lock. .1 here are no slePhY-step (il the book is used to list source material', moo:dotes adsanced sincethe author 'ex- checks pay able to Auditor. Board 01 Edn- sample questionnaires. reading lists. and the pects teachers to plan their own approaches cation. Re.Clifoitunittels. thew is no index. Ap- through their own ingenuity and esperience. he Nlillipore Corporation has inti minced 'Intimate for junto: and senior high school. terry urges :cachets -to plan your own en- anewnumperiodieal.Milli pore Ric limo NI. Win Si 1 honmenta1 questions. and aCt on your own nology litkm onmen(alLineation ens iron mental alb ie.- Environmental Study Much ss ill Part 1 hree is entitled "Die Subject Mat- he presenting practical solu- Places for Environmental Education, teis."It illustrates how -ecology- can and tionstoftequentlyencounteredprob- a 10-page report, from Educational Facil- should be a pact of est:1y subject matter.lems in ens itonmental study. The ptib- itiesLaboratories,isa synthesis ofa Suggestionsate made asto how certainlic'"1"" " be sent\\ ithont charge to conference held at the Smithsonian Insti- ,activitiesinvarious cow ses can promote readets. NN'rileto\lillipore Cor- tution's 13elniont Center. The booklet sug- deeper studyof both the subject and theporation. 13eillord. \l.\ 01730. gests theuse of specific strategies and

247 facilitiesto achieve the most effective report u as prepared as apartof thecents. Poster. 5 cents. Bumper Sticker. approachtoenvironmental study. Westein Regional Emironmental Educa- 10 centsOrder, enclosing payment, from For free single copies, contact Educa- tion Project. coordinated by the Califor- The Can People. (i.P 0. Bo% 2682. Nes% tional Facilities Laboratories. 477 Madi- nia Department of Education. to provideYork. N.Y. 10001. son Avenue. New York, N.Y. 16022. baseline data on environmental educa-lite National Audubon Society has e%- Multiple copies: 25 cents each. tion in the region at the start of a three-'landed its services for aiding other organ- >. ear project funded through ESEA Title izations to establish their own em iron- Junior High Course on En rironmental V.Itincludes information on number Problems and Solutions mental education centeis so thatit ium of state consultants. resources agencies. ha% another planning e%pert and a pro- A course which teaches junior high statelaws.statepublications,special gram for small !Imolai areas (under 50 funds for environmental education, and students about environmental problems acres).The Society offers its professional othertopics. and solutions is now available from The The projectdirectoris field set% ices on a cost-..hared basis.It Rudolph J. H. Schafer, 721 Capitol Mall. Creative Teacher, Inc.. Box 5187. Grand alsoissuesaquarterlynewsletter for Sacramento. CA 95814. Central Station, New York, N.Y. 10017. nature centers and environmental educa- This 15- to 20-hour course emphasizes Yellou !'ages of Learning Resources k tors. leaflets. manual. lectures. and .t racy cling and stimulates students to par- concerned %% ith the potential of the city Address inquiries to the Nature Center ticipate in community efforts aimed at .ts.tplace for learning.It contain% a PlannineDivision.NationalAudubon improving the environment. selectionoftypicalfirsthandlearning Society. 950 Third Ave,. New York. NY Called Environmental Action: Recycl- iesotirces that can be found in almost any 10022. ingResources,thecourseretailsfor cityand outlines the avenues to follow S25 plus shipping.It includes a Teach- in orderto make theseresourcesac- Bibliographies and er'sManual,StudentHandbook, two cessible. Copies of the 94-page book areReference Lists mailable from The MIT Press. Massa. color filmst.ips, record (containing sound ScienceforSociety: A Bibliography, tracks for both filmstrips), and a class chusetts Institute of Technology. Cam- bridge. MA 02142: S1.95. ThirdEdition, covers science. technology. simulation game called "Ecopolis." Ad- society. resources and the environment. ditional Student Handbooks are available Action Programs education, health. and conflict and popu- at 35 cents each. Environmental Conservation lation.Prepared for students. teachers. Congressional Testimony on - and laymen. Published by the American Environmental Education Help! Give Earth A Chance by HoltAssociation for the Advancement of Sci- Bodinson and Sandy Marvinncy gives The Environmental Problem presents ence.1515 Massachusetts Ave..N. \V.. specific recommendations for individual- selections from hearings on the Environ- Washington.DC' 20005: SI per copy. izedactioninpreserving the environ- 1970. The An env ironmental book listof significant mental Education Act of ment. The 28 -page booklet offers con- selections include' portions of testimony environmental books published in1971 crete measures to curtail air, water, and from 45 witnesses before the Select Sub- is available at no cost to librarians and noise pollution; preserve land and wild- committee on Education of the House of instructors from Environment Informa- ...Mc:. and help control population. tion Center. Inc., 124 E. 39th St.. NeA% Representatives, representing about one- sources for further information on these third of allthe testimony heard. The York. NY 10016.Enclose 25 cents for topics are also included. postage and handling. witnesses, including LaMont Cole, Gar- For free single copies of the booklet rett De Bell, James E. Allen, and Mar- write to Help. New York State Depart-Environment Information ACCESS is an garet Mead, explored ideas on how the ment of Environmental Conservation. 