Strategies for UNDERSTANDING the ASSIGNMENT

Teaching Strategies suggested to supplement Facing History and Ourselves’ CWA writing preparation journals for Choices in Little Rock

Overview: In this packet, we have described teaching strategies that can be used with the content in the Choices in Little Rock curriculum to support students as they write their argumentative essays. These strategies are intended to supplement the methods you are already using and they should be adapted to meet your students’ needs and learning objectives. While we have organized the strategies according to particular stages of the writing process (prewriting, writing, revising, editing, publishing/sharing), many of these strategies can be used at other points in the writing process as well.

STAGE ONE: PREWRITING

Prewriting involves activities that get students prepared with the content – the historical background, arguments and evidence – they need to write their essays. While informal writing, including frequent journal-writing, is an integral part of the prewriting process, during this stage students are not expected to begin their formal essay. Whenever students think critically about the relationship between the historical content in the Choices unit and the CWA prompt, they are engaging in the prewriting process

Strategies for UNDERSTANDING THE ASSIGNMENT  Dissecting a writing prompt  Using exemplars

Strategies for GATHERING EVIDENCE and DEVELOPING ARGUMENTS  Two-minute interviews  Give one – get one  Gallery Walk  Barometer - Taking a Stand on Controversial Issues  SPAR (Spontaneous Argumentation)

Draft – Not for Distribution Teaching Strategies suggested to supplement Facing History and Ourselves’ CWA writing preparation journals for Choices in Little Rock

Strategies for SUPPORTING A THESIS  Free-writing  Thesis brainstorm  Concept map  Four corners  Final word

STAGE TWO: WRITING / DRAFTING

Once students have identified and organized their thesis, arguments and evidence, they are ready to begin crafting these ideas into coherent sentences. Many teachers offer students a mini-lesson on an aspect of writing, such as outlining or using transitions, and then give them class time to apply these lessons to their own writing. One of the challenges in supporting students-as- writers is in giving them enough freedom to find their own voice and providing sufficient structure to help them craft a thoughtful, thorough, well-organized essay. Some students will benefit from having clear guidelines, such as graphic organizers to complete, especially if this is their first experience writing a formal, argumentative essay. Students who already understand the basic components of an essay may not need these supports.

Strategies for WRITING INTRODUCTIONS and BODY PARAGRAPHS  The Inverted Pyramid  Sentence-strip paragraphs  Using Graphic Organizers  Adding Transitions

Strategies for WRITING CONCLUSIONS  Text-to-Text, Text-to-Self, Text-to-World  Fishbowl  Big Paper - Building a Silent Conversation

STAGE THREE: REVISING

During the revising stage, students clarify, reorganize and strengthen the content of their paper. They might add evidence or elaborate on their analysis. Revising often involves adding transitions to connect ideas and moving content from one paragraph to another. Getting feedback from peers and teachers can help students recognize where their ideas are unclear and what they need to do to make their essay stronger. Students can also evaluate their own essay using the CWA rubric. After students are confident in the content and organization of their papers, they are ready to move on to state four: editing.

Strategies for REVISING  3-2-1  Backwards outline  Peer or self-editing worksheets  Conferencing  Read-alouds

STAGE FOUR: EDITING

During the editing stage, students fix the mechanics of their writing: grammar, punctuation, spelling, etc. This is an appropriate time to provide mini-lessons on trouble-spots for students (e.g. properly citing sources, using commas, etc.). Students who type their papers will benefit from spell-check programs.

STAGE FIVE: PUBLISHING/SHARING

The purpose of formal writing is to express an idea to an audience. Thus, it is important to end the CWA process with an opportunity for students to share what they wrote with their peers or an outside audience.

Strategies for SHARING

 Think-pair-share  Pass-around

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Read another paper and provide specific feedback  Get feedback on their own writing

Rationale This activity provides a quick, structured way for students to give and receive feedback. The 3-2-1 prompt can be adjusted to suit the needs of particular students and specific assignments. Teachers have also found that using this strategy can help them streamline the feedback-giving process.

Procedure Step one: Answering 3-2-1 prompt After students read a paper (could be their own or a peers’ paper) ask them to identify: Three things the writer did well Two next steps the writer could take to make the paper better One question they have about the paper

You can vary this prompt to suit specific aspects of the writing process. For example students could be asked to identify: One thesis statement Two arguments that support the thesis Three pieces of evidence that support each argument

Three transition words Two sources cited properly One source that still needs to be cited

Students can record their responses on editing sheets, on the essay itself, or on exit cards.

Step two: Debriefing Use students’ 3-2-1 responses to help evaluate where students may need more support with their writing. What are they able to locate in each other’s papers? What questions keep popping up?

Adding Transitions

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Identify various functions of transition words and phrases  Add transition words and phrases to make their essays more clear and coherent

Rationale Transitions help the reader connect one idea to the next and often distinguish a well- organized paper from a difficult-to-read paper. Many students need instruction on how and when to add transitions to their writing.

Procedure Step one: Give students a list of transition words Many websites post lists of transition words, like this thorough list from Michigan State University. Here is a shorter list of transition words you might use to get started:

COMMON TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES To express a similar idea: also, furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, similarly

To express something that is a result of something else: accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, therefore, thus

To demonstrate a point: for example, for instance, for one thing,

To compare and contrast: on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather, similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, in contrast

To show when something happens in a sequence of events: to begin with, in the first place, at the same time, next

To summarize: in conclusion, in summary, to summarize, finally

Step two: Help students recognize the value of transition words One way to do this is to have students read a paragraph or two from a text book or an essay with the transition words removed. Then have them read the same text again, with the transition words inserted.

Step three: Have students mark on their papers where transition words belong You might ask students to place a star at specific places where you expect to see transition words, such as at the beginning of each body paragraph and between sentences in the body paragraphs.

Step four: Students add transitions to their papers

Using a “Transition Word List,” ask students to add a minimum number of transition words to their paper (perhaps 5-7). They can work on this individually and then trade papers with a partner to check each other’s work.

Backwards outline

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Get feedback on their own writing  Gain a better understanding of paper organization

Rationale When students have to create an outline of a paper they are reading, it not only helps them pay attention to the structure of the writing (main idea, supporting evidence, etc.) but it also provides important feedback to the writer.

Procedure Step one: Have students find partners or assign partners. Alternatively, you can collect papers and pass them out randomly. Just be sure no student ends up with his/her own paper.

Step two: Creating backwards outlines Sample directions: 1) You will create an outline of the paper you are reading. 2) The outline must include the thesis, main arguments and supporting details you find in the paper 3) You do not have to write in complete sentences. Just capture the main words and phrases. It is often helpful to create a blank outline for students to fill in for this exercise. Click here for an example. You can provide a sample completed outline so that students understand that they do not have to rewrite the entire essay on the outline.

Step three: Review feedback and add comments You can collect the essays and the outlines as a way to evaluate the degree to which students can identify the different parts of a paper. Then you can add your own responses and return the paper, with the outline, to the writer.

Step four: Students’ revise papers Based on what is missing on their outline, students should revise their papers. If this is the first time you are using this strategy, you might want to review how students will know what they need to do next. For example, if they notice a blank section of their outline, their first step can be to fill in this section.

Blank Argumentative Essay Outline (Adapt this outline to fit the assignment)

INTRODUCTION Hook:

Background information: 1)______

2) ______

3) ______

Thesis:

FIRST BODY PARAGRAPH Main idea:

Supporting evidence:1)______

2) ______

3) ______

SECOND BODY PARAGRAPH Main idea:

2) ______

3) ______

THIRD BODY PARAGRAPH Main idea:

2) ______

3) ______

CONCLUSION Thesis restated:

Why are the ideas in this paper important: 1)______

2) ______

3) ______

Barometer - Taking a Stand on Controversial Issues

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  hear different perspectives  practice using evidence to make an argument  gather ideas they might use in their papers

Rationale The barometer teaching strategy helps students share their opinions by lining up along a continuum to represent their point of view. It is especially useful when trying to discuss an issue about which students have a wide range of opinions. Engaging in a barometer activity can be an effective prewriting exercise before an essay assignment because it brings out arguments for or against a thesis.

