Breeding for Organic Crops: Course Material Development

Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Creative Components Dissertations

Fall 2020

Breeding for organic crops: Course material development

Christy Motes

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Breeding for organic crops: Course material development

Christy Michelle Motes

A creative component submitted to the graduate faculty

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Major: Plant Breeding

Program of Study Committee: Anthony A. Mahama, Co-major Professor Thomas Lubberstedt, Co-major Professor

The student author, whose presentation of the scholarship herein was approved by the program of study committee, is solely responsible for the content of this creative component. The Graduate College will ensure this creative component is globally accessible and will not permit alterations after a degree is conferred.

Iowa State University

Ames, Iowa

2020

TABLE OF CONTENT

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... iii

ABSTRACT ...... iv

CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 Organic agriculture land use ...... 1 Organic food market share ...... 10 Organic organizations ...... 13 Government regulations ...... 14 Farming systems ...... 15 Organic cultivar development ...... 16 Organic seed production ...... 19

CHAPTER 2. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ...... 22

REFERENCES ...... 25

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Lubberstedt and Dr. Mahama for their guidance and feedback during this project. Thank you to Michelle Zander for always being helpful and supportive through my years in the program. Also, thank you to Casey Smith for guiding me through the paperwork and oral exam scheduling.

I would like to thank my family for their support, encouragement and for always pushing me to finish. Thank you to my friends and colleagues at the Noble Research Institute, LLC. for the many wonderful discussions and words of encouragement. I appreciate the tuition assistance provided by the Noble Research Institute, LLC. through the employee education reimbursement program.

ABSTRACT

Concerns over pesticide usage and the desire to build the soil creating a sustainable farming environment grew the organic farming movement. As the organic industry developed, organizations formed to provide oversight, standards, and regulations. The organic farming industry has continued to grow and does not appear to be slowing down. The consumption of organic foods is increasing as well as the number of hectares of organic production. With this expansion, the industry has recognized the need for plant breeding programs to produce plant varieties with traits to survive and thrive under low-input conditions as well compete with weeds and not succumb to the stress of insects and diseases. Several different plant breeding approaches are being used to produce new varieties better suited for organic systems. As new varieties are developed, another hurdle in seed production has been realized. Production of quality organic seed in quantities that facilitate large scale production will keep the industry moving forward and help meet the demands of consumers.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Organic agriculture utilizes cultural, biological, and mechanical methods to promote conservation and restoration of the soil and other resources. Building a harmonic environment by cycling on site resources, balancing ecology, and conserving biodiversity are important concepts to organic agriculture (National Organic Program, 2015). Breeding crops with the traits to excel under organic conditions is emerging as a scientific discipline. Organic producers require cultivars adapted to organic and sustainable farming systems as well as, organically produced seed or vegetative propagation material produced under organic regulations following the organic guidelines (Messmer et al., 2015). Organic plant breeding and seed production is vital to this growing sector of agriculture.

Organic agriculture land use

A global survey of 2018 data showed 186 of the 239 countries/territories covered in the survey, or 78%, had some form of data for organic agriculture (Figure 1) (Willer et al., 2020).

2018 World Organic Agriculture

22% Countries/Territories with Organic Agriculture data Countries/Territories without Organic 78% Agriculture data

Source: FiBL survey 2020. Table 1: Countries and territories covered by the global survey on organic agriculture 2018 (Willer et al., 2020). Figure 1. In 2018, 78% of the world countries/territories covered by the global survey on organic agriculture had some form of organic agriculture data (Willer et al., 2020).

Globally in 2018, 71.5 million hectares were dedicated to organic agriculture, representing 1.5% of the total agricultural land (Willer et al., 2020). Oceania, comprised of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Island states, accounted for half the land utilized for organic agriculture with 36.0 million hectares, 99% of this organic land being in Australia. Europe had the second largest area of organic agricultural land followed by Latin America and Asia (Figures 2 and 3) (Willer et al.,

2020).

Total Organic Agricultural Land (ha) by Region

9% Africa Asia 22% 50% Europe Latin America 11% North America Oceania 5%

Source: FiBL survey 2020. Note: Agricultural land includes in-conversion areas and excludes wild collection, aquaculture, forest, and non- agricultural grazing areas. Table 2: World: Organic agricultural land (including in-conversion areas) and regions’ shares of the global organic agricultural land 2018 (Willer et al., 2020).

Figure 2. Regional distribution of total organic agricultural land (Willer et al., 2020).

Organic Agricultural Land (ha) by Region

35,999,373

15,635,505

8,008,581 6,537,226 2,003,976 3,335,002

Africa Asia Europe Latin America North America Oceania

Of the world’s total organic agriculture land usage in 2018, 73% was permanent grassland, 20% was arable crops, and 7% was permanent crops (Figure 4) (Willer et al., 2020).