50extensive semimonthly printout of titles vehicle of education might be employed Wolf Road, Albany, New York 12201.and abstracts of material, both published in improving the quality of the environ- and nonprint, in the area of environment. ment. The Environmental Problem, edited "Pick Up 'the Pieces," an instructor'sThe cost of an annual subscriptionis by Irving Morrissett and Karen B. Wiley, manual by Keep America Beautiful, Inc.,SI50. Also available isne Environment may be purchased from Social Science suggests litter prevention and other pllu-Index 1972,a reader's guide to more than Education Consortium, Inc., 855 Broad-tion control projects for high school stu-60,000 entries in 800 pages.Price per way, Boulder, Colo. 80302.Publication dents. As long as the supply lasts, copieseopy S75.Both are pubiished by.Envi- are available no.140.Paper $6.95; hardcover, 58.95. for 20 cents each fromronment Information Center, Inc.,124 Keep America Beautiful, Inc., 99 ParkEast 39th St.. New York, NY 10016. Environmental Education Program Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10016. Under the authority of the Environ- The AAAS Science Book List. Third Edi- Toward a New EnvironmentalEthic, Compiled byHilaryJ.Deacon. mental Education Act of 1970 the Office tion. published bytheU.S.Environmental 440pp. 59. AAAS Publications.1515 of Environmental Education is supporting Protection Agency, summarizes goals and Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington. a wide variety of projects and activities. government programs on environmental D.C. 20005.1970. A description of representative projects questions. Copies are available from theAn extensive listing of 2,441 titles consisting and of how 1971 grants were made is pre- Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Gov- of author. title, publisher, price. descriptive sented in a 14 -page booklet, The New ernmentPrintingOffice,Washington. annotations, and Libra!), of Congress card Environmental Education Program of the D.C. 2040;,-150 cents pct copy. number. U.S. Office of Education.Itis available Can Recycling.The Can People (Ameri-Educators Guide to:We Films.789pp. from: SuperintendentofDocuments, $10.75. Educators Guide to Free Tapes, can,Continental,National,and The U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash- Scripts, and Transcriptions. 183pp. -$7.75. Heekincancompanies)offerseveral ington, D. C. 20402; 30 cents. EducatorsGuidetoFreeFihnstrips. pieces of material to aid groups inter- 162pp.$8.50.Educators Guide to Free Conservation and Environmental Edu- ested in organizing a citizens committee Science Materials (A Multi-Media Guide). cation in the Western States. A Status for community action to recycle the can. 367pp.$9.25.Educators Progress Serv- Report onState-levelPrograms Con- Materials and prices arc: "Recycling the ice, Inc., Randolph, Wis. 53956. ducted by Departments of Education and Can inthe Seventies," "The RecyclersAnnual revision of the popular and useful Resource Management Agencies.This Handbook," bothfree; Bus Card,10 series.

248 Special Subjects: What's Ecology? Clifford C. Humphrey and Guardians of Tomorron: Pioneers in Eeol- Robert G. Evans. 6Opp. S2.95. Hubbard og,. S. C.I11 Hirsch.192pp. $4.53. The Scientific Co.. P.O. Box 105. Northbrook. Viking Piess, 625Madison Ae- Ness ECOLOGY III. 60062. 1971. Volk 10022,1971. Chapters deal with principles of ecolop. theauthor Ecolog:, Nlates Relationship to His Environ- dew; ibesthecircumstances brief descriptions of major ecological sys- ment.Lawlenie 1. Pauline and Howard Rich led eight Americans to dedicate their tems, energy sources. problems and interac- lis es to the ptesersation of man's sill round- Welsh:1os21Ipp. $2. paperback. Oxford tions. man and the biosphere, and the cul- ing+. Book Co., Inc 387 Park Ave. S.. Ness Thoreau raised a rousing ctyin the turalresponse toecology. York 10016. The hookis 1850's tot "men to ass ake. to take a look at concisely written and contains considerablethemselves and then %wad."Pinchot and !his paperback offers an infoimed look at information and several excellentillustra- Muir werepioneers m theconsersation man's interrelation ssith his ensiionment. It tiens. The authors succeed in presenting an moseinem at the turn of the century. In out considers scientific principles front a socio- acceptable definition of ecology, but they fail assn time. Rachel Carson mtensis probed logical standpoint and ss 1th a %less to man's to portray ecology as the exciting, dynamic the use of pestiekk, and anticipated the futtue silt sisal."I he use of case studies and search for an understanding of man and the prospect of a "silent spring. In addition. mini-wpm, is effectise and adds much to biosphere. Useful for secondary school stu-the reader is introduced to George Perkins the total presentation dents or adults interested in a survey of the Marsh. kilos+ n as the father of ecology: to Intended fortiskas a textbook atthe nature of ecology. Frederick Lass Olmsted. %sin) planned Cen- secondat or junk). college lesel. the book HANs 0. ANDERSLN tral Palk inNess York City:to George is inclusise and east to understand. But it Noiiis of the Tennessee Valley Authority: isa generalized account and has allthe and to Aldo Leopold. %show concern for the shortcoming,of thetypicaltextbook.It Everybody'sEcology. ClaySchoenfeld. 