Procedure Step one: Preparation Identify a space in the classroom where students can create a line or a U-shape. Place "Strongly Agree" and "Strongly Disagree" signs at opposite ends of a continuum in your room. Or, you can post any statement and at the other end of the line post its opposite.

Any argument or thesis statement can be used for this activity. Examples of prompts you might use include:

 The desegregation of Central High School does / does not represent a significant change for the Little Rock community.  President Eisenhower was responsible / not responsible for the desegregation of Central High School.  The desegregation of Central High School represents the power of the courts / represents the power of citizens.

Give students a few minutes to respond to the prompt in writing before you ask them to “take a stand.”

Step two: Contracting Set a contract for this activity. Since it asks students to put themselves and their opinions on the line, it has potential for outbursts (which result from some not understanding how classmates can hold whatever opinion they hold). Reiterate your class rules about respect for the opinions and voices of others; call for them to be honest, but not insulting. Re-address ways to constructively disagree with one another, and require that when offering their opinion or defense of their stance, that they speak from the "I," rather than from an accusatory "You."

Step three: “Take a Stand” Ask students to stand on the spot of the line that represents their opinion - telling them that if they stand on either extreme they are absolute in their agreement or

Draft – Not for Distribution Teaching Strategies suggested to supplement Facing History and Ourselves’ CWA writing preparation journals for Choices in Little Rock disagreement. They may also stand anywhere in between the two extremes, depending on how much they agree or disagree with the statement.

Step four: Explain positions Once students have lined up, ask them to explain why they have chosen to stand where they are. Encourage students to refer to evidence and examples when defending their stance. It is probably best to alternate from one end to the middle to the other end, rather than allowing too many voices from one stance to dominate. After three or four viewpoints are heard, ask if anyone wishes to move. Encourage students to keep an open mind; they are allowed to move if someone presents an argument that alters where they want to stand on the line. Run the activity until you feel most or all voices have been heard, making sure that no one person dominates. You might want to assign student note-takers to record ideas on the board, large sheets of paper, or eventually on a class website. This way the information can be referred to later when students begin planning their essays.

Step five: Debriefing and journal writing There are many ways you can debrief this exercise. You can have students to reflect in their journals about how the activity changed or reinforced their original opinion. Or, you can chart the main arguments on the board together as a class. Prompts for journal writing include:  How might you respond to the essay prompt now?  What did you learn today? How does this information relate to the essay prompt?  What else do you want to know?

Variations Forced Decision: Yes, No, or Undecided - Read a statement aloud. Rather than have a continuum for agreement, require students to make a decision that they either “agree” with a statement, “do not agree” or “are unsure”. If students agree with the statement,instruct them to move to one side of the room. If students disagree with the statement, instruct them to move to the other side of the room. Also, establish a spot in the middle for students who are undecided or unsure. Have students explain why they are standing where they are standing. If after hearing a student’s position, a student would like to move across the room, allow for this movement.

Post-it notes barometer: Draw a continuum on the board. Ask students to place a post-it note on the spot along the continuum that represents their opinion. Then have students discuss what they notice. This variation is less about individuals explaining their point of view than about illustrating the range of agreement or disagreement in the class.

Presenting different perspectives: A barometer can be used to present different perspectives of historical figures, schools of thought, and literary characters. Assign students a perspective to represent. Then give them time to research or study the ideas of this person or group as it relates to the question being studied. When you frame a statement, ask students to stand on the line that represents how their assigned individual or group would respond. For example, you could use this activity to illustrate how different people at the time felt about issues of school desegregation.

Concept map

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Brainstorm ideas they might use in their essay  Identify how evidence and arguments are connected, forming the beginning organization for body paragraphs

Rationale Concept maps are a visual way of organizing knowledge. Through lines and shapes they demonstrate relationships between ideas. Concept maps can take many shapes such as:

Procedure Step one: Have students write their thesis statement in a circle the middle of the page

Step two: Brainstorm ideas – level one Around the center, have students write any ideas, facts, arguments or questions that relate to the thesis.

Step three: Brainstorm ideas – level two For each of these “level one” ideas, ask students to brainstorm two or three related ideas (facts, statements, questions).

Step four: Add analysis Ask students to explain the relationships between ideas on the lines connecting one thought to another. For example, students might write:  Is an example of  Explains why  Proves that  Is a result of  Caused…

Step five: Debrief and journal writing Possible prompts include:

 How have your ideas about the essay changed after this exercise?  What arguments does the information in this concept map support? What more do you need to know?

Conferencing

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Identify strengths and weaknesses in their essays  Get specific help on areas of need  Formulate specific next steps for revision

Rationale Meeting one-on-one with students is often the most effective way to help a student improve his/her writing. Conferences can be short, especially if everyone comes prepared, and typically happen during class time. For students who need special assistance, you might also conference with them outside of class time.

Procedure Step one: Setting up effective conditions for conferencing One of the most important questions to think about when deciding to conference with students about their writing is: What will the rest of the class do while I am working one- on-one with students? Often teachers give students time in class to work independently on their papers or other coursework while conferences take place. Sometimes teachers schedule individual student conferences during a class test. Teachers can also invite parents or other volunteers to help out with the rest of the class on days when conferences will take place. Conferences do not work well if the teacher is constantly interrupted by off-task students so be sure to plan this time well.

Step two: Preparing for the conference Conferences also work best when students use this time wisely. They only get a few minutes (typically five minutes) with the teacher so this time should focus on areas where the student has questions and/or needs help moving to the next level. Students should bring at least three specific concerns to the conference. Sentence starters that students can complete prior to the conference include:  I am confused by…  I don’t know how to…  I need help with…  I am stuck by…  How can I make ______better?

To help complete these statements, students should edit their own papers prior to the conference and/or have their papers edited by a peer. Students should bring these editing sheets to the conference.

Step two: Conferencing Students can begin the conference by explaining where they need help. When teachers have time to read papers in advance, they can also present one or two areas they would like to address during the conference. During the conference, many teachers help students complete a “Next steps” card or section on their editing sheet which details exactly what the student plans on doing after the conference. Students should leave a conference with 2-3 next steps. More than that is usually overwhelming.

Step three: Post-conference

After conferences are over, you might debrief with the class how they went. What makes for successful conferences? What could students and the teacher do better next time? These reflections can happen in writing or through a class discussion. They often provide helpful ideas that can be used to improve conferences the next time around.

Dissecting a writing prompt

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Recognize key words that will help them know how to address the essay prompt  Rewrite the prompt in their own words to demonstrate understanding of the prompt

Rationale Students need to understand the writing prompt in order to craft an essay that meets external expectations (e.g. your expectations or the expectations of a standardized test or of a college admissions’ officer). Once students practice dissecting a prompt with coaching, they develop the habit of doing it on their own.

Procedure Step one: Give students directions for dissecting the prompt. Here are examples of steps that you might include, depending on the content of the writing prompt:

__ Cross out any extra or “fluff” information that is not specifically relevant to what you need to do as the writer of this paper. __ Underline all of the verbs that represent what you, the writer, are supposed to do. __ Circle five other words that you think provide the most important information about your task in this essay. __ Put a question mark near any words or phrases that are confusing. __ Rewrite the prompt in your own words.

Step two: Model this strategy Before having students dissect the essay prompt on their own or with a partner, practice dissecting prompts as a whole class.

Step three: Dissect the essay prompt Students can dissect the essay prompt on their own or with a partner.

Step four: Debrief and journal writing Review students’ work to make sure they understand what is expected of them in this essay. Students can do a quick free-write in their notebooks about how they might respond to this prompt.

Editing worksheets

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Read another paper and provide specific feedback  Get feedback on their own writing

Rationale Editing worksheets tell students exactly what to provide feedback on and can be used for peer editing or self-editing.

Procedure Step one: Design the editing worksheet What do you want students to comment on? Given their skills as writers, what are they capable of commenting on? For example, if students do not understand how to punctuate their own papers, they probably will not be able to give a partner helpful advice about punctuation. Click here for examples of editing worksheets.

