EYE ON SCIENCE

Bibliotheca Alexandrina Planetarium Science Center AUTUMN 2016 | Year 9, Issue 4 IN THIS ISSUE... The

Planetarium Science Communication: Science Center 4 What Is It?

Alfred Russel Wallace: AUTUMN 2016 6 The Unseen Evolutionary Year 9, Issue 4 The Adventures of Cultural Outreach Sector 7 Alexander von Humboldt

Educational & Promotional Publications Unit (COPU) Inventions and Their 8 Unknown Inventors Maissa Azab By: Maissa Azab Head of Unit The Two Sides of the 10 Coin Editorial Team This year, we have tackled the human side of Shahenda Ayman Hend Fathy science; the people who dedicate their lives to observing, Esraa Ali The Elusive Genius: contemplating, and laboring, to disentangle the complex Sara Khattab 11 Mr. Satoshi Nakamoto mysteries of our universe, our planet, and ourselves. We have chosen to spotlight groups of scientists and Lamia Ghoneim inventors who have transformed our life and the world, Jailane Salem Rediscovering the but who are often unnoticed, overlooked, or marginalized, Moataz Abdelmegid 12 if not altogether forgotten. Sherine Ramadan Forgotten Scientists In previous issues, we have highlighted the science of the Arabs, whose contributions, although often Design 14 The Matilda Effect obscured in history, have laid the foundations for Asma Haggag countless crucial sciences, such as chemistry and optics, and whose significant contributions continue, albeit often Landsteiner: The Maha Sherin 16 in the shadows. We have also dedicated an issue to the Faten Mahmoud Reclusive to the Rescue formidable women who have and continue to remarkably reshape science, despite an ever ongoing discrimination Publishing Department Giordano Bruno: The that still stacks obstacles in their path, only to be demolished by courageous and relentless heroines. Language Revision 17 Forgotten Philosopher In our last issue, we went on to elaborate on the Contact Us: role of the young and the extent of their distinctive [email protected] Unsolved Mysteries of involvement in the evolution of science, innovation, 18 SCIplanet Science and entrepreneurship, which often goes undetected or underappreciated. Indeed, more often than not,

SCIplanet_COPU certain sectors of the population are faced with certain Inventions Lost in the misconceptions, which undermine their outstanding 20 Mists of Time efforts that are often transformative. With that in mind, we conclude our series about the people of science with an issue dedicated to a handful A Big Screen Reveal of out of countless scientists and inventors who, for one | WINTER 2014 22 Big Heroes For additional information reason or the other, have been unseen or unheard of by and reservation, please the public. In this issue, we humbly attempt to give due | AUTUMN | 2016 contact: credit to those who have unpretentiously changed our [email protected] lives and made it somehow better to live, yet their names Tel.: +(203) 4839999 have been concealed or simply forgotten. Hopefully, we Ext.: 2350, 2351 intrigue you to attempt discovering for yourself more of Fax: +(203) 4820464 and about the invisible people of science. www.bibalex.org/psc

2 By: Hend Fathy

While working on this issue, we wanted to introduce you to as many scientists and inventors whose contributions have had significant effect on our everyday life, but who have gone unnoted, or have not received the deserved recognition and/or fame possible. Sadly, we are confined to a limited number of pages; so, here are some names to dig up for further reading. Moreover, you can read more on SCIplanet Online Magazine.

The idea of the stapler was first developed for King Louis XV in the18th century. Although George McGill patented a form of paper fastener in 1866, it was Henry R. Heyl who patented the first stapler that both inserts and clinches a staple in one step in 1877.

Austrian physicist Robert Adler holds numerous patents for electronic devices. However, he is best known as a pioneer in the development of the remote control device, which he patented in 1957.

Croatian inventor Josip Belušić designed the first electric speedometer and patented his invention in 1889; it revolutionized the dimensions of measuring speed. His model was in analogous form; it was later developed into the digital form and became a necessary component of every vehicle.

American engineer Martin Cooper invented the first cellphone and made the first mobile call in 1973. The device “Motorola Dyna-Tac” was 23 cm tall and weighed 1.1 kg and had a talktime of 35 minutes.

Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis invented the world’s first jeans—first known as waist overall—in 1873. The fabric was specifically designed for miners and cowboys due to its strength; the word jeans became popular in the 1950s.

Dr. Francis Rynd, Ireland, was the first to develop a drip needle for introducing drugs into a vein in 1844. Before that, it had been impossible to administer drugs through the skin, only orally. Rynd reported his hypodermic syringe invention in the Dublin Medical Press in 1845. This was eight years before Alexander Wood and Charles Pravaz invented a new version of it, and were mistakenly credited with the invention. A COSMIC POINT OF VIEW

Copernicus published a book in 1543 on by significant public participation, the “Science Communication deals the movement of the Earth around the Sun, “Republic of Science”, even if the extent with an issue that is important, not not the Sun around the Earth, which was of participation was limited by the lack of only, or even mainly, for the scientific the established belief at the time; it was education amongst the wider, unskilled community, but also for the nation a revolution in the way people thought. population. By the end of the 19th century, as a whole and for each individual These revolutions, in the way we think, are however, science became increasingly within it. More than ever, people fostered by great communicators. professionalized and aligned with the need some understanding of science, interests of government, a trend which has whether they are involved in decision- continued ever since. making at a national or local level, in managing industrial companies, in skilled or semi-skilled employment, in voting as private citizens, or in making a wide range of personal decisions.” Public Understanding of Science, The Royal Society, London, 1985

Science communication generally Charles Darwin’s books were refers to public communication presenting bestsellers, the Theory of Natural Selection science-related topics to non-experts; that he promoted was an amazing this includes, among other forms, science transformation in the history of human The relationship between science exhibitions, journalism, policy or media thought. Almost nobody has heard of and the public became characterized by production. It can aim to generate support Alfred Wallace, while almost everybody has scientists communicating to a “scientifically for scientific research or study, or to heard of Charles Darwin. The truth is both illiterate” population, often referred to as inform decision-making, including political Wallace and Darwin published papers back- the “deficit model”. Critics of this model and ethical thinking. There is increasing to-back in Nature on the theory of natural suggest that the public will not be interested emphasis on explaining methods, rather selection; they each came up with this in information that is not in context, or does than simply findings of science; this may independently. Yet, we are far more familiar not relate to their lives in some way. be especially critical in addressing scientific

| AUTUMN | 2016 with Darwin, because he communicated Writing in 1987, Geoffery Thomas and misinformation, which spreads easily the idea effectively. He was a very popular John Durant advocated various reasons to because it is not subject to the constraints author who wrote eloquently; it was his increase public understanding of science, of scientific method. communication skills that differentiated him or scientific literacy. If the public enjoyed Effective science communication has from Wallace. science more, they suggested there would actually changed the world; a case in At the height of the Enlightenment in the presumably be more funding, progressive point would be the Copernican Revolution. late 18th century, science was characterized regulation, and trained scientists. More

4 trained engineers and scientists could allow a Carl Sagan: The Scientist and nation to be more competitive economically. Science Communicator Governments and societies might also Carl Sagan was the Director of the benefit from more scientific literacy, since Laboratory for Planetary Studies at Cornell an informed electorate promotes a more University; he played a leading role in democratic society. the American space program since its In the UK, the modern approach to inception, was a consultant and adviser to science communication began with the NASA since the 1950s, briefed the Apollo Public Understanding of Science model, the astronauts before their flights to the Moon, model then changed to Public Engagement and was an experimenter on the Mariner, in Science and Technology (PEST). Although Viking, Voyager, and Galileo expeditions to the aim was to improve interactions between the planets. scientists and the public, engagement was As a scientist trained in both astronomy still on the scientists’ terms and reflected only and biology, Dr. Sagan has made seminal a minor change from the deficit model. The contributions to the study of planetary most urgently in those communities where public still has to accept the message on the atmospheres, planetary surfaces, the exposure to science is likely to be minimal. scientists’ terms, with no true engagement or history of the Earth, and exobiology. He Our society is increasingly dependent dialogue. helped solve the mysteries of the high on science and high technology; preserving An open dialogue between scientists temperatures of Venus, the seasonal and enhancing its democratic nature and the public fundamentally, thus, changes changes on Mars, and the reddish haze of requires a citizenry of informed decision- the practice of science communication, Titan. makers. The Carl Sagan Foundation, developing from a one-way to a two-way A Pulitzer Prize winner for the book through its sponsorship of innovative system. The idea is to have an open debate The Dragons of Eden: Speculations of the approaches, institutions and individuals, in which all stakeholders could participate, Evolution of Human Intelligence, Dr. Sagan aspires to help meet this pressing need. deliberate, and critique the issue. This new was the author of many bestsellers, including The inaugural project of the Foundation is age of science communication certainly has Cosmos, which became the bestselling The Carl Sagan Discovery Center at The potential and “good intentions”, but many science book ever published in English. The Children’s Hospital in New York. critics question if scientists would actually accompanying Emmy and Peabody award- Carl’s forty-year campaign for public take on board the public’s opinions or if this winning television series has been seen by science education was rooted in his dream was just a public relations campaign. a billion people in sixty countries. His novel, of a wise and just society. Before anyone At this time, it is probably too early to Contact, is a major motion picture. else, he recognized that a society wholly see what long-term trends will arise from The Carl Sagan Foundation is a non- dependent on science and high technology the Internet and social media, or how the profit entity established to continue the could not hope to become a democracy if move to Open Access will make an impact. planet-wide campaign of public science only a fortunate few possess the secrets of Will we see a revival of the Enlightenment’s education that was so brilliantly conducted science’s methods, laws, and language. Republic of Science, or Citizen Science as by its namesake throughout his career. It it is often now referred to? Beyond amateur seeks to further public understanding of the astronomers and naturalists, can the public goals, methods, and findings of science; to References lead or participate in science discourse? identify and challenge the misuse of science victoriaellis.scienceblog.com Examples of online public participation and high technology; to inspire the young carlsagan.com already exist, Galaxy Zoo and Foldit; yet, to think critically and to consider career blogs.nature.com these are still top-down approaches. pathways in science. It views its mission ian.umces.edu Recent Periodic Table Videos have been made in direct response to the comments and requests of the audience, and social media has exposed some of the trade secrets of researchers. There are also signs that social media is challenging the internal hierarchy of science; even if such conversations are between scientists themselves and not scientists and the public. Clearly, the Internet does allow “outsiders” to debate the methods, motives, and conclusions of science in public. It may also allow scientists | AUTUMN | 2016 expand their networks, while overturning preconceptions about their fields. Whatever the results will be, the Internet and social media will surely become integral in how future relationships between scientists and the public develop.

