Opal Creek U.S

U.S. Forest Service Opal Creek U.S. Department of Agriculture

OVERVIEW The Opal Creek Wilderness embodies the low-elevation old-growth forests that dominated the western cascades prior to European settlement. Within this wilderness, many trees are up to 450 years old; however, there are some individual trees that are up to 1,000 years old grow up to 10 feet in diameter. Wildlife species that are representative of the Pacific Northwest, such as the endangered northern spotted owl, depend on this wilderness and its old-growth forests. Further, the forested cathedrals of old-growth and myriad historical features provide recreational opportunities for visitors to commune with wild nature and human history.

Opal Creek Wilderness Character Narrative September 2018

OVERVIEW A wilderness character narrative is a positive and affirming description of (continued) what is unique and special about this wilderness.

The wilderness’ human story – one that complicates simplistic wilderness narratives that equate all historical human activity with despoliation – conveys how the intricate relationship be- tween human and natural history can profoundly contribute to a wilderness’ character. The Opal Creek Wilderness – with its mines scattered across the landscape – not only preserves the remnants of the regions’ mining history, it tells a larger story about American conservation at the end of the twentieth century, one in which the “timber wars” pitted neighbor against neighbor not only in and around the Santiam River canyon, but also in the halls of Congress in Washington, D.C. It is the epitome of a storied wilderness. The Opal Creek Wilderness is adjacent to the Bull of the Woods Wilderness on its northeastern border and the Opal Creek Scenic Recreation Area (SRA) on its western border. The headwaters of Battle Axe Creek and Opal Creek – the confluence of which becomes the Little North Santiam River – are both located in the eastern portion of the wilderness, while Whetstone and Henline Mountains dominate the western portion. The wilderness’ 20,774 acres were designated with the passage of the Omnibus Parks and Public Lands Management Act of 1996. Although the establish- ing legislation required that the Forest Service develop a wilderness plan by 2000, the agency has not yet developed a plan. Without such a plan, land managers lack wilderness-specific guidance for decision making, which may lead to the degradation of wilderness character over time. The following narrative is a qualitative description of the five the qualities of wilderness character in the Opal Creek Wilderness: 1) natural, 2) untrammeled, 3) undeveloped, 4) solitude or primitive and unconfined recreation, and 5) educational and historical features.

Opal Creek Wilderness Character Narrative September 2018

NATURAL Wilderness maintains ecological systems that are substantially free from the effects of modern civilization

Wildlife does not recognize the administrative “The 22,000 acres that constitute the boundaries that we, as humans, draw on our maps. Howev- Opal Creek Forest are, plain and sim- er, as wildlife cross into the Opal Creek Wilderness, they ple, among the crown jewels of North- likely see, hear, or instinctually feel a difference. For in- west old growth forest. Opal Creek is a stance, a northern spotted owl entering the wilderness’ southern boundary will encounter old-growth trees, abun- unique ecosystem serving as critical dant logs, standing snags, trees with broken tops, and habitat for hundreds of plants and ani- open space under the lowest branches: all characteristics of mals including several threatened and diverse forest stands with multi-layered canopies on which endangered species. Opal Creek also this species depends. They enter a landscape “protected provides unique and outstanding op- and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions” in portunities for educational study, sci- which its ecological systems are substantially free from the entific research and recreational activi- effects of modern civilization. ties. The enactment of this bill will Within the boundaries of this wilderness is one of contribute significantly to the quality the largest intact blocks of low-elevation old-growth forest of life for Oregonians and our many in the Cascade Range. This forest, characteristic of the State visitors.” western cascades, contains Douglas-fir, hemlocks, and - Representative Michael Kopetski western red and Alaska yellow cedar. Although small relative to other wilderness areas in the National Wilderness Preservation System, the wilderness is adjacent to the 36,731-acre Bull of the Woods Wilderness on its northeastern border and the 13,538 acre Opal Creek Scenic Recreation Area (SRA) on its western border. When combined, these 71,000 acres of undeveloped land provide refugia for wildlife species, such as the northern spotted owl, Townsends big eared bat, red tree vole, Oregon slender sala- mander, and the tailed frog and for sensitive plant species, such as Gorman’s aster. The wilderness’ rich aquatic resources are integral to its character. Despite the area’s mining history, the water quality in the wilderness is pristine, as there has not been any detection of pollu- tion in water quality monitoring. Native steelhead trout and salmon runs are found in the wilderness’ streams. Additionally, the aquatic resources in the wilderness, coupled with the relative humid- ity of the area, make the area highly productive for plants and fungi.

