Public Toilets the Implications In/For Architecture by Allaa Mokdad Advisor Deirdre Hennebury

Home , Bidet, Chamber pot, Night soil, Outhouse, Pissoir, Public toilet

Public Toilets The Implications In/For Architecture By Allaa Mokdad Advisor Deirdre Hennebury

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture in The Lawrence Technological University [2017-2018]

Acknowledgments

Thank you to my advisor Dr Deirdre Hennebury for all the guid- ance and support in this research inquiry; and my mom and dad and the rest of the Mokdads for all their support during the process. Preface

“The toilet is the fundamental zone of interac- tion-on the most intimate level-between humans and architecture. It is the architectural space in which bodies are replenished, inspected, and culti- vated, and where one is left alone for private re-

flection- to develop and affirm identity”

- Koolhaas, 2014 Content

Introduction 1 Abstract 2 Research Method 3 Nomenclature 4 Guiding Questions

Theory 5-6 Public Toilet 7 Public 8 Private 9 Toilet

Analysis 10 Introduction 11-12 Timeline 13 Definitions 14-24 London 25-31 Paris 32-38 New York 39 Conclusion 40-41 References Abstract

A reflection of societal values, the public toilet is a politicized space that provides sanitation in the public realm. In addition to its role in sup- porting a basic human need through sanitation provision, the public toilet is also a space that provides solidarity in the face of congestion, a place where one develops and affirms identity [Koolhaas, 2014].

In the nineteenth century through the twenty-first century, the public toilet has shifted from an external urban condition to an interiorized urban issue. It once stood as a symbol of modernity in the congested streets of industrial cities, and progressed to be prominently featured in accessibility debates. As a design object with many significant facets, the public toilet continues to appear on the foreground of polarizing trends pertaining to social values.

This thesis is a historic-interpretive examination of the public toilet in the last two centuries that reconsiders the boundaries of architectural design. The research informs our understanding of the public toilet in London, Paris, and New York through the lens of hygiene, policy, and design. Analyzing the similar urban conditions with varying political implication reveals compelling trends in architecture. The project reflects on the politics of providing public amenities, the impact of the public toilets in the social realm, and the significance of the role of the architect in the life of the public toilet moving into the twenty-first century. 1 Research Method

The overarching research method employed in both semesters has been Interpretive-Historical with an emphasis on evidence found in printed and digital sources including text, maps, photographs, and drawings. The majority of the tex- tual material is secondary content though some primary sources have been used, as well. Imag- es and photographs are drawn from a variety of sources including the author’s own collection. The research was a triangulated approach with readings taking tangents into a diverse range of fields from policy and legislations to urban design studies and to epidemiology. In order to organize this content, a Timeline was developed to create the scaffolding for the findings and begin to form connections between the different fields. In this way, the Timeline serves as a comprehensible diagram of the literature review and it reveals particular moments or “pressure points” that are further investigated in three categories, hygiene, policy, and design considerations come together in compelling ways to influence the space of the public toilet.

Three case studies were selected based on the pressure points identified in the Timeline- de veloped in the first semester. The categories we then applied in three individual Timelines curat- ed for each case study in the second semester. The Timelines in semester two are diagrammed in an intertwined network of Policy, Hygiene, and Design implications; which were further analyzed and compared to reveal patterns and trends across the three cities.

Audience

The primary audience for this research is tar- geted towards designers and architects of the public realm; as well as cultural historians, policy makers, and civic minded design theorist. 2 Nomenclature

Powder Room Little Girl’s Room Ladies’ Room Men’s Room Restroom Washroom Lounge Can John Crapper Head Lavatory Bathroom Pot Throne Comfort Station Arsenal Toilet Ajax Relieving Stations The Loo Water Closet Comfort Room Gentlemen’s Room Public Waiting Rooms 3 Guiding Questions

Can a study of historical movements in public toilets ameliorate design changes occurring in the twenty-first century public toilet? With an emphasis on pragmatic, human needs, and specifically the public toilet, how has architecture been leveraged historically in the context of polarizing trends?

4 Theory Public Toilet

A public toilet is a communal space that pro- eventually became an amenity embedded in vides hygiene and sanitation in the social other establishments as cities continued to realm. Though simple toilets date back to early evolve. civilizations in Mesopotamia, the public latrine was a staple of the Roman City. The Roman In the twentieth century, the public toilet has period is a time when public toilets were most modernized social views of access and inclu- celebrated. They were constructed with simi- sion. The public toilet has been accused of lar significance to other public buildings such discrimination against groups including but as schools, churches, and government build- not limited to women and people with disabil- ings. While the Roman periods offered public ities. The public toilet has since questioned facilities, they had not yet associate water with social values and norms, featuring in conten- diseases, hence the public toilets spread more tious debated on issues of identity and access. germs than actually providing a hygienic space. The first public toilets designed to address is- The public latrine however provided a com- sues of access in the nineteenth century were munal space where people often socialized. introduced in varying conditions. Some, like Cleansing was considered a collective activity, the ones in Paris were inclusive to all genders. using a communal stick with a sponge attached Some, however introduced in the nineteenth to the head of the stick used to clean up- af century required separation between genders, ter themselves. The public latrine was at large the separate spheres ideology of gender was a communal place that provided hygiene and considered inherently carried into the twenti- sanitation. While the Romans provided the first eth and twenty-first century. Women played a public facilities for men, introducing public uri- much smaller role in society, and that was re- nals in the streets would not appear again until flected by the lack of public toilets for women, the nineteenth century. which is still often the case in the twenty-first century [Greed, 2001]. The campaign for pub- The ultimate realization of the public toilet lic lavatories for women was a key component was when its introduction into the nineteenth of the Suffragette Movement beginning in the century metropolis as an object of modernity, nineteenth century, almost with equal impor- addressing issues of hygiene and sanitation, tance to attaining the right to vote. Many other which in turn contributed to the growth and groups saw themselves advocating for a civic prosperity of the nineteenth century city. The role in society through access to the public economic boost due to the industrial revolu- toilet, and similar issues of access continued tion and the end of WWII brought about many to develop based on varying trends. In some improvements to the nineteenth century city parts of the United States, up until 1960s there plans. Beautifying streets included adding were color segregated toilets for people [Pen- lights and street furniture, and other public ner, 2013]. Other access issues also surfaced amenities, including the public toilet. Its intro- during the 1990s in North America for people duction into the city fabric modernized ideas of with disabilities and their rights to access pub- hygiene and sanitation. As the public toilet be- lic facilities. Accessibility rights were eventually came more inclusive in the twentieth century, granted and codes have been modified since it also became more standardized and the early 1990s. 5 Theory Public Toilet

Nearly all new public toilets are designed to meet code requirements today.

Issues of access continue to reappear in the twenty-first century, a pivotal moment for the public toilet as it comes to face with polarizing social views of privacy and identity. The most recent issue of access question identity and gender politics with the LGBT and Transgender population, bringing to the foreground issues of privacy.

Urbanistically the public toilet has shifted from a public free standing object, to one embedded in private facilities, and has evolved in some cases to be a public space embedded in a private establishment. It has become an interiorized urban condition particularly since its association with the private in public, not only on an urban scale, but also on an architectural scale with issues of individuality and privacy emerging in the public realm.

6 Theory Public

The concept of publicness brings with it an el- The development of public toilets and personal ement of strangeness to the surroundings, in- hygiene are directly in relation to urbanization cluding other users, and the level of hygiene and public health awareness and its relation- which relates to a person’s concern regarding ship to sanitation. People approach the space privacy. from a personal point as the public toilet is utilitarian in nature, but are instead met with larg- The private nature of a toilet makes public toi- er social issues that are beyond the individual, lets a complex spaces, however privacy was a micro need meeting a macro issue of exclu- never a concern prior to the sixteenth cen- sion based on social factors. tury, as regions became more urbanized and developed, and people hadn’t yet established etiquettes for going in public. Privacy inthe face of defecation particularly hadn’t established real boundaries until the introduction of public toilets. As issues of hygiene and sanitation began to emerge in the mid eighteenth century Europe and North America, the idea of bathing had been a new concept that was associated with wealth and self-awareness. In New York, public baths allowed people to clean themselves and elevate the negative stigma -at tached to the poor. In Europe, ideas around hygiene emerged in the upper class first, bathing was a new art associated with wealth. These practices eventually moved down the chain of classes in the late eighteenth century. By the time the public toilet was reintroduced into the city, public urination and defecation had still been a frequent scene in the streets of some developed cities. In 1860s France, public urinals were introduced to alleviate the city of public urinations. Public toilets were only introduced after public urinals, in an effort to be more inclusive; however the demand stemmed from a public urination problem which resulted to some capacity in a new layer of privacy being introduced in the public realm.

7 Theory Private

The discrete nature of public toilets extends A more tangible example is the space program into the study of the topic itself. The language authorities from NASA in the United States, is used to conceal the reality of toilets and of- who ruled out the idea of throwing out solid ten it goes farther beyond that. Recognizing body waste from the capsule ruling it as “dip- some of the social stigmas behind the topic lomatically unacceptable, while other waste informs our understanding of the research na- materials were, as they vaporized and disap- ture of the public toilet. peared in space. A more contemporary per- ception of toilet and waste is more accepting, During the Roman Empire when the public as civilization has overcome many issues of latrine was first introduced, the only known hygiene and sanitation, and the technology is scholars to write on the subject used satirical often celebrated. The public toilet was rein- tones [Kira, 1969]. Although there were many troduced in the form of street furniture in the advancements made in the life of the public nineteenth century. Its impact on the cities toilet, up until the 1960s countries like En- however outstretched its capacity of simply gland went as far as not publishing words such providing hygiene and sanitation. In 1917 Mar- as “water-closet” and “having to go” in news- cel Duchamp’s urinal was put on display in the papers as it was considered inappropriate. A New York Independents show, and in 2014 ar- public health campaign also in England was chitect Rem Koolhaas dedicated entire exhibit stymied because newspapers refused to print to the toilet during the Venice Biennially. key words such as “water closet” and “bowel movement”. Around the same time in the Unit- ed States, plumbing fixtures also would not be advertised.

8 Theory Toilet

There are conflicting dates as to when the first The flush has evolved over the centuries as a modern toilet flush was invented, however the result of the changes occurring in response to closest toilet flush to evolve to be linked to a technological changes. Penner considers the larger sewer system dates back to the sixteenth toilet as an object of technology, where “Soci- century. In 1596, Sir John Harrington invented ety and technology are bound in overlapping the modern lavatory using water, it reduced and intertwined networks that mutually shape stench and filth, offered mostly in wealthier each other”[Penner, 2013] homes. During this period, many of the toilets being invented served a primary purpose The materials used in the design of public toi- which was the elimination of the smell, they lets reflects its time considering the impacts of had not yet been connected to sewer lines. a regulated space. Nineteenth century public During the Victorian period, many toilets were toilets were most commonly designed with uri- ornate and decorative in design, but had not nals, and small spaces enough to stand but not yet been connected to sewer lines. As the cen- to sit. In some parts of Europe, they were made turies progressed, western countries contin- of ornate steel, and were not connected to in- ued to develop the toilet design infrastructure frastructure as it had not yet been developed. developed in cities. As sewer lines began to be The public toilets in the next fifty years would added, the toilet design changed consequently, be a larger structure designed with wood on and in extreme cases, the sewer systems had the exterior, with the modern day toilet con- been expanded to accommodate changes to nected to sewer lines. By the twentieth centu- the toilet flush. ry, public toilets were made of concrete, stone, and brick materials, becoming larger structures However, as the toilet became more adaptive as they became more inclusive. Public toilets to sewer systems in the early nineteenth cen- also began to appear embedded in interior es- tury, by mid-century the toilet flush had been tablishments. This reflected in the design of advanced to successfully flush down what the interior of the space, which included dec- amounted to ten apples, a sponge, and three orative tile and copper. Towards the end of the crumpled air vessels. This trend continued up century, public toilets were being built using until the start of the twenty-first century. In the more contemporary material such as concrete United States, as early as the 2000s, American and brick. In the twenty-first century, the pub- Standard a highly standardized toilet company lic toilet is predominantly considered as a tem- launched its high-end Champion range of toi- porary plastic and metal structure that is con- lets, with powerful flushes as the selling feature nected to infrastructure. It is automated, and with the slogan “Working Towards a Clog-Free mapped out on digital printed sources. Nation” [George, 1969], American Standard continued to work to develop a clogging reputation to their flush toilets. Contemporary views on the flush system have been guided towards utilizing less water, as sewer systems are once again being reconsidered.

9 Analysis Introduction

The design of the public toilet is driven by external developments that extend beyond the scope of architectural design, in many capac- ities it is the final outcome. The design of the toilets has been a consequence of many factors including hygiene and infrastructure changes, and policy and cultural value shifts. The public toilet then has the capacity to become a tool in figuring out how societies function, what they value, and how they separate people from one another, and other trade-offs that come to be made [Molotch/Noren, 2010]. Understanding the public toilet from design, hygiene and policy perspective helps to formulate a comprehensive understanding of the changes occurring in the public toilet.

10 Stone Age Analysis 10000 to 2100 First known Toilets Skara Brae -Neolithic se�lement on Initial Overall Timeline the Bay of Skaill, Orkney Bronze Age cee Islands,Scotland Greece 1600 BC — 395 AD Delphic Greece 1200 700 900 BC — 100 AD Phrygian / Hi�te Delian Greece 625 BC — 1000 AD 509 27 Magna Graecia Roman Republic 62 AD 292 BC — 700s AD Roman,Oplon�s Biblical, New Testament 122 — 700 AD 79 AD Roman, Imperial Roman, Britannia Poeii 144 public toilets 305 — 311 AD Late Roman, Thessaloniki 102 1921 use 909 1171 Castle of Saint Peter at Halicarnassus, Fa�mid si io Marble kilga or water jar stand 11th through the first half of the 12th century Either Egypt or Syria 110 1518 eiel cotl 165 1853 o Pic 15t etu Imperial O�oman 1452- 1519 Leonardo Da Vinci 1516 Codex Atlan�cus, on the Romoran�n toilet: “The seat of the First lavatory, Mar�n Luther latrine should be able to swivel like the turns�le in a convent and return 1596 to its ini�al posi�on by the use of a Sir John Harrington counterweight; and the ceiling iete te oe soul e oles i it so tt lavatory using water one would be able to breathe.” Reduced stench and filth 1592 ist lus 1583 1650 ictoi eio toilets ee t tei ost ote decora�ve. Patents for siphonic flushes were in demand. siphonic flushes, for example, were being eueste

1660A popular theory suggests that high heels date from the �me 1775 -T when chamber pot contents were ﬂing from the window landing on AlexanderCummings the streets. 1850s

In the Time i 1800s of Cholera Waterborne diseases being realized 188 Health Exhibi�on awards George Jennings’s Pedestal Vase gold medal. It was designed successfully ﬂush down what amounted to ten apples, sponge, and three crumpled air vessels.