2018 Total (ha) World Land Use in Organic Agriculture

20% Arable Crops

7% Permanent Crops Permanent Grassland 73%

Source: FiBL survey 2020, based on information from the private sector, certifiers, and governments. Table 15: World: Land use in organic agriculture by region (including in-conversion areas) 2018 (Willer et al., 2020).

Figure 4. Categories of world land use in organic agriculture (Willer et al., 2020).

There are increasing demands for organic products as seen by the increasing number of certified organic farms. In the USA from 2015 to 2016, the number of certified organic farms increased by 11% to 14,217 farms with the number of hectares increasing to 2 million hectares

(National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017a; National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

The operated organic land breakdown was 1.1 million hectares of cropland and 0.9 million hectares of pasture and rangeland producing a total value of $7.6 billion dollars of certified organic agricultural products sold, including $4.2 billion dollars of crops (including nursery and greenhouse crops) (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

Data comprising of USDA reported data from the Certified Organic Survey 2016

(National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c) and the 2017 Census of Agriculture (National

Agricultural Statistics Service, 2019) of selected crops, reported 371,391 hectares of organic row/commodity/cash crops and 99,417,455 hectares of non-organic row/commodity/cash crops.

Organic oats were grown on almost six percent of the total reported oat hectares in the United

States. Barley, sorghum silage and tobacco were grown on two to three percent of the total hectares for each crop. Rice was grown on just over one percent and the remaining crops each represented less than one percent of the total hectares of each crop (Figure 5) (National

Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c, 2019).

Hectares of Organic vs Non-Organic Crops 100000000

10000000

1000000

100000

10000

1000

100 Hectares 10) (Log Hectares 10

Oats Rice

Corn

Wheat

Barley

Cotton

Peanuts

Tobacco

Sorghum

Soybeans

Corn Corn Silage

Sunflower Seed Sunflower Sorghum Silage Sorghum Organic Non-Organic

Figure 5. Hectares of selected crops grown organically and non-organically (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c, 2019).

Crop production of organic and non-organic crops in the Certified Organic Survey 2016

(National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c) and the 2017 Census of Agriculture (National

Agricultural Statistics Service, 2019) follow a similar trend as the number of hectares grown for each. The yield of organic oats was 5.7% of total oats produced. Organic barley, sorghum silage and tobacco yielded 1.7 to 2.5% of the total produced for each crop (Figure 6) (National

Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c, 2019).

Crop Production of Organic vs Non-Organic 100,000,000,000 10,000,000,000 1,000,000,000 100,000,000 10,000,000 1,000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 Units (Log 10) Units(Log 100 10

Rice (CWT) Rice

Cotton (Bales)Cotton

Oats (Bushels) Oats

Corn Corn (Bushels)

Wheat (Bushels) Wheat

Barley Barley (Bushels)

Peanuts (Pounds) Peanuts

Tobacco (Pounds) Tobacco

Corn Silage (Tons) Corn Silage

Sorghum (Bushels) Sorghum Soybeans (Bushels) Soybeans

Organic Non-Organic (Tons) Silage Sorghum Sunflower Seed (Pounds) Seed Sunflower

Source: Certified Organic Survey 2016 Summary. Table 13: Certified Organic Field Crops and Hay Harvested and Value of Sales: 2016 (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c) and 2017 Census of Agriculture. Table 1: Historical Highlights: 2017 and Earlier Census Years (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2019). Figure 6. Yield of selected organic and non-organic crops. Units reported are the standard unit of measure for each crop (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c, 2019).

In Figure 7, the number of certified organic farms per state shows the state of California as the leader with 2,713 certified organic farms including 533 certified organic vegetable farms harvesting 43,729 hectares of vegetables (Figure 8) (National Agricultural Statistics Service,

2017c). The U.S. value of sales for all certified organic vegetables grown in the open was $1.6 billion. The value of sales in California was 64% of the total U.S. sales of certified organic vegetables (Figure 9). Certified organic lettuce was grown on more hectares than any other vegetable (Figure 10) (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