5 Alfred Russel Wallace was not only a naturalist, but was also a humanist, geographer, and social critic. THE STORY BEHIND SCIENCE

oday, Darwin is the man who gets the Tlion’s share of credit for the theory of evolution, which provides the mechanism The Evolution Theory The Controversy to explain how a species can be slowly Charles Darwin began formulating his The controversy of whether Darwin transformed into another. Darwin explained theory of natural selection in the late 1830s, borrowed the idea from Wallace or not had that theory in his book On the Origin of but he continued working quietly on it for begun in 1972, after a researcher found Species, in 1859. However, there was another twenty years; he wanted to collect a wealth of another letter from Wallace to a friend sent in British biologist working at the same time evidence before publicly presenting his idea. March 1858. The letter had postmarks from as Darwin, who came up with the theory During those years, he corresponded briefly Singapore and London that showed it arrived in independently, this was Alfred Russel Wallace with Wallace, who was exploring the wildlife London in June 1858; two weeks before Darwin (1823–1913), who discovered the concept of South America and Asia. Darwin was said that he received the essay from Wallace. of evolution by natural selection. It is the surprised to read that Wallace had come upon Researchers assumed that Darwin kept the letter, which included theories about process by which plants and animals, which essentially the same explanation for evolution. natural selection for two weeks, to enable can adapt to changes in their environment, Being a fair man, Darwin insisted that Wallace him to revise elements of his own theory of are able to survive and reproduce; while those also received credit for the natural selection evolution before announcing it to the world that cannot adapt do not survive. Though theory during debates over its validity. Wallace has been forgotten, he still deserves in July 1858. The mystery led to numerous Wallace supplied Darwin with birds for his conspiracy theories, including the accusations recognition for his achievement in biology and studies, and decided to seek Darwin’s help the evolution theory as well. that Darwin stole ideas from the letter, which in publishing his own ideas on evolution; in plagued Darwin’s reputation. The Father of Biogeography 1857, he sent his theory to Darwin, who joined In 2013, scientists turned into detectives Though Wallace had no formal training Wallace in publishing a paper on the latter’s and have now vindicated Darwin from these as a biologist and did not attend university, theory with his writings in 1858. After one year, accusations by tracing historical shipping when he worked as a land surveyor with his Darwin published his famous book On the records. They proved that Charles Darwin brother, his interest grew tremendously in the Origin of Species, which became one of the received the letter a month later than previously natural world, and he began collecting insects. world’s most influential scientific books. thought; finally, he was cleared from stealing He was also inspired much by reading about There were, of course, some differences in ideas of the theory of evolution after 40 years the work of naturalists, such as Carl Linnaeus, Wallace’s and Darwin’s theories. While Darwin of his first accusation by historians. Charles Darwin, and Alexander von Humboldt. thought evolution was driven by competition Alfred Russel Wallace was not only Wallace was a hard worker, collecting between individuals, Wallace believed that the a naturalist, but was also a humanist, biological specimens in Southeast Asia for environment was the driving force. Basically, geographer, and social critic. He published sale to museums and private collectors. He Wallace believed that species changed over | AUTUMN | SUMMER 2016 2016 21 books, and the list of his articles, essays, conducted a significant amount of fieldwork in time so they could fit into new environments; and letters in periodicals contains more than the Amazon River basin in South America, and moreover, Wallace did not think that sexual 700 items. Yet, his career eludes simple the Malay Archipelago, collecting more than selection played a major role in evolution. In description or honorifics. 100,000 insect, bird, and animal specimens, both instances, we now know that Darwin was which he gave to British museums. probably correct. References alfredwallace.org dailymail.co.uk bbc.com famousscientists.org britannica.com nhm.ac.uk 6 zoology, oceanography, and other fields of fields natural scienceoftheContinent. other and oceanography, zoology, on geology, geography, botany, archeology, forests, studyingandrecordinginformation and penetratedtheunknowndepthsofrain and Venezuela. now Colombia,Cuba,Ecuador, Mexico,Peru America, exploringtheterritoriesofwhatare South in years five spent they where America towardsLatin In 1799,theystartedsailing known to European science at that time. an expeditiontoLatin America, aregionpoorly Humboldt began planning and preparing for for biogeography. geography, whichiswhatlaidthefoundation He isrecognizedforhisworksonbotanical the relationshipbetweennatureandhabitat. over 39,000kilometers,inordertounderstand the highest volcanoes in the world, or traveling adventures anddiscoveries,whetherclimbing mineralogy. Hisrestlesslifewaspackedwith developed aninterestforgeologyand them. Whileattendinguniversity, Humboldt insects, andshells;heevencategorized observing and gathering samples of plants, great passion for nature and often spent time modern geography. is widelyrespectedasoneofthefounders he lived”; ever who traveler scientific greatest explorer. CharlesDarwindescribedhimas“the geographer, anaturalist,andcourageous Alexander vonHumboldt(1769–1859)wasa Latin America Expedition Latin America O Humboldt scaledtheheightsof Andes Together with botanist Aimé Bonpland, From hisearlychildhood,Humboldthada By: SherineRamadan whose namewassadlylostinhistory, ne ofthemostimportantscientists “Electric Eel”. many newspecies and animals, including the more importantly, hediscoveredandrecorded the Quinine, whichisacureformalaria.Even witness the Cinchona tree, the bar of which contains to first arrows; he recognizedthe importance of the preparation of“CurarePlants”for poisoning was Humboldt diseases, butalsofantasticdiscoveries. Biogeography. of this,heisconsideredtobeafounder and understoodthoseconnections;because was notappreciated.Humboldtdiscovered role oftheenvironmentondiversitylife which they lived was not clearly seen; the between livingorganismsandtheplacesin scientist. critical to what made him such an important of fields These discoveriesandmeasurements were other from research, suchasmeteorologyandgeology. data with conjunction study,biological had to be considered in Livingorganisms,theobjectsof isolation. phenomenon couldbefullyunderstoodin temperatures, whichhecalledIsotherms. he createdcontourmapsoflineswithsimilar temperatures, identical connecting By fields. air pressure,andthestrengthofmagnetic the shapeofland,itstemperature, so popular, Humboldtbeganwritinghis Berlin, giving public lectures, which became The Cosmos Founding Biogeography The journeywasfullofdangersand Before Humboldt, the crucial connection Humboldt believedthatnoorganismor On his adventures, Humboldt measured After spendingalmostoneyear in

Humboldt penguin. forest, thefamousHumboldtCurrent,and haciendas, inadditiontoPeru’s national named afterhim,includingbays,rivers,falls, many geographicalfeaturesandplaceswere but hisnamestilllingerseverywhere,because natural sciences.Hisstorymightbeforgotten contributions to nearly every branch of the almost forgotten today, he made important change. Though Alexander von Humboldt is and predicted human-induced climate between climatezonesacrosstheworld force,Humboldtdiscoveredsimilarities global finishing thelastvolume. Sadly, he passed away at the age of 89 before translated intomostEuropeanlanguages. scientific and study; suchahugesuccesswaseventually science of appreciation wider and Goethe. He hoped it would inspire a naturalists andpoets,suchasDarwin into poeticnarrative,andhiswritingsinspired natural world. general publicwithanoverviewoftheentire the provide would that book scientific popular universe. Humboldtintendedthebooktobea everything knownatthattimeabouttheentire work inwhichheattemptedtoorganize entitled book five-volume famousscientists.org macroevolution.net phfawcettsweb.org encyclopedia.com britannica.com ed.ted.com References Perceiving nature as an interconnected observation scientific turned Humboldt Cosmos; amassive 7 | AUTUMNSUMMER 20162016 A BEAUTIFUL MIND By: Sara Khattab

nventions& their UNKNOWN

DISCOVER LIFE nventors

Who has not celebrated air conditioners on scorching hot summer days? Do you know who invented the air conditioner? Or, who invented the ATM machines, which save us when we have no cash money after working hours or on weekends, not to mention the hassle and time of queueing at the bank, if one is available nearby to begin with? The truth is we nearly do not know any of the inventors of most of the devices and products that are indispensable to us nowadays. So, let us introduce some of the inventions that have changed the world and their unknown inventors.