1778 Le Corbusier 1886-1965 Joseph Brama improved on the ﬂushing toilet “one of the most beau�ful objects industry has ever 1851 iete Great Exhibi�on of London, Monkey loset

1852 Illegal to draw water from the river in London

1895 George Jennings

Here I sit Broken-hearted, came to shit but only farted, then one day I took a chance, tried to fart and shit my pants

1887 Chap. 0103. An Act To ecue Poe it Provisions In Factories And Workshops. Sex segrega�on law passed in Massachuse�s 43 States followed suit by 1920s 190 1936 Public Health Act 1936 UK 4343 New Yorkers served by 1 public toilet According to the U.S Census Bureau, American Restroom Associa�on ooseelt 1910 192 “Ought to know how to dispose of sewage in some other 11 Western Electric Company Plant in Bal�more, Maryland way than pu�ng it into the drinking water.”(George, 1969) 1960s Beijing All public toilets are 1935 eic ts Property na�onalized under Communist banned Pt 1950s 1973 Zimbabwe uBVIP 1970 Sulabh Shauchalaya Latrine India EPAct Energy Policy Act 1992 was passed. It required all new toilets within two years to ﬂushing with a max of six For decades 3.5 gallons of water was used per ﬂush, some using up to 5 gallons, nearly half the household’s water supply. By now the concept of water conserva�on began to formulate. (George, 2008) liters or 15 gallons.(George, 1969)

The speed of change was not in par with produc�on lines, this resulted in rushed Public Toilet Revolu�on in China 1995 and flawed toilet designs.(George, 2008) 1980s A million Shanghai households s�ll had “honey buckets” or night-stools Japan- TOTO’s Washlet Only 60 years prior to the washlet Japan was a pit latrine na�on. People defecated by squa�ng. They did not use water to cleanse themselves, but paper or stone or s�cks. They did not know what a bidet was, 1990 nor did they care. Today, only 3 percent of toilets produced in Japan are squat types. (George, 1696) Global Movement 1993 India:Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construc�on of Dry Latrines (Prohibi�on) Act (No. 46 of 1993) 1995 Rem Koolhaas, [S,M,L,XL] “Toilets: Toilets in modern water closets rise up from the floor like white water lilies. The architect does all he Disabili�es Act Passed in several countries can to make the body forget how paltry it is, and to make man 1990 in the United States ignore what happens to his intes�nal wastes a�er the water from 1990 in the UK the tank flushed them down the drain. Even though the sewer 2005 i tio pipelines reach far into our houses with their tentacles, they are 2005 ce carefully hidden from view, and we are happily ignorant of the invisible Venis of shit underlying our bathrooms, bedrooms, dance halls, and parliaments. 1996 Public Toilet Act Bri�sh Columbia 1998 Jack Sim Singaporean Restroom Associa�on 1999 World Toilet Organiza�on 2000s Hygiene Cur�s & Biran 2001 According to the environmental group Riverkeeper, the average weekly polluted discharge is about 500 million gallons, the amount of 2,175 Olympic-sized swimming pools.(George, 1969) World Toilet Organiza�on American Standard launch high-end Champion range of toilets, powerful flush as the selling feature with the slogan “Working Towards a Clog-Free Na�on.” (George, 1969) 2003eic t World Toilet College (China, Indonesia, India, Singapore)2005 A clogging reputa�on developed. A plunger is prac�cally part of the decor. (George, 2008)

200 The Lesser S�nk-London 2006 London: 600,000 tons of raw sewage poured into the Thames. Hundreds of ﬁsh died.(George, 1969) Les Sanise�es in France becomes free

2008 1.7 million people have no sanita�on in the US (George, 2008) TIME: 2009 NASA Toilet Design “It’s Time to Kill the Flush Toilet“ Gates Founda�on increase rate to 1:112,500 toilet per person in New York 2012 it o ut by Charmin 2015 UN 17 Goals According to studies, paper is considered to be the lest efficient medium of cleaning the dir�est part of the body.(George,1969) Nasa’s Water Recovery System 2018 NOV 19 UN World Toilet Day Transgender & LGBT popula�on begin to win safe Average person gets rid of 130 grams of defecate per day access rights to public toilets 13 eole o ot e ccess to toilets 1 Billion people s�ll defecate out in the open Stone Age 10000 to 2100 First known Toilets Skara Brae -Neolithic se�lement on the Bay of Skaill, Orkney Bronze Age cee Islands,Scotland Greece 1600 BC — 395 AD Delphic Greece 1200 700 900 BC — 100 AD Phrygian / Hi�te Delian Greece 625 BC — 1000 AD 509 27 Magna Graecia Roman Republic 62 AD 292 BC — 700s AD Roman,Oplon�s Biblical, New Testament 122 — 700 AD 79 AD Roman, Imperial Roman, Britannia Poeii 144 public toilets 305 — 311 AD Late Roman, Thessaloniki 102 1921 use 909 1171 Castle of Saint Peter at Halicarnassus, Fa�mid si io Marble kilga or water jar stand 11th through the first half of the 12th century Either Egypt or Syria 110 1518 eiel cotl 165 1853 o Pic 15t etu Imperial O�oman 1452- 1519 Leonardo Da Vinci 1516 Codex Atlan�cus, on the Romoran�n toilet: “The seat of the First lavatory, Mar�n Luther latrine should be able to swivel like the turns�le in a convent and return 1596 to its ini�al posi�on by the use of a Sir John Harrington counterweight; and the ceiling iete te oe soul e oles i it so tt lavatory using water one would be able to breathe.” Reduced stench and filth 1592 ist lus 1583 1650 ictoi eio toilets ee t tei ost ote decora�ve. Patents for siphonic flushes were in demand. siphonic flushes, for example, were being eueste

1660A popular theory suggests that high heels date from the �me 1775 -T when chamber pot contents were ﬂing from the window landing on AlexanderCummings the streets. 1850s

1778 Le Corbusier 1886-1965 Joseph Brama improved on the ﬂushing toilet “one of the most beau�ful objects industry has ever 1851 iete Great Exhibi�on of London, Monkey loset

1852 Illegal to draw water from the river in London

1895 George Jennings

Analysis Here I sit Broken-hearted, came to shit but only farted, then one day I took a chance, tried to fart and shit my pants Initial Overall Timeline 1887 Chap. 0103. An Act To ecue Poe it Provisions In Factories And Workshops. Sex segrega�on law passed in Massachuse�s 43 States followed suit by 1920s 190 1936 Public Health Act 1936 UK 4343 New Yorkers served by 1 public toilet According to the U.S Census Bureau, American Restroom Associa�on ooseelt 1910 192 “Ought to know how to dispose of sewage in some other Western Electric Company Plant in Bal�more, Maryland way than pu�ng it into the drinking water.”(George, 1969) 1960s Beijing All public toilets are 1935 eic ts Property na�onalized under Communist banned Pt 1950s 1973 Zimbabwe uBVIP 1970 Sulabh Shauchalaya Latrine India EPAct Energy Policy Act 1992 was passed. It required all new toilets within two years to ﬂushing with a max of six For decades 3.5 gallons of water was used per ﬂush, some using up to 5 gallons, nearly half the household’s water supply. By now the concept of water conserva�on began to formulate. (George, 2008) liters or 15 gallons.(George, 1969)

200 The Lesser S�nk-London 2006 London: 600,000 tons of raw sewage poured into the Thames. Hundreds of ﬁsh died.(George, 1969) Les Sanise�es in France becomes free

12 Analysis Definitions

Hygiene [H] The hygiene category refers to urban conditions, including sewer and other infrastructure developments, the social value of sanitation, as well as overarching issues of epidemiology.

Policy [P] The policy category refers to legislations, as well as political and social movements and that overlap with issues pertaining to the public toilet.

Design [D] The design category refers to the architectural space of the public toilet, as well as the built form, material, technology use, and adaptability.

13 Analysis London, Nineteenth - Twenty-First Century

185 1855 1858 In 1855, the first underground 185 o o e te eet ublic toilet s Te ole eieic le oe it io ili observa�on of the mortality parliament to sanc�on a o eole usi te esie i te ictoi stle coeesie see l ost o te toilets ueou u i bo steet ui by Joseph Bazalge�e that te 185 cole eieic te betee 188 1925 otecte oos te More underground facili�es were e teoie tt te o sul o its see te ies ee bei iclue lte i te 1960s s t Bazalge�e’s sewage plan of a “motorway and pedestrian 2018 ollute b lee cotets oul ese te o toilet esi b es ito te te oee underpass program.” [Greed, 1851 ot oie 2001] te esio o te ublic flushing system was sos coclusios ee istuctue ito te oe b te oe- 2009 isisse os is toilet ee e o ble te 1800s coo ouse ol ite s l s to ost te twen�eth and twenty-first copper, and finished with fine et bece te Te be Pot Te o loo coes o historic indica�ve of 2009 Te o o Great Exhibi�on of 1851 cetu ceramics and �les. Later in the st tis s te sitc oo luce scee the phrase “gardez l’eau!” the an�-social act el t e P el i teboe iseses s io from cesspools to flush to Snow the connec�on was twenty-first century these public to oe u ublic toilets i o toi te cbe ots cotet out o te cst o toilets oul be coete ito toilets ic euie oe 1971 te ios oto te steets Te toilet ot elie estblise ee o 180s lte-lss stuctue o ces estuts sees to be built cosues coul use te bee iete t tis oit i o te stl Plce Te e 2000s Harrington published the book “The Between the 1840s and 1850s, 1991 facili�es called Community i 6 1928 cocet eie i te 1990 te Tsee oul- Toilet Scheme which s�ll Metamorphosis of Ajax” in 1596, designed te lsce o te cit ce use un�l 1971 when By the end of the early 21st 2013 the flushing toilet, however it was royals and s il iestets ee 1928- sue o ublic sue uete b te �on began to advocate for their right cetu te ublic toilet eists to te ouit 1885 te Tes 1893 the currency infla�ons to ublic seices iclui te Toilet cee s 31 2001 ol Toilet s noblemen. Before there were sewage and added. Railway companies o�en Pio to te ie s coie te ublic oisio i occue oo cool o iee becoe ssocite it u In 2014 Bri�sh authori�es 1800s istuctue itsoil o ite oul locte te il sstes i 1893 oe oo soe Toicl eicie soe tt 281 ublic toilet Te i issues elte use secuit issues seul par�cipants in London. estblise b te ol Toilet i- exhibi�on, flushing a “Great S�nk”, filled with to discrimina�on against gender and published The Great Bri�sh Public Nineteenth Century London grew from a popula�on of te te stes o oes oul ile to loe clss es toilet s esticte eet tee ee 233 ublic toilets ee costucte ac�vity, hygiene, and other �on, and was declared an Official UN day Toilet o ol Toilet etoolit oui ques�oning iden�ty. This issue is i 2013 Te ecle ol Toilet 900000 i 1801 to oe 2363000 i 1851 to oe t te te out to te outsits o oo cosiei es o clece to te elt o see te ot ublic toilets ublic toilets o io to 1918 178 ui te illel tes Te use o ublic which allowed people to find the par�cularly conten�ous as opposing toilets s oi 2000- to ise eess o soe o te oubli b te e o te cetu eci 5 illio ee te ee use o icultue oe- tt te oi clss coul were able to afford sue eose te ee e e 18 o and 71 built a�er 1940. By 1991, a eest ublic toilet to te totl o 700 ublic toilet o ic ous ue tt eesii ublic 86 ublic toilets 200- lobl issues etii to toilets ou ibitts t s te lei cit i ecoo b e it s lso ue i te Tes ie benefit from. oe tecolo river’s condi�on. oe tei t o eeo o contamina�ng the water as well as adding to 350 ccoote isbilit toilets to ccoote te oe to 19 te ol transgender popula�on can be a Informa�on requests, council 1885 it was recognized as one of the largest ci�es in the te stec tt estee i te cit i 8 i 13 125 to tose it its ebsites locl oeet oe world, London had become the commercial and financial i 2 i 12 secuit coce i i 16 t t is te lest ublic toilet ooheart of England. Workers s�ll lived in the city in many tbse i te cout slus stuctues tt te bc to te 1666 ile i 15 offers informa�on on over 8,000 ublic toilets soe ee coete to busiess builis s te ocil eoe i i ic popula�on grew, sanitary condi�ons in the city deterio- tie to be bi cle i eute rated. London was infamously filthy; conges�on in the sanita�on, and minimal standards of 1800s-The suffrage�e movement 1891 tee s Te ite secto s living to industrial ci�es, his “Report on Te toilets ce etce ot i te ube o 1936 Public elt ct i te e esoe to te lc city con�nued to elevate, makeshi� drains poured raw beu i 1832 b o granted rights for authori�es to the Sanitary Condi�on of the Laboring Te Public elt ct o 188 women had been advoca�ng for ee ce oe o public toilets a�er the 2011- Te cit o oo of ameni�es. AirPnP see it ito te steets te Tes ie it bout ce to te te ole eie oie ublic toilets ce o By the end of the twen�eth century, Popula�on of Great Britain” was te it to ccess ublic toilets si o clotes busi 1891 Public elt ct tee bee eclie o ublic 2005 te eel ileete buet cuts o llos eole to ut ot et estblise bsic istuctue closet s te ee o euie issue i te i oo ic their usage, with the excep�on of male tei toilets u o i 1 ublise i 182 ui to ui it s cosiee iott Tee ee to clsses o toilets 1872- es to te esi o toilets cotibute to ctos cosesus s tt tee which the public toilets were first ellis steets te ie Tese to be coecte to ie coeste cit te etlee eul oe allowed local authori�es uils ic s tout oul et te co- step in a�aining rights in the toilet occue ue to Te increase public urina�on if charges s sote o to be o te list s itece ces oul iole istci oo oul ce public realm. Victorian ac�vist They were adver�sed in The to use ublic os s func�oning public toilets nies are pu�ng up 188 ote outbe etoolit te ct o ee ileete Tis oul be Te is ieic i te 1980s e 1995 te isbilit costs ee o te iest London’s water in the direc�on of its groups for public facili�es, move Ties Te esis oee i oet o te le o e i is tsissio i it ll tese ublic elt cts bei in London. Between i ol 01 locl utoit ublic toilets i lces i 185 1872 ic stte tt protested by women ac�vist groups icoote ito te see Discrimina�on Act was water supply. By 1850s London had contemporary organiza�ons not live long, as the flushing eeloet o ublic ublic toilets sse i te ic 2005-2015 50 o ublic itie ublic toilets ic to ioe busiess see sstes soul be toilets lte o i te cetu oes cete t o te ublic toilet to be i 19 beu to e its see sste include Women’s Ini�a�ve which teciue ot et bee te-bse s ell ssocite cost o ite- oul eet iscii- toilets e sut o is te cuet sti ube stee ac�vist group, as there remained an iete eiete s it s t o 182 octe o euit i ublic iblce ube o ublic toilets ce eis ie t te le scee tt s ci te cit na�on against disabled toilet oisio 1891 o oe t o e ee cost o itii steet bic 1990 Public toilet ee eole Tis bout 2011 i 11 1872 uitue eis less o eote s t o te cose- ces to te 1800s ioit oell va�on improvements done to the secil esi o te At the Great Exhibi�on, a plumber 1936 cit cosiei te ublic toilets toilet named George Jennings installed ee esie i te ictoi Monkey Closets in the Re�ring Rooms i i stle to o te Plce e itouce te 1980 they are more u�litarian in 1995 cocet o P Pe ic ee te esi utote Public Toilets first public toilets the visitors had ever ee itouce to oo see cusi et el o eciteet oee te ee ot e 827280 isitos i oe e ec to oul use te toilets eceii cle set toel cob soe sie Te i 5 toilets were scheduled to close a�er the Te success o te stl Plce i 7 By 1895 the flush had i 17 exhibi�on ended, however Jennings toilets tscee ito te ioe eis 1990s esue soe o te oies to steets s ublic toiles stte to Company con�nued to add ee te oe ic ee u appear. By 1852 there had been public toilets in 36 Bri�sh genera�ng roughly 1000 pounds a year. 95 public toilet facili�es. The tos o ote lces Tese ublic toilets oee ee toilets were called “Public Wai�ng iclui Pis loece oie o e ol s oe Rooms” made of a water closet Berlin, Madrid, Sydney, and le slle oles i te socil el suoue i ooe teil out eic i 3 i 10 i 9 i 1 1852 1895