U.S. Certified Organic Vegetable Farms Per State

600 533 500

400

300 291

197

191 173

200 159

126

121

101

47 45

100 44

31 31

26 26

14 14

7 7

5 5

4 4 2

Utah

Iowa

Ohio

Idaho

Texas

Maine

Alaska

Illinois

Hawaii

Florida Kansas

Oregon Indiana

Nevada

Georgia Arizona

Virginia

Vermont Montana

Missouri

Alabama

Arkansas

Colorado

Nebraska

Michigan

Maryland Kentucky

Louisiana

California

Number Organic Farms Certified Number

Tennessee

Oklahoma

New York New

Wisconsin Minnesota

Mississippi

New Jersey New

Washington Connecticut

New Mexico New

Rhode Island Rhode

Pennsylvania

South Dakota South Dakota North

West Virginia West

Massachusetts

North Carolina North

South Carolina South New Hampshire New State

Source: USDA Certified Organic Survey 2016 Summary. Table 2: Certified Organic Vegetables Grown in the Open Harvested and Value of Sales: 2016 (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

Figure 7. Number of certified organic farms in each state growing vegetables in the open (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

U.S. Certified Organic Vegetables Grown in Open-Hectares Per State

50,000 45,000 43,729 40,000 35,000 30,000 25,000 20,000

15,000 6,943

10,000 5,007

4,108

2,700

2,603

1,754

891

818

718

588

571

528

477

430

378

365 357

305

273

233

191

172

151

134 133

108 103 103

70 74

53 48 46

7 21 8 8 6 4 4 2 5,000 13

Utah

Iowa Ohio

Idaho

Texas

Maine

Alaska

Illinois

Hawaii Florida Kansas

Oregon Indiana

Nevada

Arizona Georgia

Virginia

Vermont Missouri Montana

Alabama

Arkansas

Colorado

Michigan

Maryland Kentucky

California

Tennessee Oklahoma

New York New

Minnesota Wisconsin

Mississippi

New Jersey New

Washington Connecticut

New Mexico New

Rhode Island Rhode

Pennsylvania

North North Dakota

West Virginia West

Massachusetts

North North Carolina

South Carolina South New Hampshire New Number Organic Hectares Certified Number State

Source: USDA Certified Organic Survey 2016 Summary. Table 2: Certified Organic Vegetables Grown in the Open Harvested and Value of Sales: 2016 (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

Figure 8. Number of certified organic hectares of open grown vegetables in each state (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

U.S. Certified Organic Vegetables Grown in Open- Value of Sales Per State

1,200,000 1,052,386 1,000,000 800,000 600,000

400,000

104,370

98,845 $, Thousands $,

200,000 80,126

46,430

40,231

31,666

24,467

17,047

13,990

13,051

11,786 11,613

10,071

7,867

7,249

6,199 6,153

6,055

5,675 5,601

5,417

4,514

4,206

3,799

3,600 3,462

2,936

2,272 2,078

669 423 73 67 61 41

1,584 1,510 1,448 260 227

1,306 1,116

Utah

Iowa Ohio

Idaho

Texas

Maine

Illinois

Florida Hawaii Kansas

Indiana

Oregon

Arizona Georgia

Virginia

Vermont Montana Missouri

Alabama

Arkansas

Colorado

Michigan

Maryland Kentucky

California

Oklahoma

New York New

Wisconsin Minnesota

Mississippi

New Jersey New

Washington Connecticut

New Mexico New

Rhode Rhode Island

Pennsylvania

South Dakota South North Dakota

West Virginia West

Massachusetts

North North Carolina Carolina South State Hampshire New Source: USDA Certified Organic Survey 2016 Summary. Table 2: Certified Organic Vegetables Grown in the Open Harvested and Value of Sales: 2016 (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

Figure 9. Value of sales of certified organic vegetables grown in the open for each state (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

U.S. Certified Organic Vegetables Grown in the Open- Hectares Per Vegetable

16,000 15,233 14,000 12,000

10,000 9,135 7,101

8,000 6,978

5,032

4,822

4,023 3,904

6,000 3,726

3,150 2,789

4,000 2,078

1,213

1,109

1,042

Hectares

741

706

675

584

514

296 70 2,000 62

Garlic

Celery

Squash

Carrots

Lettuce

Spinach

Potatoes

Broccoli

Tomatoes

Artichokes

All All Onions

Green Peas Green

Sweet CornSweet Beans Snap

Cauliflower

All All Cabbage

Bell Bell Peppers

Watermelons

Sweet Potatoes Sweet

Fresh Cut FreshHerbs

Other Vegetables Honeydew Melons Honeydew

Vegetable Crop Cantaloupes/Muskmelons

Source: USDA Certified Organic Survey 2016 Summary. Table 2: Certified Organic Vegetables Grown in the Open Harvested and Value of Sales: 2016 (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

Figure 10. Number of hectares of certified organic vegetables grown in the open. ‘Other Vegetables’ included any vegetable grown in the open not individually listed or that did not meet the publication standard (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

In Figure 11, the Certified Organic Survey 2016 (National Agricultural Statistics Service,

2017c) grouped any vegetable grown in the open not individually listed or that did not meet the publication standard as ‘Other Vegetables’. This group of other vegetables generated the most value, selling over $278 million in 2016. Lettuce was a close second selling $277 million

(National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c). In Figure 12, many organic vegetables produced more value per hectare than non-organic vegetables (National Agricultural Statistics

Service, 2017b; c).

