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CASE WRITING

One of the most important aspects of case method teaching is the development and use of good materials. Some good cases have been around for many, many years. Although they appear dated and obsolete to the casual observer, they contain issues and problems that have endured and continue to be powerful teaching tools. Students, however, disdain to read cases written as much as 10 years prior. Cases with “old” copyright dates can dampen their interest in the case and even undermine the case’s credibility with them. Students may not get the benefit of discussing an enduring issue if they have “turned off” because of the copyright date. Consequently, the question arises, “Where does one find good, current cases?” and, if that search for the right case fails, “How does one write good cases?”

The Current Case Pool

Perhaps the largest collection of well-written cases resides in Harvard Case Services (HCS) at the Harvard in Boston, Massachusetts. For many years the administered an international, intercollegiate case clearing house (ICCH) where they received, cataloged, and distributed cases not only from their own faculty but from others around the world. This practice was discontinued in the early 1980s. HCS now only distributes cases written by their own faculty. While these are primarily intended for Harvard’s own classes, the distribution of cases remains a strong business venture for the school. Harvard produces a hard-copy bibliography of all their cases with useful indices to help you find the kind of material you may need. Recently, they have been experimenting with and distributing electronic versions of this bibliography; soon one may search for topics from a computer file rather than flipping through a bound bibliography.

Other sources of current cases include Darden Business Publishing (DBP) at the Darden Graduate School of Business Administration at the , Charlottesville, and Case Reproduction Services at Western Ontario University in Ontario, Canada. DBP publishes an annual bibliography similar to Harvard’s but smaller in scope. The DBP bibliography also includes teaching notes for many of the cases. Other schools, such as Stanford University, Northwestern University, Dartmouth College, and also support and encourage case development and writing, although on a much smaller scale.

This technical note was prepared by Professor James G. Clawson. Copyright © 1995 by the University of Virginia Darden School Foundation, Charlottesville, VA. All rights reserved. To order copies, send an e-mail to [email protected]. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, used in a spreadsheet, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the permission of the Darden School Foundation. ◊ -2- UVA-PHA-0033

In addition to academic institutions which encourage case writing and dissemination, there are some associations which have meetings to encourage and improve the quality of case writing. Perhaps the best known of these is the North America Case Research Association which holds an annual meeting in November of each year, where new case materials are distributed, discussed, criticized, and encouraged in conference sessions. Although most members of this association do not come from institutions that heavily support and encourage case writing, they have found the case method useful enough in their teaching to have banded together to encourage and help each other to develop current materials. This association also publishes a case research journal which uses a blind referee process to select and print the best of submitted cases. Cases published in the Case Research Journal may be photocopied for educational use without charge.

Writing New Cases

Finding leads for new cases, collecting the data, and writing and editing the material into a polished and useful case is a somewhat difficult and artful process. In my experience, people can be easily frustrated and confused by their first attempts to write usable cases. For those who stick with it and practice their case writing skills, there are rich rewards to be gained. In addition to learning a new professional skill, one must also overcome the criticism of some colleagues who may denounce case writing as a waste of time. They will cite the lack of generalizability that comes from a research sample of N = 1, the amount of time good case writing demands, and the lack of established case- oriented scholarly groups as reasons why one should not spend time writing cases. There are those who will agree, however, that well-researched and well-written descriptive cases can add significantly to a rigorous research agenda. In this view, descriptive case research is an important early step in the research process that often leads to the recognition of patterns and the formulation of testable hypotheses. Such field-based-research agendas, some agree, are more powerful than those that build exclusively from other academic work or from office-bound reflection. I agree with this latter position and encourage you to consider case development and writing as an integral part of your research activities rather than viewing it only as a teaching-based diversion from real research.

The topic of case writing invites a number of important questions: Where can one find leads? What kind of case should one write? How should one structure the case? What kind of data should one include? How can one revise cases? How can cases be disseminated? and many more related queries. We will consider each of the questions in turn.

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Finding Leads

For the new case writer, one of the most daunting aspects of case writing can be finding companies that will allow one to come in, collect data, write up, and use a teaching case. It is often easier to get research cases, since those are more easily disguised and less discussed in the classroom. In either case, the following are some suggestions for developing case leads.

One of the most productive sources of cases is the executive education program participant, who will often describe a problem to an instructor after class; these problems can easily develop into case-writing opportunities. Other sources may be found among old friends and colleagues from previous businesses or educational programs; casual conversation can reveal a situation that could make an excellent educational case. Company or individual cold calls or following up on situations outlined in the press or literature are less productive. These no-advance-contact situations make it difficult to develop the kind of relationship that is essential for developing a case lead.

Case-writing relationship

There are several key elements in the case-writing relationship that must be understood and managed in order for the experience to be positive for both parties. The most important issue is credibility. If the case subjects don’t trust your skills or abilities, they will be unlikely to invite you to come in. Early negotiations, therefore, should include a discussion of your experience, your training and schooling, your writing skills, and any other information that will give the subject a sense of confidence in you.