Step two: Model how to use the worksheet For example, edit one paper together as a class activity.

Step three: Set expectations for accountability Often teachers get more effort on these worksheets when editors have to sign their names on the worksheet and when they know they will be collected. Some teachers give editors a grade based on the quality and quantity of the feedback they provide.

CWA Essay Sample Editing Worksheet

Author’s name:______Editor’s name: ______

Directions: You and your partner are a team with the goal of improving this paper. Check off comments that apply and offer suggestions of what would make this paper better.

1) Introduction Does the first sentence (hook) capture reader’s attention? __ yes __ somewhat __ no

Does it provide enough background information to allow you to make sense of the thesis? Does it explain enough about what was happening in Little Rock, Arkansas in the 1950’s? __ yes, introduction is complete __ needs more information such as...

2) Thesis is: (check all that apply) __ Clear (I can understand exactly what you are trying to do in your paper) __ Unclear - it should be phrased differently __ Presents an argument that can be debated __ Presents a fact that is not up for debate. Rewrite your thesis to include an argument.

3) Body paragraph #1 Topic sentence: (check all that apply) __ states one main idea __ supports the thesis statement __ I cannot find the topic sentence of this paragraph

Strength of evidence: __ Includes 2 or more pieces of relevant, high-quality evidence __ Includes 1 piece of relevant, high-quality evidence __ Evidence provided, but does not support argument or is not from sources we have used in class (or other approved source) – PUT AN “X” BY EVIDENCE OR ANY SENTENCE THAT DOES NOT SUPPORT MAIN IDEA OF THIS PARAGRAPH __ No evidence provided

Citing sources: __ all sources cited appropriately __ cites sources, but does not always follow proper format – PUT AN “X” BY CITATIONS THAT NEED TO BE REFORMATTED __ no citations

Analysis: __ clearly explains how evidence supports argument __ explains how some, but not all, evidence supports argument – PUT A "?" BY ARGUMENTS THAT NEED TO BE EXPLAINED MORE __ does not explain how evidence supports argument

3) Body paragraph #2 Topic sentence: (check all that apply) __ states one main idea __ supports the thesis statement __ I cannot find the topic sentence of this paragraph

Strength of evidence: __ Includes 2 or more pieces of relevant, high-quality evidence __ Includes 1 piece of relevant, high-quality evidence __ Evidence provided, but does not support argument and/or is not from sources we have used in class (or other approved source) – PUT AN “X” BY EVIDENCE OR ANY SENTENCE THAT DOES NOT SUPPORT MAIN IDEA OF THIS PARAGRAPH __ No evidence provided

Analysis: __ clearly explains how evidence supports argument __ explains how some, but not all, evidence supports argument – PUT A ? BY ARGUMENTS THAT NEED TO BE EXPLAINED MORE __ does not explain how evidence supports argument

(OPTIONAL) Body paragraph #3 Topic sentence: (check all that apply) __ states one main idea __ supports the thesis statement __ I cannot find the topic sentence of this paragraph

Strength of evidence: __ Includes 2 or more pieces of relevant, high-quality evidence __ Includes 1 piece of relevant, high-quality evidence __ Evidence provided, but does not support argument or is not from sources we have used in class (or other approved source) – PUT AN “X” BY EVIDENCE OR ANY SENTENCE THAT DOES NOT SUPPORT MAIN IDEA OF THIS PARAGRAPH __ No evidence provided

Analysis: __ clearly explains how evidence supports argument

__ explains how some, but not all, evidence supports argument – PUT A ? BY ARGUMENTS THAT NEED TO BE EXPLAINED MORE __ does not explain how evidence supports argument

3.) Conclusion Does it relate back to the thesis and the main ideas? __ yes __ needs more

Does it add significance, relevance and/or next steps? __ yes __ needs more here

4.) Style Put a ? by any sentences that seem confusing or that are written in “chatty,” informal language. Such language detracts from the serious purpose of an argumentative paper and should be rewritten.

5) Conventions and grammar If you notice any grammatical errors, you can circle that spot and make a suggestion.

General Feedback

Three strengths of this paper:

Three things the author could do to improve this paper:

Final word

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Gather ideas for their essays  Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of different thesis statements

Rationale “Final Word” is a discussion strategy that requires all students to participate as active speakers and listeners. Its clearly defined structure helps shy students share their ideas and ensures that frequent speakers practice being quiet. It is often used as a way to help students debrief a reading or film, but it can also be used to help students gather evidence to support a thesis.

Procedure

Step one: Preparation Divide students into groups of four and have them position themselves so that they are in a circle.

Step two: Prompts Give students a few minutes before sharing to either prepare their own thesis statement or to respond to thesis statements you have selected. (The thesis brainstorm strategy might be a useful exercise before final word.)

Step three: Sharing in small groups Ask each group to choose someone to begin first. The first few times that you do final word, remind students of the procedure before you officially begin. The first student reads his/her thesis statement and explains why s/he selected it. Alternatively, you can begin by presenting a thesis statement that the first student responds to. Responses can be in the form of agreement or disagreement. After thirty seconds, say, “switch.” The person to the right of the student who began then has a chance to react to the thesis. This student can choose to respond to the first student or simply give their own information. After thirty seconds, say “switch” again. The third student speaks, following the same rules. After thirty seconds, again say, “switch.” After the fourth student has thirty seconds to speak, you say “Final Word.” The first student now has thirty more seconds. S/he can use this time to respond to the comments of the group, to argue for his/her point, or to summarize the thoughts of the group. In the next round, a different student should begin. With four rounds, each student has the chance to begin the discussion and have the final word.

Step four: Debrief and journal writing Give students a few minutes to write about what they will write for their essay. Will they change their thesis statement? Do they have more information or arguments for their paper? Did they hear a counter-argument that they need to respond to? Do they have questions about the evidence? Then facilitate a class discussion about next steps for paper writing. As students present challenges, allow other students to offer suggestions.

A few notes:

-No students should speak when it is not their turn to talk. The point is for each student to have thirty seconds that are entirely theirs. -If a student doesn’t talk for their entire thirty seconds, that is fine. The group waits for the time to run out before the next person begins. -It is imperative that you walk around the room and make sure that each group is sticking to the schedule so that all discussions begin and end at the same time.

Fishbowl

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Discuss the relevance of the ideas in the essay  Learn from the ideas of peers  Gather ideas they might use in the concluding paragraph of their essay

Rationale The “fishbowl” is a teaching strategy that helps students practice being contributors and listeners in a discussion. Students ask questions, present opinions, and share information when they sit in the “fishbowl” circle, while students on the outside of the circle listen carefully to the ideas presented and pay attention to process. Then the roles reverse. This strategy is especially useful when you want to make sure all students participate in the discussion; help students reflect on what a “good discussion” looks like; and provide a structure for discussing controversial or difficult topics.

Procedure Step one: Preparing students for the fishbowl For the purpose of helping students write conclusions for their essays, you might have students write about one of the following questions in their journals before beginning the fishbowl discussion:  How do the ideas in your paper connect to life today? What is the same? What may be different?  What would you like someone to learn from reading your essay?  What did you learn from the Choices in Little Rock unit?  What questions are on your mind after writing this essay? The “Text-to-Text, Text-to-Self, Text-to-World” strategy also can be used to prepare students to participate in a fishbowl discussion about the relevance of their essays.

Step two: Setting up the room A fishbowl requires a circle of chairs (“the fishbowl”) and enough room around the circle for the remaining students to observe what is happening in the “fishbowl.” Sometimes teachers place enough chairs for half of the students in the class to sit in the fishbowl, while other times teachers limit the chairs in the fishbowl. Typically six to twelve chairs allows for a range of perspectives while still allowing each student an opportunity to speak. The observing students often stand around the fishbowl.

Step three: Discussing norms and rules of the discussion There are many ways to structure a fishbowl discussion. Sometimes half the class will sit in the fishbowl for 10-15 minutes and then the teacher will say “switch.” At this point the listeners enter the fishbowl and the speakers become the audience. Another common fishbowl format is the “tap” system. When students on the outside of the fishbowl wish to join the discussion, they gently tap a student on the inside and the two students switch roles.