[H] Nineteenth Century London grew from [D] In the 1800s, a common house hold item a population of 900,000 in 1801, to over was The Chamber Pot. The word loo comes 2,363,000 in 1851, to more than doubling by from the phrase “gardez l’eau!” the anti-so- the end of the century reaching 4.5 million in- cial act of throwing the chamber pots content habitants. It was the leading city in economy out of the windows and onto the streets. The and by 1885 it was recognized as one of the toilet had been invented at this point, Sir John largest cities in the world, London had become Harrington published the book “The Metamor- the commercial and financial heart of England. phosis of Ajax” in 1596, designed the flushing Workers still lived in the city in many slums and toilet, however it was royals and noblemen. structures that dated back to the 1666 while Before there were sewage and infrastructure, some were converted to business buildings. Nightsoil or Nightmen would gather the wastes As the population grew, sanitary conditions in from homes and would take them out to the the city deteriorated. London was infamously outskirts of London where they were used for filthy; congestion in the city continued to -ele agriculture. However it was also dumped in the vate, makeshift drains poured raw sewage right Thames River, contaminating the water as well into the streets and the Thames River, it had as adding to the stench that festered in the city. not yet established basic infrastructure.

Fig 1C

Fig 2C

15 Analysis London

[P] Social Reformer Sir Edwin Chadwick tried [P] The Public Health Act of 1848 brought to be bring clean air, adequate sanitation, and change to the water closet, as they were now minimal standards of living to industrial cit- required to be connected to drainage. ies, his “Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population of Great Britain” was published in 1842 urging to purify dwellings, streets and the river. These changes would in- volve dispatching London’s water in the direc- tion of its water supply. By 1850s London had begun to expand its sewage system.

Fig 5C

[H] England was to host the Great Exhibition of 1851 held at Hyde Park, held in the cast and Iron and plate-glass structure of the Crystal Pal- ace.

Fig 3C

[H] Between the 1840s and 1850s, the landscape of the city changed as railway invest- ments were added. Railway companies often located the railway systems in middle to lower class areas, considering a means of clearance that the working class could benefit from. Fig 8C 16 Analysis London

[D] At the Great Exhibition, a plumber named [D] Prior to the exhibition, flushing a toilet was George Jennings installed Monkey Closets in restricted to the wealthy who were able to af- the Retiring Rooms of the Palace. He intro- ford modern technology. duced the concept of Pay a Penny, which were the first public toilets the visitors had ever seen [D] The success of the Crystal Palace toilets causing a great deal of excitement. 827,280 transcended into the streets as public toilers visitors paid one penny each to use the toilets, started to appear. By 1852 there had been 95 receiving clean seat, towel, comb, and a shoe public toilet facilities. The toilets were called shine. The toilets were scheduled to close after “Public Waiting Rooms” made of a water closet the exhibition ended, however Jennings - per surrounded in wooden material. suaded some of the organizers to keep them open, which ended up generating roughly 1000 pounds a year. These public toilets however were provided for men only, as women played smaller roles in the social realm.

Fig 9C

Fig 10C

17 Analysis London

[H] In 1854, John Snow made the observation [H] Cholera remained an issue in the congest- of the mortality among people using the pump ed city. London would face another outbreak in broad street during the 1854 cholera epi- in 1854. demic, he theorized that water from the pipes were being polluted by leaked contents into the water, however snows conclusions were dismissed. Snow’s map is a historic indicative of waterborne diseases, as prior to Snow the connection was not realized.

Fig 7C

Fig 4C 18 Analysis London

[P] In 1858, the Cholera epidemic led parliament to sanction a comprehensive sewage plan by Joseph Bazalgette that protected London’s water supply from its sewage. Bazalgette’s sewage plan would ease the way of growth and provide infrastructure into the twentieth and twenty-first century.

Fig 16C

[H] 1800s-The suffragette movement had - be gun in 1832, by now women had been advocating for the right to access public toilets, it was considered an important step in attaining rights in the public realm. Victorian activist groups for public facilities, move contemporary organizations include Women’s Initiative which advocate for equity in public toilet provision.

Fig 11C

19 Analysis London

[D] In 1855, the first underground ‘permanent’ [P] The toilets charged an entrance fee and public toilet was open with iron railing and de- charged more for washing or clothes brushing. signed in the Victorian style, most of the toilets There were two classes of toilets, the gentle- underground date between 1884 and 1925. men and a regular one. They were advertised More underground facilities were included in The Times. The designs however did not live later in the 1960s as part of a “motorway and long, as the flushing technique had not yet pedestrian underpass program.” [Greed, 2001] been mastered. Later version of the public toilet were made of marble, copper, and finished with fine ceram- [H] In 1885, the Thames River was coined the ics and tiles. Later in the twenty-first century “Great Stink”, filled with metropolitan roughing these public toilets would be converted into sewage and the hot dry summer exposed the cafes and restaurants. river’s condition.

Fig 6C

Fig 12C

20 Analysis London

[PD] In 1872, changes to the design of toilet [P] In 1891, there was a growth in the number occurred due to The Metropolitan Water Act of public toilets after the 1891 Public Health of 1872, which stated that sewage systems Act in London, which allowed local authorities should be water-based. to use public roads as property for the development of public toilets. [DP] A toilet design by Crapper’s flushing system was approved by the government and be- [H] In 1893, more permanent public toilets came the standard, this was the switch from were added. cesspools to flush toilets, which required more sewers to be built.

Fig13C 21 Analysis London

[D] By 1895 the flush had improved and Jen- [P] In 1936, the Public Health Act in the UK gave nings Company continued to add public toilets granted rights for authorities to provide pub- in 36 British towns among other places includ- lic toilets and charge for their usage, with the ing Paris, Florence, Berlin, Madrid, Sydney, and exception of male urinals which was thought South America. would increase public urination if charges were implemented. This would be protested by women activist groups later on in the century. Women’s an activist group, as there remained an imbalanced number of public toilets for women than for men.

[D] The pay a penny concept remained in use until 1971 when the currency inflations occurred.

Fig 14C

[H] In 1928, a survey for public provision in London showed there were 233 public toilets for men and 184 for women.

Fig 15C

[H] By the end of the twentieth century, there had been a decline of public toilets contributed to many factors. The Aids Epidemic in the 1980s added a layer of fear in Aids transmission in public toilets. As well, associated cost of maintenance remains higher than the average cost of maintaining street furniture, and remains less of a priority overall. 22 Analysis London

[H] A public survey undertaken by the Lon- [H] In 1995 the Disability Discrimination Act don School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine was passed in the UK, which would prevent showed that 281 public toilets were construct- discrimination against disabled people. This ed prior to 1918, 178 during the war, and 71 brought many changes to the special design of built after 1940. By 1991, a total of 700 public the toilet. toilet, of which 350 accommodated disability, and 125 to those with infants.

[D] With all these public health acts being incorporated into water and sewage, created a path for the public toilet to be invented and re- invented as it was part of a larger scheme that was changing the city fabric. In 1990 Public toilet were renovated as part of the conservation improvements done to the city, considering the public toilets were designed in the Victori- an and Edwardian in style, today they are more utilitarian in design. Automated Public Toilets were introduced to London, however they were not very popular.

[H] By the end of the early twenty-first century, the public toilet had become associated with drug usage, security issues, sexual activity, hygiene, and other illegal trends. The use of public toilets was dropping. 2000- 486 public toilets, 2004- dropped to 419.

[H] In 2005 the general consensus was that there was a shortage of functioning public toi- Fig 17C lets in London. Between 2005 and 2015, 50% of public toilets have shut down. [P] In the 1990, the Transgender population began to advocate for their right to public [D] In 2009, the mayor of London launched a services including the public toilet. The main scheme to open up public toilets in established issues relate to discrimination against gender where non consumers could use the facilities and questioning identity. This issue is partic- called Community Toilet Scheme which still ex- ularly contentious as opposing groups argue ists today. The Community Toilet Scheme has that redesigning public toilets to accommodate 31 participants in London. the Transgender population can be a security concern. 23 Analysis London

[H] In 2011- The city of London implemented [H] In 2014 British authorities published The budget cuts, of which the public toilets were Great British Public Toilet Map on World Toilet first to be on the list as maintenance costs were day, which allowed people to find the nearest of the highest. Sparing only 401 local authority public toilet to them, gathering data from Free- maintained public toilets, which is the current dom of Information requests, council websites, standing number. and local government open data. It is the largest public toilet database in the country, and [P] In 2001, World Toilet Day was established offers information on over 8,000 public toilets. by the World Toilet Organization, and was declared an Official UN day in 2013. The UN -de clared World Toilet Day to raise awareness of some of the global issues pertaining to toilets around the world.

Fig 20C

Fig 18C

[D] The private sector has responded to the lack of amenities. AirPnP allows people to put their toilets up for rent. Other companies are putting up public toilets in places to improve business.