You also need to address the question of confidentiality. Anonymity should be complete until the final version of the case is signed off and released by the appropriate officer in the organization. Any data not included in the case must be carefully destroyed or sequestered away so that it will not violate the confidentiality of the relationship. When one approaches a new case-writing opportunity, it is best at the outset to make clear and explicit to those involved that all data collected will be held in confidence and that the subject of the case will have control of all data until he has reviewed, revised, and signed a release form on the final version of the case. Anything less, in my opinion, is a violation of professional ethics and greatly undermines the ability of the case writer to secure case leads.

Since control of collected case data and of whether or not the case will be released lies in the hands of the case subject, one occasionally is confronted with a situation where a time-consuming, developed case will not be released. At the last minute, the material may seem to be too current or too sensitive to the subject. Therefore, it is a good idea to negotiate clearly at the outset what the case will be about, what kind of data will be in it, what the tone will be, and so on, so that you can secure a preliminary approval of not only the project but of a reasonable description of what the final case will look like. I remember one situation in which I worked with an individual on a case that described his relationship with his superior officer at a previous employer. Although we had been colleagues at the time and the case was not unduly sensitive from my point of view, he wouldn’t release it. I waited a couple of years and revised the case to make it less direct, but he still wouldn’t -4- UVA-PHA-0033

release it. Clearly, something was sensitive to him. We negotiated for a decade before I finally became convinced that the person would never release the case and any further efforts on it would be wasted.

In a similar experience, I worked at the invitation of one company to develop an extensive case on their management style. The data collected involved careful note-taking and tape-recorded interviews with 25 senior executives. We transcribed each interview, picked out the parts we wanted to use, sent the excerpts to each individual, got their release, and then compiled the overall case. At the end of a 22-year effort, the senior executive read the final case, didn’t like what some of the anonymous officers in the case had said, and refused to release it.

As you can imagine, experiences like these are very frustrating and discouraging. Nevertheless, they are a part of the case-writing process. Although, when you have a relationship with a subject that works, it can be very rewarding. The subject may call and ask if he can sit in on the teaching of the case, offering to give his own perspective at the end. He may call and offer periodic updates on what happened and on how the situation turned out. And he may call and offer other kinds of case opportunities.

Establishing the foundations of confidence and confidentiality in the case writer/subject relationship is critical to its success. Clarifying the intended topic, tone, and content of the case in advance of data collection is also key in managing an effective project.

Kinds of Cases

There are several kinds of cases. The two major kinds of cases are decision-oriented cases and descriptive cases. Descriptive cases tend to be associated with research efforts and are intended to summarize and accurately describe particular situations associated with a line of research investigation. In a teaching setting, however, descriptive cases tend to be boring and unengaging. They make it difficult for the instructor, as well as for the students, to identify discussion points. Typically, after reading a descriptive case, one says, “So what?” There is no action imperative to hooking or grabbing the student; however, there are ways to build interest in descriptive cases. This is best done through discussion questions given in advance. One could ask students to assume the role of an acquiring firm’s manager and assess potential problems in assimilating the described company. One could also ask the readers to assume the role of a recruiting candidate and to assess the fit between themselves and the characteristics of the described firm. One could invite speculation about what in the described firm works and what portends problems in the future. One could also ask students to consider competing against the described firm and to discuss its strengths and weaknesses in that light.

Sometimes a descriptive case can be written in such a way that it becomes a powerful decision-oriented case. For instance, I wrote a case on a self-directed, work-team effort at the Aberdeen, South Dakota, plant of FMC Corporation. After I interviewed people, observed the plant and its systems, and wrote the case, it became clear from the plant and divisional managers’ points of view that there were few, if any, problems of concern with this facility. Its customers were -5- UVA-PHA-0033

satisfied, the financial and productivity results were positive and improving, and there were no apparent problems that the plant manager had to sort out. In the course of the interviews, however, we learned that many other plant managers from other FMC divisions, as well as other companies, had visited the Aberdeen facility to observe and take notes on the way things were done there. We decided to write a case from the perspective of a visiting plant manager from another FMC division. This other facility had several significantly different features from the Aberdeen site: it was larger, unionized, produced a variety of products rather than a single product, had a different marketing structure, and different distribution system. All of these factors combined to produce an interesting decision-oriented situation out of a situation that was basically benign. When viewed from the visiting plant manager’s point-of-view, the Aberdeen facility was new, different, confusing, attractive yet repulsive; and therefore, making a decision about what, if anything, to borrow from this sister plant was complex and challenging. Given this structure, students were able to engage quickly in a description of what worked and why it worked at Aberdeen but were able also to consider the questions of how those features could or could not be transferred to other facilities.

All of these approaches tend to be a bit contrived and leave the descriptive case much less compelling and stimulating than a decision case. Decision cases are much more powerful in teaching situations. A decision-making case is written from a decision maker’s viewpoint and includes data and information that the decision maker likely had at the time of the case. The decision maker is usually confronted with a variety of options, none of which is an immediate and obvious best choice. The power of this kind of case lies in its ability to invite the reader to come into the situation, to analyze the data at hand, and to make decisions about direction, content, and implementation. At each stage of a typical case discussion (including problem identification, analysis, and action planning), decision cases provide a stronger base for discussion and learning than purely descriptive cases.