Regardless of the particular rules you establish, you want to make sure these are explained to students beforehand. You also want to provide instructions for the students in the audience. What should they be listening for? Should they be taking notes? Before beginning the fishbowl, you may wish to review guidelines for having a respectful

Draft – Not for Distribution Teaching Strategies suggested to supplement Facing History and Ourselves’ CWA writing preparation journals for Choices in Little Rock conversation. Sometimes teachers ask audience members to pay attention to how these norms are followed by recording specific aspects of the discussion process such as the number of interruptions, respectful or disrespectful language used, or speaking times (Who is speaking the most? The least?)

Step four: Debriefing the fishbowl discussion and journal writing After the discussion, you can ask students to reflect on the ideas they heard that might be relevant for the conclusions of their essays. What ideas and questions interested them the most?

Four corners

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Identify the difference between a thesis statement and a statement-of-fact  Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of different thesis statements  Gather ideas they might use in their essays

Rationale Four Corners requires students to show their position on a specific statement (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree) by standing in a particular corner of the room. This activity elicits the participation of all students by requiring everyone to take a position. As a prewriting activity, the Four Corners strategy can elicit arguments and evidence students might use in their essays. This strategy can also be used to help students recognize the difference between a statement-of-fact and an argument.

Procedure

Step one: Preparation Generate a list of statements that you would like students to debate.

Examples of statements you might use for this activity:  Central High School would not have been desegregated without the efforts of committed citizens.  President Eisenhower was responsible for the desegregation of Central High School.  Leaders and citizens would not have been motivated (or pressured) to desegregate Central High School, without the attention of the media.  Committed citizens contributed to the desegregation of Central High School, but their efforts alone were not enough to create change.

If you want to use this activity to help students recognize the difference between a statement and an argument, you might want to throw some statements-of-fact, such as:  The Little Rock school board tried to delay desegregation through the courts. When the Supreme Court said they could not delay desegregation, the school board decided to close public schools in Little Rock.  Central High School was officially desegregated in August 1959 when the federal court declared the closing of schools unconstitutional.  Daisy Bates worked for the NAACP.

They will notice that with statements, only one corner is “right,” whereas with arguments any corner could be “right” depending on the strength of the evidence.

Step two: Introduce Statements Distribute statements and give students the opportunity to respond to them in writing. Many teachers provide students with a graphic organizer or worksheet that requires students to mark their opinion (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree) and provide a brief explanation.

Step three: Four Corners Discussion Label the four corners of the room with signs reading: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree. After students have considered their personal response to the statements, read one of the statements aloud, and ask students to move to the corner of the room that best represents their opinion. Once students are in their places, ask for volunteers to justify their position. When doing so, they should refer to evidence they learned in this unit. Encourage students to switch corners if someone presents an idea that causes a change of mind. After a representative from each corner has defended his or her position, you can allow students to question each other’s evidence and ideas. Before beginning the discussion, remind students about norms for having a respectful, open discussion of ideas. You might also want to assign a note-taker to record the arguments made by the students in each corner. These notes will be useful when students are writing their essays.

Step four: Debrief and journal writing There are many ways you can debrief this exercise. You can have students reflect in their journals about how the activity changed or reinforced their original opinion. Students' views may have strengthened by the addition of new evidence and arguments; others may have been weakened or changed altogether. It is quite possible that some students will be more confused or uncertain about their views after the four corners debate. While uncertainty can feel uncomfortable, it is an important part of the understanding process, and represents the authentic wrestling with moral questions that have no clear right or wrong answers. To clarify ideas shared during the discussion, you can chart the main arguments on the board as a whole-class activity. Prompts for journal writing include:  How might you respond to the essay prompt now?  What useful information did you learn today? What else do you want to know?

Free-writing

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Clarify their own thoughts about the essay prompt  Identify possible ideas that they might incorporate into their essays

Rationale Free-writing is informal writing that is not evaluated and does not follow a specific structure. At various points in the writing process it can help students to have the opportunity to write “free” of external expectations. Free-writing is an especially helpful way to begin the essay-writing process. Students may not know what they believe about the essay prompt; the free-writing process can help them identify their ideas and questions.

Procedure Step one: Select a prompt A general prompt such as “Write any idea that is on your mind about [insert essay topic]” is enough structure for a free-write. You could also give students the essay prompt itself and ask them to free-write about that.

Step two: Give directions Let students know how much time they will have for the free-write. Most teachers give between 5-15 minutes. Be sure students know that their work will not be graded for grammar or content; the goal is to get ideas on paper. You might encourage students to draw diagrams or drawings. They can also think about the free-write as a conversation with themselves about the topic. Some teachers require students to fill one or two pieces of paper, even if what they write begins with the statement, “I do not know what to write about….” Just the process of putting words on the page can help students begin to think more clearly about the topic.

Step three: Review free-write After the allotted amount of time, students should review what they have written, underlining two or three of the most important ideas or questions they recorded. Sometimes teachers ask students to share these ideas with a partner. Some teachers have students do another free-write, building on the key ideas from their first free-write.

Gallery Walk

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Connect evidence to a particular argument  Organize evidence by theme  Comment on each other’s arguments and use of evidence  Find additional evidence to support an argument from historical documents and readings  Receive feedback on their own ideas

Rationale During a Gallery Walk, students explore multiple texts or images that are placed around the room. Teachers can use this strategy as a way to have students share their work with peers. Because this strategy requires students to physically move around the room, it can be especially engaging to kinesthetic learners.

Procedure Step one: Select focus for gallery walk Possible “texts” for a gallery walk could be:  Readings and documents from “Choices in Little Rock”  Thesis statements students could use in their essays  Arguments students could use in their essays  Themes such as “Role of President Eisenhower,” “Role of Brown v. Board of Education,” “Role of NAACP,” “Role of Media,” “Role of Individuals,” etc.

Step two: Organize texts around the classroom Texts should be displayed “gallery-style” - in a way that allows students to disperse themselves around the room, with several students clustering around a particular text. Texts can be hung on walls or placed on tables. The most important factor is that the texts are spread far enough apart to reduce significant crowding.

Step three: Preparing students for the gallery walk If the gallery walk is being used to introduce new material, students may not need to engage in pre-work. However, if the purpose of the gallery walk is to have students share and organize information, you want to be sure students are prepared with the evidence they need to post. Many teachers use post-it notes for this purpose, asking students to record particular information in advance – only one item per post-it – and once the gallery walk begins to place the post-it on the appropriate sign. Remind students to record the source of the information on their post-it so that it can be properly cited when writing their essays.

Information students might record on post-its include:  Important quotations from the documents and readings.  Key historical facts, including events from timelines  Significant choices that contributed to the desegregation of Central High School

Step four: Instruct students on how to walk through the gallery Viewing instructions will depend on your goals for the activity.

 If the purpose of the gallery walk is to introduce students to new material, you might want them to take informal notes as they walk around the room. Then you can ask students to share general impressions about what they saw.  If the purpose of the gallery walk is for students to learn particular information, you can create a graphic organizer for students to complete as they view the “exhibit.” You could also compile a list of questions for them to answer, based on the texts displayed in the gallery. This exercise could be used to help students complete their evidence logs.  If the purpose of the gallery walk is to help students create an “evidence bank” they can use when writing their essays, organize signs around the room by theme and have students record evidence on the appropriate sign. You might begin this activity by having students record “facts” about the desegregation of Central High School on post-it notes.  If the purpose of the gallery walk is to help students develop arguments, you could post arguments around the room and ask students to write relevant evidence that could be used to support that argument. You might begin this activity by having students record “facts” or important quotations about the desegregation of Central High School on post-it notes.

Step five: Debriefing the gallery walk and journal writing Spend some time reviewing what students posted to make sure information is accurate. It is also important to give students the opportunity to ask questions about items on the gallery walk that may be confusing. You may wish to keep the signs up so that students can refer to this information during the rest of the unit. For example, students may find it helpful to review the gallery walk signs to help them locate evidence to use in their essays. Prompts for journal writing include:  How might you respond to the essay prompt now?  What did you learn today? How does this information relate to the essay prompt?  What else do you want to know?