316pp. 57.95. A. S. Barnes & Co., Inc., vanishing ssilderness led to the establishment does not suggest actions: it mere!) describes of America's first such national region. Box 421. Cranbury. N.J. 08512.1971. problems and often makes emotional ay. A companion volume to the author's The peals Its !Neatest sseaknessis the failure The hook is recommended for all who need Ening Community.this hook will provide to cite references lotdata and for future a guide to understanding nature, who desire interesting supplementary reading for ecol- prophesies. an improved perception of the meaning ofogy courses from junior high school through Romit IE. YA61It ecology, and who are interested in practicesthe eleventh grade. and policies that can enhance the future of 13Au1tARA M. BINNING the out-of-doors.It includes the basic prin- Fundamental Ecology. Arthur S. Boughery. Symbiosis. Thomas C. Cheng. 250pp. 56.95. 222pp. $3.95. InternationalTextbook ciples of ecology, a guide to understanding and appreciating nature, and suggestions for Pegasus.850'I hindAve..Ness' Yo -k Company, Box 30, Scranton, Pa. 18515. 1(1022. 197. 1971. citizen action in environmental management. Books for high school students on symbiosis This is the first book in a series of eight Recommended for school library use and for adults who desire a fresh, lively, and are rare.But for a generation of students planned hooks on ecology' and environmen- interested in togiherness and a generation tal confrontation. The author is also editor stimulatingintroductiontoenvironmental of science teachers interested in the inter- of the series. As is usually true of the intro- problems. ROBERTE. YAGER relatedness of nature. symbiosis is a natural. ductory hook in a series, this one serves as The hook begins with a hie( history of an overview and introduces the books that research, followed by a discussion of the follow.The contentsinclude ecosystems, Ecology: Man's Effect on His Ens ironment various forms of symbiosis.'1 het e is, natur- environments, population aspects (dynamics, and Its Mechanisms. John Hoke. 96pp.ally, a discussion of the intenclationships evolution, interaction, and behavior), and $3.75.Franklin Watts, Inc.. 845 Third between the various hosts and their communities. Some parts of the book read Ave., Ness York 10(122.1971. onts. including such topics as methods of like abriefencyclopediaofecological Provides a concise introduction to ecological contacting and entering. defense mechanisms. termscertainly few havebeen omitted. and utilizing min icnts. As a brief, concise overview of ecology, concepts appi opiateforthe juniorhigh 'I here is a very good this hook could serve quite well, for the and high school lesel. The vocabulary and chapter on symbiosis and human welfare. The treatment is scholarly and complete. references at the ends of the chapters sug- the sentence structum used also require 14- There is an adequate recommended reading gest further readings.Having used R. L. to 18-year-old reader maturity. The second half of the book concerns man and sonic list.The author's preface and the jacket. Smith's hook,Ecology and FieldPiology in of the problems that have it:stilted from his hossever, overestimate the reading ability of our classes, we were interested to note that technological manipulations of the environ- the audience. The hook is suitable only for a at least five pages of illustrations were bor- very proficient high school hie lgy student or rowed and credited to the author, yet his ment.Attitudinal and behavioral change a well-readlayman. iertheless.the name and hook were not mentioned once iscited as crucial to improvement of the is author should he commended for bringing in the bibliographies. This book is intended human environment. and the author stresses for introductory college classes in college the importance of knowledge of ecological this subject to the high school audience. ecology. principles for achieving this change. THOMASC.CBENG M. F. VESSEL. A. I.. 13nAswi II.

Before Nature Dies.Jean Dorsi.352pp. Ecology:ScienceofSurvival. Laurence $2.45. Penguin Books. Inc., 39 W. 55 St., Pringle.152pp.$4.95. The Macmillan New York 10019. ENERGY AND, POWER Company, 866 Third Ave.. New York A good source book for junior or senior high 10022.1971. school students doing research on the effects Nuclear Power Plant Siting: A Hand- Ecology: Science 01 Survival covers: webs of man on nature.It begins with an interest- book for the Layman. published by the in nature, living parts of ecosystems, major ing history of man the hunter the shepherd. University of Rhode Island. explains how bionics of the world. flow of energy, Wm - and the farmer and discusses the impact of power plants work, the pollution aspects chemical cycles, changes in nature, pate,.., various civilisations on the earth.Present- in population growth. and man's role in each day problems of population, erosion, pesti- of power production. plant safety. and of the above. The author presents a sensible cides, pollution, extinction of species, and siting concepts. and includes alistof and accurate picture of ecology. The hook exploitation of marine resources are a few readings. May be obtained from Marine ssould serve as a good introduction to the of the topics which round out this very good Advisory Service. University of Rhode subject at the junior high level. study. Island. Narragansett Bay Campus. Narra- %INACRLENT BARNEY PARKER gansett, RI 02882.