refrigerating properties of gases, which led him to discover that he could cool air by compressing and liquidizing ammonia then allowing it to evaporate. Based on the previous findings, Willis Carrier, known as the “Father of Modern Air Conditioning”, managed to create the first model of air conditioning systems eventually. Carrier was an engineer who, in 1902, was Air Conditioners Matches given a job to decrease the humidity in a Throughout history, there were various Fire gave our ancestors the power to printing shop where the high temperature attempts to create cooling systems. The survive in harsh environments and prepare and humidity were affecting the quality of inks very first attempts were by Ancient Egyptians food. As years passed by, humans started and sizes of paper. He found a solution by who created the first known cooling systems to develop advanced tools to create a self- inventing a machine that blows air over cold to cool their homes, hanging wet mats over igniting source of fire. The basis of the modern coils to control room temperature and can their doorways, so that the evaporated water match and lighter technology was founded by adjust the humidity level to a desired setting; would reduce indoor air temperatures and alchemist Hennig Brandt in the second half of add refreshing moisture to the dry air. After thus creating a framework for the modern air the 17th century, when he managed to extract that, the Romans developed a primitive air conditioner. pure phosphorous and test its flammable conditioning system, using their famous His “Rational Psychometric Formulae” properties. aqueducts to circulate fresh water through introduced in 1911 initiated the scientific air- Later, Jean Chancel tried to find a safe pipes; this method reduced temperature conditioning design, which is still used today inside homes. by the air conditioning industry. By 1915, way to produce wooden matches. His method Much later on, Benjamin Franklin, he was running his own company “Carrier caused a violent chemical reaction that | AUTUMN 2016 AUTUMN | 2016 along with John Hadley, experimented the Engineering Corporation” which supplied produced fire after dipping a wooden stick refrigerating effects of certain liquids; such cooling systems to hotels, stores, theaters, coated with a mixture of potassium chlorate, as the mercury inside a thermometer, which and eventually, private homes. Carrier passed sulfur, sugar, and rubber, into a bottle filled proved that there is a possibility of freezing away in 1950, but his Company still exists and with sulfuric acid. This process produced even on a warm summer day. In 1820, remains a major manufacturer of cooling and dangerous and toxic reactions, which did not Michael Faraday also experimented the refrigeration systems. find much commercial use.

8 Traffic Signals and Gas Mask,HairStraighteners, inventors. possible without the efforts of all these are usedyearly, whichwouldnothavebeen headed matches. Today, 500 billion matches location, whichisthedesignofknownred- putting thephosphoruscoatingonaseparate design asafe,cheap,andnon-toxicmatchby most popularmatchdesign,succeedingto Edvard Lundstrom,weretheinventorsof destroying carpetsandclothes. leading to its detaching from the stick and sulfur coatedtipofthestickburntsostrongly, formula didnotsuitwidespreaduse;the dry, then used them to ignite fire. His chemical cardboard stripsinthispasteandleftthemto potassium combust in flames when scrapped. He sulfide, dipped antimony chlorate, gum,andothermaterials,thatcould of mixture a to a means discovered easily. he Accidentally, fire obtain find to attempt an in chemicals experimented inhislaboratoryusing He thentriedthesolutiononhis hair and dog; the solution straightened the dog’s hair. decided to apply some of this solution on a he theory, his confirm to order In straighter. he noticedthatthehairsofclothwere that protectedthefabrics.Subsequently, needle, givingtheneedleahighpolish solution toreducefrictioncausedbythe machines, heexperimentedwithachemical his fellowcitizens. concerned with the safety and the welfare of technological complexitythatwerealways things inmechanical led himto develop inventionsof surprising interest His them. fix the innerworkingsofmachinesandhowto beyond elementaryschool,hetaughthimself Morgan did not receive any formal education Although signals. traffic of version improved the gasmask,hairstraightener, andan the inventionofvariousdevices;suchas businessman Garrett Morgan was behind Gustaf ErikPasch,alongwithJohan In 1826,EnglishchemistJohnWalker During hisworktoimprovesewing African–American inventor and Kevlar version of traffic signals. At the beginning At of the20 signals. traffic of version Morgan decided to work on an improved Army during World US War I. the by use for refined later breathing device. The Morgangasmaskwas explosion inanundergroundtunnelusinghis some oftheworkerstrappedduringan the gasmask.In1916,hewasabletorescue device thatwas eventually developed into gases. In1912,heinventedabreathing themselves from breathing the suffocating smoke andfumeshadnomeanstoprotect fires and who had to go into tunnels filled with market it. to Company” Refining Hair Morgan “G.A. the Hethen straightener. made theliquidintoacreamandlaunched hair human first the succeeded; thisexperiment,thus,introduced regulated trafficmoresafelyatintersections. “Stop position. athird everybody” besides“Stop”and“Go”which have to not first the was was it as innovation important an signal was it first, the traffic Morgan’s Although developed. be to began devices signal traffic temperatures, and other tough conditions. products resistanttobullets,extreme new breakthrough openeduppossibilities for intended to beusedinautomobiletires;yet,this initially was It flexible. in and butlighter weight, steel, than stronger times five Kevlar. as such fibers synthetic strong of creation the strength andstiffness; thisdiscoveryledto crystalline polymersolutionsofexceptional polyamide moleculeslineuptoformliquid temperatures, Kwolek observedhow low her analysis of long molecule chains at capable of performinginextremeconditions.During fibers of generation new a develop chemist Stephanie Kwolek was asked to the chemicalcompany“DuPont”, American After witnessingaterriblecaraccident, Morgan noticedthatpeoplewhofought Kevlar isaheat-resistantmaterialthat While experimentinginthelaboratoriesof th century, anumberofversions ATM Machines andPINNumbers parachutes, andfiber-opticcables. helmets, underwater cables, skis, boat including bulletproofvests,spacecrafts, Today, Kevlarisusedinhundredsofproducts, inventions emergingeveryday. changing constantlywithnewgadgetsand ideas havechangedourlife,whichisstill are notwell-known;however, theirinnovative all ATMs aroundtheworld. banks. Today, Goodfellow’s systemisusedin to be used bycustomersandsecure for turned to be more practical; they were simple into Automated Teller Machines(ATM), which manually. This PINturnedcashmachines Identification whom thecardwasissued,hastobeentered Personal A Number (PIN),knownonlybythecustomerto machine. the to created anumericalkeypadthatwasadded a machine readable encrypted card and he cashier. on weekendswithouttheneedforahuman financial banks after the bank’s working hours and toperform for people transactions, especiallycashwithdrawal,from a way find Industries” todevelopthesemachines James Goodfellowwasassignedby“Smiths Barron. A Scottishdevelopmentengineer developed by British inventor John Shepherd Luther GeorgeSimjian,andtheideawas previously introducedby American inventor not applied then, a cash machine was an toprovide who work during working hours. Although a method acceptable levelofserviceforcustomers find to pressure prezi.com dupont.com biography.com businessinsider.com References The names of most of these inventors Goodfellow created a system that accepted In the early1960s, banks were under 9 | AUTUMN 20162016 Who said inventors are notorious By: Hend Fathy science geeks who lock themselves up inside laboratories and research centers all

DOSSIER the time? Most scientists, discoverers, and inventors live normal lives; some even have other interests that might have caught more attention than their contributions to science. In fact, many musicians, actors, writers, painters, and other art professionals have left their eminent fingerprints in different scientific fields and applications.

George Antheil and Hedy Lamarr Paul Winchell William Moulton Marston

If you are a loyal fan of 20th century music American ventriloquist and voice actor Paul William Marston’s (1893–1947) biography or cinema, you might be familiar with either the Winchell (1922–2005) is best known for hosting reads like one of a renaissance man. He was American composer George Antheil (1900–1959) the Winchell-Mahoney Time children’s show a Harvard-educated psychologist, a lawyer, or the movie star Hedy Lamarr (1914–2000), in the 1960s; he was also the voice performer a writer, a feminist, and a popular comic book nicknamed “The Most Beautiful Woman in Films”. of very popular cartoon characters such as superhero creator. Marston was a loyal advocate George Antheil wrote over 300 musical Gargamel of the Smurfs, Winnie the Pooh, and for women’s rights and believed that women works, including symphonies, chamber works, Tigger. However, there was a different side of needed a symbol of power. As a consultant to film music, and operas. He was technically far the professional entertainer that millions of his the company that later became DC Comics, ahead of his time, employing many unusual followers did not know about. he was inspired to create a female superhero sound sources and combinations of instruments. Winchell was an amateur inventor holding character. Wonder Woman first appeared in Famous for Algiers (1938) and Samson and over thirty patents, including a flameless lighter, 1941, and since then became the most popular Delilah (1949), Hedy Lamarr charmed both a fountain pen with a retractable tip, and battery- comic-book female superhero of all time. critics and fans of the silver screen at that time. heated gloves. He also established many medical Wonder Woman is famous for her magical Surprisingly, both artists formed the technical patents for the American Red Cross, including weapon, the Lasso of Truth, which forced backbone for cellular phones, fax machines, and a disposable razor, a blood plasma defroster, anyone ensnared by it to tell the truth. Not only other wireless operations, known nowadays as a hypothermia garment, and a device for filling was the superheroine idea inspired by Marston’s spread-spectrum technology. blood containers. beliefs, but her weapon was also inspired by the A causal conversation between both artists Winchell’s most eminent contribution as an Lasso of Truth of his own: the lie detector device. at a dinner party gave birth to a brilliant idea for inventor is the first artificial heart, patented in 1963, As a student of psychology, Marston was a secret communications system aimed to help implantable in the chest cavity; he developed it with interested in the connection found between combat the Nazis in World War II. Together, they the assistance of Dr. Henry Heimlich, inventor of telling a lie and a rise in blood pressure. He developed a scheme to control torpedoes over the Heimlich Maneuver, at the University of Utah. worked on a device, which would measure long distances without the enemy detecting them. Winchell’s artificial heart was a battery-operated changes in a person’s blood pressure as they By manipulating radio frequencies at irregular motor worn outside the body and connected to a were being asked certain questions. Marston intervals between transmission and reception, non-toxic bag inside the body, which mimics the constructed the first polygraph machine in 1915, the invention formed an unbreakable code to pumping action of a real heart. and published his findings in 1917; his device

