XIV. Background to the 16Th Century Reformation

XIV. Background to the 16th Century Reformation

A. Providential Preparations

1. Invention/innovations a. 1302 - Mariner’s compass: thirst for knowledge of the world beyond b. gunpowder: 1453, Turks blast their way into Byzantium c. 1446 - Gutenberg’s printing press

2. Renaissance a. Literary --jabs at papacy: Dante’s Divine Comedy (1320); Bocaccio’s Decameron, Erasmus’ In Praise of Folly (1511) --thirst for academic freedom vs. lockstep submission to establishment thinking --flood of Greek mss into the west after 1453 (renaissance study of humanities) --renewed study of biblical literature and patristic writings b. Growing national independence

3. Reformation seeds a. sporadic undermining of papacy --Babylonian captivity, Great Schism --Counciliar movement supported by universities --growing mystical movements oppose outward ceremonies b. “blood of the martyrs”

B. Renaissance Popes

1. Julius II (1503-13) a. “Warrior Pope” --freed papal states and evicted French from Italy b. legacy --separated private and business life; filled treasury --called significant Lateran V Council at his death --Julius reaffirms “Unam Sanctum” and adds death penalty c. Julius Excluded, phps by Erasmus

2. Leo X (1513-21)

a. second son of Lorenzo de Medici; priest at age 7, cardinal at 14 b. style --worldly; bankrupted 3 papacies: “Now that God has given us the papacy, let us enjoy it!” --nepotist --one of few popes with chaste reputation

C. Early “Christian Humanists”

* 1. Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536), the greatest Christian Humanist

a. early years --illegitimate child of a Dutch priest, he was educated in Germany by Brethren of Common Life --became an Augustinian monk and priest

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.1 b. literary activity: most eloquent Latin writer since Augustine -new translations of the church fathers -In Praise of Folly (1511) -4 editions of the Greek NT (1516ff.) - Freedom of the Will, his humanist manifesto

2. Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) a. training: Brethren of Common Life and major Universities b. linguist -- “the triple-tongued Reuchlin” per Erasmus --Hebraist who produced first Hebrew grammar --persecuted by Inquisition which had proscribed Hebrew Scriptures in 1505

D. Apostasy in the Roman Church

1. Corruptions: simony, pluralism, absenteeism, worldliness

2. Superstitions: mariolatry, worship of saints and relics, mass

3. Arrogation of supreme powers over the souls of men, papal infallibility, keys to heaven thru mass and indulgences

4. Misdirection and corruption of many monastic orders: “some monks were not ashamed to do what the devil would blush at.”

E. Climate of the times

1. Spiritual --little clear expression of the Gospel

2. Political a. Present danger for reformers b. Young Emperor Charles V accedes in 1520 in face of Turkish imperialism

XV. Martin Luther (1483-1546) and the German Reformation

A. Before the Reformation breaks out

1. parentage and childhood a. born in Eisleben, 11/10/83 of peasant parents b. stern discipline

2. Education a. primary: Mansfeld “sheer hell and purgatory” b. secondary: Magdeburg by Bros. of Common Life c. college prep.: Eisenach -bootstrap approach + parental help d. college: University of Erfurt, the premier German Univ. “all others were primary schools in comparison” 1) studies --influence of Ockham’s thought: strip away assumptions

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.2 -critical of “Aristotle, that rancid philosopher!” --law, philosophy, classics --introduction to the Bible 2) degrees 1502: B.A. 1505: M.A. 1512: Th.D.

3. An Augustinian Monk a. growing concern for his own soul 1) frivolous lifestyle 2) view of God as an angry and jealous judge “we were all taught that we must make satisfaction for our sins, and that Christ at the last day would demand how we had atoned for our sins and how many good works we had done” -Table Talk 3) death of a friend b. eruption of spiritual struggles in a lightning storm --“St Anne, help me! I’ll become a monk!” c. Augustinian monastery at Erfurt (1505ff.) 1) chosen over 7 other monasteries there 2) father’s anger 3) exemplary novice and monk “If ever a monk could have gotten to heaven by monkery, I could have gotten there.” 4) exposed to Latin Bible 5) 1507: ordained to the priesthood