Give one – Get one

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  learn new content they will be able to apply to their own essays  demonstrate knowledge related to a specific prompt

Rationale Give one-Get one is a strategy that helps students practice being active listeners -- an essential skill for learning new information. This activity also supports community building because all students have valuable information to share.

Procedure

Step one: Preparation Students divide a sheet of paper into two columns.

Step two: Response to prompt Give students 5-10 minutes to respond to a prompt. Students’ responses do not need to be phrased in complete sentences. They should organize their responses in list form. Examples of prompts that relate to the material in Choices in Little Rock include:

 Describe Little Rock Arkansas in 1957.  List what you know about Brown v. Board of Education.  How did President Roosevelt contribute to the desegregation of Central High School?  How did the media impact the desegregation of Central High School?  What were some of the responses made by ordinary citizens to the desegregation of Central High School?  What happened once the Little Rock Nine began attending Central High School?  What obstacles needed to be overcome in order to desegregate Central High School?

Step three: Give one-get one Typically, teachers give students about 10 minutes to give and get information from their classmates. First, students must find a partner. Partner A shares his/her responses until Partner B hears something that is not already on his/her list. Partner B writes the new response on the right side of his/her sheet, along with Partner A’s name. Once Partner B has “gotten” one, the roles switch. Students repeat this process until time runs out.

Step four: Debrief and journal writing Since students typically only have enough time to give-one/get-one with a few students, giving students time to share some of the ideas that they “got” is another way to help students add to their notes. When students share, be sure they mention the name of the student who gave them the idea. During the debrief discussion, students continue to make note of new ideas in the right-hand column. Prompts for reflective journal writing include:  How might you respond to the essay prompt now?

 What did you learn today? How does this information relate to the essay prompt?  What else do you want to know?

Inverted Pyramid

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Write an organized introductory paragraph including a hook, background information and thesis

Rationale The “Inverted Pyramid” is a structure that represents how an introductory paragraph is typically organized. Giving students this visual to represent the structure of an introduction can help them understand the content that needs to be included in an introduction and where it should be placed. This activity might be most appropriate when students are ready to write their papers, after they have selected their thesis and honed in on their arguments.

Procedure Step one: Preparation For this activity students can use a graphic organizer or they can draw their own upside- down pyramids in their notebooks. The pyramid should be divided into three sections.

Step two: Ask students to label the pyramid Tell them that this pyramid represents the introduction to their paper. Give them the following terms and definitions and ask them to label where on the paragraph they think it makes sense to place this information. You could also ask students to label these parts on a persuasive essay you give to them as an exemplar.

HOOK: A hook is a sentence or question that captures the reader’s attention – by addressing something that connects to their lives or providing particularly interesting or surprising information. Hooks might begin with sentence-starters such as: Did you know that…? Many people believe that….? Have you ever wondered….?

BACKGROUND INFORMATION: To understand an essay, readers often need some background information on a topic. For example, your reader may never have heard about Central High School or Little Rock, Arkansas or Jim Crow segregation. Writers often use the introduction to provide readers with the basic facts needed to understand the essay.

THESIS STATEMENT: The point of an argumentative essay is to persuade the reader to believe an argument you are making (in this case about how schools were desegregated in Little Rock, Arkansas). The main argument of your essay is called the thesis statement.

Step three: Have students complete the pyramid for their own essay

Students can take notes directly on the triangle. You might begin by having students brainstorm ideas as a class. What could be potential hooks students might use? What facts might they include as background information?

Pass-around

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Get positive and constructive feedback on their papers  Learn from reading a peer’s paper

Rationale During a pass-around, students quietly read a text until the teacher yells switch. Students record comments directly on the text. These comments are read and responded to by the next student. This process is repeated several times so that students have the experience of having a silent conversation about what they are reading. When used as a structure for publically sharing students’ work, this strategy provides a way for students to have their work read, responded to and celebrated. This strategy can also be used at the revision stage of the writing process.

Procedure Step one: Distribute an essay to all students Make sure students are not sitting near someone who has their essay because the purpose of this activity is for students to read and respond to their peers’ work. Because papers will be written on, you might want to photocopy papers in advance.

Step two: Give students directions for how to comment on essays Before students begin reading, provide guidelines for how they should respond to the essays. You might want to remind students of the stage of the writing process they are in. If students are in the revision stage, the purpose of the pass-around will be different than during the sharing stage. The purpose sharing is to learn from each other and celebrate their peers’ accomplishments, not to edit. Sample directions for the sharing stage include:  Place a star by ideas you agree with.  Place an X by areas you disagree with. Explain why you disagree.  Write comments and questions in the margins. Comments might include a connection (“This reminds me of...”) or feedback (“Great use of evidence”).  Underline your favorite part of the essay.

Step three: Students read and comment Some teachers have students use different colored markers to make it easier to distinguish between students’ comments.

Step four: Switch papers After about five-ten minutes (depending on the length of the essays), announce switch. Students pass the essay they read to their neighbor. Now students comment not only on the essay, but they can respond to any comments on the page as well.

Step five: Return papers to owners Give students the opportunity to read the comments on their papers.

Step six: Debrief

What did students learn from this experience? Students can respond to this question in their journals or on an exit card. Volunteers can share their reflections with the class.

Read aloud

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Get feedback on their own writing  Learn about what to do and what not to do from reading another essay

Rationale Hearing papers read aloud can be a helpful step in the editing process because it often allows us to notice things we may miss when reading a paper silently.

Procedure

Step one: Have students pair up While students can read their own paper aloud, it can be more useful for them to hear their paper read by someone else. It is often easiest to pair students up for this exercise. Read-alouds could also be organized in small groups of three or four.

Step two: Read-aloud (round one) Have students take turns hearing their paper read aloud. Before students begin you might want to model an appropriate speed at which to read so that the listener can process the information. You can decide if you think students should take notes while listening to their paper being read aloud. Often note-taking can distract students from hearing their entire paper.

Step three: Note-taking and debrief After hearing their papers read aloud, students should take a few minutes to record notes on their essays about sections they want to revise. They may even read sentences aloud to themselves a second time. If students are working in groups of three or four, the other listeners can serve as “critical friends,” sharing warm (positive) and cool (critical) feedback with the author.

Step four: Repeat Repeat this process until everyone in the group has had their opportunity to hear their paper read aloud.

Sentence-strip paragraphs

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Help students organize sentences in a paragraph  Recognize when a paragraph is missing information  Gather information to use when building paragraphs for their essay

Rationale This strategy has students moving around sentences on slips of paper to help them learn how to organize ideas in a paragraph. It can be used to help students organize introductory, body, and concluding paragraphs.

Procedure Step one: Preparation Divide students into groups of 4-5. Cut strips of paper and give each group at least 10. This activity could also be done with students working individually or in pairs.

Step two: Write sentences on strips of paper Students write one sentence on each strip. The type of paragraph you focus on for this activity, will determine what you ask groups to write on their slips. For example, if you are using this activity to help students write introductory paragraphs, you would want one group to record possible hooks for the essay, another group to record sentences that would go in the background section, and another group to record possible thesis statements. If you are using this activity to help students write body paragraphs, you might assign a group a particular argument and have them record possible evidence on separate strips of paper.

Step three: Share strips Students can either tape their strips to a large piece of paper or leave them on their table.

Step four: Build a paragraph Individually or in groups, have students go around the room looking for ideas to help build their paragraphs. Sometimes teachers have students tape the selected strips in order to create a paragraph. Students can also record the sentences or ideas they want to use on a graphic organizer, such as their inverted triangle.

Step four: Fill-in gaps After students build a paragraph with sentence strips, ask them to fill-in gaps with new sentences. Gaps might include transition words linking one idea to the next or analysis that explains how evidence connects to the main idea of the paragraph. Sentence starters you might use to help students add analysis statements include: - This evidence shows that… - Therefore… - These examples demonstrate... - Because ______, then ______...