| AUTUMN | 2016 prevent messages from being intercepted. later evolved into the modern day polygraph. Although they patented their invention in 1941, neither ever received any money for References it; it also took decades until its significance These great figures only symbolize hundreds, if women-inventors.com was recognized. Using today’s ultrafast people.seas.harvard.edu not thousands, of geniuses who mastered both the theatlantic.com microprocessors, it has become an inexpensive todayifoundout.com means to communicate privately and efficiently arts and the scientists; their eminent contributions biography.com over long distances. have nourished both the mind and soul of humanity. discprofile.com discinsights.com 10 products, andservices. The keydifference can beexchangedforothercurrencies, users whoarenotminers. through it. This ishowBitcoinworksformost allows ausertosendandreceiveBitcoins that providesapersonalBitcoinwalletand a mobileapplicationorcomputer program is muchsimpler. It is simply nothing more than of “miners”thatkeepstheblockchainrunning. This isknownas“mining”,andittheactivity and earnarewardinBitcoinsforthisservice. computing powerofspecializedhardware anyone canprocesstransactionsusingthe from theirownBitcoinaddresses.Moreover, to havefullcontroloversendingBitcoins to thesendingaddresses,allowingallusers protected bydigitalsignaturescorresponding transaction. computertoverifythevalidityofeach user’s transaction everprocessed,allowingany unit ofaccount. This ledgercontains every by networknodes,whichusesBitcoinsasits transactions verifies and records blockchain accessible anddecentralizedledger, the widely acceptedasbrilliant. A publicly currency—known astheblockchain—is the World WideWeb madeinformationfree. promise to liberate money in the same way theft and withnotransactionfees,itholdsthe that isalsopracticallyimpervioustofraudor first the As miracle. independent decentralized virtual currency economic of kind a to currency hasgrownfromanerdnovelty 9 January2009,Nakamoto’s ingeniousdigital the publichistrueidentity. Satoshi Nakamoto, never once revealing to Bitcoin’s creatorwentbythepseudonym cryptocurrency—remained unknown. Choosing to stay in the shadows, digital ever first responsible forthecreationofBitcoin—the Besides being obtained by mining, Bitcoins perspective,Bitcoin From aregularuser’s The authenticity of each transaction is The technology that underlies the Bitcoin on code Bitcoin’s released first he Since For years,thegeniusmathematician over controlofthesourcecoderepository mid-2010. Around thistime,hehanded until other developers ontheBitcoinsoftware invention, hecontinuedtocollaboratewith to USD758million. Bitcoins; asof19June2016,thisisequivalent known addressescontainroughlyonemillion Bitcoin transactionlogshowsthatNakamoto’s seem tobemotivatedbyfortune. The public overwhelming desireforprivacy;nordoeshe basked inthegloryofhiscreationsuggestsan USD 7 billion. That Mr. Nakamoto has not value ofallBitcoinshasgrowntonearly phenomenon, itisgrowingfast;thetotal Namecheap, WordPress, andReddit. well as some popular online services such as joined the list of Bitcoin dealing merchants, as Showroomprive, and TigerDirect havealso retailers suchasOverstock,Newegg, lawsuits inJuly2015.Othermajoronline computer technology specialist, followed in December 2014. Dell, the multinational digital contentacrossitsonlineplatforms Bitcoin asapaymentoptionforvarietyof the networkofindividualsusingit. keeps growingeachyearandwithitgrows accepting Bitcoinasamethodofpayment shopping and services. The list of businesses international moneytransferstoonline it hasbeenadoptedforeverythingfrom means fewerrisksformerchants. and nosensitiveinformationisshared,which use theblockchaintoverifytransactions, protection fromfraudbecauseanyonecan banks charge,aswelltransparencyand from governmentcontrolandthefees transactions, ratherthanacentralauthority. uses cryptography*tocontrolitscreationand the currency. Itisanewformofmoneythat that therearenocontroloverthevalueof between Bitcoinandanyothercurrencyis After Mr. Nakamotoreleasedhis While Bitcoinremainsarelativelynew Global computinggiantMicrosoftadded Since Bitcoin’s releaseeight years ago, People see value in a currency free now. persona, his identity will remain a cipher for glory; as his creation grows way beyond his Mr. SatoshiNakamotoseeksnofameor seeking falsefame.However, thetrue all turnedouttobehackersorimposters him, some even claimed that they were, but again. his creation,theyhavenotheardfromhim electronically, andeversincehehandedover person. They communicated with him only collaborators, evermetMr. Nakamotoin but to no avail. Nobody, not even his closest has been made to try and unmask his identity, effort much Satoshi−Hunters; of cult a to rise “moving ontootherthings”. involvement intheproject,statingheis of the Bitcoin community, and stopped his domains tovariousprominentmembers Gavin Andresen, transferred several related and networkalertkeytohiscollaborator telegraph.co.uk economist.com bitcoin.org References parties. for secure communication in the presence of third *Cryptography isthepracticeandstudyoftechniques Many candidateswereassumedtobe Mr. Nakamoto’s reclusivenesshasgiven 11 | AUTUMN 2016 DOSSIER

By: Sherine Ramadan

Most extraordinary scientists and inventors have received prestigious awards, medals, and/or other forms of recognition for their work. However, there are some scientists who were somehow forgotten, underrated throughout their lives, their efforts only recognized after death, or whose contributions were wrongly attributed to others, not to mention the many female scientists who were hindered by gender discrimination. The unpleasant truth is that many of these scientists were not given due credit for their pioneering work and achievements; as a result, their legacies have been obscured. Let us then rediscover some of those unknown soldiers of science.

Hidden in History His fundamental principles pieces of all time, are now on to make hundreds of useful There are many forgotten, of geology are still routinely display at the Natural History products, including milk, cheese, but no less talented scientists, used to interpret sedimentary Museum, London. soap, and grease; he also made who have undertaken important rock layers. He published his over a hundred products from scientific work and made geological findings in 1671 in a sweet potatoes. significant breakthrough book1, in which he outlined the discoveries throughout the principles of modern physical Underrated Minds history of mankind. geology. Unfortunately, many great scientists go unnoticed and many great discoveries are left anonymous. These discoveries became so common knowledge Geo ton rge Washing that we forget their innovation.