4. Johann von Staupitz, D.D. (d. 1524) a. Augustinian vicar-general for Germany --close to Elector Frederich of Saxony b. personal piety --wrote “On the Love of God” --1518 c. interest in Luther who is made District Vicar d. estranged from Luther in 1520’s --felt works plus faith necessary

5. Wittenburg a. Frederich’s new university --opened 1502 --Luther came in 1508 --Staupitz, monastery, and Spalatin connections b. 1509 = Lecturer on Sentences and the Bible c. 1512, Doctor of Theology earned d. University position: Prof. of Exposition of the Scriptures, 1513-1519 Psalms (1st book on Penitential Psalms later in 1517) Romans Galatians - “my wife” Hebrews and Titus

6. Trip to Rome (1510-1511) a. witness of religious schizophrenia 1) abuses

2) blind zeal: ran “like a crazy saint” thru all the churches, crypts, and catacombs; scala sancta; wished parents were dead

b. abiding loyalty to mother Rome, but confused

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.3 7. Luther’s conversion, ca. 1512-1518 a. Romans 1:17 -- the heart of the German Reformation b. Schaff, VII:123

8. First attempt at reformation, September 4, 1517 = 97 Theses: Influence of Aristotle over Bible is wrong; sola scriptura

B. Indulgence Controversy

1. Background a. Crusades indulgences -- Urban II b. earlier, monetary penalties allowed barbarians who could not fulfill canonical penances c. Sixtus IV (1477), builder of Cistine Chapel --Proxy penances for those in purgatory

2. Albert’s (Albrecht) indulgence a. Already held two archbishoprics when he bought Electorship of Mainz with its archbishopric for 10,000 dukats b. To finance the building of St. Peter’s Cathedral, Pope Leo X indemnifies Albert with a new sweeping indulgence -past, present, future sins covered -ticket straight to heaven if enough $ c. political resistance to indulgences

* 3. Enter Tetzel a. eloquent Dominican monk “as soon as the coin in the coffer rings, a soul from purgatory springs!” b. Luther’s view “I’ll put a hole in his drum!” --felt that hucksters were misrepresenting the pope

* 4. 95 Theses - October 31, 1517 a. All Saints’ Day = November 1 b. Luther struck while the iron was hot c. Essence: 1) Christian life is one of continual repentance 2) Pope has no more spiritual authority than priests 3) if Pope can forgive all sins, why does he not empty purgatory out of love, and not for money 4) the true treasure of the church is the gospel

d. shot heard around the world 1) rapid dissemination of theses 2) indulgences slow to a trickle e. Luther’s limited intentions “I was then a monk and a mad papist, ready to murder any person that denied the Pope.”

C. Reformation -- 1518-1520

1. How the upstart Reformer succeeded when other Reformers had failed a. widespread public sympathy

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.4 1) 97 and 95 theses vindicated by Luther’s chapter of Augustinians, April & May 1518 --Augustinian Martin Bucer impressed 2) a man of the common people b. pope slow to see the danger c. Luther changed gradually; not seen as radical revolutionary d. had support of his Protector, Frederich the Wise --1519, Emperor Maximillian dies. Pope wants vote of Elector Frederich, who is also the inter-regnary regent

2. Early opposition came from the papal palace and from RC theology professors at German universities. Tetzel went on to earn a Th.D in rebutting Luther’s theses. From 1517-1519 Luther debated some of these papal emissaries and handily refuted each.

3. Three significant writings of 1520 that cast the die of the German Reformation --altho refinements were yet to come, Luther had worked out most of his theological outlines by 1520

a. “Appeal to the German Nobles” 1) rejected 3 shields of papal supremacy: -church over the state -papal prerogative of interpreting Scripture - papal prerogative of calling councils 2) called for confiscation of church properties

b. “Babylonian Captivity of the Church” 1) attacked R.C. priesthood 2) only 2 sacraments and no mass

c. “On the Liberty of the Christian Man” 1) individual priesthood of believers w/ Bible as only guide of the conscience “A Christian man is the most free lord of all and subject to none; a Christian man is the most dutiful servant of all, and subject to everyone.” 2) Ideas unintentionally set stage for the Peasants’ Revolt (1524)

* 4. Exurge Domine = Bull of excommunication (June 15, 1520) a. 41 errors of Luther cited as heresy - 60 days to recant b. December 10, 1520, following burnings of Luther’s writings, Luther publicly burns the bull c. January 3, 1521, Luther consigned to hell

D. Diet of Worms, April 1521

1. Background

2. Summons and journey a. Luther’s desire for an open hearing b. safe conduct granted by Emperor

3. Luther on trial a. first appearance: 2 questions only b. second appearance, April 18, 1521 1) L. defended 3 groups of writings =devotional

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.5 =anti-papacy =anti-individuals 2) “Here I stand; I can do no other. God help me. Amen.”