249 EnergyandPoser.AlbertHinkelbein. POLLUTION AND WASTE DISPOSAL I he .1111101 111E.', 111. AEri W11111.111,- 128pp. $4,95. Plank lin Watts. 845 Third Now or Newer: Ihe light Against Pollution. 11E. time. telling 110%%.t sae was and a Ave., New York 10022, 1971. 1).S.Halacy. Jr.208pp.$5.62.Pow leaning plant set up. how fedi:1.d awl state Wuids pjo. coW. 44 St.. New York funds acre obtained fat rescan.h. and what The hook conducts the reader on an inter- 10036.1971. psyclitatog,was usedto gam tollpublic esting, superbly illustrated journey through Now 0, Newel piewah an absorbing, fact- ell ceptante of the lake wales. thevariousforms of energy,theirdis- filled suninialy of the light against pollution I he book will !hoc wide 'cadet appeal. covery and eventual harnessing by tech- especially 10 high 1:1;o01 giotips.Itis well nology into something usable.Ancient and the author. while pointing Out that nano e must shoulder the blame for much pollution. illustiated w1111 photograph, line di.R% interestinghistoricalvignettesareinter- mg. spersed throughoutthegeneral treatment remind, us that "man. the master polluter" has upset natures healing balance. 1k ex- I OKIN/E1I IsoNnt of the topic.Current problems relating to waste energy are also discussed. :intim, the moblents of air and water pollution. mountains of waste. dangerous pesti- A very human book,it emphasizes the Purity or Pollution: the Struggle for W ater. cides. ladioactivity, and noise and discusses small and seemingly insignificant discoveries !Juie Rondiete I28pp$495. lianklin sonic possible solutions. that wcrc the very basis of entire fields of Practicalsugges- Watts. Inc .84.;I him d Awe.. York tion, for individual. croup, and institutional technology and further scientific study.It 0022.1971 action ale given. and alist of concerned isrichinhistorical treatment and recog- \Nato isaitinklyseen noin culttual. oigani/ationsandusefulpublications is nition of individuals normally not even men- chemical.geOgiplite. EN:01101111C. :111E1 111- provided. tioned in general readings.Highly recom- 11111.thl .1 1111111.111-,111Mal petspectue.Al- mended. 13AnuAtts NI. lb NNIN; !Lough wodui.cd inI ngland. the book pro DAI.1: M. HUNAN Our Polluted World: Can Man Surti$e?Icks a Losumpolitan slew presenting an John Pen y. 237pp. $5.95. Franklin appi iate ot Id w ide photographic sam- Watts. Inc.. 845.1 bird Ave.. New Yolk pling. 1 he kaludaly is north glade. and the 10022. 1972. concept, range nom juniorhigh upward. A revised edition of a rambling. but inlet est-An exellent Intel:1.160n of science and so- Cool* :mil .Si ientift, An/oh an big, book first published in 1967.I hough the ia Ist tidies Book i144pp.$6.50 cloth: $3.25 papa. topics ian,te widely. greatest emphasis in on A. I. W. II.I :ecnian :tad Co.. 660 .Nlaiket St.. air and water pollution. their causes and San Francisco. CA 94104. 1971. effects. High school students and lay persons will find the hook of interest. The index isGetting Donn to Earth(anenviron- "1 he people of the United States. according adequate. mental handbook).Attempts to define to the foreword of this hook. hate doubled TIO F. Asanu wscauses of pollution, indicateeffecton theii consumption of energy eely decade Biology and WaterPollutionControl. cnw uonm ent. examine costs, and suggest of the twentieth century As anysuident Charles 1E. Warren. 434pp. S11.NV. B. solutions to the problems of solid waste of au ithmetic knows. the last kiln in ,itch Saunders Co.,NV. Washington Square, disposal and air and waterpollution. set it!, always exceed% the etunulatise total of Philadelphia, Pa. 19105.1971. Well presented and beautifully illustrated. allthepreceding terms, Thus. according The aim ofthis book, according tothe Public Relations Department, I3ank of to the thesis of this hook. moue eneigy will author, is "to explain the biology thatis he used in the 70% than in all other decades America. P.O. I3ox 37000. Rincon An- relevant to water pollution control."Sec- lleN. S;i11 Francisco. CA 94 1 37; S I . of the twentieth centwy combined. tions include:Conditions of1.ifcinthe Suchisthe problem ploposed this AquaticEnvironment,Morphologyand work. and itis an excellent one (cmhigh Physiology. Ecology of the Individual Orga- Environmental Pollution school students to consider. But Oleic is a nism. Population Ecology, and Community second energy woblem confronting society Ecology. A 19-page annotated bibliography of which is equally as scum!, as the eneigy- The author succeeds in writing a text ofselected references in 1.:tivirontnental soince ploblem- the need of energy sinks. considerable depth that will give an excel-lution by Michele S. and Daniel H. Stern Heat pollution of the atmospheic by electri- lent background to a person interested inis available from Michele S. Stern. De- cal pow eistations and °Wei huge heal- the biology necessary for water pollutionpartment of Biology, University of Mis- radiating soul cc. esently faces soL icts , Not control.It is a scholar!). book, yet is not sorouri. Kansas City, Missouri 64110; 25 altogether facetiousisthe prediction that detailedthat a nonscicotistwould havecents cach. by the year 2100 the earth will be radiating difficulty reading it.The Pterature cited is into space as much heatlionsfossil and quite complete. Recommemild for students nuclear fuels asitteed cs from the sun. with a good backgroundinbiology andNational Policy on Ocean Dumping The hook consists of ankles which first chemistry. Proposed appeared in the September 1971 Scientific ARTHUR E. ROMMAU fini /into.It treat the field of cite, gy and The 7ntn That Launders Its Water. Leonard Ocean Damping, A National Policy is power nom the production of nattual gas A.Stevens. 