(1864–1943) George Washington Carver Nicolaus Steno Mary Anning started his life as a slave. He worked hard to become a (1638–1686) (1799–1847) respected and world-renowned Despite lacking the fame, Danish An early British fossil agricultural chemist. Although physician and geologist Nicolaus collector, Mary Anning was he was a talented student, he N Steno was actually the first to a self-educated English could not overcome racism; ikola Tesla realize that the Earth’s crust paleontologist who left a great back then, local schools did contains a chronological history mark in the field of collecting not take in African–American (1856–1943) of geologic events, and that fossils by making several children, so he had to walk Serbian–American engineer history may be deciphered by contributions to extracting ten miles every day to attain and physicist Nikola Tesla careful study of the strata and marine Jurassic fossil beds in education. is perhaps one of the most fossils. Moreover, he had many England. She discovered the Carver made important underrated inventors in history, | AUTUMN 2016 AUTUMN | 2016 contributions in anatomy, as first complete Ichthyosaur and agricultural discoveries and although he was one of the he traced the human lymphatic Plesiosaurus fossils2, which inventions. His research on greatest and most enigmatic system, and was the first to show became major evidence of the peanuts, sweet potatoes, scientists who played a key that the heart consists of two extinction theory, while it was soybeans, and other products role in the development of relatively independent pumps. widely believed that animals helped poor southern farmers electromagnetism, wireless radio Steno’s early observations did not become extinct. Her vary their crops and improve communications, and many greatly advanced the development findings, which are some of their diets. He succeeded other scientific discoveries. of geology. the most important geological in utilizing ordinary peanuts He registered over 700 patents 12 worldwide, in addition to different versions of it. today. Despite publishing a large countless unpatented ideas In 2002, the Congress body of compelling fossil and rock that he developed over the of United States of America evidence for his theory between course of his career. recognized the little-known 1912 and 1929, it was rejected by Among his discoveries are Italian mechanical genius and most other scientists. It was only fluorescent light, laser beam, immigrant Antonio Meucci as in the 1960s that continental drift wireless communications, the inventor of the telephone finally became part of mainstream science. wireless transmission of rather than Alexander Graham Emmy Noether electrical energy, remote Bell 113 years following his control, robotics, Tesla’s death. (1882–1935) turbines and vertical take-off aircraft. Despite his numerous German mathematician patents and discoveries, his Emmy Noether was known for achievements were often her landmark contributions to underestimated during his abstract algebra and theoretical physics. She persisted in the lifetime, because he was Gregor Mendel an excellent inventor but an face of tremendous obstacles incompetent businessman. to become one of the greatest (1822–1884) Tesla passed away moneyless algebraists of this century. Gregor Mendel was a German W n and without the recognition he illiam Dickso Despite her intellectual monk who founded the science deserved. achievements, she endured of genetics; he was the first years of poor treatment by person to correctly identify the Unknown Soldiers (1860–1935) German universities, where rules of genetic inheritance, Many scientists labor in Scottish inventor William Dickson for a time she could not even which determine how traits are obscurity; one of the few ways developed the “Kinetoscope”, lecture under her own name. In passed through generations of in which they can gain lasting which was the first machine fact, her colleagues expressed living things. Many disregarded recognition is by having a for capturing and projecting frustration at the fact that she his theories and information due scientific discovery named motion images. He worked was not elected to the Academy to the fact that they just did not after them. However, the for, and in cooperation with of Sciences and was never understand it. system does not always work Thomas Edison on developing promoted to the position of a Mendel’s work was not widely smoothly; indeed, naming professor. both the phonograph and the accepted until after his passing disputes are sometimes motion picture. Posthumously Recognized away. The importance of his work wrongly attributed. While Edison seems to have Many scientist were taken was only properly appreciated in conceived the idea and initiated for granted during their lives; 1900s, sixteen years following his death, and 34 years after he first the experiments, Dickson however, due to their genuine published it. Today, Mendel has apparently performed the bulk contribution, they became famous following their death two laws named after him, both of the experimentation; that dealing with genetics. is why there is an argument for their profound impact on about how much Edison himself science that can still be felt Glossary today. contributed to the invention (1) The book is The Prodromus to a Dissertation Concerning Solids Naturally of the motion picture camera. Antonio Meucci Contained Within Solids. In fact, historians still argue (2) Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurus are over who was more important extinct marine reptiles that lived during (1808–1889) to the development of films; the time of the dinosaurs. It is well known that while Thomas Edison took all References Alexander Graham Bell the credit then, most modern nature.com invented and patented the scholars assign Dickson with iflscience.com telephone in 1876; however, Alfr ner the major credit for turning the ed Wege livescience.com Antonio Meucci had created a concept into a practical reality. teslasociety.com device similar to the telephone famousscientists.org (1880–1930) 58 years earlier. Unlike famousinventors.org Gender Discrimination Alfred Wegener suggested Graham Bell, Meucci could not While gender discrimination whatisbiotechnology.org that many millions of years nationalgeographic.com have his invention patented or in science is not as severe an put into production due to his ago Earth had consisted of a issue today as it used to be, single great continent, which lack of resources. over many centuries, numerous Meucci built and installed he called Pangaea. Very slowly female scientists were not his first voice transmission the land masses of this huge device that communicated given the credit they deserved continent had moved apart to through wires, to connect his for their truly groundbreaking form the continents we know laboratory with the bedroom discoveries; making observations, of his house, to communicate proposing hypotheses, testing with his wife who was ill with experiments, and putting in arthritis and could not move. the hard work, only to have it Years later, Meucci worked stripped away because of their on improving his device and gender. developed more than thirty DOSSIER 14 | AUTUMN 2016 wrong byhermalecolleagues. robbed ofcreditduetogender, andofbeing shameful—instances ofaresearcherbeing is perhapsoneofthemostwell-known—and DNA thatwouldchangebiologyforever. Hers scientist whousedX-raystotakeapictureof (England, 1920–1958) Rosalind Franklin a DoctorateinPhysicalChemistry from a classiccaseof“TheMatildaEffect”. surrounding theirdiscovery, andhowitwas you might not know is the controversy the discoveryofDNA structure.What Watson andCrick,whoarecreditedfor American, Italian,andSpanishstudiespublishedbetweentheyears2002–2012. in described were cases Similar them. of made evaluation the influences candidates from Radboud University proved that in the Netherlands the gender of professorship male authorsandignoredthoseoffemaleauthors.In2012,tworesearchers the years 1991–2005, and found that male scientists often cited the publications of by the Ohio State University examined over 1,000 research publications between in heressay citing many examples of historian Margaret Rossiter, who both experienced and articulated the phenomenon, 19 the in phenomenon the observed first who Gage, Joslyn its ownname The MatildaEffect, afterthe American women’s rightsactivistMatilda names remainedunknown,writtenoff byhistory. discoveries, whichinsteadhasbeenattributedtotheirmalecolleagues,while bias againstrecognizingtheirefforts. Manyhadbeendeniedfameandcreditfortheir the world of science, not for their lack of contribution, as much as it is for the systemic women scientists, whom over the centuries have been repeatedly underrepresented in After RosalindFranklingraduated with You haveprobablyheardofthenames Rosalind Franklin was a brilliant female Contemporary studies have corroborated Rossiter’s findings. One study published study One findings. Rossiter’s corroborated have studies Contemporary This phenomenonhasbeensowidespreadthroughouthistorythat it wasgranted When speaking of unknown scientists, the conversation inadvertently shifts to By: LamiaGhoneim Woman As Inventor As Woman

The Matilda Effect Matilda The . The nameoftheeffect wasdubbedlaterbyscience in a scientific study she published in 1993. College inLondon,andsoonencountered College John Randall’sin laboratoryatKing’s England in1951,asaresearchassociate structures ofcrystals.Shereturnedto and the abilitytodeterminemolecular she learnedX-raydiffraction techniques, three yearsatanInstituteinParis,where Cambridge Universityin1945,shespent Crick, bothatCambridgeUniversity, were of herownproject. lab as that of an assistant rather than head Wilkins mistookFranklin’s roleinRandall’s DNA projects, but by some accounts, DNA. research group studying the structure of Maurice Wilkins, who was leading his own Franklin andWilkinsworkedonseparate Meanwhile, James Watson and Francis th Effect centuryanddescribedit

with a Bachelor’s degreeinPhysicsfrom with aBachelor’s with astronomy;shewasableto graduate books,Burnellbeganherwork father’s England. After beinginspiredbyher astronomy atCambridgeUniversity in stillagraduate student inradio while scientist whodiscoveredpulsarsin1967 (Northern Ireland,b.1943) Jocelyn BellBurnell Franklin virtuallyhadnorecognition. or Medicine for their work, while Rosalind received the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology however, only Watson, Crick, and Wilkins was thekeytodecipheringitsstructure; colleagues work ratherthanadiscovery. male her of confirmation a as DNA structure,butherresearchwasseen same issue,providingfurtherdetailson April 1953.Franklinalsopublishedinthe series ofarticlesinthejournalNature for theDNA,whichtheypublishedina Wilkins to deduce the correct structure measurements. DNA structureitselfaswellherunitcell confirmed by her X-ray experiments of the phosphate backbone. The shapewasalso that DNA consistedoftwochainsanda findings. recent her She had by then reached the conclusion of report a as well Photo 51—without her knowledge, as Franklin’s imageoftheDNA—knownas Wilkins, whoatsomepointshowedthem of the DNA. They communicated with also tryingtodeterminethestructure Jocelyn BellBurnellisagroundbreaking Franklin’s imageofthe DNA molecule Photo 51enabledWatson, Crick,and

Much like the Matthew Effects, which observe how eminent scientists will often get more credit than a comparatively unknown researcher, even if their work is shared or similar, The Matilda Effect observes cases of women scientists who have been ignored on basis of their gender.

the University of Glasgow and went on to Esther Lederberg Chien–Shiung Wu Cambridge to earn her PhD. (USA, 1922–2006) (China, 1912–1997) At the time of her discovery, Burnell was working under Antony Hewish studying quasars. While independently working with radio telescopes, Bell noticed being given off by something in space. The signals were unlike any known signals they had ever received; though she did not know the source of the signals at the time, the discovery was huge. These signals would later be known as Esther Lederberg was a brilliant Chien–Shiung Wu overturned a pulsars, which are signals that are given off microbiologist who is known for identifying law of physics and participated in the by neutron stars. These observations were a stealthy virus that invades bacteria and development of the atomic bomb. Wu was quickly acknowledged and published with hides within its DNA, called the Lambda recruited to Columbia University in the Hewish’s name appearing before Burnell’s. Bacteriophage—in 1951, while at the 1940s as part of the Manhattan Project and Though Burnell had made both the University of Wisconsin. However, that the development of the atomic bomb. She observation and the discovery on her own, was not her only discovery; her story of conducted research on radiation detection Hewish later went on to win the 1974 Nobel gender discrimination is not one of being and uranium enrichment. Prize in Physics for his discovery of pulsars. wronged by her male colleagues, but In the mid-1950s, two theoretical The snub generated a wave of sympathy rather of being overshadowed by her physicists, Tsung–Dao Lee and Chen Ning for Bell Burnell, who was later universally husband. Yang, approached Wu to help disprove the accepted as the person who made the Esther, along with her first husband Law of Parity. The Law holds that, in quantum discovery, without receiving formal credit. Joshua Lederberg, developed a way to mechanics, two physical systems—like “The picture people had at the time of easily transfer bacterial colonies from atoms—that were mirror images would the way that science was done was that one Petri dish to another, called “Replica behave in identical ways. Wu’s experiments there was a senior man—and it was always plating”, which enabled the study of using Cobalt-60, a radioactive form of the a man—who had under him a whole load antibiotic resistance. While both husband cobalt metal, upended this law, which had of minions, junior staff, who were not and wife played equally important roles in been accepted for 30 years. expected to think, who were only expected the development of this method, Esther’s Her experiments were incredibly to do as he said,” explained Bell Burnell, contributions were largely unrecognized, significant in that she was able to show now a visiting astronomy professor at the as Joshua went on to win a Nobel that one particle was more likely to eject University of Oxford. Prize in 1958 for his work, while Esther an electron than the other and they were Despite the sympathy, and her remained unrecognized for her efforts. therefore not symmetrical. This milestone in groundbreaking work, Bell Burnell said she The Lederberg Method is still in use today. physics led to a 1957 Nobel Prize for Yang was still subject to the prevailing attitudes and Lee, but not for Wu, though it was her toward women in academia. experiment that truly disproved the law.