4. Results a. Philip of Hesse won over to Luther b. safe conduct honored c. Luther kidnapped by Frederich’s knights 1) assassination plots in the wind 2) Albrect Durer prays for another holy man of God “Luther was a true confessor of the Christian faith.”

E. Wartburg Castle, May 1521–March 1522

1. Lifestyle a. Knight: “Junker George from the Isle of Patmos” b. boredom and sumptuous food

2. Writings a. correspondence, Easter sermons b. three months on the German NT 1) based on Vulgate and 2nd edition of Erasmus’ Greek text 2) popularized “High German” 3) Epistle of James included in all editions 4) paraphrase of Apocrypha

3. Troubling developments back home a. Carlstadt’s radical agitation 1) iconoclasm 2) anti-papal vestiges --monastic orders --celibacy --fast days 3) misguided attempt toward atavism (i.e., primitive Christianity) --“Brother Andrew” --no paedo-baptism --anti-theology b. three “prophets” from Zwickau --mystic revelations from God and Gabriel c. no political oversight

F. Luther at Wittenburg, 1522-25

1. Order restored: Reformation vs. revolution a. Zwickau prophets expelled b. Eight sermons in 8 days -Carlstadt withdraws and would die of plague in Basel

2. widespread teaching and preaching

3. sporadic translation of OT till published in 1530

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.6 4. New [Dutch] Pope Adrian VI (1522-1523) a. last non-Italian till John Paul II b. sought external reforms

5. Diets of Nurnburg: 1522,1523 a. chaired by Charles’ brother, Ferdinand of Austria b. #1 1) dual complaint of Duke George 2) confession of Pope Adrian (Schaff VII:393-4) 3) result: prelates must deal with abuses, then princes will deal with Luther c. #2 - Catholic control 1) new pope, Clement VII (Medici cousin of Leo) 2) promised enforcement of Worms decision 3) “Protestant” Schmalkaldic League develops in reaction, ca. 1527

6. Lutheran gains a. many bishops, priests and monks convert b. Philip of Hesse c. Imperial cities like Magdeburg

7. controversies with magistrates a. Duke George the Steadfast (d. 1539), refused the sale of L’s books in his territory b. Henry VIII of England (1509-47) 1) burned L’s books publicly, 1521 2) wrote “Assertion of the Seven Sacraments” vs. L’s “Babylonian Captivity of the Church” a) Henry earned papal title, “Defender of the Faith” b) Luther’s response c. Knights’ Revolt, 1523

8. Clash with Erasmus a. 1524 - “Diatribe on the Freedom of the Will”: Erasmus held semi-Pelagian position b. 1525 - Luther’s response, “On the Bondage of the Will” c. Erasmus ingratiates self with papacy, but declines cardinal’s cap

9. Peasants’ War, 1524-25 a. miserable conditions of the peasants b. a new revolt tied to the reformation 1) printing press fans local flames 2) Thomas Munzer = Zwickau prophet --preaches revolution; quotes Luther: “ every man a priest” 3) list of 12 “Scriptural”(?) demands --Frederich & Philip meet certain demands; defuse revolt in the north c. Luther’s attitude 1) Tract #1 --urged reform and compromise; “I am a Peasant’s son” Turning point: 2) Tract #2: “against the murderous and rapacious peasants doing the work of the devil under the guise of the gospel” --“stab, kill, and strangle them like mad dogs” 3) Tract #3: vs. the cruelty and harshness of the lords --150,000 killed; many others mutilated and sent home d. upshot of the revolt 1) South Germany decimated (note later direction of Austria) * 2) Luther and Reformation discredited by both sides