Opal Creek Wilderness Character Narrative September 2018 NATURAL (continued)

Although the wilderness is relatively natural, there are several factors that threaten this quality of wilderness character. Historically, Opal Lake was stocked by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) with rainbow and brook trout to provide angling opportunities. However, this practice ended in 1956, well before wilderness designation. Despite this change, non-native brook trout maintain a viable population in the lake. Thus, the ecological trajectory of Opal Lake was significantly altered by the ODFW’s historical introduction and subsequent stocking of fish. Visitors to the wilderness also impact its naturalness. In general, the wilderness has very concentrated visitor use along Henline Falls Trail and the Henline Mountain Trail, which could lead to stress and displacement of wildlife in those areas. Additionally, a small minority of visitors do not practice proper Leave No Trace skills. Unfortunate- ly, this small minority litters or improperly disposes of feces, leading to local-level impacts. These issues may become exacerbated if the wilderness sees increased visitor use in the future. Invasive weeds, because they outcompete certain native plant species, may become a future problem for the wilderness. Invasives, such as false brome, Scotch broom, and cutleaf blackberry, have been found in the SRA and, due to the area’s close proximity to the wilderness, it is likely that these weeds will enter the wilderness in the near future.

Opal Creek Wilderness Character Narrative September 2018

UNTRAMMELED Wilderness is essentially unhindered and free from modern human actions that control or manipulate the community of life

The Opal Creek Wilderness tells a story about the power of untrammeled nature. The physical legacy of mining is seen on a wilderness landscape riddled with historical mines and adits. Wild nature does not differentiate these holes in the ground from others, nor does it recognize their historic and cultural value. Wild nature embeds itself in every crevice of these human-made features on the landscape. It vitalizes these dark and seemingly lifeless places with bats, insects, and microscopic life. The establishment of untrammeled wilderness – a legislative act – gives life to landscapes hitherto altered by humans. This legal decision allows life to flourish unimpeded by the controlling tenden- cies of modern humans. Those who listen to the wordless stories intrinsic to wilderness are humbled by the power and pervasiveness of untrammeled nature. The Opal Creek Wilderness tells such stories. The wilderness is relatively wild and managers typically do not implement decisions that pur- posefully manipulate the biophysical environment. As previously discussed, Opal Lake was historically stocked by ODFW with non-native fish. This practice stopped forty years prior to wilderness designation. This change made this area more untrammeled before it was legally designated as a wilderness. Despite that stocking no longer occurs, non-native brook trout maintain a viable population in the lake. This healthy population shows both the power of wild nature and the long legacy of human intervention. The Opal Creek Wilderness is prone to late-summer lightning storms, which sometimes result in natural wildfire ignitions. Although these naturally ignited wildfires have recently been rare in the wilderness, they are always suppressed. Mitigating naturally-ignited wildfires is a conscious choice by managers to preclude a natural ecological process from occurring. Choices, such as these, cut at the heart of the intent of the Wilderness Act: that wild and uncontrolled nature should be allowed to flourish in wilderness. However, this is often a difficult – if not impossible – ideal to attain. In this wilderness, fires are extinguished because they could threaten Jawbone Flats, an inholding that is eligi- ble for listing on the National Register of Historic Places. Additionally, wildfires in the wilderness are mitigated to protect visitors in the SRA. This is because the unique topography of the wilderness may facilitate fast-moving fires that travel downslope from the wilderness into the SRA. Forest Ser- vice fire managers work within a complex historical, social, and ecological milieu and have a duty to protect life and property. These important factors complicate the Forest Service’s mandate to preserve wilderness character. As previously mentioned, invasive plants may enter the wilderness in the near future. These plants, like all invasives, tend to outcompete native plant species. Although the Forest Service is not currently considering such actions, managers may choose to intensively mechanically or chemically treat these plants to preserve the natural quality of wilderness character in the future. Even if this future action would be successful, it will nevertheless constitute a trammeling action and degrade wilderness character.