122pp. $4.49. Coward.a report to thePresident, prepared by In the count! lc% of the world through such McCann. and Geoghegan. Inc.. 200 Nladt- the Council on Environmental Quality, topics a% energy lequited in gaudening and son Awe.. New Yolk 10016. 1971. chaired by Russell E. Train. estop concision to a conch ding his us the %limy of how Santee. a southetn The Council recommends comprehen- decision making in the pioduction of power. ( Allot ma town. soheda serious w ater- sive legislation to control all ocean dump- The bookiswellillustratedwithphoto- %hot tage problem. Santee is satiated in an ing. The policy would generally call for graphs. maps. chalts. and abundant graphs. aica which set:eke% only ten inches of lam- banning new sot rces of ocean dumping Seconthuy school classes ri social science fall per )ew. Its water table had been drop- and phasing out existing sources.The .% well as natural scierce will find use for ping rapidly. forcing inhabitants to abandon This publication. But the ,coding and coin- administrator of the Environmental Pro- many farms.But community lc:Wets. with tection Agency would be given authority chension leel of the material is well above the assistance of technical consultants. de- the "as erage" secondary school student. This veloped methods for cleaning and recycling for the issuance of permits to implement is a resource book which will find its great- sewage water for irrigation and recreational this policy. est pedagogical use in inquiry - centered pui poses. The "laundered" water now fills The report is for sale at 55 cents per classes arkra problem has been clearly eight man-made lakes. providing lecreational copy by the Superintendent of Docu- Went died. fishing. boating. and swimming as well as ments, U.S. Government Printing Office, JOHN W. RI NM R water for farms. Washington, D.C. 20402.

250 Lead Hazards RESOURCES Loge industrial cities.1111, colonic should !leak!'1 lazaids 01 Lead. a summaly Natural Resource Consersation:An Eco-he a satisfactory addition to supplementary and analysis 01I dies am medical and sci- logical Approach. Olo er S. Ott en. 593pp. reading for a comse. 0: a unit, in emiton- entific es idence. prepaied by the Ens iron- $9.95.1 lieMacmillan ( o 866lipid mental education at the high school lecel. mental Protection i,.ency. outlines the As c.. Ness Yolk 1(1022.1971. Pc t Ric lc It: ossi R health hazards 01airbot ne lead.Itin- This important and useful nest textbook fills cludes sections on wince.. ambient all a savant niche,It CIICOIllra1ses such funda- TRANSPORTATION lock. lesels water aunt food. ens-juin- mentals as soil formation. CIlel 5)relations. Mott %%ill We \lose All the People: Trans- :lie:nal cycling. and human health impli- and the hy diologic. cycle. basic principles of portation for 'foniorrow's 11 orld. Stelling Mcl cod. J:()_12p.,$4.29.Julian Messnei. cations. Copies of the report ale availableectuogy. and methods of managingsoil... %cater. forests and %c ildlife.It includes ma- I W. 39 St.. Nett Yolk 10018.1971 Iron' the Publication. Section. Elk iron- terial on enviionmental pollution and meth- A good-quality vomit:it science accolinl of mental Plotection Agene). 5600 Fishersods of pollution abatement. as%%ell as a the tmpot tant and best 'Meting ploblem of Lane. RoomISB-OS.Rockville.Md. chapter on the human population problem. uansportation. Examples of the most up -to- 20552. In the./ edetal Regime,. 01 Febru- 1 he title of the final chapter us-Politics datet .1114101tati011 .)%ten's .111(11110101pt.% ary 23. 1972.( Vol. 37. No. 36. Pint 111) Education. and Stirs kal." of tiansroitation %chicle. are illustrated and the I PA published its Notice of Proposed Because of heat) occliapping, the book &sculled.Dieu e ate eight chapters. an In- Rule Nlaking on the Regulation of Fuels is an alteinatke father than a supplement to dex. and many references. A useful refer- and I tiel Addilk es. %%Ind' calls for lead- standaid ecology text. Students and teach- ence for eh:nit:filmy science teachers and lot liee and phosphottis-Irce gasoline by Jul) ers likelyto %%elcomeitslinking of junk)r and senior high school students. I. 1974. principles %%kb ell:lentrealities.Itretains F. A "RI ws much of the classical approach. yet joins this with quotations front such actkists as Hairy C0111111011C1 chapter is supported by POPULATION AND FOOD SUPPLY an extensive bibliography. Audiovisual Aids A book with such broad iange cannotThe Aging of Lakes.'I his %holt color film escape faults.In this ease time is uneven- Rapid Population Growth:Consequences emphasizes the effect of an int:lease of dis ness in the author's handling of the many soled nuti lents on a lake. The effect, along and Policy Implications. National Acad- proposed and hy potheticol solutions to en- %cid' sedimentation. results in the aging of a emy of Sciences. --105pp.S2.45.The 511011111cm:11 problem's.Sonic are balanced Johns HopkinsPress,Baltimore,Md. by cm ideal rebuttal, but mhos are offered lake to become successively a hog. nicadtm. and perhaps aforest.This aging process. 