U.S. Certified Organic Vegetables Grown in the Open-Value of Sales

Per Vegetable 278,527 300,000 277,345 250,000

200,000 174,973 150,579

150,000

118,162

100,993 88,349

100,000 70,651

48,280

37,655

33,815

32,383

28,655

27,660

27,215 26,992

50,000 20,962

19,560

15,731

14,509

6,562 1,754

$, Thousands $,

Garlic

Celery

Squash

Carrots

Lettuce

Spinach

Potatoes

Broccoli

Tomatoes

Artichokes

All All Onions

Green Peas Green

Snap Beans Snap CornSweet

Cauliflower

All All Cabbage

Bell Bell Peppers

Watermelons

Sweet Potatoes Sweet

Fresh Cut FreshHerbs Other Vegetables

Vegetable Crop Cantaloupes/Muskmelons

Source: USDA Certified Organic Survey 2016 Summary. Table 2: Certified Organic Vegetables Grown in the Open Harvested and Value of Sales: 2016 (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

Figure 11. Value of sales of certified organic vegetables grown in the open. ‘Other Vegetables’ included any vegetable grown in the open not individually listed or that did not meet the publication standard (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c).

Vegetable Crop Production Dollars/Hectare Harvested- Organic vs Non-Organic $45,000 $40,000 $35,000 $30,000 $25,000 $20,000 $15,000

$10,000 Dollars/Hectare $5,000

Garlic

Celery

Onions Squash

Carrots

Lettuce

Spinach

Broccoli

Cabbage

Tomatoes

Green Pea Green

Artichokes

Snap Beans Snap CornSweet

Cauliflower

Cantaloupes

Bell Bell Peppers Watermelons Vegetable Crop Organic Non-Organic

Source: USDA Certified Organic Survey 2016 Summary. Table 2: Certified Organic Vegetables Grown in the Open Harvested and Value of Sales: 2016 (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017c). Vegetables 2016 Summary. Principal Vegetable Area Planted and Harvested, Total Production, Utilized Production, and Value of Utilized Production by Crop – United States: 2016 (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017b). Figure 12. Dollars per hectare of organic and non-organic harvested vegetable production (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017b; c). Selected crop production of organic and non- organic vegetable crops. Total hectares harvested and the production value for the crop in 2016 was used to calculate the dollars per hectare production value.

Organic food market share

The 2018 organic market sales reached $110.4 billion (96.7 billion euros1), with the USA being the largest single market at $46.3 billion (40.6 billion euros) (Willer et al., 2020). Total

U.S. organic food sales in 2019 increased 4.6% to $50.1 billion outpacing the general market food growth rate (~2%) for total food sales (McNeil, 2020). During the ten-year span from 2010-

2019, total food sales have increased 79% and organic sales have increased 46%. The total food sales yearly increase includes the steady increase of organic food sales as they capture more of the food market, increasing from 3.4% to 5.8% (Figure 13) (McNeil, 2020). From 2015-2016, certified organic sales of potatoes increased 127%, tomatoes 102% and strawberries 60%

1 *Nov. 18, 2018, 1 EUR=1.14129 USD

(National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017a). In 2019, of all organic food sales, almost one- third was organic produce and 15% of the fruit and vegetable market in the USA was organic fruits and vegetables, including fresh, frozen, canned and dried (McNeil, 2020).

U.S. Organic Food vs. Total Food Sales, Growth and Penetration, 2010-2019 $1,000,000 7.0% $900,000 6.0% $800,000 $700,000 5.0% $600,000 4.0% $500,000

$400,000 3.0% $ Million $ $300,000 2.0% $200,000 1.0% $100,000 $0 0.0% 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Year Organic Food Total Food Organic (as % Total)

Source: Organic Trade Association's-2020 Organic Industry Survey conducted 2/7/2020-3/27/2020 (McNeil, 2020)

Figure 13. U.S. consumer sales (in millions of dollars) of organic food versus total food sales, growth and penetration for 2010-2019 (McNeil, 2020).

In 2016, tracked U.S. organic exports reached $548 million. The top exported products

(Figure 14) were apples, lettuce and grapes shipping to 79 countries, with Mexico and Canada importing 70% of these exports (Maguire, 2020). The same year, U.S. organic imports were

$1.65 billion. The top import items (Figure 15) are crops not largely produced in the U.S., including bananas, coffee and olive oil. Eighty-seven countries supplied import products to the

U.S., with 43% coming from Turkey, Mexico, Italy, Peru and Ecuador (Maguire, 2020).