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.7 10. Luther’s marriage, spring 1525 a. his attitude -perpetual celibacy wrong; but as a marked man, he felt himself to be under the constraint of I Cor 7:8 -Katherine von Bora, ex-nun, changes his attitude b. secret service “to spite the devil, to vex the pope, and please my father” c. an unforeseen dimension of Luther 1) tender love letters to wife and children 2) “Away in A Manger” and a Christmas tree

G. Consolidating Reformation Gains (1525-1529)

1. Pope Clement VII, a Medici nepotist

2. Emperor’s preoccupations a. defeated French king, Francis I, 1526; Peace of Pavia concludes both forces will work vs. Lutherans b. Turks advancing on Vienna c. papal confederation (Pope, Italy, France) vs. Emperor Charles 1) Chs, except for his historical bias, could have become head of German Protestant Church 2) 1527 -- Rome sacked by Spanish and German troops of Emperor Schaff VII:688 (Luther proclaimed “Pope” of Rome by invading troops)

3) Charles turns attention vs Protestants again

3. Diet of Speiers, 1526 --unanimous declaration that each territorial ruler would be free in matters of religion “to answer it to God and his imperial majesty”

* 4. Protestant church practice a. worship 1) sermonizing becomes central “get up freshly; open your mouth widely; be done quickly” -- Luther 2) hymnody and more congregational participation b. Luther’s catechisms, ca. 1529 --remedies for ignorance and irreligion

H. Threats to the young Reformation

1. Diet of Speiers, 1529 a. overturned earlier Speiers decision: Reformation forbidden in the states that had not adopted it, while Romanism free to be practiced anywhere * b. minority Lutheran princes wrote protest on flip-flop; hence the origin of name Protestant

* 2. Marburg Colloquy, Oct. 1529 a. attempt at cooperation between Swiss and German Refm. sponsored by Philip of Hesse b. Luther reluctant; yet 15 point discussion in 15 days; anticipated snag on Consubstantiation * c. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) 1) Swiss Reformer a) humanist education -memorized some Greek Pauline epistles in his youth

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.8 b) chaplain to Swiss mercenary army in Italy c) 1519 - as priest in Zurich, reforms enacted -Bible sole authority -city officials sanction his activity d) based on Bible, Augustine, and Erasmus; not Luther 2) killed in action --Zwingli wanted offensive action vs. R.C. Cantons but was killed in the field when the Protestant cantons were attacked while trying to decide the best measures vs. the RCs

3. Diet of Augsburg, 1530 a. called by Charles; his 1st appearance since Worms 1) effort to unify the empire a) common enemy of Turks b) Protestant princes expected to knuckle under 2) safe conduct for all except Luther who holes up nearby

* b. Melanchton (1497-1560) 1) German name, Schwarzerd = “Black earth” 2) presents diluted Augsburg Confession -concedes everything not vital to Protestantism -condemns ancient heresies, Anabaptists, and Zwingli -confuted by Eck c. ultimatum out of Augsburg: unconditional obedience demanded; recant of Lutheran heresies by April 15, 1531, or face invasion and death d. general council to be called within a year to correct abuses e. results in reaffirmation of Schmalkaldic League for mutual Protestant defense -April 15 passes due to rivalries of R.C. princes and threat of Turks

4. Truce of Nuremburg, July 23, 1532 a. Germans don’t want to fight Germans b. peace until another Diet could be convened based on Speiers, 1526 -Emperor Charles out of Germany till 1541

J. Early spread of Luther’s teachings outside Germany

1. England a. Henry VIII (1509-1547) 1) book burnings, 1520 2) Henry writes “Defense of the Seven Sacraments” 3) divorce from Catherine of Aragon leads to independent Church of England b. Oxford students called “The Germans” * c. William Tyndale (1494-1536) 1) friar 2) education: Oxford, Cambridge, and Luther’s writings 3) a life given to Bible translation -“it is impossible to establish the people in any truth unless the Bible is presented in the mother tongue” a) flight to Hamburg at persecution of Bishop of London b) 1525: 1st NT printed -smuggled into England -bought and burned by the Bishop of London 4) betrayed and executed in Belgium

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.9 -“Lord, open the eyes of the King of England” 5) T’s work the basis of all English translations --KJV = 9/10 Tyndale