21218. 1971. uncritically,despitetheevidenceagainst Follows two collierpublicationsby the them. The author appears to gke favolable called cutiophication. moles many unde- Academy: The Growth of World Population treatment to severalprojects that sirable side ellects such as algal blooms and horrify loss oxygen leels.high ate illustiated. (1963) and The Growth of U.S. Population mostenvironmentalists.Compressingso (1965). A definition and description of themuch material into one %ohmic has resulted he acceleiating effect of increasing hu- problems resulting from today's unprece- man populations on etitiophication through in inadequate discussion of some topics. such socage input is illustrated, dented rates of human population increase. as grasslands and glazing. 'Various methods Wisely, the author has limited the scopeof treating the symptoms of cutrophication The Proceedings of the National Confer-to the resources and ecology of the coter-ate slum n.These include diedging. %%cc(' ence on Population Education, convenedminous United States. cutting.emptying.artificialaeiation, and use of plastic sheeting. by the 1'01,14,04%. P.cfermx. B.:tit:W. file.. Jolts; Pi Rio' It is emphasized that November 1971.Assesses the current these actin ides tt eat symptoms not causes - Consersing America's Resources. Ruben I.. 1 he causes must he treated through changes status of developments in the field. identi- Pal sons and Associates.(.0goi , i 1.95. sm age neatment. Such changes are sInmn Prentice -hall. Inc.. Englimood (1111., NJ fies areas of disagreement and those of at Seattle'sI ake Washington,l'heinial pol- 07632. 1972. consensus among various groups. and lution fioni nuclear poster -.lotionsis very clarifies opportunities for expanded ac- The third edition of a compichcnske sour cc bi tellymentioned. tion. Population Reference Bureau. Inc..on the subject of consercation. updated in 'the film us sonimhat supcificial: hence its eset yrespect. 1755 Massachusetts Ave.. Washington. use %%ill1)1°11.1111yrequite the pros ision of D. C. 20036. SI. Our Natural Resources. Third Edition. P. E. considerable supplementoty information by isleNall and Harry Kricher. 296pp. $4.95. the !cachet.1)eset the. the problem %%ell. Feast and ramine. D. S. Ilalacy. Jr. 162pp Interstate Printers and Publishers, 19 - 27For general science groups. 14 min. S167.50. $4.95. Nlaciac Smitho.. 225 S. 15 St.. N. Jackson Street, Danville, Illinois 61832. color.1971, Fncyclopactlia Ruutannrca Philadelphia. PA 19102.1971. 1970. Cot potation. 425 N. Michigan Ave,. l'xcellcnt supplemental) leading at the see- A useful guide to resource use and principlesChicago. II, 60611. ondary school level %%hen minium]. diges- of ecology. The new edition iellects the con- Roil RI W. MI NI III tion. agriculttue. and population problemscern for protecting the environment and in- Noise-Polluting theEns ironment.Good ate being discussed, cludes a new chapter on air pollution. The fits( half of the book teviims in clear. The Water Lords. James Follows. 294pp.colt)r phologtaph and dlaniatie sounde- concise plow such topics as food chains, $7.95. Grossman Publishers, Inc., 44 W.ploduetion of typical annoying home and bannoises.Impiessiscpie-andpost- alimentaty canal. digestion. classes of foods. 56 St., Ness Yolk 10019.1971. 1 he second half be- audionictlyof the effects 01 a hard lock %ilamins. and so on One of a series of study group reports com- rehearsal on the heating of the instiumental- comes a good deal mote intelesting.It treats pleted by Ralph Nader's staff, which concen- ists resealed a 25 to 10 percent temporal>, the pioblems of taking enough of the right trates on environmental pollution as exempli- hearing loss. Ixtensise tie:oment of aircraft kinds of food lot a burgeoning %cork! pop- fied by the Savannah River situation.Both ulation. 1 he final chapter on %%hat is being noises. %laming the moving of an entire the city of Savannah and its industries con-neighborhood mid the abandonment of !cc() done to increase food production and on Ilibute to the 'pollution problem.Nader's schools in the pm \unity of the Los Angeles theimplications ofint:leasedagricultin al study group advocates that vigorous state icelinolop pained %cid] ewloding populations Airport. Appropriate for 101001 high school and local action be taken to remedy theStudents toadults.IS min$200 color, makesinterestingandthought-provoking situation and emphasizes the fact that the 1971. Encyclopaedia Ilinannica Educational reading. situation is not unique to Savannah. Georgia,Colpoiation. 425 N. Michigan Ave.. Chi- (Ii 011(.1 C. Tt KNI but holds elements in com111011 With other cago. 11, 60611.