2016 U.S. Organic Exports of Selected Products ($ thousand)

Apples $82,755 Lettuce $70,419 Grapes $65,795 Strawberries $42,374 Spinach $38,630 Carrots $30,721 Tomato Sauce $22,379 Coffee $21,953 Cauliflower $21,514 Pears/Quince $18,385 Berries $16,908 Blueberries $14,380 Oranges $13,839 Lemons $13,812 Celery $12,621 Onion Sets $11,127 Broccoli $10,285 Peaches/Nectarines $9,144 Tomato $6,454 Grapefruit $4,852 Cherries $4,186 Watermelon $3,319 Peas $2,915 Potatoes $2,297 Peppers $2,254 Cabbage $1,427 Beets $1,086 Asparagus $916 Limes $739 Cucumbers $152

Source: USDA Economic Research Service, table on organic trade. Exports and imports data (Maguire, 2020)

Figure 14. U.S. organic exports of selected products, 2016 (Maguire, 2020).

2016 U.S. Organic Imports of Selected Products ($ thousand)

Coffee $318,159 Soybeans (Except Seed) $250,497

Bananas $209,884 Olive Oil $191,837

Yellow Dent Corn $160,370 Honey $73,628

Avocado $72,667 Wine $70,720

Apples $63,676 Bell Peppers $49,435

Almonds $39,962 Green Tea $26,081

Blueberries $25,400 Rice $22,143

Mangoes $17,148 Black Tea $13,548

Pears $13,148 Durum Wheat $12,677

Ginger $10,742 Flaxseed $9,013

Garlic $4,985 Source: USDA Economic Research Service, table on organic trade. Exports and imports data (Maguire, 2020) Figure 15. U.S. organic imports of selected products, 2016 (Maguire, 2020).

Organic organizations

The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM-Organics

International) was founded in 1972 as a member-based organization working to improve true sustainability in agriculture, value chains and consumption (“IFOAM-Organics International,”

2020). IFOAM has also helped to develop standards and certifications for around the world.

These organic standards and certifications have gained the trust of consumers, leading to a rapid growth in the certified organic land area and in the amount of certified organic food purchased by consumers (Arbenz et al., 2016).

One of the world’s leading institutes in organic agriculture, The Research Institute of

Organic Agriculture (FiBL) founded in 1973, conducts practical research, offers advice, provides training courses and specialty information (Schmidtke, 2020). Soil management, plant production, animal husbandry and holistic health, socioeconomic matters, food processing, and organic market analysis are all studied by the expert staff. There are over 285 employees in five locations financed by private sector projects, EU research projects and the Swiss federal government (Schmidtke, 2020). FiBL collaborates with IFOAM-Organics International and other partners to collect data on worldwide organic agriculture (Willer, 2020).

The Organic Crop Improvement Association (OCIA) International, is a nonprofit, member-owned, and one of the world’s oldest, largest, and most trusted leaders in the industry of organic certification. OCIA has market access with accreditation for markets in the USA,

Canada, EU, Mexico, Japan, and Peru (“Organic Crop Improvement Association, Intl.,” 2020).

The Organic Seed Alliance (OSA) is a nonprofit, leading organic seed institution in the

USA. They work to advance ethical seed solutions, educate farmers and agricultural community members, conduct organic plant breeding and seed production research, and work on national policies to strengthen organic seed systems (Loriz, 2020). OSA works to address intellectual

14 property practices and consolidation of the seed industry that limits diversity and plant breeding

(Loriz, 2020). The Organic Seed Alliance sponsors the Society of Organic Seed Professionals

(SOSP) which is the parent organization of the Student Organic Seed Symposium (SOSS)

(Student Organic Seed Symposium, 2020). The SOSS is an annual event bringing together graduate students, researchers, farmers, and industry professionals.

Government regulations

In the United States, the Agricultural Marketing Services of the U.S. Department of

Agriculture administers the organic certification for farms and facilities. The National Organic

Program (NOP) utilizes input from the public as well as the National Organic Standards Board to develop rules and regulations for all USDA organic products, including production, handling, labeling, and enforcement (Agricultural Marketing Service, 2020a). All USDA organic regulations can be found in Title 7 Part 205 of the Code of Federal Regulations (Coleman, 2012).

These regulations outline the on-farm practices to promote cycling of resources, ecological balance, and conservation of biodiversity (National Organic Program, 2015).