2. Scotland a. stanch R.C. and ally of France against England * b. Patrick Hamilton, (1503-28) 1) nobleman 2) student of Luther who returned to Scotland a protestant 3) arrested after invited to debate at St. Andrews -burned alive: “The reek of Mr. Patrick Hamilton has affected as many as it has blown upon”

3. Netherlands (=Holland & Belgium) 1520 - Luther’s books burned 1521 - “Placards” out of Diet of Worms; public edicts condemn anti-Romish “heresies” 1523 - first martyrs in Brussels

4. Scandinavia a. Gustavas Vasa (1496-1560), King of Sweden 1) 1523, raised peasant army to rout Danes from Sweden who had come in with papal blessing 2) Theologian Lars Pettersen translates Bible into Swedish 3) 1527, Gustav threatens resignation if the Reformation is not allowed in Sweden -RC church properties confiscated (= 2/3 of Sweden) -Gospel ordered to be taught in all churches and schools -totally Lutheran by 1560

b. Denmark 1) A new generation ousts the previous king, a papal puppet 2) Danish prince (Frederick) who had witnessed Diet of Worms encourages Danes to study in Wittenberg; students return to translate Bible (Hans Tausen)

5. Poland a. Proximate to Germany, Poland was swept by the Refm in reaction against RC clerical abuses b. Counter-Reformation sweeps the Reformation out of Poland 1) Jesuits trained the nobility’s children 2) Dissension among Lutheran and Calvinistic elements

6. Italy: Refm toe-hold in the boot of Italy

7. Spain

K. Political developments, 1532-44

1. Emperor Charles still pre-occupied with France and Suleiman the Magnificent

2. Pope Paul III (1534-49) a. Favors a reforming council: calls for Council of Trent b. Recognizes Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.10 3. Continuing theological dialogues after Augsburg a. no differences resolved, but Lutheran position becoming crystallized b. Melanchthon = chief spokesman -meets Calvin

4. Ducal Saxony, goes Protestant, 1519

5. Peace of Crespy, 1544 a. Treaty between German Hapsburgs & French Valois to unite vs. Protestants b. paves way for peaceful R.C. Council of Trent

6. Maurice (Moritz) of Dukal Saxony (1541-53) betrayed Schmalcaldic League upon Charles’ promise of the electorship in Saxony (1547)

L. Luther’s ecclesiastical and personal activities

1. Bible translating a. once a week “Bible Club” b. vernacular Bible put Refm on firm footing

2. hymnody a. 2 hymn books and many hymns in tract form b. congregational participation replaces chants and anthems of monks and choirs c. influence on later German composers

3. Catechisms

4. church government a. imprecise structure to be under the magistrate b. pious bishops retained

5. Personal influences a. visitation of local pastors b. “Table Talk” 1) copied by 10 students (1531-44) 2) not ex cathedra

6. Bigamy of Philip of Hesse, 1540 a. hated his child bride, Christine, daughter of R.C. Duke George b. had a concubine for 15 years c. New girlfriend, Margerite, refused to be mere concubine d. opposed to divorce (ctr. Henry VIII), Luther, Melanchthon, and Bucer advise a special dispensation for bigamy based on OT precedent among kings e. Philip’s passions hurt the cause of the Reformation

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.11 M. Luther’s last years

1. disappointments a. morality at an ebb in Wittenberg & Refm territories b. Luther felt fullness of Refm principles not being applied

2. miseries and ill health

3. continuing sacramentarian controversy

a. consubstantiation b. invectives vs. Swiss Reformers “I would rather drink blood alone with papists than wine alone with Zwinglians, 1544 - Swiss Reformed for their view of the sacrament are heretics, hypocrites, liars, blasphemers, soulmurderers, sinners unto death.” 1545 -- “Blessed is the man that standeth not in the counsel of the sacramentarians, nor walketh in the way of the Zwinglians, nor sitteth in the seat of the Zurichers.”