A. L. Itmt csw III 251 A %%eh of Life: Endless Chain. 1he film shows filmstrips,cassettes). 1971. Society T.o1-1 he Oceanograph) Chart. S3 '7u. 11w ir natm al Ilesel t scenes of the ,%1 id Lands Fx- VisualEducation, 1345 Diserse)Pkw>., Pollution Chart. S'I he titer Pollution pei 'mental Pi eserve. with breathtaking land- Chicago. III. 60614. ('hart. S2.50Full-color %% all charts based scapes. colorful sunsets. plant and animal Rom RI W. NISI I on the latest scientific facts and compiled life, and sespial suspense-filled predator -pre) Ii\specialists in each of the fields 1ZO% episodes. Min nie Fnergy Commission per Scarlo. Inc , P.O. Box 217. 1 hot !Wale. sonnet me clewed cal 1>ing out man) Milo Ecological SystemsAntarctica.Antarctic PA 19372. entinsestigationsintheirsurreyofthis scenery andfrolicking penguins dominate region. this well-photographed color film. The cco Photo Display Available The absence of natation and the use of logical concept of "ecotone- provides the applopliate music encourage the viewer to basis for an examination of the life associ- Kodak is offering a set of12 color supply his own interm elation to aspects of ated with the sea-land interface. The "Addle andblack- and -white enlargementsof the filmIn the hands of a skillful. nonducc- penguin" is the index animal. Much of thephotos from its booklet. finprotrfin Your film is (looted to its behavior, nesting habits, live teacher. thisfilm I'Ould be unusually Emit onntent . . Fight Pollution with effective.Viewers of allages can derive and caw of offspring. The film stresses thePicture%. The set is called the "Clean the much enjo>ment and benefit from it. 28 nun interrelationships of the penguin life cycle,Scene- Photo Display and is available for Color.1972.Free on loan from Atomic weather, solar radiation, and plant prolifera- EneigyCommission. Washington. D.C. tion in the Sea. SI. 20545. ofasailableforpuichase for 575 Other organisms presented include lichens The booklet is also S Ithe following from National .ushosisual Centct. Wash- and mosses, thegull-likeSkint. and sea discounts are available on this public,it 1. ington. D.C. 20409. elephants. Sonic very important ecological 2-9 copies. 75 cents; 10 or more col es. AI Busswi concepts are mentioned inpassing.Over- 50 cents. Kodak suggests that money can hos to Basic Ecolog): ) Adaptation: (2 crowding. population balance. stress in the be raised by env ironment.d clubs if they Disci sit> in Natio e131 Intel elationship of ecological system. and adaptation arc dis-NI), 10 or more booklets at SO cents each Natio al Things. Filch of the duce kits con- cussed, but not in great depth. and sell them at the SI price.Eastman I he approach to ecologyisdescriptive tains six full -color filmstrips and 3 1.1)icc- Kodak Company. 343 StateSt..Dept. rather than quantitative.This fact and a ords accompanied by a sciipt and discussion 454. Rochester. New York 14650. guide. Designedforintermediate grades. lack of difficult terminology make the film suitable for junior high school audiences,It Cuiriculum ()dented. Wide range of pi ob- Film Catalog lems. appealing to students in various sec- is also recommended for senior high school tions of the count:,Lach set. $54. complete classes, with a suggestion that the teacher A newlyrevisedcatalogcontaining sews. SI 50.WI:idiom Press. 460 Palk include the quantitative aspects of ecology.more than 9.000 educational films on a Ave.. New Yolk 10022.1971. 13 min. Color. 5160.1971. Aims Instruc- wide'varietyoftopics.published by GI1,NN 0. lhoucal tional Media Service, P.O. Box 1010, Holly- the Mountain Plains Educational Media wood. Calif. 90028. Singer, "America's Urban Crisis." Group 1. Council, is offered to educators and or- This package of six filmstrips with accom- ROIII.R r W. Mi:Nurt.i: ganizations needing films for educational panying narration on 331/2 rpm phonograph purposes.The publicationisfreeof recordsisdevotedtothe environmental Spaceship Earth. A record album which charge. Cataloged films are available for aspects of the degradationof American dramatizes the environmental movement. rent from film libraries housed atthe cities.The topicspresentedinclude:air includes songs by Pete Seeger. dramatic Universities of Colorado. Nevada. Utah, pollution,waterpollution,solidwastes, vignettes of American life, and straight or Wyoming. Prices start at S3 for black- transportation, and housing. and-white films up toI Iminutes in Each tape is accompanied by a teacher's talk from people Mich a% the late Adlai guide which contains the narrative script Stevenson, Hubert H mph' ey. Paul Ehr-length. and a list of purposes. The set is worthy of lich, and U Thant. The album and ac- Copies of the catalog may he obtained consideration by teachers at the intermediate com pa n.v ing discussion guide arc available from Mr. Jack Prince, Bureau of Audio or secondary level who are looking for en- for S5.95 from Addison-Wesle) Publish-VisualInstruction, University of Colo- vironmental educational materials.$51.50 ing Co.. 2725 Sand Hill Rd.. Menlo Park.rado.348Folsom Stadium.Boulder, set (6 filmstrips. 3 records) or $57.50 set (6 CA 94025. Colorado 80302.