24 Analysis

Paris, Nineteenth - Twenty-First Century 1981 ecu is ec co tt secil- ize in street furniture and other adver�se- Haussmann’s work would be part of a public ment on bus-stops and bike rental systems. works program aimed at modernizing the city Founded in 1964, it supplies over 300 other and mee�ng the demands of the growing popula- countries, including New York. �on and economy. The plan included crea�ng In 1981 the Sanise�es were first implement- Barrels of Easement were ed in Paris, the city council decided to oie i steet coes new gardens and public squares, introducing street furniture which included public facili�es, implement 400 around the city, but they in an effort to reduce The top down approach in Paris ameliorated the issues of public urina�on and and construc�ng new sewers and water ducts. weren’t free to access. defeca�on. public toilet provision as the infrastructure was provided ile ic i te socil el through Haussman’s plan. The spider web pa�ern of the They are barrier free. They are made of doesn’t really develope un�ll the 1848 boulevards designed by Haussmann are replicated in concrete steel and aluminum and can be eighteenth century, women o�en In 1848, Louis-Napoleon was elected underground in Paris, providing sewers and drains. The recycled, and also save 30% on water waste, sout out ic o te ou esiet, later self-elec�ng himself as emperor, esssie te Pissoi oie te istuctue tt and incorporate a skylight that lets natural of persons they were with and would be replaced with the modern day public toilet in Paris. 1817 referred to urina�on/defeca�on as had a par�cular interest in improving 1853 lit i 1990 2018 picking a flower. The persons te cit o Pis oeet scees o Legisla�on was passed to improve public health that would In the 1990, the Transgender popula�on in associa�on with The streets were narrow and Throughout the 19th century, In the twenty first 1800s o�en did not get any sunlight. accompanying the women would te the City were concidered, started from the center provide inspec�ons and improvements in unhealthy The Sanise�es work in 15 minute intervals, the LGBT community began to advocate for their right to typically form in a circle while the par�cularly in the 1830s, mid-1830s, of the city center and outward. dwellings. While many schemes were in discussion for the century, many digital ieteet cetu Pis Conges�on was high, by many embellishment meaning they shut down a�er 15 minutes, public services including the public toilet. The main issues person in the middle went on doing over 8000 improvement of the city’s condi�on. In 1853 George applica�ons have been living condi�ons were 1817, 17000 carts had been schemes were presented to preven�ng pros�tu�on and drug trade. relate to discrimina�on against gender and ques�oning circula�ng the streets of their business. This contributed to etes o During this �me, the popula�on was Haussmann was elected to design a plan for established, by either deteriora�ng while the stench in the narrow and city councils in an effort to sewers had When the door shuts of the Sanise�e, the iden�ty. This issue is par�cularly conten�ous as opposing Paris, and the streets were s�ll growing to over a million. as well Paris in order to modernize the city, and oeet o ote coesel ci oul- coeste steets reduce conges�on and been toilet is disinfected and cleaned automa�cal- groups argue that redesigning public toilets to accommodate usit iseses i te cit as the unemployment rate which relieve it of its conges�on. private par�es, of �on growth The nineteenth Fig 2A e ly, and green lights on the exterior indicates the transgender popula�on can be a security concern. brought about a revolu�on. maps denota�ng century was a turning point Fig 8A tt te it is e o te et use Pis i 5 Fig 9A public facili�es around o te cit o Pis ec- Fig 11A te cit edented Popula�on growth Paris was caused conges�on and The city was overcrowded. Although there was a ban on public In 1848 another cholera By 2018,Paris has more Sewage water was being facing its first than 400 public toilets, diseases to fill the streets, urina�on/defeca�on put in place The popula�on growth ole outbreak occurred, killing ue it ito te iee da�ng back to 1700s, this didn’t oe u o called Sanise�es, located con�nuing to steadily River contamina�ng the outbreak 19,000 people, sparking a Up un�l the 1930s, over 1200 Pissoir remained eet eole o oi i te 547,756 people in 1801 eieic on the public footpaths icese water while there was a public interest in hygiene sca�ered throughout the city of Paris and didn’t steets to to 759,000 in 1830s , The 2005 Disability Policy in ou Pis shortage of drinking water. and 1,053,262 , it had a and sanita�on. Haussmann proceeded by improving on the begin phasing out un�l the 1960s. There only remains Fig 1A Fig 8A France was introduced. reputa�on of being one plan Napoleon had devised. Nepoleon one Vespasienne in Paris today that is managed by of the dir�est ci�es in Many Sanise�es became par�cular interest in the street scape in the te eite etet o Pis os ce city of London. Some of the influences 1990 barrier free. happening in London were happening in 1830s Paris. Similarly, in the twenty first century, 2005 Sanise�es that were later introduced in paris Claude Phiber Berthelot that would later be implemented in New York. In the 1860s the Vespassien Comte de Rambuteau first and Pissoir had become introduced the public i urinal to Paris in 1834, known as Chalet De Necessite known as the pissoirs or which were more enclosed vespasienne which uss coissioe kiosks providing services to significantlyreduced a collec�on of street include women as well. urina�on on streets and furniture, which included buildings. This establishes thousands of urinals. The soe o te uetl 1981 Fig 7A Pissoir or Vespassien were groundwork that George ecu is ec co tt secil- 1860s Haussmann later takes on connected to sewer lines lte i cetu ize in street furniture and other adver�se- tt ue te cit Haussmann’s work would be part of a public ment on bus-stops and bike rental systems. works program aimed at modernizing the city Fig 3A Founded in 1964,Fig it 6Asupplies over 300 other and mee�ng the demands of the growing popula- 1834 countries, including New York. �on and economy. The plan included crea�ng In 1981 the Sanise�es were first implement- Barrels of Easement were ed in Paris, the city council decided to oie i steet coes new gardens and public squares, introducing street furniture which included public facili�es, implement 400 around the city, but they in an effort to reduce The top down approach in Paris ameliorated the issues of public urina�on and and construc�ng new sewers and water ducts. weren’t free to access. Fig 10A defeca�on. public toilet provision as the infrastructure was provided ile ic i te socil el through Haussman’s plan. The spider web pa�ern of the They are barrier free. They are made of doesn’t really develope un�ll the 1848 boulevards designed by Haussmann are replicated in concrete steel and aluminum and can be eighteenth century, women o�en In 1848, Louis-Napoleon was elected underground in Paris, providing sewers and drains. The recycled, and also save 30% on water waste, sout out ic o te ou esiet, later self-elec�ng himself as emperor, esssie te Pissoi oie te istuctue tt and incorporate a skylight that lets natural of persons they were with and would be replaced with the modern day public toilet in Paris. 1817 referred to urina�on/defeca�on as had a par�cular interest in improving 1853 lit i 1990 2018 picking a flower. The persons te cit o Pis oeet scees o Legisla�on was passed to improve public health that would In the 1990, the Transgender popula�on in associa�on with The streets were narrow and Throughout the 19th century, In the twenty first 1800s o�en did not get any sunlight. accompanying the women would te the City were concidered, started from the center provide inspec�ons and improvements in unhealthy The Sanise�es work in 15 minute intervals, the LGBT community began to advocate for their right to typically form in a circle while the par�cularly in the 1830s, mid-1830s, of the city center and outward. dwellings. While many schemes were in discussion for the century, many digital ieteet cetu Pis Conges�on was high, by many embellishment meaning they shut down a�er 15 minutes, public services including the public toilet. The main issues person in the middle went on doing over 8000 improvement of the city’s condi�on. In 1853 George applica�ons have been living condi�ons were 1817, 17000 carts had been schemes were presented to preven�ng pros�tu�on and drug trade. relate to discrimina�on against gender and ques�oning circula�ng the streets of their business. This contributed to etes o During this �me, the popula�on was Haussmann was elected to design a plan for established, by either deteriora�ng while the stench in the narrow and city councils in an effort to sewers had When the door shuts of the Sanise�e, the iden�ty. This issue is par�cularly conten�ous as opposing Paris, and the streets were s�ll growing to over a million. as well Paris in order to modernize the city, and oeet o ote coesel ci oul- coeste steets reduce conges�on and been toilet is disinfected and cleaned automa�cal- groups argue that redesigning public toilets to accommodate usit iseses i te cit as the unemployment rate which relieve it of its conges�on. private par�es, of �on growth The nineteenth Fig 2A e ly, and green lights on the exterior indicates the transgender popula�on can be a security concern. brought about a revolu�on. maps denota�ng century was a turning point Fig 8A tt te it is e o te et use Pis i 5 Fig 9A public facili�es around o te cit o Pis ec- Fig 11A te cit edented Popula�on growth Paris was caused conges�on and The city was overcrowded. Although there was a ban on public In 1848 another cholera By 2018,Paris has more Sewage water was being facing its first than 400 public toilets, diseases to fill the streets, urina�on/defeca�on put in place The popula�on growth ole outbreak occurred, killing ue it ito te iee da�ng back to 1700s, this didn’t oe u o called Sanise�es, located con�nuing to steadily River contamina�ng the outbreak 19,000 people, sparking a Up un�l the 1930s, over 1200 Pissoir remained eet eole o oi i te 547,756 people in 1801 eieic on the public footpaths icese water while there was a public interest in hygiene sca�ered throughout the city of Paris and didn’t steets to to 759,000 in 1830s , The 2005 Disability Policy in ou Pis shortage of drinking water. and 1,053,262 , it had a and sanita�on. Haussmann proceeded by improving on the begin phasing out un�l the 1960s. There only remains Fig 1A Fig 8A France was introduced. reputa�on of being one plan Napoleon had devised. Nepoleon one Vespasienne in Paris today that is managed by of the dir�est ci�es in Many Sanise�es became par�cular interest in the street scape in the te eite etet o Pis os ce city of London. Some of the influences 1990 barrier free. happening in London were happening in 1830s Paris. Similarly, in the twenty first century, 2005 Sanise�es that were later introduced in paris Claude Phiber Berthelot that would later be implemented in New York. In the 1860s the Vespassien Comte de Rambuteau first and Pissoir had become introduced the public i urinal to Paris in 1834, known as Chalet De Necessite known as the pissoirs or which were more enclosed vespasienne which uss coissioe kiosks providing services to significantlyreduced a collec�on of street include women as well. urina�on on streets and furniture, which included buildings. This establishes thousands of urinals. The soe o te uetl Fig 7A groundwork that George Pissoir or Vespassien were 1860s Haussmann later takes on connected to sewer lines lte i cetu tt ue te cit Fig 3A 1834 Fig 6A

Fig 10A 1981 ecu is ec co tt secil- ize in street furniture and other adver�se- Haussmann’s work would be part of a public ment on bus-stops and bike rental systems. works program aimed at modernizing the city Founded in 1964, it supplies over 300 other and mee�ng the demands of the growing popula- countries, including New York. �on and economy. The plan included crea�ng In 1981 the Sanise�es were first implement- Barrels of Easement were ed in Paris, the city council decided to oie i steet coes new gardens and public squares, introducing street furniture which included public facili�es, implement 400 around the city, but they in an effort to reduce The top down approach in Paris ameliorated the issues of public urina�on and and construc�ng new sewers and water ducts. weren’t free to access. defeca�on. public toilet provision as the infrastructure was provided ile ic i te socil el through Haussman’s plan. The spider web pa�ern of the They are barrier free. They are made of doesn’t really develope un�ll the 1848 boulevards designed by Haussmann are replicated in concrete steel and aluminum and can be eighteenth century, women o�en In 1848, Louis-Napoleon was elected underground in Paris, providing sewers and drains. The recycled, and also save 30% on water waste, sout out ic o te ou esiet, later self-elec�ng himself as emperor, esssie te Pissoi oie te istuctue tt and incorporate a skylight that lets natural of persons they were with and would be replaced with the modern day public toilet in Paris. 1817 referred to urina�on/defeca�on as had a par�cular interest in improving 1853 lit i 1990 2018 picking a flower. The persons te cit o Pis oeet scees o Legisla�on was passed to improve public health that would In the 1990, the Transgender popula�on in associa�on with The streets were narrow and Throughout the 19th century, In the twenty first 1800s o�en did not get any sunlight. accompanying the women would te the City were concidered, started from the center provide inspec�ons and improvements in unhealthy The Sanise�es work in 15 minute intervals, the LGBT community began to advocate for their right to typically form in a circle while the par�cularly in the 1830s, mid-1830s, of the city center and outward. dwellings. While many schemes were in discussion for the century, many digital ieteet cetu Pis Conges�on was high, by many embellishment meaning they shut down a�er 15 minutes, public services including the public toilet. The main issues person in the middle went on doing over 8000 improvement of the city’s condi�on. In 1853 George applica�ons have been living condi�ons were 1817, 17000 carts had been schemes were presented to preven�ng pros�tu�on and drug trade. relate to discrimina�on against gender and ques�oning circula�ng the streets of their business. This contributed to etes o During this �me, the popula�on was Haussmann was elected to design a plan for established, by either deteriora�ng while the stench in the narrow and city councils in an effort to sewers had When the door shuts of the Sanise�e, the iden�ty. This issue is par�cularly conten�ous as opposing Paris, and the streets were s�ll growing to over a million. as well Paris in order to modernize the city, and oeet o ote coesel ci oul- coeste steets reduce conges�on and been toilet is disinfected and cleaned automa�cal- groups argue that redesigning public toilets to accommodate usit iseses i te cit as the unemployment rate which relieve it of its conges�on. private par�es, of �on growth The nineteenth Fig 2A e ly, and green lights on the exterior indicates the transgender popula�on can be a security concern. brought about a revolu�on. maps denota�ng century was a turning point Fig 8A tt te it is e o te et use Pis i 5 Fig 9A public facili�es around o te cit o Pis ec- Fig 11A te cit edented Popula�on growth Paris was caused conges�on and The city was overcrowded. Although there was a ban on public In 1848 another cholera By 2018,Paris has more Sewage water was being facing its first than 400 public toilets, diseases to fill the streets, urina�on/defeca�on put in place The popula�on growth ole outbreak occurred, killing ue it ito te iee da�ng back to 1700s, this didn’t oe u o called Sanise�es, located con�nuing to steadily River contamina�ng the outbreak 19,000 people, sparking a Up un�l the 1930s, over 1200 Pissoir remained eet eole o oi i te 547,756 people in 1801 eieic on the public footpaths icese water while there was a public interest in hygiene sca�ered throughout the city of Paris and didn’t steets to to 759,000 in 1830s , The 2005 Disability Policy in ou Pis shortage of drinking water. and 1,053,262 , it had a and sanita�on. Haussmann proceeded by improving on the begin phasing out un�l the 1960s. There only remains Fig 1A Fig 8A France was introduced. reputa�on of being one plan Napoleon had devised. Nepoleon one Vespasienne in Paris today that is managed by of the dir�est ci�es in Many Sanise�es became par�cular interest in the street scape in the te eite etet o Pis os ce city of London. Some of the influences 1990 barrier free. happening in London were happening in 1830s Paris. Similarly, in the twenty first century, 2005 Sanise�es that were later introduced in paris Claude Phiber Berthelot that would later be implemented in New York. In the 1860s the Vespassien Comte de Rambuteau first and Pissoir had become introduced the public i urinal to Paris in 1834, known as Chalet De Necessite known as the pissoirs or which were more enclosed vespasienne which uss coissioe kiosks providing services to significantlyreduced a collec�on of street include women as well. urina�on on streets and furniture, which included buildings. This establishes 1981 thousands of urinals. The Fig 7A soe o te uetl ecu is ec co tt secil- groundwork that George Pissoir or Vespassien were 1860s Haussmann later takes on ize in street furniture and other adver�se- connected to sewer lines Haussmann’s work would be part of a public lte i cetu ment on bus-stops and bike rental systems. tt ue te cit works program aimed at modernizing the city Founded in 1964, it supplies over 300 other Fig 3A Fig 6A and mee�ng the demands of the growing popula- 1834 countries, including New York. �on and economy. The plan included crea�ng In 1981 the Sanise�es were first implement- Barrels of Easement were ed in Paris, the city council decided to oie i steet coes new gardens and public squares, introducing street furniture which included public facili�es, implement 400 around the city, but they in an effort to reduce The top down approach in Paris ameliorated the issues of public urina�on and and construc�ng new sewers and water ducts. weren’t free to access. defeca�on. public toilet provision as the infrastructure was provided Fig 10A ile ic i te socil el through Haussman’s plan. The spider web pa�ern of the They are barrier free. They are made of doesn’t really develope un�ll the 1848 boulevards designed by Haussmann are replicated in concrete steel and aluminum and can be eighteenth century, women o�en In 1848, Louis-Napoleon was elected underground in Paris, providing sewers and drains. The recycled, and also save 30% on water waste, sout out ic o te ou esiet, later self-elec�ng himself as emperor, esssie te Pissoi oie te istuctue tt and incorporate a skylight that lets natural of persons they were with and would be replaced with the modern day public toilet in Paris. 1817 referred to urina�on/defeca�on as had a par�cular interest in improving 1853 lit i 1990 2018 picking a flower. The persons te cit o Pis oeet scees o Legisla�on was passed to improve public health that would In the 1990, the Transgender popula�on in associa�on with The streets were narrow and Throughout the 19th century, In the twenty first 1800s o�en did not get any sunlight. accompanying the women would te the City were concidered, started from the center provide inspec�ons and improvements in unhealthy The Sanise�es work in 15 minute intervals, the LGBT community began to advocate for their right to typically form in a circle while the par�cularly in the 1830s, mid-1830s, of the city center and outward. dwellings. While many schemes were in discussion for the century, many digital ieteet cetu Pis Conges�on was high, by many embellishment meaning they shut down a�er 15 minutes, public services including the public toilet. The main issues person in the middle went on doing over 8000 improvement of the city’s condi�on. In 1853 George applica�ons have been living condi�ons were 1817, 17000 carts had been schemes were presented to preven�ng pros�tu�on and drug trade. relate to discrimina�on against gender and ques�oning circula�ng the streets of their business. This contributed to etes o During this �me, the popula�on was Haussmann was elected to design a plan for established, by either deteriora�ng while the stench in the narrow and city councils in an effort to sewers had When the door shuts of the Sanise�e, the iden�ty. This issue is par�cularly conten�ous as opposing Paris, and the streets were s�ll growing to over a million. as well Paris in order to modernize the city, and oeet o ote coesel ci oul- coeste steets reduce conges�on and been toilet is disinfected and cleaned automa�cal- groups argue that redesigning public toilets to accommodate usit iseses i te cit as the unemployment rate which relieve it of its conges�on. private par�es, of �on growth The nineteenth Fig 2A e ly, and green lights on the exterior indicates the transgender popula�on can be a security concern. brought about a revolu�on. maps denota�ng century was a turning point Fig 8A tt te it is e o te et use Pis i 5 Fig 9A public facili�es around o te cit o Pis ec- Fig 11A te cit edented Popula�on growth Paris was caused conges�on and The city was overcrowded. Although there was a ban on public In 1848 another cholera By 2018,Paris has more Sewage water was being facing its first than 400 public toilets, diseases to fill the streets, urina�on/defeca�on put in place The popula�on growth ole outbreak occurred, killing ue it ito te iee da�ng back to 1700s, this didn’t oe u o called Sanise�es, located con�nuing to steadily River contamina�ng the outbreak 19,000 people, sparking a Up un�l the 1930s, over 1200 Pissoir remained eet eole o oi i te 547,756 people in 1801 eieic on the public footpaths icese water while there was a public interest in hygiene sca�ered throughout the city of Paris and didn’t steets to to 759,000 in 1830s , The 2005 Disability Policy in ou Pis shortage of drinking water. and 1,053,262 , it had a and sanita�on. Haussmann proceeded by improving on the begin phasing out un�l the 1960s. There only remains Fig 1A Fig 8A France was introduced. reputa�on of being one plan Napoleon had devised. Nepoleon one Vespasienne in Paris today that is managed by of the dir�est ci�es in Many Sanise�es became par�cular interest in the street scape in the te eite etet o Pis os ce city of London. Some of the influences 1990 barrier free. happening in London were happening in 1830s Paris. Similarly, in the twenty first century, 2005 Sanise�es that were later introduced in paris Claude Phiber Berthelot that would later be implemented in New York. In the 1860s the Vespassien Comte de Rambuteau first and Pissoir had become introduced the public i urinal to Paris in 1834, known as Chalet De Necessite known as the pissoirs or which were more enclosed vespasienne which uss coissioe kiosks providing services to significantlyreduced a collec�on of street include women as well. urina�on on streets and furniture, which included buildings. This establishes thousands of urinals. The soe o te uetl Fig 7A groundwork that George Pissoir or Vespassien were 1860s Haussmann later takes on connected to sewer lines lte i cetu tt ue te cit Fig 3A 1834 Fig 6A

Fig 10A 25 Analysis Paris

In nineteenth century Paris living conditions While privacy in the social realm doesn’t really were deteriorating while conversely facing developed until the eighteenth century, wom- population growth the nineteenth century was en often sought out privacy from the group of a turning point for the city of Paris. Unprece- persons they were with and referred to urina- dented Population growth caused congestion tion/defecation as picking a flower. -The per and diseases to fill the streets, continuing to sons accompanying the women would typically steadily increase. form in a circle while the person in the middle went on doing their business. This contributed to the stench in the narrow and congested streets.