A Typical Structure of Problem-Oriented Cases

Many long-lived cases follow a classic pattern. They often begin with a statement of the problem or problems facing the decision maker as described from his or her point of view. This introduction to the topic, the central focus of the case, and the protagonist is generally less than a page in length. The second section then takes a big jump away from the present set of problems in time and space to begin, as it were, at the beginning. Framing the problem(s) and the key player at the beginning helps the reader to focus his or her role, to read with greater insight, and to streamline the preparation process. In an intense case-oriented program this can be very important.

Your choice to include this kind of introduction for a case depends in part on when you plan to use it in your courses, what your teaching objectives for that part of the course are, and how well your students are prepared for the case method. Students steeped in case methodology and targeted for improvement of skills in sifting out problems from masses of data may be given cases without an introduction of this kind. But for the most part, like a symphony or musical, an “overture” that previews the key players and the key issues starts the reader off in the right direction without -6- UVA-PHA-0033

guaranteeing he will see the problems clearly. Obviously, the clarity with which you introduce a case will depend on your objectives for the material.

Having set the time and place regarding the decisions to be made, a good case then jumps back and begins to build a carefully constructed story that ultimately leads to that same time and place at the end of the case. This case structure mirrors the module structure, but here the vertical axis is proximity to the problem, not complexity. This high-low-medium-high structure allows the case writer to build tension, to introduce relevant historical data, and to create an urgency about the situation. Typically, the historical roots of the problem are described in a company and/or industry background section and then more immediate data, pertaining to the problem as it exists, is added.

This background section provides the body of the case and should include sufficient data for the reader to analyze each of the options that are either described or implied. In addition to numerical data, historical facts, and a description of trends, the background portion of the case will often include quotations from various perspectives of employees within the firm. It is important that the presented data not lead the reader to a single conclusion, which is more likely if only one or two people were interviewed for the case. Multiple perspectives should be included to allow the reader to wrestle with the pros and cons present in almost every situation when viewed from different perspectives.

Case writers should develop a style that is engaging to the reader. Straight academic style may not be the most appropriate for inviting the reader to gain an emotional as well as an intellectual understanding of what is going on in the case situation. Some cases tend to omit human- factor data in favor of financial or operations data. Although this allows students, in many cases, to practice analytical tools and techniques, it leaves student ill-equipped to use the conclusions of those analyses in a practically-oriented implementation plan. This plan will probably involve persuading others in the organization and then utilizing their talents and degree of belief in the conclusions to implement the decisions made. So I urge you to include human-factor information in your cases, including opinions, values, perspectives, beliefs, and perceptions. This will give color and a dose of practical reality to your cases.

Finally, the case builds full circle to present a reprise of the original problem statement. The reader is much better prepared to understand and deal with the problems now than when they were encountered at the beginning. The reader has the benefit of the company’s history, relevant facts pertaining to the situation, data that suggests one direction or another, and thus in the process, has become a part of the situation. With this preparation, the reader can formulate an approach, conduct an analysis, reach a decision, and consider the problems of implementation.

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Excellent cases do the following: (1) provide some guidance on the topic or focus of the situation, (2) give hints or statements of a problem (or set of problems) that require a decision, (3) include a clear and compelling structure and style that gives relevant, multi-faceted, and important information for making decisions, and (4) imply several viable options that pose a dilemma or choice for the protagonist in the case.

Revising Cases

In my experience, it is very difficult to get a case just right the first time around. After teaching it once or twice, one often finds gaps in the data presented or discovers that an undue amount of strenuous data, questions, or concerns have arise that have not been addressed properly or clearly enough in the original draft of the case. At Harvard, typically only one in five or six cases would turn out to be stimulating and usable over a long period of time. After teaching a case once or twice, one can usually tell if it is going to “work” or not. Sometimes I have been pleasantly surprised after teaching a case that I didn’t think would work, and it did. Usually, it’s the other way around; a case looks interesting, but somehow the data, the setting, or the set of issues are not compelling to the readers.

We encourage case writers to keep careful notes, following the first and second teachings of a new case, to find ways to improve it. Sometimes it means shortening the case, sometimes changing the style, sometimes adding new data, and sometimes refocusing the main topic. At Darden Business Publishing, there is a standardized process for introducing and revising cases in the case registration system. Each case is registered with a signed release form from the company, an abstract, and a teaching note. When revisions are made to cases, the revision date is noted on the front page so that teachers and students alike can be sure they have the latest version. When simply revising already- released information, a new release from the company is usually not necessary. However, if substantial changes are made to the content, it is recommended that one go back to the original signer and request a review.

Teaching Notes

We believe that all cases available for broad distribution should be accompanied by a teaching note that presents the author’s view and experience of how the case can and should be used. Although many cases will have a variety of topical threads running through them, a teaching note can select one and outline a cohesive method of teaching that set of materials. A well-written teaching note can save both new and experienced instructors a great deal of preparation time.