History is replete with examples of discrimination AUTUMN | 2016 References against women in science in the past. Despite the bbc.com biography.com enormous progress in women’s rights in recent listverse.com decades, till today women scientists still have to deal news.nationalgeographic.com with the “The Matilda Effect”, albeit in a less overt way.

15 By: Moataz Abdelmegid DOSSIER

Austrian-born American immunologist, physician, and pathologist, Karl Landsteiner was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1930 for Physiology or Medicine, for detecting the major blood groups and creating the ABO system of blood typing that revolutionized the process of blood transfusion and medical practices related to it.

Born in 1868 in Vienna, Austria, type of blood, they could die from a reaction blood type named AB. The discovery of the Landsteiner was essentially raised by a between their blood and the donor’s blood. differences and identification of the groups single mother, as his father died when This can start a chain reaction of other that were alike made it possible for blood he was only six. Karl Landsteiner was a problems, in which the red blood cells will transfusions to become a safe routine bright student who was allowed to study begin to react with the new blood cells, and procedure. This paved the way for many medicine when he was merely seventeen then the cells will actually fall apart in the other medical procedures that we take years old; he finished medical school at blood vessels, releasing hemoglobin that for granted today, such as surgery, blood the age of twenty-three. Landsteiner saw can damage the kidneys, which can lead banks, and transplants. that the future of medicine was in research; to death. Landsteiner is known as the he, thus, preferred to become a research In 1901, Landsteiner discovered that “melancholy genius” because he was so scientist rather than an ordinary medical different people’s blood had different sad and intense; yet, he was so systematic, practitioner. characteristics that made it “incompatible” thorough, and dedicated. He wrote 346 papers However, Landsteiner often could with other people’s blood that did not carry during his long career, contributing to not find research jobs and would, thus, those same traits. He followed a simple, many areas of scientific knowledge. He is make his living by doing autopsies at yet quite systematic, approach to reach his considered the father of hematology (the “deadhouses”, which we now call morgues. great discovery. He cross-tested serum— study of blood), immunology (the study of Yet, he always persevered; no matter what blood plasma; a component of blood that is the immune system), polio research, and his circumstances were, he would carve neither a blood cell nor a clotting factor— allergy research. The role of Landsteiner’s out a space to do research. Somewhat and red cells—the most common type of contributions in medicine is crucial; thanks reclusive and pessimistic by nature, he felt blood cell and the vertebrate organism’s to his discoveries, thousands of lives were at home in the laboratory and made it the principal means of delivering oxygen to the saved in hospitals during World War I, and focus of his life. body tissues. are still being saved to this day. One of the topics he researched and After cross-testing, his findings revealed Landsteiner died of a heart attack in found interesting was human blood. Doctors that blood from certain scientists caused 1943 while still performing his duties at his had tried giving people transfusions—a the blood of others to clump, suggesting laboratory at the age of 75. Besides being dose of another person’s blood—but it the existence of at least two antibody awarded the Nobel Prize, he was honored was actually just pure luck if it worked; classes, with the possibility of several with a Lasker Award—the highest medical sometimes the patient became much better, antibody classes as well. Landsteiner award in the US—in 1946, three years after | AUTUMN 2016 | and other times the patient had a fatal promptly dubbed them “anti-A” and “anti-B”; his death. reaction. Before Landsteiner discovered after further investigation, he could clearly that people had different blood group types, identify the existence of three different people routinely bled to death from ulcers, groups, which he called A, B, and C. Later References accidents, and childbirth problems. on, group C was renamed as “O” due to its scienceheroes.com No one knew that there were four unique characteristics. biography.com different types of blood—A, B, AB, and O— One year later in 1902, Landsteiner’s aai.org and that if you gave a person the wrong three fellow scientists discovered a fourth

16 University, highlightingtwentyerrorsinit. critique aboutalecturebyclerkatGeneva printing. and embarked on editingmanuscriptsfor He eventuallydiscardedhisrobesagain to another, asfarLyon andGeneva. his monk’s robes, moving from one place Venice, thentoBadu;helaterreturned Genoa. HethenmovedtoSavona, Turin, to workasateacherinboys’ schoolnear monastery and disappeared, leaving Napoli years asamonk,Brunoescapedthe rebuked him twice. Having spent eleven officially supervisors his though; increasing decentralized nature of the universe kept arguments abouttheDivineEntityand Bruno was appointed a monk in 1572. His and increasingdoubts;nevertheless, strange theories,recurrentquestions, were upsetwithhisthoughttrends, deriving lifefromasinglesoul. world that has no center nor circumference, was excitedabouttheideaofanendless Jewish philosophies by Ibn Gabirol. Bruno Averroes; healsodelvedintothestudyof and Muslim thinkers, such as Avicenna and about the universe, and readforCopernicus issues. HebelievedinDemocritus’ ideas disagreed withhisteachersoverintellectual theologian thought. to establishhisempiricalbeliefsagainst philosophy, and mythology, all serving Plato, Aristotle, anddifferent puresciences, rich witholdGreekandLatinbooksabout not onlycontaintheologybooks,butwas library oftheCouventdesDominicainsdid bookworm during his years of study and the the title gained “Giordano”. Bruno was a the DominicanMonksSchool,wherehe was elevenyearsold.Brunostudiedat and thefamilymovedtoNapoliwhenhe of Napoli;hisfatherwasamilitarywarrior imagine andanalyzetogether. Let methenintroducehimtoyou,andletus why he was sentenced to burn to death. wondering who Giordano Bruno was and Excuse medearreader;youmustbe favored burningtodisclaiminghisbeliefs… did,buthedidnot; his ideasasGalileo the execution.Hecouldhavedisclaimed burning; nodoubthethoughtdeeplybefore him inprison,awaitinghisexecutionby experienced. I remembered and imagined GiordanoBrunomusthave philosopher thattheunnotedItalianthinkerand pains was not serious, but it reminded me of the must causethemostseverepain;myinjury preparing Iwas a cupofcoffee; ithurtverymuch.Burns while fingertips my onto Historians statethatBrunowrotea The youngmonk’s supervisors As a student, Bruno always argued and Bruno was born in 1548 in the Kingdom A watersplashed fewdropletsofboiling not gowithoutattackingthechurchagainin in belief the movement of planets, which did the celestialsphere,andaboutCopernicus’ University abouttheeternityofsoul, of Annoyance”. “Bruno ofNola,aGraduatethe Academy church monks and professors; he signed it The Torchbearer, whichcruellycriticizes 1582, whenhepublishedhissatiricalnovel literature. Hisfameturneddangerousin as such fields, philosophy, different mnemonics,astronomy, and in fame gained I beg your patience. At the time, Bruno had reader, if this deserves the death penalty; he apologized.Iseeyouwondering,dear the church’s court,butwasforgivenafter the otherhand,wassubjectedtotrialat on Bruno, fined. and arrested was critique the The owneroftheprintshopthatprinted In 1583,BrunolecturedatOxford GI the forgottenphilosopher Head, PlanetariumSection,BA PlanetariumScienceCenter BRUN O RDAN By: Dr. OmarFikry geocentric model. did because he disagreed with the God thattheydidnotburnasGiordano Bruno I thanked fingers. my on traces burn light forgets ouryoungmartyrscientist. well,it Nicolaus CopernicusandGalileo fate later. Still,whereas history remembers to Galilei save himself from a similar tragic it; his fate might have instigated Galileo avoid burningtodeath,buthewouldnotdo opportunities todisclaimhisideasand “Yes”, historyanswers.Brunowasoffered could be sentenced to death for his ideas? be wondering again, dear reader, if one universe and the Divine Entity. You might he wasarrestedforhisbeliefsabout the church. until hewasforbiddenfromteachingbythe theories indifferent placesanduniversities, about God,andhisbeliefinCopernicus’ model; hepreachedhisphilosophicalideas andthegeocentric concept ofwillingness that wentagainstthechurch’s regardingthe proponents. Bruno insisted on his ideas at theSorbonneandantagonized Aristotle’s Bruno returnedtoParis,wherehelectured of Harmless Pure Wisdom”. In late 1585, a “Dr. inModern Theology and a Professor this respect.Hecalledhimselfinlecture I drankmycupofcoffee, lookingatthe The inquisitionaccusedBrunoofheresy; O : O