Variation

Using exemplars: To help students practice organizing ideas, you can cut an exemplar essay, such as the one included in the “Using Exemplars” teaching strategy, into sentence strips and then have students place these sentences in an order that makes sense.

Silent Conversation (Big Paper)

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  write a concluding paragraph that explains the relevance of the ideas in the essay  share opinions on a particular argument or question

Rationale This discussion strategy uses writing and silence as tools to help students explore ideas in-depth. For the purpose of generating ideas for a conclusion, this strategy can help students process the relevance of the ideas in their essays and learn from each others’ ideas. Having a written conversation with peers slows down students’ thinking process and gives them an opportunity to focus on the views of others. This strategy also creates a visual record of students’ thoughts and questions that can be referred to later in the course. The Big Paper strategy can help to engage shy students who are not as likely to participate in a verbal discussion. After using this strategy several times, students’ comfort, confidence, and skill with this method increases.

Procedure Step one: Preparation Big Paper works best when students are working in pairs or triads. Make sure that all students have a pen or marker. Some teachers have students use different colored markers to make it easier to see the back-and-forth flow of a conversation.

Each group also needs a “big paper” (typically a sheet of poster paper) that can fit a written conversation and additional comments. In the middle of the page, write the questions that will be used to spark the students’ discussion. As the stimulus for a Big Paper activity designed to help students write conclusions for their essays, you might want to use one or more of these questions:  How do the ideas in your paper connect to life today?  How is your world today different than the one that the Little Rock Nine endured in the 1950s? What has changed?  How is your world today similar to the one that the Little Rock Nine endured in the 1950s? What is similar between their world and your world?  What did you learn from the Choices in Little Rock unit? Groups can be given different questions. They’ll have the opportunity to comment on all of them during this activity.

Step two: The Importance of Silence Inform the class that this activity will be completed in silence. All communication is done in writing. Students should be told that they will have time to speak in pairs and larger groups later. Go over all instructions at the beginning of the exercise so that they do not ask questions during the activity. Before the activity starts, ask students if they have questions. This reduces the likelihood that students will interrupt the silence once it has begun. You can also remind students of their task as they begin each new step.

Step three: Comment on Your Big Paper

Each group receives a Big Paper and each student a marker or pen. Students comment on the question in the center of the paper. If someone in the group writes a question, another member of the group should address the question by writing on the big paper. Students can draw lines connecting a comment to a particular question. Make sure students know that more than one of them can write on the big paper at the same time. The teacher can determine the length of this step, but it should be at least 10 minutes. Often this step takes a few minutes to get going.

Step four: Comment on Other Big Papers Still working in silence, the students leave their partner and walk around reading the other Big Papers. Students bring their marker or pen with them and can write comments or further questions for thought on other Big Papers. Again, the teacher can determine the length of time for this step based on the number of Big Papers and his/her knowledge of the students.

Step five: Return to Your Own Big Paper Silence is broken. The pairs rejoin back at their own Big Paper. They should look at any comments written by others. Now they can have a free, verbal conversation about the text, their own comments, what they read on other papers, and comments their fellow students wrote back to them. At this point, you might ask students to take out their journals and identify a question or comment that stands out to them at that moment.

Step six: Class Discussion Finally, debrief the process with the large group. The conversation can begin with a simple prompt such as, “What did you learn from doing this activity?” This is the time to delve deeper into the content and use ideas on the Big Papers to bring out the students' thoughts. The discussion can also touch upon the importance and difficulty of staying silent and the level of comfort with this activity.

Step seven: Journal writing Possible prompts include:  Which ideas from the Big Papers you read are most interesting to you?  Which ideas from the Big Papers you read might you include in your essay?

Variations • Little paper: With “Little Paper,” the question is placed in the center of a regular sized piece of paper. Often teachers select 4-5 different questions and create groups of the same size. Each student begins by commenting on the question on his/her little paper. After a few minutes, the little paper is passed to the student on the left (or right). This process is repeated until all students have had the opportunity to comment on every little paper. All of this is done in silence, just like the Big Paper activity. Then students review the little paper they had first, noticing comments made by their peers. Finally, small groups have a discussion about the questions and ideas that strike them from this exercise.

• Gallery walk: The Big Paper activity can also be structured as a gallery walk. With this structure, Big Papers are taped to the walls or placed on tables, and students comment on the Big Papers in silence, at their own pace. Sometimes teachers assign students, often in pairs or triads, to a particular Big Paper and then have them switch to the next one after five or ten minutes.

SPAR (Spontaneous Argumentation) Note: This is one example of how to use formal debate in the classroom. You can use other debate structures, including those presented by Debate Across the Curriculum, to prepare students for the CWA.

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Use evidence to defend a position  Hear evidence for and against an argument  Gather ideas for their paper

Rationale SPAR is an event in forensic competitions around the country. In this structured debate, students have to frame an argument in one minute and then react quickly to their opponents’ ideas. Because students are not given much preparation time, SPAR is most effective when students already have background information about the topic. With practice, students become increasingly more comfortable and proficient using this method to unearth the pro and con sides of controversial topics.

Procedure Step one: Preparation Divide class in half. Assign one side to be the pro position and the other side to be the con position. Have students move their desks so they are sitting opposite an opponent. Write a debatable proposition on the board. Propositions you might use to prepare students to write their CWA include:  Groups of thoughtful, committed citizens were responsible for the eventual desegregation of Central High School.  Once the Brown v. Board of Education decision was passed, the desegregation of Central High School was inevitable.  Without the involvement of President Eisenhower and the federal government, Central High School would not have been desegregated by 1959.  Without the leadership of the NAACP, Central High School would not have been desegregated by 1959.  Without the media (television, newspapers, etc) bringing national attention to Little Rock, Central High School would not have been desegregated by 1959. Alternatively, instead of having the whole class work on pro/con sides of the same proposition, you could have groups work on different arguments and then they can watch each other debate.

Step two: Brainstorm arguments Give students 1-2 minutes to write down their arguments and evidence for or against the proposition. You can give the students a graphic organizer to help them structure their ideas and take notes during the debate.

Step three: Opening statements Pro-students present a 1-minute opening statement making their case while the Con- students listen quietly and take notes. Then, the Con-students present a 1-minute opening statement, while the Pro-students listen quietly and take notes

Step four: Discussion Give students 30-seconds to prepare ideas for what they want to say to their opponent. Invite the two students to engage in a 3 minute discussion during which they may question their opponent’s reasoning or examples or put forth new ones of their own.

Step five: Closing statements Give students 30 seconds or 1 minute to prepare a closing statement. Con-students present a closing statement for 1 minute, while the Pro-students listens quietly, and then the roles reverse.

Step six: Debrief the activity in writing and/or discussion Prompts you can use to structure a class discussion about this activity include: What did you learn from doing this SPAR debate? What were the arguments for or against the issue? What value is to be gained by students arguing positions with which they don't necessarily agree? What was hardest about doing this type of debate? What did the students like about it? Should the format of the debate be adjusted? If so, in what ways? How might you respond to the essay prompt now? What did you learn today? How does this information relate to the essay prompt? What else do you want to know?

Variations Research SPAR: SPAR can be modified to include time for students to gather more evidence to support their positions. Research can be as informal as giving students time to look through their notes (possibly as a homework assignment the night before) or as extensive as a formal research project.

Jigsaw SPAR: Students can first meet as “expert” Pro and Con groups (pairs or triads) to develop ideas together before beginning the debate.

Fishbowl SPAR: Half the class can debate while the other half of the class observes. Then the positions switch. In this variation, all of the students can debate the same proposition (the second group learning from the experience of the first group) or they can debate different propositions in each round. The observers can take note of the strongest arguments on either side.

Text-to-Text, Text-to-Self, Text-to-World Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Identify connections between the ideas in their essays and their own lives  Gather ideas they might use in their concluding paragraph

Rationale In the conclusion of an essay, students help the reader understand how the ideas in the essay connect to other events in the past and present. This helps the reader appreciate why the ideas in the essay matter. “Text-to-Text, Text-to-Self, Text-to-World” is a strategy that helps students develop the habit of making these connections. It can be used to help students prepare for writing a conclusion, after they have written the body paragraphs of their essay.