Opal Creek Wilderness Character Narrative September 2018

UNDEVELOPED Wilderness retains its primeval character and influence, and is essentially without permanent improvements or modern human occupation

The Wilderness Act states that wilderness is “an area of undeveloped Federal land. . .without permanent improvements or human habitation,” “where man [sic] is a visitor who does not remain’” and “with the imprint of man’s [sic] work substantially unnoticeable.” The undeveloped quality of wilderness character is affected by “prohibited” or “nonconforming” uses, such as the presence of modern structures, installations, and habitations, and the administrative and public use of motor vehicles, motorized equipment, and mechanical transport. The Opal Creek Wilderness has no modern structures and, other than for fire suppression and search and rescue activities, the For- est Service does not use motorized or mechanized equipment in the wilderness. Further, field staff only very rarely encounter members of the public using nonconforming motorized or mechanical equipment in the wilderness, such as chainsaws or mountain bikes. Given the paucity of nonconforming structures and equipment known to be present in the wilderness, visitors are generally able to experience a wilderness landscape that is free from the encumbrances and signs of modern society. Despite the lack of modern structures, the wilderness contains a myriad of historic mining structures. Although the structures themselves meaningfully contribute to the historical value of the wilderness, there are modern installations associated with historical structures to promote safety. For instance, equipment and materials that are used to address safety issues related to mine adits, such as the installation of grates and plugs of foam, degrade the undeveloped quality. Although rare, there is some administrative use of non-conforming motorized transport and mechanized equipment in the wilderness. The use of drones, helicopter landings, and wheeled litters for search and rescue activities sometimes occurs because of higher use of the areas in wilderness near the adjacent SRA. Alt- hough wildfires are rare in this wilderness, fire suppression activities, such as the use of pumps, chainsaws, helicopter landings, sling loads, helicopter crew shuttle, and smokejumper landings, occur to mitigate such fire events. In addition to the current threats, there is at least one foreseeable issue that may degrade the undeveloped quality of wilderness character in the future. Prior to wilderness designation, some managed trails in the trail system were logging and mining roads. Many of these former roads were converted into trails without any trail design and restoration considerations in mind. Because of this, it is likely that culvert and road prism failures will occur in the future. To mitigate issues associated with such events, motorized equipment may be needed.

Opal Creek Wilderness Character Narrative September 2018 OPPORTUNITIES for Wilderness provides outstanding opportunities for solitude SOLITUDE or PRIMITIVE or primitive and unconfined recreation and UNCONFINED RECREATION Walking along a short trail, the woody smell of dense vegetation and duff in the air, there is a palpable urgency: for many visitors, a desire to quickly arrive at a sole destination. Slowing down, visitors begin to notice the nuance of this place – wild ginger dots the forest floor and an occasional Pacific yew, thin despite its age, stands erect covered with arils, their red berry-like seeds. Visitors arrive at their predetermined destination: Henline Falls. The falls are immense. Water cascades at a powerful rate over hard rock, spraying mist in the air. Sunlight reflects off the billions of individual water droplets suspended in air, creating a billion prisms of refracted light, a billion ephemeral rain- bows, violet to red. Behind the mist, visitors can make out the adit of the Silver King Mine, a 1,700- foot mine tunnel immediately adjacent to the falls, no doubt contemplating the legacy of mining in the wilderness. This is a place where past meets present, where visitors simultaneously experience continuity and ephemerality. Despite the importance of the history of this place, not all the stories of the Opal Creek Wil- derness are about its past. Visitors cultivate new stories as they experience the diversity of landscapes and habitats in the wilderness. The Wilderness Act of 1964 states that wilderness areas are to provide “outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation.” With its remote old-growth groves for contemplation, physically challenging steep climbs leading to scenic views, swimming holes for fun and relaxation, and a relative dearth of visitor restrictions, this remote wilderness, despite its small size, affords such outstanding opportunities.

Opal Creek Wilderness Character Narrative September 2018 OPPORTUNITIES for SOLITUDE or PRIMITIVE and UNCONFINED RECREATION (continued) Although “outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation” abound, this wilderness faces several critical threats to this quality of wilderness character. For instance, although the natural soundscape is superb in the interior of the wilderness, artificial noise from timber harvesting and other activities trespasses across the boundaries near areas adjacent to Bureau of Land Management and private lands. Additionally, although visitation is scarce in many parts of the wilderness, crowding degrades feelings of remoteness and privacy along the Henline Falls Trail and, to a lesser extent, the Henline Mountain Trail. Lastly, there are several user-created trails leading to historic mining sites in the wilderness. These trails diminish opportunities for both spontaneous discovery of historical features, but also, as facilities that decrease self-reliant recreation, degrade opportunities for mental and physical challenge. If visitor use increases due to increases in the region’s population and/or displacement from other areas, this quality of wilderness character may degrade. For instance, if visitation increases, future visitor management restrictions on visitor freedom may be needed, such as designated camp sites, camping setbacks, campfire restrictions, camping restrictions in certain areas, or limited entry permits. Additionally, increased visitation may lead to the placement of more trail signs, which degrade self-reliant recreation.