Fig 1A

[P] The city was overcrowded. Sewage water was being dumped right into the Siene River contaminating the water while there was a Fig 2A shortage of drinking water. [H] The population growth had gone up from [H] By 1817, the streets were narrow and often did not get any sunlight. Congestion was high, 547,756 people in 1801 to 759,000 in 1830s, by 1817, 17000 carts had been circulating the and 1,053,262 by 1851, and had a reputation streets of Paris, and the streets were unsani- of being one of the dirtiest cities in France. tary. [P] Throughout the 19th century, particularly in [P] Although there was a ban on public uri- the 1830s, many embellishment schemes were nation/defecation put in place dating back to presented to city councils in an effort to reduce 1700s, this didn’t prevent people from going in congestion and diseases in the city. Paris was the streets. facing its first Cholera outbreak epidemic. [D]Barrels of Easement were provided in street corners in an effort to reduce public urination and defecation.

Fig 8A 26 Analysis Paris

By the mid-1830s, over 8000 meters of sewers [H] During this time, the population was still had been added. growing to over a million. As well as the unemployment rate which brought about a rev- [D] Claude Phiber Berthelot Comte de Rambu- olution. teau first introduced the public urinal to Paris in 1834, known as the Pissoir or Vespasienne [H] Simultaneously in 1848 another chol- which significantly reduced urination on streets era outbreak occurred, killing 19,000 people, and buildings. This establishes some of the fun- sparking a public interest in hygiene and san- damental groundwork that George Haussmann itation. later takes on later in century.

Fig 4A

[P] Legislation was passed to improve public health that would provide inspections and improvements in unhealthy dwellings. While many schemes were in discussion for the improvement of the city’s condition. In 1853 George Haussmann was elected to design a plan for Paris in order to modernize the city, and relieve it of its congestion.

Fig 3A [H] Haussmann proceeded by improving on the plan Napoleon had devised. Napoleon partic- [H] In 1848, Louis-Napoleon was elected pres- ular interest in the street scape in the city of ident, later self-electing himself as emperor, London. Some of the influences happening in had a particular interest in improving the city London were happening in Paris. Similarly, in of Paris. Improvement schemes for the City the twenty first century, Sanisettes that were were considered, started from the center of later introduced in Paris that would later be im- the city center and outward. plemented in New York.

27 Analysis Paris

[P] Haussmann’s work would be part of a pub- [D] Haussmann commissioned a collection of lic works program aimed at modernizing the street furniture, which included thousands of city and meeting the demands of the growing urinals. The Pissoir or Vespassien were con- population and economy. The plan included nected to sewer lines that ran under the city. creating new gardens and public squares, introducing street furniture which included public facilities, and constructing new sewers and water ducts.

Fig 6A

Fig 5A 28 Analysis Paris

[H] The top down approach in Paris ameliorated the issues of public toilet provision as the infrastructure was provided through Hauss- mann’s plan. The spider web pattern of the boulevards designed by Haussmann are replicated in underground in Paris, providing sewers and drains. The Vespassien and the Pissoir provided the infrastructure that would be replaced with the modern day public toilet in Paris.

Fig 9A

[D] In the 1860s the Vespassien and Pissoir had become known as Chalet De Necessite which were more enclosed structures providing services to include women as well.

Fig 7A 29 Analysis Paris

[D] JCDecaux is a French company that special- [P] In the 1990, the Transgender population in ize in street furniture and other advertisement association with the LGBT community began on bus-stops and bike rental systems. Founded to advocate for their right to public services in 1964, it supplies over 300 other countries, including the public toilet. The main issues including New York. relate to discrimination against gender and questioning identity. This issue is particular- In 1981 the Sanisettes were first implemented ly contentious as opposing groups argue that in Paris, the city council decided to implement redesigning public toilets to accommodate the 400 around the city, but they weren’t free to Transgender population can be a security con- access. cern.

They are barrier free. They are made of con- [P] The 2005 Disability Policy in France was crete steel and aluminum and can be recycled, introduced. Many Sanisettes became barrier and also save 30% on water waste, and incor- free. porate a skylight that lets natural light in.

The Sanisettes work in 15 minute intervals, meaning they shut down after 15 minutes, preventing prostitution and drug trade. When the door shuts of the Sanisette, the toilet is disinfected and cleaned automatically, and green lights on the exterior indicates that it is ready for the next user.

Fig 12A

[P] Up until the 1930s, over 1200 Pissoir- re mained scattered throughout the city of Paris and didn’t begin phasing out until the 1960s. There only remains one Vespasienne in Paris today that is managed by the Heritage Depart- ment of Paris Roads. 30 Analysis Paris

[D] In the twenty first century, many digital applications have been established, by either government or other private parties, of maps denotation public facilities around the city.

[H] By 2018, Paris has more than 400 public toilets, called Sanisettes, located on the public footpaths around Paris.