Procedure Step one: Preparation Students need a copy of their essay for this activity. You might also want to prepare a graphic organizer for them to do this activity. Or they could answer the questions in a notebook or journal.

Step two: Active reading with Text-to-Text, Text-to-Self, Text-to-World Below are sample directions and prompts you can use with this strategy:

1) Text-to-Text – How do the ideas in your essay remind you of another text (story, book, movie, song, document, etc)? Complete one of the following statements: What I just read reminds me of ______(story/book/movie/song) because... The ideas in this essay are similar to the ideas in ______because…. The ideas in this essay are different than the ideas in ______because….

2) Text-to-Self – How do the ideas in your essay relate to your own life, ideas and experiences? Complete one of the following statements: The ideas in this essay remind me of the time when I…. I agree with/understand this essay because in my own life... I find it hard to relate to the ideas in this essay because in my own life...

3) Text-to-World – How do the ideas in your essay relate to the larger world – past, present and future? Complete one of the following statements: My essay makes me think about ______(event from the past) because…… My essay makes me think about ______(event from today related to my own community, nation or world) because…. My essay makes me wonder about the future because….

Step three: Debrief and journal writing Students gain a deeper understanding of their essays, classmates, and the world around them when they have the opportunity to discuss their responses with peers. Students can share their responses with a partner (see: think-pair-share teaching strategy) or

Draft – Not for Distribution Teaching Strategies suggested to supplement Facing History and Ourselves’ CWA writing preparation journals for Choices in Little Rock in small groups (see: assigning roles teaching strategy) or as part of a larger discussion (see: fishbowl teaching strategy). Possible journal prompts include:  What ideas are on your mind now about how to conclude your paper?  Of all the ideas you recorded, which one is the most interesting to you? Why?

Thesis brainstorm

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Identify several possible thesis statements that address the same essay prompt  Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of different thesis statements

Rationale Sometimes a prompt directs students to one obvious thesis statement when there are actually other more nuanced arguments they could make. The purpose of a thesis brainstorm is to help generate the possible arguments that could be made based on the same prompt. This providesstudents with a range of options to choose from when writing their papers.

Procedure Step one: Make sure students understand the prompt. (See dissecting prompt strategy.)

Step two: Brainstorm options This could be done as a small group or a whole-class activity. If done in small groups, you might add a competitive element to the exercise by seeing which group can come up with the most plausible thesis statements. Before having students do a thesis brainstorm for the first time, you might want to model it using a different prompt.

Example Prompt: Margaret Mead, an anthropologist (a scientist who studies people and culture) said, “Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.” You have just learned about the events that led to the eventual desegregation of Central High School. What do you think brought about this change? Write an essay in which you explain how the events in Little Rock from 1957-1959 support or refute Margaret Mead’s statement.

Some thesis options: Option 1: The story of the desegregation of Central High School supports Margaret Mead’s statement because….

Option 2: The story of the desegregation of Central High School refutes Margaret Mead’s statement because….

Option 3: While thoughtful groups of committed citizens contributed to the desegregation of Central High School, ______, ______, and (optional)______also played a significant role in this event.

Option 4: Events in Little Rock, Arkansas in the 1950s do not support Margaret Mead’s statement because ______, ______, and (optional) ______had a more significant impact on the desegregation of Central High School than a group of thoughtful, committed citizens.

Option 5: Events in Little Rock, Arkansas in the 1950s support Margaret Mead’s statement because the desegregation of Central High School would not have happened without the efforts of groups of thoughtful, committed citizens, such as ______, ______and (optional) ______.

Step three: Critique options After you have generated a list of possibilities, remove any options that would not be appropriate. This might include statements that do not address the prompt or that could not be defended based on the evidence you have. You could also use the four corners strategy as a way to evaluate the strength of a given thesis. If the statement provokes a lively debate, it is probably a strong thesis.

Step four: Select and develop a thesis statement Once students have a list of possibilities, they can choose which one they most agree with (or think they most agree with) and begin thinking through arguments to support it. This can be done as an individual or group activity. Students who selected the same statement option work together to generate arguments and locate supporting evidence.

Step five: Debrief and reflective journal writing Prompts you might use include:  How might you respond to the essay prompt now? What else do you want to know?

Think-pair-share

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Get positive and constructive feedback on their papers  Learn from reading a peer’s paper

Rationale Think-pair-share can be used anytime you want students to have the opportunity to have a conversation with a peer about a common prompt or text. In this case, the shared text is the students own essays. Publically sharing work not only builds accountability, but also helps students reflect on the quality and content of their own work. Additionally, exposure to other students’ ideas helps students learn how to see the world from different perspectives.

Procedure Step one: Students trade papers with a partner To help students prepare for a conversation with their partner, before they read give them prompts such as:  What is the main idea of this paper?  What does the author do well in this paper? What are your favorite parts of this paper? Explain why.  What are one or two things the author could have done to improve this paper?  What question does this paper raise for you? Distributing a worksheet for students to complete and turn-in builds accountability and also provides a means of assessment.

Step two: Pairs have a conversation about the paper Students discuss what they found interesting about each other’s papers. They can also ask each other questions about what they wrote and share ideas about what the author could have done to make the paper better.

Step three: Students share feedback with the whole class In this step, each student announces whose essay they read and presents something positive about it. Sentence starters for this round include:  Reading [add name’s] essay helped me think about…  From reading [add name’s] essay, I learned…  [Add name’s] essay did a great job…  My favorite part of [add name’s] essay was…  Something interesting about [add name’s] essay is…

Variation Instead of having partners share papers, you can photocopy papers and have two students read and discuss someone else’s paper. Students could receive a formal letter from their “readers” outlining what they liked about the paper and one or two things to think about for their future writing. In order for everyone’s paper to be read, each pair would have to read two essays.

Two-minute interviews

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  learn new content they can incorporate into their essays  demonstrate their knowledge related to a specific prompt

Rationale The process of interviewing is a way to hold students accountable for becoming an expert on content and can give students more ownership of knowledge. There are many ways to use interviewing as a classroom strategy. Interviews can be done in person, over the phone, or over the internet. Interviewing could be a short warm-up activity or part of a long-term project. “Two-minute interviewing” is a quick strategy that provides a structured way for students to gather information. This method can also be used to help complete evidence logs.

Procedure

Step one: Students become experts Before students can be interviewed, they need knowledge of a topic. You might assign students a particular reading to represent in the interview or a specific point of view. For example, students could examine the role of individuals from the Choices curriculum such as: President Eisenhower, Link, Daisy Bates, Elizabeth Eckford, Governor Faubus, Grace Lorch, Ben Fine, Alex Wilson, James Hicks, Melba Pattillo Beals, Ernest Green, Jane Emery, etc. Students can work in expert groups or do this work individually.

Step two: Prepare for interviews Each student needs to have a question they plan on asking their peers. Many teachers distribute a class list and then have students write their interview question at the top of the page. Then students record the answers provided by their peers. Students could also record data in their evidence logs or on a graphic organizer like the one found on the next page.

Step three: Students conduct interviews Give students a list of the people in the room they are responsible for interviewing. You might create interviewing stations where some students sit, while other students rotate through. Or, you could arrange the class as a “carousel” with students standing in two circles facing each other. Students interview the person opposite them for two-minutes until you say switch. Then the interviewer and interviewee trade roles. Students continue this process until you run out of time or until they complete a certain number of interviews.

Step four: Debrief and journal writing After interviews have been conducted, give students the opportunity to ask clarifying questions about what they have learned. Prompts for journal writing and discussion include:  What are your thoughts on the essay prompt now?  What did you learn that might help you write your essay?

 What further information would help you answer the essay prompt? Where might you find that information?

Two Minute Interview Question:

Name of person Answer interviewed 1

Using Exemplars

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  introduce students to the CWA  identify the different parts of an essay  understand grading expectations for the CWA  describe the qualities of effective writing

Rationale Reading examples of good writing helps students understand what they should be striving for in their own work. Comparing several examples gives students the opportunity to articulate the qualities that make some writing better than others. Phrases such as “clear thesis” and “strong use of evidence” gain meaning when paired with examples from actual essays.