DOSSIER By: Jailane Salem DOSSIER

While knowledge accumulated by humanity keeps increasing day by day, and while we now know more than we have ever known before in our history, there still remain mysteries that we have yet to unravel and occurrences that we have yet to fully understand. Humans by their nature are inquisitive beings; even when we Dark Energy come from that challenged gravity? Scientists believe that that would be dark energy. encounter things we cannot fully For something that makes up part of the universe, dark energy eludes definite However, what are the properties of dark comprehend we come up with explanations. What exactly is it? How does energy? Is dark energy constant? If not, does hypotheses and theories until we it operate? These are questions that are still it fluctuate in various spots throughout space? arrive at a definitive answer. being posed; how then do we know of its What is its source? All these questions still Science has been humanity’s existence? remain unanswered and research is still being tool in deciphering events; with this It was first believed that the universe’s conducted on it. tool we have made great advances expansion was slowing down; however, The Space Roar scientists later on discovered that, to the and gained a lot of understanding Another mysterious event that took place contrary, our universe was expanding at a about our universe, our planet in space is the space roar; a sound heard that greater speed. One given explanation for was not fully comprehended. You might have Earth, as well as our own kind. the cause of the expansion was that dark heard the famous line: “In space, no one can This sort of understanding helps energy acts as a fluid force in space, causing hear you scream,” which is a tagline on the in our development, not only as this expansion. Scientists believe that it was movie poster of Alien. Indeed, sound as we individuals, but as societies as well. after the Big Bang that the universe started know it does not exist in space; since space Nevertheless, while books on every expanding and that, at one point in time, the is a vacuum, there is no physical medium for universe will run out of energy, causing the possible subject under the Sun can sound to move through and create a noise expansion to eventually slow down. audible to us. be found in libraries around the This theory was disproved when the study For us to hear sound, it has to move world, there are still many mysteries of distant supernovae demonstrated that through air or water for example; however, | AUTUMN | 2016 that science has yet to find a logical the universe was actually expanding at an radio waves do not face this restriction. explanation for; as anything else, accelerated rate. Where did this strong force Electromagnetic waves caused by radiation research will probably eventually come up with an answer to those mysteries, or so one can hope.

18 Plate Tectonics toexplain unknown. trying the phenomenonbutitsoriginisasofyet around floating theories dubbed the “space roar”. There are several researchers expected. This noise was a loudboomthatwassixtimeslouderthan instead picked up on a much louder noise; up faintradiosignalsfromancientstars,it interference withitsequipment. enough fromtheEarth’s atmospheretoavoid radiation suchasradiowaves;ithadtobefar sensors thatcouldpickupelectromagnetic stars. The device was equipped with seven about radiationfromtheuniverse’s earliest into spaceinordertohelpresearcherslearn was attachedtoagiantballoonandsentoff Emission (ARCADE)intospace;thisdevice Cosmology, Astrophysics, andDiffuse Center sentthe Absolute Radiometerfor were abletohearthe“spaceroar”. human earcanhear. This ishowscientists then be translated into vibrations, which the devices thatturnthemintosignalscan waves whentheyarepickedupbyspecialized can befoundinspace;we“hear”these form the top layer of the Earth and are called up driftingsofarapart? The continentalplates were joinedattheircommencement. weight tothehypothesisthatcontinents on theshoresofdifferent continents,giving fossils andplantfromthesamefamilies There have also been discoveries of animal together like twocorrespondingjigsawpuzzlepieces. perfectly fit would they like seems America especially, thisisverynoticeable;it continent. When we look at Africa andSouth have at one point fit together to form one large easily seehowthedifferent continentscould While ARCADE wassupposedtopick In 2006,NASA’s Goddard SpaceFlight How thendidthedifferent continentsend If we look at the map of the world, we can Why DoWe Sleep? Why there isnoall-encompassinganswer. continental driftisnotfullyunderstoodand continental drift;however, thenatureof theorized thatitisthisheatcausesthe the upperlevelsofEarth.Scientistshave the flow of heat from the center of the Earth to flowing is layer molten rockthatisconstantlyheateddueto this under lithosphere; the University—has studiedsleepforalmost retired DeanofsleepstudiesatStanford documented; however, WilliamDement—a and feelingrestedrefreshediswell importance ofsleep. mainly occurswhenwesleep,pointingtothe removal, knownastheglymphaticsystem, a cell’s naturalactivity. This methodofwaste waste chemicalsthatareproducedaspartof spinal fluid is pushed around the brain to clear published byresearchersfoundthatcerebral away flushing those deemedunimportant.In2013,astudy information, and memories sleep, wetendtoconsolidateimportant for sleeping; oneofwhich is that, when we notice thatyourbodyisunderperforming. start feeling extremely tired and you may also without sleepforonedayortwo,youmight warm bedoffers isunparalleled.Ifonegoes after a long and tiring day; the sweet relief a The connectionbetweensleeping benefits found have researchers Different Most of us cannot wait to get to bed Why DoWe Laugh? Why iflscience.com listverse.com ngm.nationalgeographic.com sciencenews.org iflscience.com space.com japantimes.co.jp cosmology.berkeley.edu References question. have awell-roundedanswertothisimportant conducted onwhywesleep,willeventually get sleepy”. As moreandresearchis definitive most the reason forwhywesleepis“because that said century a half little mysteryneverhurtanybody! phenomena thatsurroundus. Then again,a have yettogaincompleteknowledgeofall even thoughweliveinanadvancedage, and research,provesasareminderthat, there isstillmuchthatweneedtoexplore how which makesitamysteriousbehavior. brain mechanismsthatbringaboutlaughter, understood, notmuchisknownaboutthe While thesocialimplicationsoflaughterare together andhelpsthemformrelationships. as a social signal; one that helps bond people most naturalreactions.Manyviewlaughter start speaking, and is therefore one of our breathing patterns. facial musclestoourabdomen,aswell affects themusclesinourbodies,from trigger certainsensationsandthoughts.It laughter activatespartsofthebodyandcan happens unconsciously. We areawarethat interesting, becauseitissomethingthat “laughter isthebestmedicine,”which explanation. We allheardofthephrase perform onadailybasisthateludeany indeed, therearemanyactionsthatwe These unsolvedenigmasjustgotoshow It is something we learn before we even Human behaviorisnoteasilyexplainable; 19 | AUTUMN 2016 SCIENCE & CULTURE days totheyear, tomakeupthedifference, extra five add to decided Accordingly,they did flood River not occurbyend-Juneasexpected. the year, every enough; noticed that their calendar was not accurate of 360daysperyear. Later, theEgyptians month wasdividedinto30days,foratotal of the waters of the Nile River, and each seemed tocoincidewiththeriseandfall seasons, eachcomprisingfourmonthsthat which occurredaround21June. based ontheappearanceofstarSirius, cycle;thebeginningofyearwas lunar was originallybasedonthetwelve-month more than5000yearsago. Their calendar Egyptians, thus,inventedthecalendar between afeastandfamine;ancient Egyptians acalendarmeantthedifference Calendar They dividedthecalendarinto three Living anagrarianlifestyle,forancient ingenuity of our ancient ancestors in time-telling andpersonalhygiene. ofourancientancestorsintime-telling ingenuity inventions untilnow. ahead oftheirtime,butdespiteouradvancement,wecannotcomprehendtheunderlyingprinciplessome others, and their inventions exist in our everyday life today. We would be puzzled by them; not only because they were pages ofhistory, tobeattributedothernations,orbecomereinventedjustafewcenturiesago. leave usfascinatedbytheadvancementoftechnologythesepeople.Manyinventions,however, werelosttothe As ancientEgyptianinventionscanbequitealengthydocument,letusfeaturefewexamplesthatdemonstratethe many among medicine, and mathematics, astronomy, as such fields, several in innovators were Egyptians Ancient Thousands ofyearsago,ancientEgyptiantechnologywasatitspeak;numerousinventionsin Ancient Egyptwould it was the agricultural seasons that made reform asmostofthemwerefarmers,and Egyptians wereveryresistanttoacceptthat than 365;inotherwords,aleapyear. The every fouryearstobe366dayslongrather once five, of instead days, extra six adding decreed reformingtheEgyptiancalendarby creating a“Great Year”. an extramonthtoayearof384days, discrepancy, every three years, they added which causedadilemma. To correctthat did not precisely match their calendar, occurs every365and-a-quarterdays, event, therisingofstarSirius,which this discrepancy added up. Being a stellar a dayshorterthanthesolaryear;intime, Egyptian yearwasalmostone-quarterof up to365days. and thetotalnumberofdayswasbrought In 238BCE,thePtolemaicrulers Depending on a lunar year, the ancient the Babylonians. was attributedmistakenlybyHerodotusto upon by the invention of the sundial, which day. The shadowclockwas laterimproved shadow, theycoulddeterminethetimeof through thelengthanddirectionofits the Sun. This clockusesaverticalstick; using theshadowclockthat depends on merkhet. shadow clocks,sundials,waterclock,and of clocksusedbyancientEgyptianswere fall ofthestars.Someearliestforms the nightwasdeterminedbyriseand determined by the position of the Sun, and time; thedaywas into sectionstotell Ancient civilizationsthat divided the day Clocks ancient SpringFestivalShamel-Nessim. the and Nile, the of flooding annual the as is also associated with local festivals, such seasons. Moreover, the Egyptian calendar farmers, tocalculatetheagricultural Church andcontemporaryEgyptian calendar isstillusedtodatebytheEgyptian ancient predecessors,theEgyptian been usedthroughouttheages.Likeour Egyptians andwaseffectively implemented. Alexandrian calendarwasintroducedtothe up theiryear. However, in25BCE,the Ancient Egyptians first measured time measured first Egyptians Ancient first the of one was Egypt Ancient The ancientEgyptiancalendarhas By: Esraa Ali By: Many kinds of sundials were used in Antiquity; however, the earliest known sundials were of Egyptian origin. The sundial divided daytime into twelve parts conveyed on a flat base, projecting from a hole that held an upright wooden or metal bolt. They were able to determine the time as the shadow of the bolt moved across these parts. However, this method of measuring time would only function when there was sunlight. To know the time at night, ancient Egyptians used the water clock. Although there is no evidence where the first water clock was invented, the oldest known one dates to 1500 BCE, and was found in Egypt in the tomb of Amenhotep I. Water clocks were shaped like a bowl, with a small hole in its bottom to allow the Wigs and Eye Makeup water to drip. As water dripped from the hole with a constant rate, We are all familiar with the common figure of ancient Egyptians the bowl was marked with equal twelve columns, which allowed with bald heads or wearing wigs, without knowing the idea behind them to tell the time by the level of water. that. Ancient Egyptians were eager to shave their heads bald during the hot summers to keep their heads free from pests. Since baldness was not regarded as appealingly good, they invented wigs, which protected their heads from the Sun as well. Both genders wore wigs in Ancient Egypt, except priests and laborers. Wigs in Ancient Egypt were made of human hair, and they could add plant fiber or sheep wool to increase their volume. Egyptian eye makeup, or kohl, was another marking feature of Ancient Egyptians; both genders from different social classes Furthermore, ancient Egyptians were able to track time at night, wore kohl. It was made by grinding down different minerals, such provided the stars were visible, using a device known as merkhet. as galena, which produces the black color. The powder was then It was an Egyptian development used at least since 600 BCE. This mixed with water and animal fat to make a paste that would stick to instrument was used to track time by tracking the alignment of the eyelids; it was stored in containers called kohl pots. certain stars, in order to approximate the time at night. Besides having cosmetic and spiritual purposes, eye makeup Ancient civilizations had several challenges to deal with; was believed to have many medicinal purposes as well, which however, they were able to overcome them, until we reached our were outlined in papyrus scrolls. Kohl was prescribed by Ancient modern-day battery-operated gadgets. We now take our ability for Egyptian physicians against eye diseases, as galena had tracking time for granted, simply by taking a glance at our watches, disinfectant qualities. Moreover, kohl shielded their eye against the clocks, or even mobile phones. Today, if we compared how easily harsh sunlight and acted as a deterrent to flies. we can keep track of time, we will notice that we have come quite Even after death, Ancient Egyptians cared for their appearance. a long way. They believed that during their judgment, while introducing themselves to their gods, they had to have the best look in order to make the right impression. The Book of the Dead included the Breath Mints and Toothpastes following statement: “A man says this speech when he is pure, Ancient Egyptians had specialists to help in solving their dental clean, dressed in fresh clothes, shod in white sandals, painted with problems; however, they experienced problems with their dental eye-paint, anointed with the finest oil of myrrh”. hygiene. They used stones in grinding their food, which affected Cleanliness and personal appearance were important for their teeth, and like everybody, they did not like having bad breath. Ancient Egyptians. Nowadays, contemporary Egyptians have In order to fight that problem, they invented the first ever breath inherited some of their traditions, and some families, especially in mint by boiling frankincense, myrrh, and cinnamon, then mixing Upper Egypt, believe in the spiritual and medicinal powers of eye them with honey, and shaping them into pellets that they could makeup and apply kohl to their newborns. chew. Another invention attributed to ancient Egyptians to care for We are often surprised and impressed by new inventions and their teeth and keep them clean is the toothpaste and toothbrush. tend to look back at Ancient inventions with an air of superiority. Early toothpaste was formed of different ingredients, which However, if we look back in our Ancient Egyptian heritage, we can included eggshells and ashes. Ancient Egyptian mixtures of breath find mechanical marvels and incredible feats that reach beyond mints and toothpastes did not have a good taste like the ones we modern understanding. These inventions were forgotten, lost in the know today, but no doubt they helped in freshening up their breath. mists of time, though they had a great impact on many civilizations that followed, and managed to survive centuries so that they are still seen and utilized today. | AUTUMN | 2016 References ancient-egypt-online.com learning-mind.com ancient-origins.net reshafim.org.il dragonstrike.com themindunleashed.org ipfactly.com