4. last tract: “The Papacy of Rome: The Creation of the Devil”

5. Death: February 18, 1546 a. went to Eisleben to reconcile 2 feuding nobleman brothers b. last letters and words

N. Evaluation of Luther’s Work

1. supreme importance a. was used to preserve the visible church b. established a leadership and movement that not even the Pope and Emperor could suppress

2. reasons for his great effectiveness a. genuinely a religious man b. pointed people to the heart of the gospel c. generally not distracted by tangents and extremes d. a man of the people e. rare ability of expression and persuasion f. tremendous energy devoted to the cause g. courageous, sacrificial attitude

3. Luther’s emphases a. Sola Scriptura b. Sola Gratia c. Sola Fide d. Universal priesthood of believers

4. Luther’s weaknesses a. failure to think thru the future of the Church 1) failure to organize church government 2) reactionary and impulsive instead of long range goals b. failure to organize church government c. excessive use of hyperbolic language d. failure to recognize broad areas of church unity

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.12 O. German Religious Struggles to the Peace of Augsburg (1555)

After death of Luther in 1546, the emperor capitalized on the disaffection of several Protestant princes from Philip of Hesse over the latter’s bigamy. At the same time, the emperor’s external pressures had eased after a peace treaty with the French and reduced threats from the Turks. The emperor subdued much of Protestant Germany through force or the threat of force. Thankfully, Maurice of Saxony, who had served as a RC patsy, felt his regional sovereignty threatened and reverted back to the Protestants by 1548. This lead to a political stalemate, and ultimately the later peace agreements. 1. Truce of Passau, 1552 a) Home Rule: local rulers decide local religion b) secularization of some church properties recognized c) release of princes from prison

* 2. Peace of Augsburg, 1555 (Augsburg Diet) a. Terms 1) two legal religions =R.C. and “Evangelical Church” (or Apostolic Catholic); exclusion of Sacramentarians (Swiss Reformed) and Sectarians (Anabaptists) 2) permanent Home Rule 3) subjects must conform or immigrate -exception for RC’s in imperial Cities 4) secularized church lands by 1552 may remain Protestant 5) “ecclesiastical reservation;” R.C. churchmen deserting to Protestants lose power, privilege, and estate * “Had it not been for the Ecclesiastical Reservation, all Germany would have soon become Protestant.” --Geiseler in Fisher b. results 1) permanently divided the medieval Holy Roman Empire 2) shifted control of church to state’s hands 3) held till Peace of Westphalia, 1648

* 3. Council of Trent, 1545-1563, (19th Ecumenical Council) a. perspectives 1) Charles: as a reforming council, a tool to unite Christendom 2) Pope Paul III; a weapon to eradicate the threat of Protestantism

b. location: northern Alps of Italy where German was spoken; boycotted by Protestants

c. significant affirmations 1) validity of church tradition with Scripture = Vulgate, the only authorized version 2) Seven sacraments 3) semi-Pelagian view of salvation 4) anathema for any rejection the Council’s decisions

P. Germany for 25 years after Luther’s death

1. political situation

2. general religious situation

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.13 a. Reformation ideas widespread b. unity of R.C.s vs. disparity of Protestants

3. Melanchthon’s controversies a. TWO modifications on Luther’s position 1) diluted Luther’s view on Sovereignty of God = influence of Erasmus’ Free Will 2) Lord’s Supper: Mel. toned down Consubstantiation, bringing it more in line with Swiss view a) leads to a breach among Lutherans b) Philipists (“crypto-Calvinists”) vs. Gnesio Lutherans

b. Melanchthon’s death, 1560 -attacked from all sides; “now I shall be free from the bitterness of theologians.”

4. spread of Reformed Churches in Germany a. SW Germany near Switzerland and France b. Heidelburg Catechism of 1562 = Reformed revision of Augsburg Confession

5. Gnesio Lutheranism takes hold in Saxony a. Duke converts in 1574 - executes Philipist church leader b. called theologians for new Confession = Formula of Concord, 1577 = strict Gnesio Lutheranism

6. strict Lutheran Confessions 1577 - Formula of Concord clarified consubstantiation and distinguished between grace and works 1580 - Book of Concord (Concordia) = collection of major Lutheran confessions including Apostles, Nicene, and Athenasian Creeds; Augsburg, Schmalcald Articles, Luther’s Catechisms, and Formula of Concord. Gnesio Lutheranism becomes legal religion to exclusion of other Lutherans under the Peace of Augsburg

CHURCH HISTORY SURVEY XVI.14