Procedure Step one: Locate exemplars Both student and “expert” (professional) writing can be used as exemplars. Students can read entire essays or only one paragraph. Exemplars you might use include:  Writing by BPS students. (BPS has collected CWA exemplars of proficient and advanced levels.)  The Choices body paragraphs we have written using a different prompt than the three suggested ones (found at the end of this teaching strategy).  An essay you write.  “Expert” (professional writing), such as newspaper editorials. .

Step two: Active reading of exemplars Often it is easier to recognize qualities of effective (and ineffective) writing when texts are read aloud. Ask a volunteer to read the exemplar aloud while the rest of the class marks up the text. Students can underline main ideas and place question marks near sentences that are unclear. You might ask students to distinguish between evidence and analysis of this evidence. Give students extra time to work in pairs or small groups analyzing the text.

Step three: Evaluating exemplars If you are having students read several exemplars, you can ask students to rank them from best to worst and explain why. Whether students are reading one exemplar or several, it helps to give them a rubric they can use to evaluate the writing. Ideally, this is the same rubric that will be used to evaluate their writing. By participating in a discussion about the strengths and weaknesses of writing, students gain a deeper understanding of what they should aspire to produce in their own writing.

Step four: Reflective journal writing Possible prompts for reflection include: What makes some writing better than others? What lessons from this exercise will you apply to your own writing? What questions do you have about writing a strong essay? What might you need help with?

Variation

Fill in the essay: To help build particular writing skills, you could distribute incomplete exemplar essays to students and ask them to fill in the missing parts. For example, you could have students read several body paragraphs and then ask them to write an introduction or conclusion for that essay. Or, you could give students an exemplar with only topic sentences and ask them to complete the body of the paragraphs. EXEMPLAR CHOICES IN LITTLE ROCK CWA: BODY PARAGRAPHS

Thesis statement: Eisenhower was correct to order troops to go to Little Rock in 1957. His choice helped the Little Rock Nine attend Central High School, it upheld his responsibilities as President and it helped the world see the United States in a more positive light.

First, without President Eisenhower stepping in, the Little Rock Nine were unable to safely enter the school building and receive an education. Indeed, when Elizabeth Eckford tried to attend her first day of school she was met by an angry mob and was stopped by Arkansas National Guardsmen (source: “I am Elizabeth Eckford). President Eisenhower met with Governor Faubus to convince him to withdraw the National Guard and allow the black students to attend Central High. Yet, after meeting with President Eisenhower, the governor said, “…the Court orders cannot be accomplished overnight” (source: Statement by Governor of Arkansas). This shows that the president’s meeting did not change the situation for the Little Rock Nine. Governor Faubus planned on stalling for as long as possible before desegregating Central High School. Without more severe actions by the President of the United States, it appeared that the Little Rock Nine would not be permitted to attend Central High School. Talking was not enough. Second, President Eisenhower was right to send in the 101st Airborne because it is the job of the president to make sure that laws are being followed. In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were unconstitutional (source: Brown v. Board of Education). When Governor Faubus ordered the Arkansas National Guard not to allow the Little Rock Nine into Central High School, he was acting against this decision and therefore against the U.S. Constitution (source:“I am Elizabeth Eckford”). President Eisenhower said, “The very basis of our individual rights and freedoms rests upon the certainty that the President and the Executive Branch of Government will support and insure the carrying out of the decisions of the federal courts,” recognizing that it was his

Draft – Not for Distribution Teaching Strategies suggested to supplement Facing History and Ourselves’ CWA writing preparation journals for Choices in Little Rock duty to intervene to enforce the law (source: “An Address to the Nation,” September 24, 1957). The U.S. Supreme Court is the highest federal court in the land and by keeping the Little Rock Nine out of Central High School Governor Faubus was directly violating the court’s decision. Therefore, it was President Eisenhower’s duty to intervene in order to protect the Constitution and the rights of American citizens. Finally, making sure that the Little Rock Nine could safely attend school was better for the United States’ standing in the world. Stories about what was happening in Little Rock were being published around the world and many international news reports criticized how the Little Rock Nine were being treated (source: How did Others See Us?). The Mexico City El Nacional called it “racism” and said that “segregation must be ‘wiped out] forever. Statements like this indicate that international public opinion thought that Central High School should be desegregated. Eisenhower had reason to worry that the United States’ position in the Cold War could be harmed if he did not do something to help the Little Rock Nine. Indeed, the Toronto Globe and Mail said that Communists were “likely to win much wider support than ever before” because it appeared the United States was an “enemy of all colored people everywhere.” And, a newspaper in Australia announced that “President Eisenhower’s determination to ‘follow through’ over Little Rock will be welcomed by his friends in the free world” (source: Sydney Morning Herald). These reports by the media show support for the president’s forceful intervention in Little Rock. Therefore, to improve relationships with our friends and not make more enemies, it was important the President Eisenhower demonstrate that the United States stands against the unjust practice of segregation. Consequently, ordering the federal troops into Little Rock was a smart decision.

Using Graphic Organizers

Using this strategy, students will be able to…  Organize main ideas, evidence, analysis, and linking statements before they begin writing  Recognize where they need more information

Rationale Graphic organizers can help students put their ideas in a logical order and notice where they need more information. You might have all students complete a graphic organizer before writing (or typing) their essays or you might make this an option for students. By breaking a whole paper into smaller, clear tasks, graphic organizers are especially helpful for students who are unfamiliar with formal essay writing or who struggle with organizing ideas in writing.

Procedure Step one: Select a graphic organizer to use There are many ways to visually organize an essay. Click here for some samples. You can also find other examples on the web, including this “Sandwich Graphic Organizer” and this “Persuasion Plan.” A graphic organizer provided in this packet uses the MEAL structure to help students organize their ideas: - Main idea (argument) - Evidence that supports that main idea - Analysis to explain how the evidence proves the main idea - Link between the argument and the thesis statement

Step two: Model how to complete it You might show students what an organizer looks like that is complete or you can complete an organizer together with students. Most teachers only require students to write words and phrases on their graphic organizers, not complete sentences. Whatever you decide, be sure to communicate this to students.

Step three: Students complete the graphic organizer in class and/or at home Often it can help students to have a partner review their work and help them when they get stuck.

Step four: Review students’ graphic organizers before they begin writing or typing their essays Often teachers sign-off on students’ outline or graphic organizer before students proceed to the writing phase. If students begin the writing process with clearly organized ideas, they are less likely to be frustrated with the task of crafting coherent sentences.

Blank Argumentative Essay Outline

INTRODUCTION Hook:

Background information: 1)______

2) ______

3) ______

Thesis:

FIRST BODY PARAGRAPH Main idea #1:

Evidence to support argument (with citation) Analysis: This evidence supports my argument because….

Link to thesis:

SECOND BODY PARAGRAPH Main idea #2:

Evidence to support argument (with citation) Analysis: This evidence supports my argument because…. 1.

Link to thesis:

THIRD BODY PARAGRAPH (Optional) Main idea #3:

Evidence to support argument (with citation) Analysis: This evidence supports my argument because…. 1.

Link to thesis:

CONCLUSION Thesis restated:

Why are the ideas in this paper important: 1)______

2) ______

3) ______

Blank Argumentative Essay – Body Paragraph Organizer NOTE: The phrases in the brackets [ ] are meant as cues for students. They are not meant to be part of the essay. BODY PARAGRAPH # ____ Sentence #1 (MAIN IDEA): [In this paragraph I will support my thesis by proving that]

EVIDENCE and ANALYSIS: [I believe this because…]

Sentence #2 Transition word or phrase + Evidence

+ Sentence #3 Analysis [This evidence shows that….]

+ Sentence #4 Transition word or phrase: + Evidence

+ Sentence #5 Analysis [This evidence shows that….]

+ (Optional) Sentence #6 Transition word or phrase + Evidence

+ (Optional) Sentence #7 Analysis [This evidence shows that….]

+ LINK

Transition word or phrase + Final sentence [These ideas support my thesis because…]

Draft – Not for Distribution