21 a Screen By: Shahenda Ayman Reveal of Heroes Many scientists exerted extensive efforts to benefit people by Strathairn, the 2010 movie talks about the autistic icon Temple Grandin, a woman who SCIENCE & CULTURE their research and inventions; yet, not many know their stories has become one of the top scientists in the or what they have achieved. Here comes the role of the media humane livestock handling industry despite her disability. The movie received seven to shed light on their lives and show people what they endured Emmy Awards, a Golden Globe, and a Peabody Award. for the sake of their comfort. Grandin is widely celebrated as one of the first individuals on the autism spectrum his PhD from Princeton University in 1938, to to publicly share insights from her personal take a part-time position with the Government experience of autism. She is also the inventor Code and Cypher School—a British code- of the “hug box”, a device to calm those on the breaking organization. autism spectrum. In the 2010 Time 100, an During World War II, Turing was a annual list of the one-hundred most influential leading participant in wartime code- people in the world, she was named in the breaking, particularly that of German “Heroes” category. ciphers. He worked at Bletchley Park where At the age of two, Grandin was diagnosed he made five major advances in the field of with autism, her treatments included extensive cryptanalysis, including specifying the bombe, speech therapy, which helped draw out and an electromechanical device used to help reinforce Grandin’s communicative abilities; decipher German Enigma encrypted signals. she began to speak at the age of four. The Imitation Game (2014) Shortly after World War II, Alan Turing was Although her parents sought the best possible Featuring Benedict Cumberbatch, Keira awarded an Order of the British Empire for teachers, social interactions remained difficult Knightley, and Matthew Goode, The Imitation his work. in middle and high school, where other Game is not a tragedy; it is a celebration of Time magazine named Turing one of students teased Grandin regularly for her Alan Turing’s extraordinary achievements its “100 Most Important People of the th verbal tics. through decrypting German intelligence 20 century”, stating “The fact remains that Despite these difficulties, Grandin codes for the British Government during everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a achieved considerable academic success; World War II. spreadsheet or a word-processing program, she earned a degree in psychology from Born on 23 June 1912 in London, Turing is working on an incarnation of a Turing Franklin Pierce University in 1970, followed machine”. Turing was also ranked 21st on showed signs of high intelligence at a young by a Master’s degree in Animal Science the BBC nationwide poll of the “100 Greatest age; at the age of thirteen, he became from Arizona State University, and a Britons” in 2002. Turing has been recognized particularly interested in mathematics and Doctoral degree in Animal Science from the for his impact on computer science, with many science. In 1936, Turing delivered a paper University of Illinois. She then worked as a crediting him as the “founder” of the field. on computable numbers, with an application consultant to companies with large animal to the Entscheidungsproblem (German for Temple Grandin (2010) slaughterhouse operations, developing decision problem), in which he presented Directed by Mick Jackson and featuring animal welfare guidelines for the meat the notion of a universal machine later Claire Danes, Julia Ormond, and David industry, and consulting with McDonalds, called the “Universal Turing Machine”. This | AUTUMN | 2016 machine is capable of computing anything that is computable; the central concept of the modern computer was based on Turing’s paper. Over the next two years, Turing studied mathematics and cryptology at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. He then returned to Cambridge after receiving 22 a Screen Reveal of Heroes edition. Other popular books authored by Handling andTransport nowhasathird York Times bestseller, andherbookLivestock Her bookAnimalsinTranslation wasaNew ultimately grantsthemcertainkeyprotections. technically propertyinoursociety, thelaw Grandin arguesthatwhileanimalsare Autistic Brain. Practical Approach, Us Human, Labeled Autistic, Emergence Dr. Grandin are design. courses onlivestockhandlingandfacility she continues her research while teaching Sciences atColoradoStateUniversity, where books. SheiscurrentlyaProfessorof Animal addition 63refereedjournalarticles,andten technical papersonanimalhandling,in industry publications,bookchapters,and plants. She published several hundred in equipment she has designed for meat cattle intheUSA andCanadaarehandled on the design of handling facilities; half the companies onanimalwelfare. Wendy’s International, Burger King, and other to the field of animal welfare would not autism. would welfare sensitivities thatareaconsequenceofher animal of have beenpossiblewithouttheinsightsand field the to for autism.Shearguesthathercontributions opposed thenotionofacomprehensivecure She fixations. is a champion of “neurodiversity” and has specific child’s each direct to intervention, includingthetrainingofteachers taken strong positions; she advocates early ansci.agsci.colostate.edu imdb.com biography.com rottentomatoes.com References Grandin hasperformedextensivework In the Autistic community, Grandinhas In heressayAnimals Are NotThings , Improving Animal Welfare: A Improving Animal The Way ISeeIt,andThe Thinking in Pictures, Animals Make

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23 | AUTUMN 2016 Check out the “Inventions and Their Unknown Inventors” article, page 8. Illustrated by: Mohamed Khamis