Fig 10A

31 Analysis New York, Nineteenth - Twenty-First Century 2018 1904 2001 1840s 1890 In 1904 the first By 2001, New New York was growing at an accelera�ng underground subway York had a sta�on opened. In the 1993 rate. Water supply iduring 1800 came from a well at In the Mid-1800s sewers began shortage of public twen�eth century the In the 1990, the Transgender facili�es. In 2002, Reade and Centre Streets that pumped into a reservoir being implemented in the city. In 1993, homeless popula�on in associa�on with and was distributed to communi�es through wooden By 1890s New York and public toilet started to eole bout mayor Michael R. become incorporated into 1980 the LGBT community began to Bloomberg added mains. By 1830 the popula�on of the city had increased Brooklyn had 844 miles of 1934 class-ac�on lawsuit advocate for their right to and the well water supply became insufficient and the sewers built, ending the era of the transporta�on In the middle of the twen�eth against the city for public toilets third buildings including the public services including the item on the list of water was becoming polluted. The supply was then 1849 1866 the Night Soil. In 1990, city council century however public toilets lack of public toilets 2010 1870s 1880 subway sta�ons and bus public toilet. The main issues priori�es 1800 supplemented by cisterns and water was drawn from speaker Peter F. plummeted due to crime, and and won. They The private sector has e o s coecil ub tt s The Metropolitan In 1865 state legislature passed an act that In 1880 the Board of Health passed regula�ons to 1880-Wooden storage tanks sta�ons. This also may relate to discrimina�on against In a 2010 survey other wells in the upper side of Manha�an. The demand Excrements were thrown into the lloe bout associa�on with the Aids needed access to responded to the lack of growing at an accelera�ng rate. In 1810 1819 1840s Health Act of 1866 introduced general sewage systems that oversee all new plumbing installa�ons, insuring were introduced that sat on mark the beginning of the gender and ques�oning found 129 public for water supply was increasing, in 1842 the city decided streets, o�en ending up in leaky back to city hall transmission epidemic. In public toilets. ameni�es. AirPnP allows bout ces to considered the natural water histories districts proper ven�la�on, adequate material for pipes, and roo�ops and were pumped by appearance of the public iden�ty. This issue is par�cular- toilets, of which 60 popula�on had increased from 96,000, to Once the holes were In 1819, the Common Council In the 1840s, indoor plumbing was to build an aqueduct known today as the Old Croton cesspools and contamina�ng pictures of the 1980s, the spread of Aids raised eole to ut tei toilets the city, in an effort when adding draining lines. Improvements making them accessible for repair. Sewer lines were hand, they held up to 10,000 toilet in the twen�eth ly conten�ous as opposing were unavailable, 3,437,202 in 1900. While urban areas filled, they were then prohibited the dumping of wastes limited to the wealthier, otherwise Aqueduct that had the capacity to hold 90 million local water wells that fueled the ublic toilets i hygiene concerns in the social up for rent. Other compa- to tackle issues of con�nued into the 1870s. In 1872, New York associated with sewer gases in the early 1880s, they gallons of water and symbolize century New York. groups argue that redesigning and for security popula�on was growing, there remained a emp�ed by Nightsoil into the sewage systems. Sewer people shared a toilet in a gallons per day. New reservoirs were constructed again cholera epidemic in 1849 killing Athens, demanding realm, and toilet seats were reasons usually, nies are pu�ng up public or Soilemenor systems at this point intended to common yard or hall. It isn’t un�l hygiene and commissions Manha�an Odorless Excava�ng were considered dangerous and associated with a milestone in sanita�on and public toilets to accommodate toilets in places to improve lack of fundamental infrastructure including in 1873 and 1878, and a new aqueduct was placed in 5,000 people. By the mid-19th ac�on. associated with contamina�on the transgender popula�on can transporta�on Nightsoil Men. drain or carry out storm water rather 1910 that nearly all buildings were century New York is filled with sanita�on. Company pioneered to clean up the nigh soil to carrying diseases into the home including typhoid, public health. business. service in 1890. demising the use of public be a security concern. sta�ons keep their 2018 the city has planted 1 million trees, added 300 miles e o sewage drainage and garbage pick-up. Early than waste. constructed with indoor toilets. disease outbreaks including alleviate the human waste problem. typhus, scarlet fever, cholera, dysentery and croup, toilets. further preven�ng toilets from being constructed Fig 8B Fig 10B Fig 7B-2001 toilets locked. of bike lines and plans to add 20 public toilets, of which Dutch se�lers had issues with “standing Fig 4B-1842 smallpox, yellow fever, measles, i 5 Fig 13B pools of filth in courts and alleys” as drainage and malaria. indoors. only a few have been implemented. was an issue, this cause strong stenches to fill the air among many other things. New York In the twenty first lacked infrastructure, and crea�ng sewer By 1825 the popula�on century, many digital system in developed areas in the city was In 1832 cholera had grown to 166,000. In 1847, the first In the late In an 1881 publica�on In 2015 the NYPD applica�ons have been Water was beginning to be eel see In 1863, a group led by Dr. Stephen Smith By 1869, in 10 years 1870s city laid In 1880 plumbing “Sewer-Gases and its issued 17,044 challenging. Sewage was also perceived as outbreak claimed founded the Ci�zens Associa�on of New York 1990s lack of public established, by either The night soil cart men removed the waste by 3500 vic�ms, contaminated. systems began to there had been an pipes under the fixture began to go Dangers” George Preston toilets bece cita�ons for public dangerous as it omi�ed gases and was not to address issues of public health, they addi�onal 22,000 ver�cally as buildings In 1901 the Tenement urina�on each year. government or other shoveling them into carts and disposing them in shortage of fresh be constructed. steets lloi Brown warns the dangers of Act was in place sta�ng serious issue for In 1992, the Energy welcomed indoor. The lack of infrastructure New York had become one sponsored a survey in 184 revealing the miles of rail tracks for indoor got taller, they were sewage gas associated with Policy Act was signed private par�es, of various loca�ons, including empty lots on the outskirts water, increase of added, bringing the that “In every tenement homeless people. and proper sewage caused many waterborne of the dir�est ci�es in the inequity in sanitary condi�ons throughout water supply. usually stacked, and sewers. Up un�ll this point, by the president maps denota�ng of the city or into surrounding waterways. O�en night poverty, condi�ons the city, and they launched a campaign to number up to 52,000. house here a�er By 1940 there had been 1990s Around the same JCDecaux a French company based in diseases. soil was carted off to farms to be used as fer�lizer, or of the poor world. In 1844 an es�mate 1847 ge�ng water beyond te eel cosesus o 1,676 public toilets, manda�ng new 2015 public facili�es around Fig 1B In the early nineteenth improve access to health benefits for the the 6th floor became a erected there shall be a �me there were discrimi- France but supplies interna�onally dumped into the Hudson and East River. The dumping worsened and of 800,000 cubic feet of see lies s te ssoci- separate water-closet in including ones in na�on accusa�ons from toilets to flush a the city. century, outhouses were excrements was produced, public. water pressure issue. �on with diseases. 1990s maximum of 1.6 owns street furniture franchises is used as toilets, as indoor caused intolerable stenches, and indoor toilets did not bece oe 1869 sete cot- transporta�on sta�ons. the disabled community. introduced to New York. In 2006 become the norm un�l the late nineteenth century. Up visible. Un�l the during which there had By 2008, there had The public toilets now gallons per flush. plumbing had not yet been et iti ec commissioned JCDecaux to add 20 Fig 12B un�l 1873, carts filled with raw human waste, collected twen�eth century, been two Cholera apartment.” been 1100 public toilet violated the Americans established. The Outhouse outbreaks, one in 1832 1863 public toilets. They are ac�vated by a quarter, was a temporary structure by the night-soil from homes and buildings, adding to diseases were 1881 in parks, and 468 in with Disabili�es Act. A providing fi�een minutes of service, and would the stenches, and the conges�on of the city that lacked thought to be spread and a more severe one in subway sta�ons that civic rights law that built over a hole in the 1849, and again in 1866. disinfect itself it’s been unoccupied a�er use. The ground. The hole would infrastructure. through sewer lines. were not always open prohibits discrimina�on public toilets considered as part of “coordinated Yellow Fever was also a 1901 for public. based on disability. eventually get covered threat. street furniture”. The plan was to include with a fresh layer of soil, 300 newsstands as well as 3,450 bus and the outhouse would 1832 i 3 shelters. be relocated. In congested 1940 Fig 9B ub es ee sce In 1934, Robert Moses, a New York was limited, the outhouses Fig 11B ee eet Public official opened 2006 structures and the waste in 145 public toilets in a the hole would be one year as part of a removed. city wide plan. Fig 6B 2018 Fig 2B 1934 1904 2001 1840s 1890 In 1904 the first By 2001, New New York was growing at an accelera�ng underground subway York had a sta�on opened. In the 1993 rate. Water supply iduring 1800 came from a well at In the Mid-1800s sewers began shortage of public twen�eth century the In the 1990, the Transgender facili�es. In 2002, Reade and Centre Streets that pumped into a reservoir being implemented in the city. In 1993, homeless popula�on in associa�on with and was distributed to communi�es through wooden By 1890s New York and public toilet started to eole bout mayor Michael R. become incorporated into 1980 the LGBT community began to Bloomberg added mains. By 1830 the popula�on of the city had increased Brooklyn had 844 miles of 1934 class-ac�on lawsuit advocate for their right to and the well water supply became insufficient and the sewers built, ending the era of the transporta�on In the middle of the twen�eth against the city for public toilets third buildings including the public services including the item on the list of water was becoming polluted. The supply was then 1849 1866 the Night Soil. In 1990, city council century however public toilets lack of public toilets 2010 1870s 1880 subway sta�ons and bus public toilet. The main issues priori�es 1800 supplemented by cisterns and water was drawn from speaker Peter F. plummeted due to crime, and and won. They The private sector has e o s coecil ub tt s The Metropolitan In 1865 state legislature passed an act that In 1880 the Board of Health passed regula�ons to 1880-Wooden storage tanks sta�ons. This also may relate to discrimina�on against In a 2010 survey other wells in the upper side of Manha�an. The demand Excrements were thrown into the lloe bout associa�on with the Aids needed access to responded to the lack of growing at an accelera�ng rate. In 1810 1819 1840s Health Act of 1866 introduced general sewage systems that oversee all new plumbing installa�ons, insuring were introduced that sat on mark the beginning of the gender and ques�oning found 129 public for water supply was increasing, in 1842 the city decided streets, o�en ending up in leaky back to city hall transmission epidemic. In public toilets. ameni�es. AirPnP allows bout ces to considered the natural water histories districts proper ven�la�on, adequate material for pipes, and roo�ops and were pumped by appearance of the public iden�ty. This issue is par�cular- toilets, of which 60 popula�on had increased from 96,000, to Once the holes were In 1819, the Common Council In the 1840s, indoor plumbing was to build an aqueduct known today as the Old Croton cesspools and contamina�ng pictures of the 1980s, the spread of Aids raised eole to ut tei toilets the city, in an effort when adding draining lines. Improvements making them accessible for repair. Sewer lines were hand, they held up to 10,000 toilet in the twen�eth ly conten�ous as opposing were unavailable, 3,437,202 in 1900. While urban areas filled, they were then prohibited the dumping of wastes limited to the wealthier, otherwise Aqueduct that had the capacity to hold 90 million local water wells that fueled the ublic toilets i hygiene concerns in the social up for rent. Other compa- to tackle issues of con�nued into the 1870s. In 1872, New York associated with sewer gases in the early 1880s, they gallons of water and symbolize century New York. groups argue that redesigning and for security popula�on was growing, there remained a emp�ed by Nightsoil into the sewage systems. Sewer people shared a toilet in a gallons per day. New reservoirs were constructed again cholera epidemic in 1849 killing Athens, demanding realm, and toilet seats were reasons usually, nies are pu�ng up public or Soilemenor systems at this point intended to common yard or hall. It isn’t un�l hygiene and commissions Manha�an Odorless Excava�ng were considered dangerous and associated with a milestone in sanita�on and public toilets to accommodate toilets in places to improve lack of fundamental infrastructure including in 1873 and 1878, and a new aqueduct was placed in 5,000 people. By the mid-19th ac�on. associated with contamina�on the transgender popula�on can transporta�on Nightsoil Men. drain or carry out storm water rather 1910 that nearly all buildings were century New York is filled with sanita�on. Company pioneered to clean up the nigh soil to carrying diseases into the home including typhoid, public health. business. service in 1890. demising the use of public be a security concern. sta�ons keep their 2018 the city has planted 1 million trees, added 300 miles e o sewage drainage and garbage pick-up. Early than waste. constructed with indoor toilets. disease outbreaks including alleviate the human waste problem. typhus, scarlet fever, cholera, dysentery and croup, toilets. further preven�ng toilets from being constructed Fig 8B Fig 10B Fig 7B-2001 toilets locked. of bike lines and plans to add 20 public toilets, of which Dutch se�lers had issues with “standing Fig 4B-1842 smallpox, yellow fever, measles, i 5 Fig 13B pools of filth in courts and alleys” as drainage and malaria. indoors. only a few have been implemented. was an issue, this cause strong stenches to fill the air among many other things. New York In the twenty first lacked infrastructure, and crea�ng sewer By 1825 the popula�on century, many digital system in developed areas in the city was In 1832 cholera had grown to 166,000. In 1847, the first In the late In an 1881 publica�on In 2015 the NYPD applica�ons have been Water was beginning to be eel see In 1863, a group led by Dr. Stephen Smith By 1869, in 10 years 1870s city laid In 1880 plumbing “Sewer-Gases and its issued 17,044 challenging. Sewage was also perceived as outbreak claimed founded the Ci�zens Associa�on of New York 1990s lack of public established, by either The night soil cart men removed the waste by 3500 vic�ms, contaminated. systems began to there had been an pipes under the fixture began to go Dangers” George Preston toilets bece cita�ons for public dangerous as it omi�ed gases and was not to address issues of public health, they addi�onal 22,000 ver�cally as buildings In 1901 the Tenement urina�on each year. government or other shoveling them into carts and disposing them in shortage of fresh be constructed. steets lloi Brown warns the dangers of Act was in place sta�ng serious issue for In 1992, the Energy welcomed indoor. The lack of infrastructure New York had become one sponsored a survey in 184 revealing the miles of rail tracks for indoor got taller, they were sewage gas associated with Policy Act was signed private par�es, of various loca�ons, including empty lots on the outskirts water, increase of added, bringing the that “In every tenement homeless people. and proper sewage caused many waterborne of the dir�est ci�es in the inequity in sanitary condi�ons throughout water supply. usually stacked, and sewers. Up un�ll this point, by the president maps denota�ng of the city or into surrounding waterways. O�en night poverty, condi�ons the city, and they launched a campaign to number up to 52,000. house here a�er By 1940 there had been 1990s Around the same JCDecaux a French company based in diseases. soil was carted off to farms to be used as fer�lizer, or of the poor world. In 1844 an es�mate 1847 ge�ng water beyond te eel cosesus o 1,676 public toilets, manda�ng new 2015 public facili�es around Fig 1B In the early nineteenth improve access to health benefits for the the 6th floor became a erected there shall be a �me there were discrimi- France but supplies interna�onally dumped into the Hudson and East River. The dumping worsened and of 800,000 cubic feet of see lies s te ssoci- separate water-closet in including ones in na�on accusa�ons from toilets to flush a the city. century, outhouses were excrements was produced, public. water pressure issue. �on with diseases. 1990s maximum of 1.6 owns street furniture franchises is used as toilets, as indoor caused intolerable stenches, and indoor toilets did not bece oe 1869 sete cot- transporta�on sta�ons. the disabled community. introduced to New York. In 2006 become the norm un�l the late nineteenth century. Up visible. Un�l the during which there had By 2008, there had The public toilets now gallons per flush. plumbing had not yet been et iti ec commissioned JCDecaux to add 20 Fig 12B un�l 1873, carts filled with raw human waste, collected twen�eth century, been two Cholera apartment.” been 1100 public toilet violated the Americans established. The Outhouse outbreaks, one in 1832 1863 public toilets. They are ac�vated by a quarter, was a temporary structure by the night-soil from homes and buildings, adding to diseases were 1881 in parks, and 468 in with Disabili�es Act. A providing fi�een minutes of service, and would the stenches, and the conges�on of the city that lacked thought to be spread and a more severe one in subway sta�ons that civic rights law that built over a hole in the 1849, and again in 1866. disinfect itself it’s been unoccupied a�er use. The ground. The hole would infrastructure. through sewer lines. were not always open prohibits discrimina�on public toilets considered as part of “coordinated Yellow Fever was also a 1901 for public. based on disability. eventually get covered threat. street furniture”. The plan was to include with a fresh layer of soil, 300 newsstands as well as 3,450 bus and the outhouse would 1832 i 3 shelters. be relocated. In congested 1940 Fig 9B ub es ee sce In 1934, Robert Moses, a New York was limited, the outhouses Fig 11B ee eet Public official opened 2006 structures and the waste in 145 public toilets in a the hole would be one year as part of a removed. city wide plan. 2018 Fig 6B Fig 2B 1934 1904 2001 1840s 1890 In 1904 the first By 2001, New New York was growing at an accelera�ng underground subway York had a sta�on opened. In the 1993 rate. Water supply iduring 1800 came from a well at In the Mid-1800s sewers began shortage of public twen�eth century the In the 1990, the Transgender facili�es. In 2002, Reade and Centre Streets that pumped into a reservoir being implemented in the city. In 1993, homeless popula�on in associa�on with and was distributed to communi�es through wooden By 1890s New York and public toilet started to eole bout mayor Michael R. become incorporated into 1980 the LGBT community began to Bloomberg added mains. By 1830 the popula�on of the city had increased Brooklyn had 844 miles of 1934 class-ac�on lawsuit advocate for their right to and the well water supply became insufficient and the sewers built, ending the era of the transporta�on In the middle of the twen�eth against the city for public toilets third buildings including the public services including the item on the list of water was becoming polluted. The supply was then 1849 1866 the Night Soil. In 1990, city council century however public toilets lack of public toilets 2010 1870s 1880 subway sta�ons and bus public toilet. The main issues priori�es 1800 supplemented by cisterns and water was drawn from speaker Peter F. plummeted due to crime, and and won. They The private sector has e o s coecil ub tt s The Metropolitan In 1865 state legislature passed an act that In 1880 the Board of Health passed regula�ons to 1880-Wooden storage tanks sta�ons. This also may relate to discrimina�on against In a 2010 survey other wells in the upper side of Manha�an. The demand Excrements were thrown into the lloe bout associa�on with the Aids needed access to responded to the lack of growing at an accelera�ng rate. In 1810 1819 1840s Health Act of 1866 introduced general sewage systems that oversee all new plumbing installa�ons, insuring were introduced that sat on mark the beginning of the gender and ques�oning found 129 public for water supply was increasing, in 1842 the city decided streets, o�en ending up in leaky back to city hall transmission epidemic. In public toilets. ameni�es. AirPnP allows bout ces to considered the natural water histories districts proper ven�la�on, adequate material for pipes, and roo�ops and were pumped by appearance of the public iden�ty. This issue is par�cular- toilets, of which 60 popula�on had increased from 96,000, to Once the holes were In 1819, the Common Council In the 1840s, indoor plumbing was to build an aqueduct known today as the Old Croton cesspools and contamina�ng pictures of the 1980s, the spread of Aids raised eole to ut tei toilets the city, in an effort when adding draining lines. Improvements making them accessible for repair. Sewer lines were hand, they held up to 10,000 toilet in the twen�eth ly conten�ous as opposing were unavailable, 3,437,202 in 1900. While urban areas filled, they were then prohibited the dumping of wastes limited to the wealthier, otherwise Aqueduct that had the capacity to hold 90 million local water wells that fueled the ublic toilets i hygiene concerns in the social up for rent. Other compa- to tackle issues of con�nued into the 1870s. In 1872, New York associated with sewer gases in the early 1880s, they gallons of water and symbolize century New York. groups argue that redesigning and for security popula�on was growing, there remained a emp�ed by Nightsoil into the sewage systems. Sewer people shared a toilet in a gallons per day. New reservoirs were constructed again cholera epidemic in 1849 killing Athens, demanding realm, and toilet seats were reasons usually, nies are pu�ng up public or Soilemenor systems at this point intended to common yard or hall. It isn’t un�l hygiene and commissions Manha�an Odorless Excava�ng were considered dangerous and associated with a milestone in sanita�on and public toilets to accommodate toilets in places to improve lack of fundamental infrastructure including in 1873 and 1878, and a new aqueduct was placed in 5,000 people. By the mid-19th ac�on. associated with contamina�on the transgender popula�on can transporta�on Nightsoil Men. drain or carry out storm water rather 1910 that nearly all buildings were century New York is filled with sanita�on. Company pioneered to clean up the nigh soil to carrying diseases into the home including typhoid, public health. business. service in 1890. demising the use of public be a security concern. sta�ons keep their 2018 the city has planted 1 million trees, added 300 miles e o sewage drainage and garbage pick-up. Early than waste. constructed with indoor toilets. disease outbreaks including alleviate the human waste problem. typhus, scarlet fever, cholera, dysentery and croup, toilets. further preven�ng toilets from being constructed Fig 8B Fig 10B Fig 7B-2001 toilets locked. of bike lines and plans to add 20 public toilets, of which Dutch se�lers had issues with “standing Fig 4B-1842 smallpox, yellow fever, measles, i 5 Fig 13B pools of filth in courts and alleys” as drainage and malaria. indoors. only a few have been implemented. was an issue, this cause strong stenches to fill the air among many other things. New York In the twenty first lacked infrastructure, and crea�ng sewer By 1825 the popula�on century, many digital system in developed areas in the city was In 1832 cholera had grown to 166,000. In 1847, the first In the late In an 1881 publica�on In 2015 the NYPD applica�ons have been Water was beginning to be eel see In 1863, a group led by Dr. Stephen Smith By 1869, in 10 years 1870s city laid In 1880 plumbing “Sewer-Gases and its issued 17,044 challenging. Sewage was also perceived as outbreak claimed founded the Ci�zens Associa�on of New York 1990s lack of public established, by either The night soil cart men removed the waste by 3500 vic�ms, contaminated. systems began to there had been an pipes under the fixture began to go Dangers” George Preston toilets bece cita�ons for public dangerous as it omi�ed gases and was not to address issues of public health, they addi�onal 22,000 ver�cally as buildings In 1901 the Tenement urina�on each year. government or other shoveling them into carts and disposing them in shortage of fresh be constructed. steets lloi Brown warns the dangers of Act was in place sta�ng serious issue for In 1992, the Energy welcomed indoor. The lack of infrastructure New York had become one sponsored a survey in 184 revealing the miles of rail tracks for indoor got taller, they were sewage gas associated with Policy Act was signed private par�es, of various loca�ons, including empty lots on the outskirts water, increase of added, bringing the that “In every tenement homeless people. and proper sewage caused many waterborne of the dir�est ci�es in the inequity in sanitary condi�ons throughout water supply. usually stacked, and sewers. Up un�ll this point, by the president maps denota�ng of the city or into surrounding waterways. O�en night poverty, condi�ons the city, and they launched a campaign to number up to 52,000. house here a�er By 1940 there had been 1990s Around the same JCDecaux a French company based in diseases. soil was carted off to farms to be used as fer�lizer, or of the poor world. In 1844 an es�mate 1847 ge�ng water beyond te eel cosesus o 1,676 public toilets, manda�ng new 2015 public facili�es around Fig 1B In the early nineteenth improve access to health benefits for the the 6th floor became a erected there shall be a �me there were discrimi- France but supplies interna�onally dumped into the Hudson and East River. The dumping worsened and of 800,000 cubic feet of see lies s te ssoci- separate water-closet in including ones in na�on accusa�ons from toilets to flush a the city. century, outhouses were excrements was produced, public. water pressure issue. �on with diseases. 1990s maximum of 1.6 owns street furniture franchises is used as toilets, as indoor caused intolerable stenches, and indoor toilets did not bece oe 1869 sete cot- transporta�on sta�ons. the disabled community. introduced to New York. In 2006 become the norm un�l the late nineteenth century. Up visible. Un�l the during which there had By 2008, there had The public toilets now gallons per flush. plumbing had not yet been et iti ec commissioned JCDecaux to add 20 Fig 12B un�l 1873, carts filled with raw human waste, collected twen�eth century, been two Cholera apartment.” been 1100 public toilet violated the Americans established. The Outhouse outbreaks, one in 1832 1863 public toilets. They are ac�vated by a quarter, was a temporary structure by the night-soil from homes and buildings, adding to diseases were 1881 in parks, and 468 in with Disabili�es Act. A providing fi�een minutes of service, and would the stenches, and the conges�on of the city that lacked thought to be spread and a more severe one in subway sta�ons that civic rights law that built over a hole in the 1849, and again in 1866. disinfect itself it’s been unoccupied a�er use. The ground. The hole would infrastructure. through sewer lines. were not always open prohibits discrimina�on public toilets considered as part of “coordinated Yellow Fever was also a 1901 for public. based on disability. eventually get covered threat. street furniture”. The plan was to include with a fresh layer of soil, 300 newsstands as well as 3,450 bus and the outhouse would 1832 i 3 shelters. be relocated. In congested 1940 Fig 9B ub es ee sce In 1934, Robert Moses, a New York was limited, the outhouses Fig 11B ee eet Public official opened 2006 structures and the waste in 145 public toilets in a the hole would be one year as part of a removed. city wide plan. Fig 6B Fig 2B 1934