The United States has launched the Organic Fraud Prevention Solutions program, a voluntary program for businesses to help minimize or eliminate organic fraud within and outside of the USA. This quality assurance program provides businesses with processes for developing and implementing organic fraud mitigation measures. The program is part of the Organic Trade

Association and is based on their Organic Fraud Prevention Guide (Willer et al., 2020).

In the summer of 2020, the USDA proposed amending the USDA organic regulations to strengthen oversight of organic agriculture. These regulations cover the production, handling, and sale of organic agricultural products with the intent to protect and build trust in the supply chain, control systems, and improve traceability from farm to market. Certification and personnel qualifications of certifying agents, recordkeeping requirements, and unannounced on-site

15 inspections are included in the proposed rules amending the regulations. At the time of this writing, these proposed rule changes were open for comments (Agricultural Marketing Service,

2020b).

Farming systems

Conventional farming systems allow for high levels of inputs of highly soluble mineral fertilizers and the application of herbicides and pesticides to control weed competition and pest damage. The intensive management of crops in this system allows the farmers to control and address changes in the crop environment more rapidly.

Organic farming systems are self-sustaining systems working to cycle resources by promoting ecological balance and conserving biological diversity at the farm level (Coleman,

2012). By embracing long-term preventative strategies, organic farming works to build soil health and enhance biodiversity as a means to control fertility, pest, disease, and other production needs (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016, van Bruggen and Finckh, 2016). On-farm generated animal fertilizers, cultivated legumes, and green manure provide nutrients for crops. Rotating crops, mechanical cultivation, and quick establishing crop varieties help with weed control. A leguminous green manure crop rotation can improve soil fertility while reducing the weed seed bank in the soil (Melander et al., 2020). For pest control, natural predators, parasitoids, and symbionts can be used. Diseases are managed by growing resistant varieties (Messmer et al.,

2015). Utilizing crop rotation for annual crops helps to break insect life cycles, suppresses soilborne diseases, prevents soil erosion, helps build soil organic matter, adds biodiversity, and can build the soil by improving fertility, if a nitrogen fixing legume crop is used (Coleman, 2012, van Bruggen and Finckh, 2016).

Currently, it takes, on average, at least three years for a producer or breeding company to become certified as organic. To obtain and follow organic certification, only approved pesticides

16 may be used along with cultural, biological, and mechanical practices that conserve biodiversity, promote ecological balance, promote cycling of on-farm resources, and support sustainability

(National Organic Program, 2015). Organic producers cannot use any genetically modified organisms and must be diligent to prevent contamination including that from pollen (National

Organic Program, 2013). The cost of becoming organic certified can vary, however certification costs up to 75% can be reimbursed to eligible operations through the USDA Organic

Certification Cost-Share Programs (Agricultural Marketing Service, 2020c). Overall costs associated with organic production are higher, but consumer demand is strong, and producers are working to meet these demands (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,

2020).

Organic cultivar development

Conventional breeding programs have been the source of cultivars that were developed under low-input systems, organic systems, or when a cultivar proved it was suitable for organic farming practices (Lammerts Van Bueren and Myers, 2011). These constraints during breeding have resulted in few cultivars fully suitable to the conditions of organic farming. While conventional breeding programs may focus on high yield when all inputs are provided to the crop, those grown under organic conditions need to compensate for less favorable conditions and adapt to their environment.

While organic crops have some of the same trait needs as conventionally bred crops, there are other traits needed for organic crops to be successful as part of the organic farming system. Yield, biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, and quality demanded by consumers are examples of traits desired by both breeding sectors. Organic breeding management and selection practices focusing on system stability with adaption to low nutrient levels, interactions with beneficial soil microbes, resistance to soil and seed-borne diseases, insect resistance, early vigor,

17 weed suppression and tolerance, and lodging resistance exhibit greater variability resulting in lower genetic gains and thus slower breeding cycles (Lammerts Van Bueren and Myers, 2011;

Messmer et al., 2015, Boyhan and Stone, 2016). As shown in Figure 16, yield is a trait desired in all crops, weed competitiveness and disease tolerance are highly desirable traits across many crops, while some traits are uniquely desired for specific crops. Recent studies have shown that conventional varieties selected from fields provided high levels of inputs do not have the required traits needed to thrive in organic low-input systems (Lammerts Van Bueren et al.,

2011).

Figure 16. Subset of crops in organic breeding programs and traits of interest.

Product-oriented-breeding programs breed for organic production. Typically, the crossing and early selection is performed under conventional systems, with the later generations tested under conventional and organic systems. Maintenance and production of precursor and basic seed is under conventional systems, while the certified organic seed is produced exclusively under organic systems (Messmer et al., 2015, Nuijten et al., 2016).