252 Selected Publications from the National Science Teachers Association

FACILITIES FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL SCIENCE VITAL VIEWS OF THE ENVIRONMENT (471-14604) TEACHING: EVOLVING PATTERNS IN FACILITIES A compilation by Mary E. Hawkins of recent views of AND PROGRAMS (Hardcover 471-14636, Papercovcr the environment. highlighting major concepts that illumi- 471 - 14638) nate environmental relationships.Included are state- Discussions of evolving programs, pictures, diagrams, ments by Frederick E.-Smith, Garrett Hardin, Raymond and descriptions of instructional areas and construction F. Dasmann, Paul R. Ehrlich, Rene Dubos, and others. details provide practical ideas for everyone concerned 1970. 32pp. $1.50. with designing and remodeling space and with establishing patterns of science instruction. Based on a nation- ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN THE ELEMEN- wide study of exemplary facilities conducted by the TARY SCHOOL (471-14626) NSTA with support from the National Science Founda- A compilation by Sylvia K. Shugrue and Berenice G. tion.1972.I 73pp.Hardcover $15.00; Papercovcr Lamberton of articles about elementary cnvironmcntal $12.50. education from Science and Children 1966-1971, focuses on theories about environmental education, activities to INDIVIDUALIZED SCIENCELIKE ITIS(471- reinforce cnvironmcntal awareness, and actual programs 14634) of student participation in school beautification.1972. Sets forth the philosophy of individualized programs in 48pp. $2.75. science, describes five well-established programs, and HELPING CHILDREN LEARN EARTH-SPACE SCI- offers suggestions for individualizing a single course or ENCE (471-14606) an entire program.Edited by Henry J. Triczcnberg. A selection of articles from Science and Children, 1964- 1972. 99pp. $3.50. 1970, compiled by William H. Matthews III.Articles and brief suggestions in the areas of content, curriculum, SCIENCE SELECTIONS (471-14632) and classroom ideas. Five major divisions: astronomy. A compilation of short, newsy reports of current rc- geology, meteorology, oceanography and water, and con- scarch in front er areas of science. Compiled by the servation. 1971. 256pp. $5.00 National Science Foundation staff. One copy is included with each loan or purchase of the NSTA minidocumcn- HOW TO DO IT SERIES tary films.Copies arc also available for purchase in This series of instructional aids is designed for use in minimum lots of 5.1971. 64pp. $0.20 per copy; mini- elementary and secondary schools. mum order, 5 copies (No discount). How To Care for Living Things in the Classroom (471- 14288) 1965. 16pp. $0.35. MINIDOCUMENTARY FILMS How To Read the Natural Landscape in Forests and

A series of 6- to 8- minute films on topics of current Fields (471-14618) 1971. 11 pp. $0.50. interest and concern in science. Originally prepared by How To Present Audible Multi-Imagery in Environ- the National Science Foundation for television and now mentalEcological Education (471-14614)1971. available for educational use. Included with each film 8pp. $0.50. is a copy of Science Selections- and a complete script of How To Study the Earth from Space (471-14624) the film.16 mm. 1971. 12pp. $0.50. Titles available: How To Tell What's Underground (471-14640) 1972. The Land That Will Not Heal (Arctic tundra) 12pp. $1.00. Holography How To Investigate the Environment in the City: Air The Promise of PLATO (computer science) and Water (471-14630) 1972. 12pp. $0.50. Discovery in the Deep Mobile LabQuestions, Anyone? SCIENCE LOOKS AT ITSELF Order at least two weeks in advance and give three A collection of addresses from the NSTA Silver Year choices of dates for each film. Enclose payment. Only Symposia on the insights that science can bring to bear orders on official purchase forms accepted for billing. on some of today's crucial areas of public concern. With Loan: $6 for 3 days' use; additional days, $1 each. an Introduction by Rene Dubos. Published by Charles Purchase: $30 per film. Scrihnet's Sons, Ncw York. 1970. 125pp. $5.95.

Order from the National Science Teachers Association,1201 16th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 Payment must accompany order; only orders on officialpurchase forms will be billed.