2018

1904 2001 1840s 1890 In 1904 the first By 2001, New New York was growing at an accelera�ng underground subway York had a sta�on opened. In the 1993 rate. Water supply iduring 1800 came from a well at In the Mid-1800s sewers began shortage of public twen�eth century the In the 1990, the Transgender facili�es. In 2002, Reade and Centre Streets that pumped into a reservoir being implemented in the city. In 1993, homeless popula�on in associa�on with and was distributed to communi�es through wooden By 1890s New York and public toilet started to eole bout mayor Michael R. become incorporated into 1980 the LGBT community began to Bloomberg added mains. By 1830 the popula�on of the city had increased Brooklyn had 844 miles of 1934 class-ac�on lawsuit advocate for their right to and the well water supply became insufficient and the sewers built, ending the era of the transporta�on In the middle of the twen�eth against the city for public toilets third buildings including the public services including the item on the list of water was becoming polluted. The supply was then 1849 1866 the Night Soil. In 1990, city council century however public toilets lack of public toilets 2010 1870s 1880 subway sta�ons and bus public toilet. The main issues priori�es 1800 supplemented by cisterns and water was drawn from speaker Peter F. plummeted due to crime, and and won. They The private sector has e o s coecil ub tt s The Metropolitan In 1865 state legislature passed an act that In 1880 the Board of Health passed regula�ons to 1880-Wooden storage tanks sta�ons. This also may relate to discrimina�on against In a 2010 survey other wells in the upper side of Manha�an. The demand Excrements were thrown into the lloe bout associa�on with the Aids needed access to responded to the lack of growing at an accelera�ng rate. In 1810 1819 1840s Health Act of 1866 introduced general sewage systems that oversee all new plumbing installa�ons, insuring were introduced that sat on mark the beginning of the gender and ques�oning found 129 public for water supply was increasing, in 1842 the city decided streets, o�en ending up in leaky back to city hall transmission epidemic. In public toilets. ameni�es. AirPnP allows bout ces to considered the natural water histories districts proper ven�la�on, adequate material for pipes, and roo�ops and were pumped by appearance of the public iden�ty. This issue is par�cular- toilets, of which 60 popula�on had increased from 96,000, to Once the holes were In 1819, the Common Council In the 1840s, indoor plumbing was to build an aqueduct known today as the Old Croton cesspools and contamina�ng pictures of the 1980s, the spread of Aids raised eole to ut tei toilets the city, in an effort when adding draining lines. Improvements making them accessible for repair. Sewer lines were hand, they held up to 10,000 toilet in the twen�eth ly conten�ous as opposing were unavailable, 3,437,202 in 1900. While urban areas filled, they were then prohibited the dumping of wastes limited to the wealthier, otherwise Aqueduct that had the capacity to hold 90 million local water wells that fueled the ublic toilets i hygiene concerns in the social up for rent. Other compa- to tackle issues of con�nued into the 1870s. In 1872, New York associated with sewer gases in the early 1880s, they gallons of water and symbolize century New York. groups argue that redesigning and for security popula�on was growing, there remained a emp�ed by Nightsoil into the sewage systems. Sewer people shared a toilet in a gallons per day. New reservoirs were constructed again cholera epidemic in 1849 killing Athens, demanding realm, and toilet seats were reasons usually, nies are pu�ng up public or Soilemenor systems at this point intended to common yard or hall. It isn’t un�l hygiene and commissions Manha�an Odorless Excava�ng were considered dangerous and associated with a milestone in sanita�on and public toilets to accommodate toilets in places to improve lack of fundamental infrastructure including in 1873 and 1878, and a new aqueduct was placed in 5,000 people. By the mid-19th ac�on. associated with contamina�on the transgender popula�on can transporta�on Nightsoil Men. drain or carry out storm water rather 1910 that nearly all buildings were century New York is filled with sanita�on. Company pioneered to clean up the nigh soil to carrying diseases into the home including typhoid, public health. business. service in 1890. demising the use of public be a security concern. sta�ons keep their 2018 the city has planted 1 million trees, added 300 miles e o sewage drainage and garbage pick-up. Early than waste. constructed with indoor toilets. disease outbreaks including alleviate the human waste problem. typhus, scarlet fever, cholera, dysentery and croup, toilets. further preven�ng toilets from being constructed Fig 8B Fig 10B Fig 7B-2001 toilets locked. of bike lines and plans to add 20 public toilets, of which Dutch se�lers had issues with “standing Fig 4B-1842 smallpox, yellow fever, measles, i 5 Fig 13B pools of filth in courts and alleys” as drainage and malaria. indoors. only a few have been implemented. was an issue, this cause strong stenches to fill the air among many other things. New York In the twenty first lacked infrastructure, and crea�ng sewer By 1825 the popula�on century, many digital system in developed areas in the city was In 1832 cholera had grown to 166,000. In 1847, the first In the late In an 1881 publica�on In 2015 the NYPD applica�ons have been Water was beginning to be eel see In 1863, a group led by Dr. Stephen Smith By 1869, in 10 years 1870s city laid In 1880 plumbing “Sewer-Gases and its issued 17,044 challenging. Sewage was also perceived as outbreak claimed founded the Ci�zens Associa�on of New York 1990s lack of public established, by either The night soil cart men removed the waste by 3500 vic�ms, contaminated. systems began to there had been an pipes under the fixture began to go Dangers” George Preston toilets bece cita�ons for public dangerous as it omi�ed gases and was not to address issues of public health, they addi�onal 22,000 ver�cally as buildings In 1901 the Tenement urina�on each year. government or other shoveling them into carts and disposing them in shortage of fresh be constructed. steets lloi Brown warns the dangers of Act was in place sta�ng serious issue for In 1992, the Energy welcomed indoor. The lack of infrastructure New York had become one sponsored a survey in 184 revealing the miles of rail tracks for indoor got taller, they were sewage gas associated with Policy Act was signed private par�es, of various loca�ons, including empty lots on the outskirts water, increase of added, bringing the that “In every tenement homeless people. and proper sewage caused many waterborne of the dir�est ci�es in the inequity in sanitary condi�ons throughout water supply. usually stacked, and sewers. Up un�ll this point, by the president maps denota�ng of the city or into surrounding waterways. O�en night poverty, condi�ons the city, and they launched a campaign to number up to 52,000. house here a�er By 1940 there had been 1990s Around the same JCDecaux a French company based in diseases. soil was carted off to farms to be used as fer�lizer, or of the poor world. In 1844 an es�mate 1847 ge�ng water beyond te eel cosesus o 1,676 public toilets, manda�ng new 2015 public facili�es around Fig 1B In the early nineteenth improve access to health benefits for the the 6th floor became a erected there shall be a �me there were discrimi- France but supplies interna�onally dumped into the Hudson and East River. The dumping worsened and of 800,000 cubic feet of see lies s te ssoci- separate water-closet in including ones in na�on accusa�ons from toilets to flush a the city. century, outhouses were excrements was produced, public. water pressure issue. �on with diseases. 1990s maximum of 1.6 owns street furniture franchises is used as toilets, as indoor caused intolerable stenches, and indoor toilets did not bece oe 1869 sete cot- transporta�on sta�ons. the disabled community. introduced to New York. In 2006 become the norm un�l the late nineteenth century. Up visible. Un�l the during which there had By 2008, there had The public toilets now gallons per flush. plumbing had not yet been et iti ec commissioned JCDecaux to add 20 Fig 12B un�l 1873, carts filled with raw human waste, collected twen�eth century, been two Cholera apartment.” been 1100 public toilet violated the Americans established. The Outhouse outbreaks, one in 1832 1863 public toilets. They are ac�vated by a quarter, was a temporary structure by the night-soil from homes and buildings, adding to diseases were 1881 in parks, and 468 in with Disabili�es Act. A providing fi�een minutes of service, and would the stenches, and the conges�on of the city that lacked thought to be spread and a more severe one in subway sta�ons that civic rights law that built over a hole in the 1849, and again in 1866. disinfect itself it’s been unoccupied a�er use. The ground. The hole would infrastructure. through sewer lines. were not always open prohibits discrimina�on public toilets considered as part of “coordinated Yellow Fever was also a 1901 for public. based on disability. eventually get covered threat. street furniture”. The plan was to include with a fresh layer of soil, 300 newsstands as well as 3,450 bus and the outhouse would 1832 i 3 shelters. be relocated. In congested 1940 Fig 9B ub es ee sce In 1934, Robert Moses, a New York was limited, the outhouses Fig 11B ee eet Public official opened 2006 structures and the waste in 145 public toilets in a the hole would be one year as part of a 2018 removed. city wide plan. Fig 6B Fig 2B 1934 1904 2001 1840s 1890 In 1904 the first By 2001, New New York was growing at an accelera�ng underground subway York had a sta�on opened. In the 1993 rate. Water supply iduring 1800 came from a well at In the Mid-1800s sewers began shortage of public twen�eth century the In the 1990, the Transgender facili�es. In 2002, Reade and Centre Streets that pumped into a reservoir being implemented in the city. In 1993, homeless popula�on in associa�on with and was distributed to communi�es through wooden By 1890s New York and public toilet started to eole bout mayor Michael R. become incorporated into 1980 the LGBT community began to Bloomberg added mains. By 1830 the popula�on of the city had increased Brooklyn had 844 miles of 1934 class-ac�on lawsuit advocate for their right to and the well water supply became insufficient and the sewers built, ending the era of the transporta�on In the middle of the twen�eth against the city for public toilets third buildings including the public services including the item on the list of water was becoming polluted. The supply was then 1849 1866 the Night Soil. In 1990, city council century however public toilets lack of public toilets 2010 1870s 1880 subway sta�ons and bus public toilet. The main issues priori�es 1800 supplemented by cisterns and water was drawn from speaker Peter F. plummeted due to crime, and and won. They The private sector has e o s coecil ub tt s The Metropolitan In 1865 state legislature passed an act that In 1880 the Board of Health passed regula�ons to 1880-Wooden storage tanks sta�ons. This also may relate to discrimina�on against In a 2010 survey other wells in the upper side of Manha�an. The demand Excrements were thrown into the lloe bout associa�on with the Aids needed access to responded to the lack of growing at an accelera�ng rate. In 1810 1819 1840s Health Act of 1866 introduced general sewage systems that oversee all new plumbing installa�ons, insuring were introduced that sat on mark the beginning of the gender and ques�oning found 129 public for water supply was increasing, in 1842 the city decided streets, o�en ending up in leaky back to city hall transmission epidemic. In public toilets. ameni�es. AirPnP allows bout ces to considered the natural water histories districts proper ven�la�on, adequate material for pipes, and roo�ops and were pumped by appearance of the public iden�ty. This issue is par�cular- toilets, of which 60 popula�on had increased from 96,000, to Once the holes were In 1819, the Common Council In the 1840s, indoor plumbing was to build an aqueduct known today as the Old Croton cesspools and contamina�ng pictures of the 1980s, the spread of Aids raised eole to ut tei toilets the city, in an effort when adding draining lines. Improvements making them accessible for repair. Sewer lines were hand, they held up to 10,000 toilet in the twen�eth ly conten�ous as opposing were unavailable, 3,437,202 in 1900. While urban areas filled, they were then prohibited the dumping of wastes limited to the wealthier, otherwise Aqueduct that had the capacity to hold 90 million local water wells that fueled the ublic toilets i hygiene concerns in the social up for rent. Other compa- to tackle issues of con�nued into the 1870s. In 1872, New York associated with sewer gases in the early 1880s, they gallons of water and symbolize century New York. groups argue that redesigning and for security popula�on was growing, there remained a emp�ed by Nightsoil into the sewage systems. Sewer people shared a toilet in a gallons per day. New reservoirs were constructed again cholera epidemic in 1849 killing Athens, demanding realm, and toilet seats were reasons usually, nies are pu�ng up public or Soilemenor systems at this point intended to common yard or hall. It isn’t un�l hygiene and commissions Manha�an Odorless Excava�ng were considered dangerous and associated with a milestone in sanita�on and public toilets to accommodate toilets in places to improve lack of fundamental infrastructure including in 1873 and 1878, and a new aqueduct was placed in 5,000 people. By the mid-19th ac�on. associated with contamina�on the transgender popula�on can transporta�on Nightsoil Men. drain or carry out storm water rather 1910 that nearly all buildings were century New York is filled with sanita�on. Company pioneered to clean up the nigh soil to carrying diseases into the home including typhoid, public health. business. service in 1890. demising the use of public be a security concern. sta�ons keep their 2018 the city has planted 1 million trees, added 300 miles e o sewage drainage and garbage pick-up. Early than waste. constructed with indoor toilets. disease outbreaks including alleviate the human waste problem. typhus, scarlet fever, cholera, dysentery and croup, toilets. further preven�ng toilets from being constructed Fig 8B Fig 10B Fig 7B-2001 toilets locked. of bike lines and plans to add 20 public toilets, of which Dutch se�lers had issues with “standing Fig 4B-1842 smallpox, yellow fever, measles, i 5 Fig 13B pools of filth in courts and alleys” as drainage and malaria. indoors. only a few have been implemented. was an issue, this cause strong stenches to fill the air among many other things. New York In the twenty first lacked infrastructure, and crea�ng sewer By 1825 the popula�on century, many digital system in developed areas in the city was In 1832 cholera had grown to 166,000. In 1847, the first In the late In an 1881 publica�on In 2015 the NYPD applica�ons have been Water was beginning to be eel see In 1863, a group led by Dr. Stephen Smith By 1869, in 10 years 1870s city laid In 1880 plumbing “Sewer-Gases and its issued 17,044 challenging. Sewage was also perceived as outbreak claimed founded the Ci�zens Associa�on of New York 1990s lack of public established, by either The night soil cart men removed the waste by 3500 vic�ms, contaminated. systems began to there had been an pipes under the fixture began to go Dangers” George Preston toilets bece cita�ons for public dangerous as it omi�ed gases and was not to address issues of public health, they addi�onal 22,000 ver�cally as buildings In 1901 the Tenement urina�on each year. government or other shoveling them into carts and disposing them in shortage of fresh be constructed. steets lloi Brown warns the dangers of Act was in place sta�ng serious issue for In 1992, the Energy welcomed indoor. The lack of infrastructure New York had become one sponsored a survey in 184 revealing the miles of rail tracks for indoor got taller, they were sewage gas associated with Policy Act was signed private par�es, of various loca�ons, including empty lots on the outskirts water, increase of added, bringing the that “In every tenement homeless people. and proper sewage caused many waterborne of the dir�est ci�es in the inequity in sanitary condi�ons throughout water supply. usually stacked, and sewers. Up un�ll this point, by the president maps denota�ng of the city or into surrounding waterways. O�en night poverty, condi�ons the city, and they launched a campaign to number up to 52,000. house here a�er By 1940 there had been 1990s Around the same JCDecaux a French company based in diseases. soil was carted off to farms to be used as fer�lizer, or of the poor world. In 1844 an es�mate 1847 ge�ng water beyond te eel cosesus o 1,676 public toilets, manda�ng new 2015 public facili�es around Fig 1B In the early nineteenth improve access to health benefits for the the 6th floor became a erected there shall be a �me there were discrimi- France but supplies interna�onally dumped into the Hudson and East River. The dumping worsened and of 800,000 cubic feet of see lies s te ssoci- separate water-closet in including ones in na�on accusa�ons from toilets to flush a the city. century, outhouses were excrements was produced, public. water pressure issue. �on with diseases. 1990s maximum of 1.6 owns street furniture franchises is used as toilets, as indoor caused intolerable stenches, and indoor toilets did not bece oe 1869 sete cot- transporta�on sta�ons. the disabled community. introduced to New York. In 2006 become the norm un�l the late nineteenth century. Up visible. Un�l the during which there had By 2008, there had The public toilets now gallons per flush. plumbing had not yet been et iti ec commissioned JCDecaux to add 20 Fig 12B un�l 1873, carts filled with raw human waste, collected twen�eth century, been two Cholera apartment.” been 1100 public toilet violated the Americans established. The Outhouse outbreaks, one in 1832 1863 public toilets. They are ac�vated by a quarter, was a temporary structure by the night-soil from homes and buildings, adding to diseases were 1881 in parks, and 468 in with Disabili�es Act. A providing fi�een minutes of service, and would the stenches, and the conges�on of the city that lacked thought to be spread and a more severe one in subway sta�ons that civic rights law that built over a hole in the 1849, and again in 1866. disinfect itself it’s been unoccupied a�er use. The ground. The hole would infrastructure. through sewer lines. were not always open prohibits discrimina�on public toilets considered as part of “coordinated Yellow Fever was also a 1901 for public. based on disability. eventually get covered threat. street furniture”. The plan was to include with a fresh layer of soil, 300 newsstands as well as 3,450 bus and the outhouse would 1832 i 3 shelters. be relocated. In congested 1940 Fig 9B ub es ee sce In 1934, Robert Moses, a New York was limited, the outhouses Fig 11B ee eet Public official opened 2006 structures and the waste in 145 public toilets in a the hole would be one year as part of a removed. city wide plan. Fig 6B Fig 2B 1934 32 Analysis New York