In a process-oriented organic breeding program, all steps are completed under organic conditions. All crossing, selection, propagation and conservation follow the concept of organic agriculture and because these steps are followed, any variety developed is designated an organic variety (Messmer et al., 2015, Nuijten et al., 2016).

In an effort to spread the workload, participatory plant breeding programs can help meet the varietal needs when choices are limited. These programs involve breeders, farmers, consumers, extension specialists, vendors, industry, and rural co-operatives working together as stakeholders in marginal environments to carry out the breeding and selection process (Lammerts

Van Bueren and Myers, 2011; Lammerts Van Bueren et al., 2011). Participatory plant breeding can focus on traits outside commercial and conventional breeding programs such as nutrient use efficiency, plant-microbe symbioses, and plant-plant interactions in mixed crop systems, while examining the genotype by management interaction in low input, organic systems (Messmer,

2012). Using a combination of natural and farmer selection, varieties have been developed that are optimized for organic systems (Lammerts Van Bueren et al., 2011, Nuijten et al., 2016).

Organic plant breeding programs have been developed for wheat, maize, rice, soybean, beans, potato, tomato, brassicas, sweet corn, quinoa, peppers, squash, and onions (Loomis, 2020;

Salazar, 2020; Lammerts Van Bueren and Myers, 2011; Filmer, 2020). Some of these programs are part of the Student Collaborative Organic Plant Breeding Education Project (SCOPE), supported by the Organic Research and Extension Initiative (OREI) of the USDA, aimed to develop new cultivars on certified organic land as hands-on training for plant breeding students.

OREI was the leading funding source (1996-2018) for public plant breeding and organic seed initiatives (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016). While the top three funding sources have been federal programs, the fourth largest contributor, as of 2018, was the Clif Bar Foundation (Figure 17).

Their contributions have funded the first of 14 organic plant breeding Ph.D. fellowships at land grant universities (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016).

Funding for Public Organic Plant Breeding and Other Organic Seed Initiatives by Source (1996-2018)

5% 5% OREI 6% SARE 8% Other Federal Funds (includes RMA, RBEG, SCBG, Hatch, others) 76% Clif Bar Family Foundation

Other Non-Federal Funds (Includes FAFO, CERES Trust, OFRF, others)

Source: Figure 1. Funding for public organic plant breeding and other organic seed initiatives by source (1996-2018) (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016).

Figure 17. Funding for public organic plant breeding and other organic seed initiatives by source (1996-2018) (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016).

Organic seed production

Sales of organic products have continued to increase yearly, with total organic sales in

2019 of over $55 billion (McNeil, 2020). The supply of organic seed isn’t keeping up with this demand, so organic farmers are able to utilize the USDA National Organic Program which allows organic growers to use conventionally grown seeds, as long as the seeds are not genetically modified or treated with fungicides or other prohibited substances, when an equivalent organic variety is not commercially available (National Organic Program, 2015).

Some seed companies feel there are growers abusing the system to avoid higher seed cost. To improve on this concern, organic certifiers need additional training about seed availability and supply processes to better enforce the rules (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016).

A special skill set is required to produce high-quality organic seed (Hubbard and Zystro,

2016). To grow a crop to seed production, new challenges arise. The growth habit of the crop leading up to reproductive stage, disease and pest management, and equipment needs are examples of challenges experienced. Seed companies are working to mentor growers by hosting workshops and trainings. They are also building long-term partnerships to grow seed production areas and investing in infrastructure for larger organic seed production areas to keep up with the growing demands (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016).

Production costs for organic seed can be higher than those of conventional seed.

Managing weeds for the extended season needed for seed to mature in a seed production field can become expensive. Reduction in yield as a result of disease or pest damage can and does occur. Specialized equipment and storage facilities may be needed post-harvest. At risk crops require isolation and testing for GMO contamination. Certified organic handling of seed during cleaning is required for organic certification. These costly challenges can deter conventional seed companies from producing organic seed (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016).

As shown in Figure 18, the majority of funding has gone to breeding and variety trials, which are important, however only four percent of funding has gone to seed production research and education. If new organic varieties are identified, it is important to have the means to handle the seed and provide it to the growers.

Funding for Public Organic Plant Breeding and Other Organic Seed Initiatives by Topic (1996-2018)

4% 1% 5% 2% Breeding/Variety Trials

Multi-Topic

Seed Production Research and Education

Policy and Systems Develeopment 88% Enterprise Development

Source: Figure 3. Funding for public organic plant breeding and other organic seed initiatives by topic (1996-2018) (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016).

Figure 18. Funding for public organic plant breeding and other organic seed initiatives by topic (1996-2018) (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016).