Opal Creek Wilderness Character Narrative September 2018

EDUCATIONAL AND HISTORIC Wilderness preserves other features that are of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value FEATURES OF VALUE

The Opal Creek Wilderness has interrelated educational and historical features of value. These values are dependent upon Jaw- bone Flats, which was a mining camp that was built in 1930. Alt- hough it is an inholding that is technically not in wilderness, it is nevertheless an important aspect of the wilderness’ history and currently plays an essential role in the wilderness’ unique educational value. The wilderness’ enabling legislation states that it was estab- lished “to protect and provide for the enhancement of the natural, scenic, recreational, historic and cultural resources of the area in the vicinity of Opal Creek.” Historically, lead, zinc, copper and silver were processed at Jawbone Flats and many exploratory mines were dug throughout the wilderness. These mines remain on the landscape and, as tangible historic and cultural features of value, are integral to the wilderness’ character. Today, Jawbone Flats is the home of the Opal Creek Ancient Forest Center. This program provides Oregon students and residents with unique experiential education opportunities. During early legislative hearings regarding Opal Creek’s preservation, George Atiyeh – an important local advocate who pushed for wilderness designation – argued that the area was edu- cationally important in part because, at the time, one-half of the Oregon student population lived within 60 miles of the wilderness. He went on to say that Opal Creek was a place where students could get hands on experience and education about the area’s rich pre-historic, historic, and ecological resources. Without Opal Creek Ancient Forest Center, it is likely that experiential education in the wilderness would not be possible at its current scale. Lastly, the designation of the Opal Creek Wilderness tells an important story that is representative of a transitionary time in the both the Pacific Northwest and in Region 6 of the For- est Service. Its designation was controversial and emblematic of the “timber wars” in the region during the 1990s, which reached a climax in 1994 with Region 6’s adoption of the Northwest Forest Plan. Although the plan was adopted to align the Forest Service’s policies and guide- lines with existing federal laws, such as the Endangered Species Act, the National Forest Man- agement Act, and the Federal Land Policy Management Act, the plan was immensely controversial. In the Opal Creek Wilderness’ legislative history, many of the justifications for its wilderness designation were related to protecting endangered species, such as the northern spotted owl. Thus, this wilderness tells a salient – and nationally important – story of its time and place. It is a story that is often simplified as loggers versus conservationists, but, it is really one about different groups of people who – despite holding ostensibly competing values – felt deeply connected to the land. In its physical and social landscape, this is a wilderness that speaks vol- umes. It is a storied wilderness.

Opal Creek Wilderness Character Narrative September 2018

Dr. Jesse Engebretson, Faculty Researcher PREPARED BY Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society College of Forestry Oregon State University Suzanne Cable, Recreation, Lands & Minerals Staff Officer CONTRIBUTORS Chris Donaldson, Assistant Fire Management Officer Eric Gjonnes, Wilderness Ranger Charity Glade, Botanist Dave Halemeier, District Ranger Elise Kelly, Fish Biologist (Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife) Beverly McCarroll, Wildlife Biologist Lyn Medley, NEPA Planner Bradford Peterson, Wilderness, Trails and Winter Recreation Manager Wendy Peterman, Soil Scientist Jared Richey, Minerals/Mining Coordinator Katie Ryan, Executive Director (Opal Creek Ancient Forest Center) Jamie Sheahan Alonso, Hydrologist Ian Yau, Geospatial Systems Specialist Maureen Yonovitz, Ecosystem Analysis and Planning

With guidance from the Detroit District Interdisciplinary Team

Recommended by: ______Date ______Dave Halemeier, District Ranger, Detroit Ranger District

Approved by: ______Date ______Tracy Beck, Forest Supervisor, Willamette National Forest

Opal Creek Wilderness Character Narrative September 2018