[H]New York was a commercial hub that was [D] In the early nineteenth century, outhouses growing at an accelerating rate. In 1810 popu- were used as toilets, as indoor plumbing had lation had increased from 96,000, to 3,437,202 not yet been established. The Outhouse was in 1900. While urban areas population was a temporary structure built over a hole in the growing, there remained a lack of fundamen- ground. The hole would eventually get covered tal infrastructure including sewage drainage with a fresh layer of soil, and the outhouse and garbage pick-up. Early Dutch settlers had would be relocated. In congested urban areas issues with “standing pools of filth in courts where space was limited, the outhouses were and alleys” as drainage was an issue, this cause permanent structures and the waste in the strong stenches to fill the air among many oth- hole would be removed. er things. New York lacked infrastructure, and creating sewer system in developed areas in the city was challenging. Sewage was also perceived as dangerous as it omitted gases and was not welcomed indoor. The lack of infrastructure and proper sewage caused many waterborne diseases.

Fig 2B

[P] Once the holes were filled, they were then emptied by Nightsoil or Soilmen or Nightsoil Men.

[H] The night soil cart men removed the waste by shoveling them into carts and disposing them in various locations, including empty lots on the outskirts of the city or into surrounding waterways. Often night soil was carted off to farms to be used as fertilizer, or dumped into the Hudson and East River. The dumping caused intolerable stenches, and indoor toilets did not become the norm until the late nineteenth century. Up until 1873, carts filled with raw human waste, collected by the nightsoil from homes and buildings, adding to the Fig 1B stenches, and the congestion of the city that 33 lacked infrastructure. Analysis New York

[P] In 1819, the Common Council prohibited [H]New York was growing at an accelerating the dumping of wastes into the sewage sys- rate. Water supply during the 1800s came tems. Sewer systems at this point intended from a well at Reade and Centre Streets that to drain or carry out storm water rather than pumped into a reservoir and was distributed waste. to communities through wooden mains. By 1830 the population of the city had increased [H] In 1832 cholera outbreak claimed 3500 vic- and the well water supply became insufficient tims, shortage of fresh water, increase of pov- and the water was becoming polluted. The erty, conditions of the poor worsened and be- supply was then supplemented by cisterns and came more visible. Until the twentieth century, water was drawn from other wells in the up- diseases were thought to be spread through per side of Manhattan. The demand for water sewer lines. supply was increasing, in 1842 the city decided to build an aqueduct known today as the Old [P] In the 1840s, indoor plumbing was limit- Croton Aqueduct that had the capacity to hold ed to the wealthier, otherwise people shared 90 million gallons per day. New reservoirs were a toilet in a common yard or hall. It isn’t until constructed again in 1873 and 1878, and a new 1910 that nearly all buildings were constructed aqueduct was placed in service in 1890. with indoor toilets.

[H] By 1825 the population had grown to 166,000. Water was beginning to be contaminated.

[H] New York had become one of the dirtiest cities in the world. In 1844 an estimate of 800,000 cubic feet of excrements was produced, during which there had been two Chol- era outbreaks, one in 1832 and a more severe Fig 3.1 one in 1849, and again in 1866. Yellow Fever was also a threat. [P] In 1847, the first general sewage systems began to be constructed.

[H] Excrements were thrown into the streets, often ending up in leaky cesspools and contaminating local water wells that fueled the cholera epidemic in 1849 killing 5,000 people. By the mid-19th century New York is filled with disease outbreaks including smallpox, yellow fever, measles, and malaria.

Fig 3B 34 Analysis New York

[P] In 1863, a group led by Dr. Stephen Smith [H] In 1880 plumbing fixture began to go ver- founded the Citizens Association of New York tically as buildings got taller, they were usual- to address issues of public health, they spon- ly stacked, and getting water beyond the 6th sored a survey in 184 revealing the inequity in floor became a water pressure issue. sanitary conditions throughout the city, and they launched a campaign to improve access [H] Also in 1880s, Wooden storage tanks were to health benefits for the public. introduced that sat on rooftops and were pumped by hand, they held up to 10,000 gal- [H] The Metropolitan Health Act of 1866 lons of water and symbolize a milestone in san- brought changes to the city, in an effort to tack- itation and public health. le issues of hygiene and sanitation. [H] In an 1881 publication “Sewer-Gases and [H] By 1869, in 10 years there had been an its Dangers” George Preston Brown warns the additional 22,000 miles of rail tracks added, dangers of sewage gas associated with sewers. bringing the number up to 52,000. Up until this point, the general consensus on sewage lines was the association with diseases. [P] In 1865 state legislature passed an act that introduced general sewage systems that con- [H] In the Mid-1800s sewers began being im- sidered the natural water histories districts plemented in the city. By 1890s New York and when adding draining lines. Improvements Brooklyn had 844 miles of sewers built, ending continued into the 1870s. In 1872, New York the era of the Night Soil. commissions Manhattan Odorless Excavating Company pioneered to clean up the nigh soil [H] In 1901 the Tenement Act was in place stat- to alleviate the human waste problem. ing that “In every tenement house here after erected there shall be a separate water-closet [H] In the late 1870s city laid pipes under the in a separate compartment within each apart- streets allowing for indoor water supply. ment.”

[P] In 1880 the Board of Health passed regula- tions to oversee all new plumbing installations, insuring proper ventilation, adequate material for pipes, and making them accessible for repair. Sewer lines were associated with sewer gases in the early 1880s, they were considered dangerous and associated with carrying diseases into the home including typhoid, typhus, scarlet fever, cholera, dysentery and croup, further preventing toilets from being constructed indoors.

35 Analysis New York

[D] In 1904 the first underground subway station opened. In the twentieth century the public toilet started to become incorporated into the transportation buildings including the subway stations and bus stations. This also may mark the beginning of the appearance of the public toilet in the twentieth century New York.

Fig 5B

[D] In 1934, Robert Moses, a New York Public official opened 145 public toilets in a one year as part of a city wide plan.

Fig 6B 36 Analysis New York

[P] In 1990, city council speaker Peter F. Vallone [P] In the 1990s around the same time there brought back to city hall pictures of the public were discrimination accusations from the dis- toilets in Athens, demanding action. abled community. The public toilets now violated the Americans with Disabilities Act. A civil [D] By 1940 there had been 1,676 public toi- rights law that prohibits discrimination based lets, including ones in transportation stations. on disability. By 2008, there had been 1100 public toilet in parks, and 468 in subway stations that were not always open for public.

[H] In the middle of the twentieth century however public toilets plummeted due to crime, and association with the Aids transmission epidemic. In 1980s, the spread of Aids raised hygiene concerns in the social realm, and toilet seats were associated with contamination demising the use of public toilets.

[H] 1990s lack of public toilets became a serious issue for homeless people.

[P] In 1993, homeless people brought a Fig 9B class-action lawsuit against the city for lack of public toilets and won. They needed access to [P] In the 1990, the Transgender population in public toilets. association with the LGBT community began to advocate for their right to public services including the public toilet. The main issues relate to discrimination against gender and questioning identity. This issue is particularly contentious as opposing groups argue that redesigning public toilets to accommodate the Transgender population can be a security concern.

Fig 8B

37 Fig 10B Analysis New York

[P] In 1992, the Energy Policy Act was signed by [D] The private sector has responded to the the president mandating new toilets to flush a lack of amenities. AirPnP allows people to put maximum of 1.6 gallons per flush. their toilets up for rent. Other companies are putting up public toilets in places to improve [D] By 2001, New York had a shortage of public business. facilities. In 2002, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg added public toilets third item on the list of pri- [D] In the twenty first century, many digital orities. applications have been established, by either government or other private parties, of maps denotation of public facilities around the city. [H] 2018 the city has planted 1 million trees, added 300 miles of bike lines and plans to add 20 public toilets, of which only a few have been implemented.

Fig 7B

[D] JCDecaux a French company based in France but supplies internationally owns street furniture franchises is introduced to New York. In 2006 commissioned JCDecaux to add 20 public toilets. They are activated by a quarter, providing fifteen minutes of service, and would disinfect itself it’s been unoccupied after use. The public toilets considered as part of “coordi- Fig 13B nated street furniture”. The plan was to include 300 newsstands as well as 3,450 bus shelters.

[H] In a 2010 survey found 129 public toilets, of which 60 were unavailable, and for security reasons usually, transportation stations keep their toilets locked.

[P] In 2015 the NYPD issued 17,044 citations for public urination each year.

38 Conclusion

The landscape in which the public toilet exists Identifying the three focusses of policy,- hy today has shifted immensely from where it ini- giene, and design, revealed the minimal role tially started as in the nineteenth century, and in which the architect plays in the life of the where it stands today. public toilet. Reflecting on the timelines, the role of the architect has been an ebb and flow Analysis of the Timelines identified the shifting in the conversation about access. In order to social values of the public toilet, as well as pol- identify hybridized solution systems for some icy cycles, identifying instances where the pub- of the issues would require architectural plan lic toilet has either informed or been informed solutions. Architecture needs to be drawn back by collective social values and changes. The re- as a primary tool in working towards resolu- search took on a more urban inquiry as it per- tions for some of the issues of identity politics tains to larger urban issues that directly relate and access. to the architectural space.

The primary findings in the research is that each of the cities, London, Paris, and New York share many commonalities regarding the architecture, but vary in terms of policy change as it relates to social dynamics, and reflects on each of the politics of providing public amenities. The research also reveals political implication through a top-down and bottom-up imple- mentation approach, which in some instances works in favor of promoting the public toilets, and in other instances does not. The Public toilet in New York is a more privatized embedded condition, where the infrastructure is still lacking today; whereas the public toilet in Paris is at the other end, embedded in a top down policy approach. Public toilets in London are a hybridized network of public and private provision. Cities with similar condition can benefit from hybridized solutions system being implemented in different parts of the world.

39 References Primary

Kira, A. (1996,1997). The Bathroom. New York: The Viking Press. Douglas, M. (1966). Purity and Danger. London and New York: Routledge Classics. George, R. (2008). The Big Necessity-The Unmentionable World of Human Waste and Why It Matters. New York: Metropolitan Bookd Henry Holt and Company. Greed, C. (2003). Inclusive Urban Design: Public Toilets. Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford: Architectural Press. Anthony, K. H. (2001). Designing for Diversity. Urbana And Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Cavanagh, S. L. (2010). Queering Bathrooms . Toronto Buffalo London: University of Toronto Press. Hudson, T. &. (1991). The City Shaped. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. Noren, H. M. (2010). Toilet, Public Restrooms and the Politics of Sharing. New York and London: New York University Press. Olga Gershenson and Barbara Penner. (2009). Ladies And Gents. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Penner, B. (2013). Bathroom. London: Reaktion Books Ltd. Haslam, N. (2012). Psychology in the Bathroom. Melbourne: University of Melbourne, Australia. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case Study Research Design and Methods. London/New Delhi: SAGE Publications. Andrzej and Robinson. (2001). The Discipline of Architecture. Minneapolis/London: Univesity of Minnesota Press. Dipiazza, F. D. (2015). Koolhaas, AMO, Harvard Graduate School of Design. (2014). Elements-Toilet. Marsilio.

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