A group of plant breeders, farmers, seed companies, nonprofit organizations, and policy makers have come together to form the Open Source Seed Initiative (OSSI) to promote and maintain worldwide open access to plant genetic resources (Luby et al., 2015). Growing concerns over the current conventional seed supply driven by large chemical and biotechnology companies that leverage intellectual property rights, discourage seed saving and discourage farmers from participating in research (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016), led to the formation of the

OSSI. Appealing to the ethical and social norms linking plant breeders, seed companies, farmers, gardeners, and consumers, the OSSI operates under a pledge to not restrict the use of the open source seed by any license, patent or other entity limiting use and exchange (Luby et al., 2015).

Currently, in 2020, the OSSI has 451 varieties available through seed company partners that have been bred for organic systems using organic practices (certified and uncertified) (Open Source

Seed Initiative, 2020).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

As the humus farming movement moved across Great Britain and Europe in the 1920s-

1950s, the roots of American organic farming were built. The increasing use of synthetic fertilizer and pesticides drove this movement to feed the soil and build soil fertility by utilizing fully decomposed organic matter to build the soil to produce the highest quality food and a sustainable agriculture system while avoiding commercial synthetic fertilizers and pesticides

(Coleman, 2012). In the United States, during the 1960s-1970s organic farming began to grow in importance as people became concerned about pesticide usage. Customers felt not using pesticides was a critical part of organic agriculture and the industry began to establish standards and certification criteria. As the organic industry continued to develop and different certification standards were developed creating disparities and barriers to trade, the need for a single set of

U.S. standards was identified. Congress passed the Organic Foods Production Act (OFPA) in

1990, which created the National Organic Program (NOP) within the U.S. Department of

Agriculture. The National Organic Standards Board (NOSB) was also created as an advisory board to the NOP (Coleman, 2012).

Current amendments that are proposed to the USDA organic regulations designed to strengthen oversight of organic agriculture await decision. If the amendments pass, the supply chain and control systems should be improved. Additional training of certifying agents, increased recordkeeping, and unannounced site inspections should add protection and trust of consumers

(Agricultural Marketing Service, 2020b).

Participatory breeding programs have had success developing new varieties through their combined efforts. An open pollinated broccoli, ‘Solstice’, was released in 2012 by Jonathan

Spero of Lupine Knoll farm in Oregon and Jim Myers of Oregon State University. In 2014,

23 breeders from the University of Wisconsin-Madison teamed up with Martin Diffley of Organic

Farming Works farm in Minnesota and the Organic Seed Alliance as part of the Northern

Organic Vegetable Improvement Collaborative to develop and release the open-pollinated, organically bred sweet corn ‘Who Gets Kissed?’, selected for early plant vigor, disease resistance, good flavor, high yield, and large ears (Hubbard, 2015; Hubbard and Zystro, 2016). A partnership between the Northern Plains Sustainable Agriculture Society’s Farm Breeding Club and a private breeder resulted in the release of ‘FBC Dylan’ wheat (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016).

These examples of successful participatory breeding programs demonstrate that this can be a viable method to achieve organic plant breeding objectives.

Organic agriculture continues to experience growth, not only in the number of farmers but also number of certified acres. Support from companies like Anheuser-Busch to help farmers transition more farmland to organic production can help build demand for more improved organic cultivars. The organic sector has piqued the interest of several breeding companies anticipating the future demand from existing conventional markets for traits currently requested by those in the organic and low-input sector (Lammerts Van Bueren et al., 2011).

Food companies are getting involved with organic seed and plant breeding. The

Organically Grown Company (OGC), a large produce distributor, reached out to the Organic

Seed Alliance to organically breed varieties of purple sprouting broccoli. This project has grown to include researchers at Oregon State University, Washington State University as well as additional funding from two state specialty crop grant programs with the end result expected to be several organically bred varieties available (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016). Another collaboration among the Port Townsend Food Co-op, who is partially funding the breeding project to adapt ‘Who Gets Kissed?’ to the Pacific Northwest climate, the University of

Wisconsin-Madison breeders who previously developed the variety ‘Who Gets Kissed?’, and the

Northern Organic Vegetable Improvement Collaborative, to create an early maturing open- pollinated organic sweet corn that thrives in a maritime climate, is on track to release the varieties from their efforts in the coming years (Hubbard and Zystro, 2016).

As plant breeders, we need to educate future breeders regarding the limited number of cultivars suited for organic farming, how conventionally selected cultivars lack the traits to thrive under low-input, organic systems, and the challenges of organic seed production. By preparing educational materials to offer a full course on organic plant breeding, we can help build paths to breeding programs targeting organic farming/production by raising awareness to a need outside of the big companies focused on conventional breeding. We can also help connect students with organizations focused on organic breeding and sustainable farming practices.

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